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1-ab psychology

(mit 1)
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Machine cycle
cpu
A central processing unit (CPU) is the electronic
circuitry within a computer that carries out the instructions of
a computer program by performing the basic arithmetic,
logical, control and input/output (I/O) operations specified by
the instructions. The term has been used in the computer
industry at least since the early 1960s. Traditionally, the term
"CPU" refers to a processor, more specifically to its
processing unit and control unit (CU), distinguishing these
core elements of a computer from external components such
as main memory and I/O circuitry. The form, design and
implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of
their history, but their fundamental operation remains almost
unchanged. Principal components of a CPU include
the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) that performs arithmetic and
logic operations processor registers that supply operands to
the ALU and store the results of ALU operations, and a
control unit that fetches instructions from memory and
"executes" them by directing the coordinated operations of
the ALU, registers and other components. Most modern
CPUs are microprocessors, meaning they are contained on
a single integrated circuit (IC) chip. An IC that contains a
CPU may also contain memory, peripheral interfaces, and
other components of a computer; such integrated devices
are variously called microcontrollers or systems on a
chip (SoC). Some computers employ a multi-core processor,
which is a single chip containing two or more CPUs called
"cores"; in that context, single chips are sometimes referred
to as "sockets". Array processors or vector processors have
multiple processors that operate in parallel, with no unit
considered central.

Control unit
A control unit is circuitry that directs operations within a
computer's processor.
It
lets
the
computer's logic
unit, memory, as well as both input and output devices know
how to respond to instructions received from a program.
Examples
of
devices that
utilize
control
units
include CPUs and GPUs.
A control unit works by receiving input information that it
converts into control signals, which are then sent to the
central processor. The computer's processor then tells the
attached hardware what operations carry out. The functions
a control unit performs depend on the type of CPU, due to
the variance of architecture between different manufacturers.

ALU
An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit used to
perform arithmetic and logic operations. It represents the
fundamental building block of the central processing unit

(CPU) of a computer. Modern CPUs contain very powerful


and complex ALUs. In addition to ALUs, modern CPUs

contain a control unit (CU).Most of the operations of a CPU


are performed by one or more ALUs, which load data from
input registers. A register is a small amount of storage
available as part of a CPU. The control unit tells the ALU
what operation to perform on that data and the ALU stores
the result in an output register. The control unit moves the
data between these registers, the ALU, and memory.

How an ALU Works?


An ALU performs basic arithmetic and logic operations.
Examples of arithmetic operations are addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. Examples of logic operations are
comparisons of values such as NOT, AND, and OR.
All information in a computer is stored and manipulated in
the form of binary numbers, i.e. 0 and
1.Transistor switches are used to manipulate binary
numbers since there are only two possible states of a switch:
open or closed. An open transistor, through which there is no
current, represents a 0. A closed transistor, through which
there is a current, represents a 1.
Operations can be accomplished by connecting multiple
transistors. One transistor can be used to control a second
one in effect, turning the transistor switch on or off
depending on the state of the second transistor. This is
referred to as a gate because the arrangement can be used
to allow or stop a current.
The simplest type of operation is a NOT gate. This uses only
a single transistor. It uses a single input and produces a
single output, which is always the opposite of the input. This
figure shows the logic of the NOT gate.

How a NOT gate processes binary data

Other gates consist of multiple transistors and use two


inputs. The OR gate results in a 1 if either the first or the

second input is a 1. The OR gate only results in a 0 if both


inputs are 0. This figure shows the logic of the OR gate.

A special, high-speed storage area within the CPU. All data


must be represented in a register before it can be
processed. For example, if two numbers are to be multiplied,
both numbers must be in registers, and the result is also
placed in a register. (The register can contain the address of
a memory location where data is stored rather than the
actual data itself.)
The number of registers that a CPU has and the size of each
(number of bits) help determine the power and speed of a
CPU. For example a 32-bit CPU is one in which each
register is 32 bits wide. Therefore, each CPU instruction can
manipulate 32 bits of data.

How an OR gate processes binary data

The AND gate results in a 1 only if both the first and second
input are 1s. This figure shows the logic of the AND gate.

The
XOR
gate,
also

Usually, the movement of data in and out of registers is


completely transparent to users, and even to programmers.
Only assembly language programs can manipulate registers.
In high-level languages, the compiler is responsible for
translating high-level operations into low-level operations
that access registers.

Data Buses

How an AND gate processes binary data


pronounced X-OR gate, results in a 0 if both the inputs are 0
or if both are 1. Otherwise, the result is a 1. This figure
shows the logic of the XOR gate.

The bus contains multiple wires (signal lines) that contain


addressing information that describes the memory location
of where the data is being sent or where it is being retrieved.
Each wire in the bus carries a single bit of information, which
means the more wires a bus has the more information it can
address. For example, a computer with a 32-bit address bus
can address 4GB of memory, and a computer with a 36-bit
bus can address 64GB of memory.

How an XOR gate processes binary data.

The various gates sound a little abstract, but remember that


a computer only processes binary data. When you follow the
binary logic of these operations, you are starting to think like
a computer.

register

A bus is capable of being a parallel or serial bus and today


all computers utilize two bus types, an internal bus or local
bus and an external bus, also called the expansion bus.
An internal bus enables communication between internal
components such as a video card and memory. An external
bus is capable of communicating with external components
such as a USB or SCSI device.
A computer or device's bus speed is listed as a MHz, e.g.
100MHz FSB. The throughput of a bus is measured in bits
per second or megabytes per second.

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