CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
An inverter is a circuit which converts dc to ac. The output waveform of a basic two level
inverter is a square waveform, this result in high THD value. The conventional singlephase inverter topologies include half-bridge and full bridge the half-bridge inverter is
configured by one capacitor arm and one power electronic arm. The dc bus voltage of the
half-bridge inverter must be higher than double of the peak voltage of the output ac
voltage. The output ac voltage of the half-bridge inverter is two levels. The voltage jump
of each switching is the dc bus voltage of the inverter. The full-bridge inverter is
configured by two power electronic arms.
The popular modulation strategies for the full-bridge inverter are bipolar modulation and
unipolar modulation. The dc bus voltage of the full-bridge inverter must be higher than
the peak voltage of the output ac voltage. The output ac voltage of the full-bridge inverter
is two levels if the bipolar modulation is used and three levels if the unipolar modulation
is used. The voltage jump of each switching is double the dc bus voltage of the inverter if
the bipolar modulation is used, and it is the dc bus voltage of the inverter if the unipolar
modulation is used. All power electronic switches operate in high switching frequency in
both half-bridge and full bridge inverters. The switching operation will result in
switching loss. The loss of power electronic switch includes the switching loss and the
conduction loss. The conduction loss depends on the handling power of power electronic
switch. The switching loss is proportional to the switching frequency, voltage jump of
each switching, and the current of the power electronic switches. The power efficiency
can be advanced if the switching loss of the dcac inverter is reduced.

1.1

MULTILEVEL
1.1.1

INVERTERS
Introduction

Multilevel inverters comprises of power semi-conductor devices and capacitor voltage

sources. These generates stepped or staircase waveforms. The on and off these devices
generates voltages in steps which when added gives high voltage at the output. Thus, we
get high voltage at the output with low voltage at the semiconductor devices.
Multilevel inverter technology has emerged recently as a very important alternative in the
area of high-power medium-voltage energy control. Multilevel inverters
include an array of power semiconductors and capacitor voltage
sources, the output of which generate voltages with stepped
waveforms. The commutation of the switches permits the addition of
the capacitor voltages, which reach high voltage at the output, while

the power semiconductors must withstand only reduced voltages. By

increasing the levels of inverters, the THD (Total Harmonic Distortion)
values of inverters will be reduced, by using multilevel. We get an
approximate of sinusoidal wave by increasing the levels and also the
losses
will
be
reduced.
Fig 1.1 shows the schematic diagram of one phase leg of inverter with different of levels
in which the semiconductor device is represented by an ideal switch with several
positions. A two level inverter generates an output voltage with two levels (values) with
respect to negative terminal of the capacitor as shown in Fig. 2.1(a) while the tree level
inverter generates three level voltages and so on. Inverter with voltage level greater than
two comes under multilevel inverter. The three level inverter was first introduced by
Nabaeet al.It is found that with the increase in the level, the steps increases and the output
waveform approaches to be a near sinusoidal waveform. Thus, it reduces the THD with a
disadvantage
of
complex
control
and
voltage
imbalance
problem.

Fig 1.1 one phase leg of inverter with a)two levels b)three levels c)n levels

1.1.2 Features of Multilevel Inverters

There are many remarkable features for the multilevel inverters .The output voltage
waveforms obtained from the multilevel inverter is staircase waveform, and hence the
THD and dv/dt is lowered. Overall efficiency is increased because multilevel inverters
can be switched at low frequency. As a result common mode voltage are reduced and
hence the stresses on the motor bearings are reduced. The input current drawn by them
has
low
distortion
and
there
exists
no
EMI
problem

1.1.3 Topologies of multilevel inverter

The multilevel inverters are classified into three types:

1.

Diode clamped multilevel inverter (Neutral Point Clamped inverter)(DCMLI)

2.

Flying Capacitor Multilevel Inverter (Capacitor Clamped Inverter)(FCMLI)

3.

Cascaded bridge Multilevel Inverter(CBMLI)

CHAPTER 2
2.1

ELECTRIC

2.1.1

DRIVES

General

Introduction

Motion control is required in large number of industrial and domestic applications like
transportation systems, rolling mills, paper machines, textile mills, machine tools, fans,
pumps, robots, washing machines etc. Systems employed for motion control are called
Drives and may employ any of the prime movers such as diesel or petrol engines, gas or
steam turbines, steam engines, hydraulic motors and electric motors, for supplying
mechanical energy for motion control. Drives employing electric motors are known as
Electric
Drives.

Fig1.2 Block diagram of an electric drive

Load is usually a machinery designed to accomplish the given task. Usually load
requirements can be specified in terms of speed and torque demands. A motor having
speed torque characteristics and capabilities compatible to the load requirements is
chosen.
Power
modulator
performs
one
or
more
functions:
1.

Modulates

flow

of

power

from

the

source

to

the

motor

2.

During transient operations such as starting, braking and speed reversal, it

restricts
source
and
motor
currents
within
permissible
values.

1.

Converts electrical energy of the source in the form suitable to the motor ie,if the
source is dc an induction motor is to be employed then power modulator is required to
convert
dc
to
a
variable
frequency
ac.

2.

Selects

the

mode

of

operation

of

the

motor.

Controls for power modulator are built in control unit which usually operates at much
lower voltage and power levels. In addition to operating the power modulator as desired,
it may also generate commands for the protection of power modulator and motor. Input
command signal, which adjusts the operating point of the drive, forms an input to the
control unit. Sensing of certain drive parameters, such as motor current and speed may be
required
either
for
protection
or
for
closed
loop
operation.

2.1.2
Electric
1.

2.

Advantages
drives

are

widely

of

used

because

electric
of

the

drives

following

advantages:

They have flexible control characteristics. The steady state and dynamic
characteristics of electric drives can be shaped to satisfy load requirements. Speed can
be controlled and, if required can be controlled in wide limits
They

are

available

in

wide

range

of

torque,

speed

and

power.

3.

Electric motors have high efficiency, low no load losses and considerable
overloading
capacity.

4.

Compared to other prime movers they have longer life, lower noise, lower
maintenance
requirements
and
cleaner
operation.

5.

Do

6.

Can

operate

7.

Can

be

8.

not
in

started

pollute
all

the

environment.

the

four

quadrants

of

instantly

and

can

immediately

be

speed

torque

plane.

fully

loaded.

They are powered by electrical energy which has a number of advantages of other
forms of energy. It can be generated and transported to desired point effectively and
efficiently.

TYPES OF CONTROL IN INDUCTION MOTORS

2.1.3 Introduction
Induction machines can be widely used in a variety of industrial and
residential applications. Right from its ease of manufacture and its
robustness have made it very strong candidate for electromechanical

conversion device. Induction motor is existing from fractional

horsepower ratings to megawatt levels. Generally the speed control
methods of induction motor can be classified as: Scalar control and
Vector
control.
To control the induction motor there are different types of control strategies are used
incorporating
the
MLIs,
they
are:

2.1.4

1.

V/F

control

2.

Direct

torque

control(DTC)

3.

Field

oriented

control(FOC)

V/F

CONTROL

The frequency and the voltage are the main control variables in V/F speed control and are
applied to the stator windings. Open loop volts/Hz control of induction motor is simple,
inexpensive and one of the popular methods. It is characterized by the absence of
feedback sensors. Even though the complexity in feedback is reduced the system
produces
a
sluggish
response
and
hence
a
disadvantage.
Closed loop speed control with slip regulation adds some performance improvement to
open loop volts/Hz control. Voltage induced in stator is proportional to the product of
supply frequency and air gap flux. Reduction in supply frequency, without a change in
the terminal voltage will saturate the motor. Reduction in supply voltage keeping
frequency constant leads to insufficient torque production. The V/f ratio is kept constant
which in turn maintains the magnetizing flux constant. In this method only the
magnitudes of frequency and voltage are controlled hence also known as Scalar
control.

Fig 2.1 voltage versus frequency control

in constant v/f principle.
Fig 2.2 Closed loop slip controlled drive
using v/f control

Motor speed is compared with

the command speed and error
generates a slip frequency(sl*)
command
through
P-I
compensator and limiter.Slip is
added to the feedback speed to generate the frequency and voltage
command.Slip is proportional to torque at constant air gap flux,the
scheme considered as torque control within a speed control
loop.Machine can accelerate/decelerate within slip limit.The scheme
compensates speed drift for supply voltage and load torque variations.

(a)

(b)
Fig 2.3 Speed drift for supply voltage and load torque variations

As TL increases from point 1 to point 2 on the curve wr tends to

decrease,but will be compensated by the increase in frequency as
shown in the fig 2.3(a). Similarly,if the supply voltage drops at constant
TL , as in fig 2.3(b) operating point 1 on curve a will tend to drift to
point 2on curve b , the speed tend to decrease. However the speed
control loop will increment the frequency , and the speed drop will be
restored as shown on curve c.The flux drop can be compensated by an
individual flux control loop that corrects the voltage command
restoring
the
torque-slip
sensitivity.

2.1.5 DIRECT TORQUE CONTROL(DTC)

In this method of speed control the motor torque and flux become
direct controlled variables and hence known as Direct Torque Control.
In this method it is possible to obtain a good dynamic control of the
torque without any mechanical transducers on the machine shaft.
Transducers are device used for sensing the parameters of the device.

And hence the method is used as Sensor less type control

technique. It switches the inverter according to the load needs.
Therefore the method helps in the elimination of the fixed switching
pattern. DTC response is extremely fast during the instant load
changes

Fig 2.4 Basic DTC Scheme Block diagram

Fig 2.5 Flux hysterisis comparator

Fig 2.6 Torque hysterisis comparator

The advanced scalar control methods based on Direct torque and flux
control(known as DTFC or DTC) was introduced on1985.In this type of
speed control the error between the estimated torque T and the
reference torque T* is the input of a three level hysteresis comparator.
The error between the estimated stator flux magnitude s and the
reference stator flux magnitude *s is the input of a two level
hysteresis comparator. Input quantities: stator flux sector and outputs
of the two hysteresis comparators. Flux loop has two outputs +1 and -1
& torque loop has three outputs +1,0 and -1.From the three inputs, the
voltage vector table selects an appropriate voltage vector to control
the inverter switches. The inverter voltage vector table also gets the
information
about
the
location
of
stator
flux.

The selection of appropriate voltage vector is based on the switching table given as :

Table 2.1:Voltage vector selection

In Direct Torque Control, the equation for Electromagnetic torque is given by:
Te =3/2p (Lm/LsLr) sr sin sr

Fig.2.7. Influence of vs overs during a sample interval t

From the torque equation, we can found that the electromagnetic torque is directly proportional to
the sine of the angle between the rotor flux r, and stator flux s. So we can conclude that

by varying the angle between stator and rotor flux, we can control the torque
according to the load variations. If the stator flux is leading rotor flux an accelerating
torque is produced and if the stator flux lags the rotor flux a decelerating torque is
produced. Thus the control strategy in DTC is based on this torque equation.

Fig 2.8 Stator flux trajectory

Fig 2.9 control of voltage vectors to flux vector trajectory

The stator flux vector rotates in a circular orbit within the hysteresis band covering the
six sectors as shown in the figure 2.8.The six active voltage vectors and two zero vectors
of the inverter is controlled by the look up table as shown in the figure 2.9.If a voltage
vector is applied to the inverter for time t the corresponding flux is given by the
relation. The flux increment vector for each voltage vector is given in the fig.2.9.The flux
is initially established at zero frequency in the initial trajectory aA. With the rated flux
command torque is applied and the radial vector starts rotating in the counter clockwise
direction within the hysteresis band depending on the selected voltage vector. The flux is
altered in the radial direction due to flux loop error whereas torque is altered by the
tangential movement of flux vector. The jerky variation of stator flux and angle
introduces torque ripple. The lowest speed is restricted because of the difficulty of
voltage
model
flux
estimation
at
low
frequency.

Table 2.2 Flux and torque sensitvity

The table summarises the torque and flux sensitivity and direction for
applying a voltage vector for the flux location shown in fig 2.9.The flux
can be increased by V1,V2and V6 whereas it can be decreased by
V3,V4 and V5. The zero vector short circuits the machine terminals and
keep
the
flux
and
torque
essentially
unchanged.

2.1.6 FIELD ORIENTED CONTROL(FOC)

The scalar control methods discussed so far are simple to implement but have a
disadvantage of sluggish response because of inherent coupling effect of the machine.
This is overcome in FOC control. Basically in vector control the induction motor is
controlled
like
a
separately
excited
dc
motor.
In FOC Control there are two synchronous reference frame currents. The reference frame
currents are isd and isq.isd is oriented in the direction of rotor flux and isq in
quadrature with it. They remain orthogonal in space. However neglecting the leakage
inductances s=r=m. Therefore if the torque is controlled by iqs the rotor flux is not
affected, thus giving fast torque response-principle of FOC. Three phase current vectors
are
converted
to
two
dimensional
rotating
frame.

Fig 2.10 Block diagram of basic FOC scheme

Fig 2.11Simple block of FOC Control

Fig 2.12 (a,b) Vector control principle by phasor diagram

(c) Vector control implementation

In a vector controlled drive, the machine stator current vectorIs, has two
components:ids or flux component and iqs or torque component as shown in the phasor
diagram. These current components are to be controlled independently,as in dc machine,
so as to control the flux and torque respectively. The ids is oriented in the direction
of r (or m if the leakage reactance is neglected) ,and iqs is orthogonally to it.
Ifiqs is increased to iqs the corresponding chenge in Is is shown in the fig 2.12(a).
Similarly if ids is decreased to ids the change in Is is shown in fig 2.12(b). The
machine model is shown in a synchronous model at right, and the two front end
conversions of phase currents in a stationary frame is also shown. The controller should
make two inverse transformations.where the unit vector cos e and sin e in the controller
should ensure the correct alignment of ids in the direction of r and iqs 90 degree ahead
of it. Thus the unit vector is the key element of vector control.
There are two kinds of coordinate system in FOC. One is fixed on the stator, which is a
static coordinate system relative to us; the other is fixed on the rotor, which is a revolving
coordinate system. Both the three -phase stator A-B-C coordinate system based on threephase winding of three-phase stator and the two-phase stator - coordinate system are

the static coordinate system. The two-phase stator - coordinate system is composed of
axis fixed on A axis and axis that is vertical to axis. While d-q coordinate system
with
d
axis
fixed
on
the
rotor
spool
thread
is
revolving.
In this control system, stator current iA, iB outputted by the inverter is measured using
electric current sensor, and iC is calculate with the formula iC=-(iA+iB). Transform the
electric current iA,,iB, iC into the direct component isq, isd in the revolving coordinate
system through the Clarke and the Park transform. Then isq, isd can be used as the
negative feedback quantity of the electric current loop. The deviation between the given
speed and the feedback speed n is regulated through the speed PI regulator. The output is
q
axis
reference
component isqref to
control the torque .The deviations between isqref, isdref and current feedback
quantity isq, isd go through the electric current PI regulator, and the respectively output
phase
voltage Vsqrefand Vsdrefon
the
d-q
revolving
coordinate
system.Vsqref and Vsdref are transformed into the stator phase voltage vector
component Vsref and Vs ref under - coordinate system through inverse Park
transform. If the stator phase voltage vector Vsqref, Vsdref and its sector number is
known, we can use the voltage space vector PWM technique to produce PWM signal to
control the inverter, so as to achieve closed-loop control of the induction motor.
The FOC control is also known as the field oriented control, flux oriented control or
indirect torque control. Using field orientation (Clarke-Park transformation), threephase current vectors are converted to a two-dimensional rotating reference frame (d-q)
from a three-dimensional stationary reference frame. The d component represents the
flux producing component of the stator current and the q component represents the
torque producing component. These two decoupled components can be independently
controlled
by
passing
though
separate
PI
controllers.

CHAPTER 3
CONCLUSION
The multilevel voltage source inverters unique structure allows to reach high voltages
with low harmonics without the use of transformers. The general structure of the
multilevel inverter is to synthesize sinusoidal voltage from several levels of dc voltages.
For this reason multilevel inverters are a natural fit for high power applications required
for large electric drives. As the number of levels increases, the synthesized output
waveform has more steps which produces a staircase waveform that approaches the
sinusoidal waveform. As more steps are added to the waveform the harmonic distortions
get reduced until it reaches zero with an infinite number of levels .As number of levels

increases the higher the voltage which can be spanned by connecting devices in series.
The most commonly used electric drive is the induction motor drive due to its reliability,
low cost and robustness. The methods used for the control of induction motor
incorporating the multilevel inverters are: v/f control, direct torque control (DTC) and
field oriented control(FOC).Among these, due to lack in transformation techniques , less
complexity and fast response the direct torque control is the most efficient method for the
control of induction motor.