1

HSC STUDY BUDDY

Much of the work of chemists involves monitoring the reactants and products of reactions and
managing reaction conditions
1.1: outline the role of a chemist employed in a named industry or enterprise, identifying the
branch of chemistry undertaken by the chemist and explaining a chemical principle that the
chemist uses.
1.4: present information about the work of practicing scientists identifying the variety of chemical
occupations, and a specific chemical occupation for detailed study.
Analytical Chemist Works for Sydney Water Monitoring Services
- Environmental and water monitoring services to protect the environment and public health.
- Monitoring includes: monitoring all influent into wastewater, stormwater, effluent from
those systems and the measure of impacts on receiving environments.
- Water monitoring of raw water, treated water and recycled water
- Chemists role: routine monitoring for hundreds of potential contaminant in the water, eg.
Carbon compounds, viruses, bacteria, micro-organisms.
- Equipment: AAS, gas chromatography, emission and mass spectroscopy precise/ sensitive
readings of level of contaminants.
- Results are reported to a senior analytical chemist, who monitors the water as a matter of
urgency, and informs the government/ Environmental Protection authority if contamination
is harmful.
Polymer Chemist
- Work in industry manufacturing synthetic fibres, packaging materials, agricultural
chemicals, rubber, biodegradable polymers.
- They produce new products/ materials. Synthesise/ study physical and chemical properties
of polymers. They also must ensure that the product meets the customers requirements.
- Use analytical methods such as: X-ray diffraction, mass spectroscopy (chemical/ structural
characteristics), strength/ hardness tests, reactivity with acids/ bases, biocompatibility, mp
bp.
- Case study: use of gas liquid chromatography to test for volatile material. Chemical principle
used= each volatile substance has a unique retention time in the GLC column

1.2: identify the need for collaboration between chemists as they collect and analyse data
- Different types of chemists have specialised skills and expertise, and can bring different
information into problem solving/ understanding.
- Increases the accuracy/ validity of data as chemists share their outcomes
- Chemists keep up to date with new developments in the field via communicating

1.3: describe an example of a chemical reaction such as combustion, where reactants form
different products under different conditions, and thus would need monitoring
Reasons for Monitoring and Management:
- Efficiency
- Minimal pollution, few pollutants produced
- Limited damage to the environment/ societys health
- Maximise the amount of desired product/ optimum yield is achieved
- Reactions are energy efficient
Note: In combustion reactions, the process must be monitored to ensure that combustion is
COMPLETE, as this releases the largest amount of energy, produces CO2 instead of CO (toxic). If not
monitored a number of results could occur
COMPLETE: 2C8H18(l) + 25O2(g) 16CO2(g) + 18H2O(l)
INCOMPLETE:
o 2C8H18(l) + 17O2(g) 16CO (g) + 18H2O(l)
o 2C8H18(l) + 9O2(g) 16C(s) + 18H2O(l) [yellow flame + soot]

HSC STUDY BUDDY

o 2C8H18(l) + 13O2(g) 8CO(g) + 8C(s) + 18H2O(l) [yellow + blue flame]

Incomplete combustion= a problem for the environment, as it produces CO and C.
o CO= toxic gas, bonds with haemoglobin, therefore starving the body of oxygen.
o C= doesnt look appealing, when inhaled cause respiratory problems
Incomplete combustion produces less energy than complete, therefore it isnt as energy
efficient. Therefore it needs to be monitored!!

Monitoring and Management of:
Dehydration/ Hydration of Ethylene/ Ethanol:
- C2H4(g) + H2O(l) C2H5OH(aq) EXO
- To achieve highest yield of desired product:
o Increase yield= concentration/ amount of reactants need to be increased
o Concentrated H2SO4 is used as a catalyst to speed up the reaction, creating a more
efficient process
o Need to manage: temperature, concentration, pressure and catalyst depending on
which reaction is used.
Eg. To move reaction forward (hydration), decrease temp slightly, increase
pressure, increase concentration, use a catalyst. LINK TO LE CHATELIERS
PRINCIPLE
Esterification
- Any example! Eg. CH3COOH9G) + CH3OH(g) CH3CH2COOCH3(g) + H2O(l) ENDO
- To achieve maximum yield
o Control heat to speed up reaction. Heat is required to change reactants to gases in
order to react
o Increase concentration of reactants
o Catalyst is required to absorb water and force reaction forwards
o Higher temp= greater yield

Chemical processes in industry require monitoring and management to maximise production
2.1: identify and describe the industrial uses of ammonia
- Fertilisers (ammonium sulphate, ammonium nitrate and urea)
- Plastics (rayon, acrylics, nylon)
- Nitric acid (can be used to make explosives TNT
- Dyes
- House cleaners
- Detergents
Therefore it is widely used in industry

2.2: identify that ammonia can be synthesised from its component gases nitrogen and hydrogen



Magnetite (Fe3O4)
2.3: describe that synthesis of ammonia occurs as a reversible reaction that will reach equilibrium
2.4: identify the reaction of hydrogen with nitrogen is exothermic
Magnetite (Fe3O4)

The Haber Process (producing ammonia through the use of a catalyst- iron)
With metal catalysts, reactant particles collide with the surface of the metal, and some may become
attached. These molecular rearrangements make it more likely that following collisions will be
successful. A catalyst such as iron is used to speed up reactions by lowering the activation energy, so
that bonds can be broken.

HSC STUDY BUDDY

The Process: This process combines nitrogen (from air), with hydrogen (from natural gas- methane),
to form a yield of approximately (10-20%) ammonia under conditions of optimum temperature and
pressure. This is a reversible (equilibrium) and exothermic reaction. A mixture of nitrogen and
hydrogen are put into a reactor in a ratio of 1:3, this means that there is 1 molecule of N to 3
molecules of H. The temperature in the reactor is raised
to 400-450 to speed up the reaction in order to produce
higher proportions of ammonia in a shorter period of
time. The pressure is also raised to 200 atm. This brings
the molecules closer together, and increases the chances
of molecules hitting and sticking to the iron where they
can react (increased rate of reaction). The hydrogen and
nitrogen pass over beds of iron oxide (which is prepared
by reducing magnetite Fe3O4), where some are bound
to the surface of the iron as separate atoms. The broken
bonds are then reformed into NH3. The temperature is
then cooled so that the ammonia can be liquefied, and
leftover gases are reused. As a result this reaction
releases 92.4 kJ/mol of energy at 298K (25C).
N2(g)
nitrogen

3H2(g)
hydrogen

heat, pressure, catalyst

<------------------------------------->

2NH3(g)
ammonia

Optimum Temp: 400-500C

Optimum pressure: 200 atm
Importance of process: Ammonia is difficult to produce on an industrial scale, but is extremely
important as it generates fertilizer that is responsible for sustaining 1/3 of the Earths population.
Using a catalyst means that production is quicker, easier and cheaper.

2.5: explain why the rate of reaction is increased by higher temperatures

- Increasing the temperature speeds up the reaction by giving the particles greater kinetic
energy, so they move faster and collide with greater energy. Therefore lowering the
activation energy.
- however if the temp is too high the catalyst will be damaged

2.6: explain why the yield of product in the Haber process is reduced at higher temperatures using
Le Chateliers principle
Le chateliers principle: if a system in equilibrium is disturbed, the system will adjust itself to
minimise the disturbance
- Due to the reaction being exothermic, if heat is increased the reaction will be forced to the
left (reverse), therefore favouring the products side and decreasing the yield produced.
Therefore increased temp= decreased yield

2.7: explain why the Haber process is based on a delicate balancing act involving reaction energy,
reaction rate and equilibrium
- The Haber process needs to be monitored/ managed in order to promote the most efficient
process that will produce the most yield on an industrial scale, with limited resources
- To create an efficient process, heat can be used to speed up the reaction by increasing the
kinetic energy and in turn particle collisions. This in turn would increase the reaction rate
- However, the Haber process is an exothermic reaction. If heat is increased, the reaction will
be forced in reverse, favouring a higher proportion of reactants
- Therefore increasing the temp may help to increase the rate of reaction, however due to
equilibrium, it doesnt increase the yield.

HSC STUDY BUDDY

In order to create an efficient industrial process, whereby the reaction proceeds at a fast
rate, and a high yield is produced, the process must be monitored, and a number of factors
balanced.
COMPROMISE:
o use of a catalyst,
o high pressure 250atm,
o medium temp 500 degrees

2.8: explain that the use of a catalyst will lower the reaction temperature required and identify
the catalysts used in the Haber process
Catalyst in Haber process= magnetite (Fe3O4) or Osmium
Catalysts lower the activation energy and in turn increase the reaction rate. It allows the N and H
bonds to be more easily broken, allowing it to occur at lower temps and thus favours the forward
reaction.

2.9: Analyse the impact of increased pressure on the system involved in the Haber process
For every 4 moles, 2 moles of NH3 are produced
Increasing pressure forces the reactants into a smaller volume, pushing the moles closer
together and increasing the chance of collisions
Therefore increasing pressure will favour the forward reaction, as a result of the equilibrium,
and so will increase the yield
This will also increase the reaction rate, as more collisions will be occurring at a faster rate.
However increasing pressure is an expensive industrial process.

2.10: explain why monitoring of the reaction vessel used in the Haber process is crucial and discuss
the monitoring required
- The Haber process needs to be constantly monitored and managed for effective and optimal
production of ammonia. If it isnt monitored, a change in the reaction could result in
decreased yield or a slow reaction which in turn will affect productivity and cost the firm
money and time
- Monitoring:
o Feedstock (N +H) must be pure, otherwise it will impact on yield and ruin catalyst
o Ratio of N:H (1:3), avoid build up of one decrease production
o Temp + Pressure optimum production. Too high temp= damage catalyst. Too high
pressure= damage vessel
o Build up of gases in plant
o Remove ammonia, ensure no impurities
o Structural integrity of vessel

2.11: describe the conditions under which Haber developed the industrial synthesis of ammonia,
and evaluate its significance at that time in world history
- His first experiments produced small yields of ammonia, when nitrogen and hydrogen were
combined at 1000C over an iron catalyst
- He tested numerous catalysts, osmium was the best but was expensive
- Further experiments showed that pressure needed to be raised, but temp lowered to
increase yield.
- He could synthesise 100g of ammonia
- Carl Bosch modified this process to an industrial level (500, 200atm)
- Significance of process at the time: production of fertilisers needed for agriculture, and to
sustain the growing population. Used for gunpowder and explosives for WWI, sustained
troops. It prolonged the war by assisting Germanys efforts.

HSC STUDY BUDDY

Manufactured products, including food, drugs and household chemicals, are analysed to determine
or ensure their chemical composition
3.1: deduce the ions present in a sample from the results of tests
3.3: first hand investigation to test/ identify phosphate, sulphate, carbonate, chloride, barium,
calcium, lead, copper, iron
Anions (negative)

--------- CO3 2- + 2H+ CO2 + H2O

--------- 2PO4 3- + 3Ba2+ Ba3(PO4)2 (s)

--------- SO4 2- + Ba 2+ BaSO4 (s)

Cl- + Ag+ AgCl (s) -------------

HSC STUDY BUDDY

Cations (positive)

--------- Pb 2+ + 2Cl- PbCl2 (s)

---------Ba 2+ + SO4 2- BaSO4 (s)

---------Ca2+ + SO4 2- CaSO4 (s)

Cu 2+ + 2OH- Cu(OH)s (s)--------

Fe 2+ + 2OH- Fe(OH)2 (s)----------

Fe 3+ + 3OH- Fe(OH)23 (s)----------

HSC STUDY BUDDY

3.2: describe the use of atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) in detecting concentrations of metal
ions in solutions and assess its impact on scientific understanding of the effects of trace elements











This technique is very sensitive and can measure in ppm
Uses: test purity of mined samples, monitor pollution, detect harmful levels, quality control
Steps:
1. A sample thought to contain a metal atom is heated in a flame
2. Species in this sample are converted to gases in the flame
3. If light of a frequency known to be absorbed by this chemical passed from the light source
through the heated sample, the element in the sample will absorb some of the light
4. The proportion of light energy absorbed by the sample (absorbance) is proportional to the
concentration of the substance
How AAS can be used to determine which metal ions are in a solution and their concentration
- A separate light source must be used for each metal ion to be tested (each metal ion has its
own unique emission and absorption spectrum)
- A frequency which is characteristic and unique for the element to be tested must pass
through the heated sample, and the proportion of light absorbed can be measured
- Concentration is determined by comparing the absorbance of the sample with absorbance
of standard solutions of known concentrations.
Trace Elements
- Elements required by living things in very small quantities (1-100ppm)
- In humans:
o Zinc (needed to help enzymes function), cobalt, nickel, iodine, selenium
- In plants:
o Manganese, copper, boron, zinc
- Selenium: in animals (protect against harmful exposure to mercury, regulate male
hormones, support prostategland, enhances immune function, anti-cancer nutrient
- Zinc: Animals (metabolism of amino acids and in energy production (homeostasis), immune
response, oxidative stress). Plants (regulates plant growth hormones)
Impact of AAS on scientific understanding of the effects of trace elements
- Before AAS, scientists used techniques such as gravimetric/ volumetric analysis, which was
an invalid method as it cannot measure very small concentrations (ppm) of trace elements.
Therefore it wasnt accurate.
- Assessment: The development of AAS has allowed scientists to understand the effects of
trace elements, has furthered our understanding, and is more accurate and valid. Allowed
the impact of deficiencies in metal ions to be investigated and allowed the testing of foods
to determine the levels of essential vitamins/ minerals.

HSC STUDY BUDDY

3.4: describe and explain evidence for the need to monitor levels of one of the above ions in
substances used in society
- It is important to monitor levels of ions as some in high concentrations are harmful to
humans.
- Lead ions- cations
o Lead is a poison
o Effects: retard intellectual development in young children, brain/ neurological
disorders
o Lead was originally used in petrol and paint.
o Due to their original use, there is still some lead compounds in the soil, around
industrial sites, paint factories etc. lead compounds in petrol were released into the
atmosphere
o AAS is used to monitor soil samples, and is more efficient and sensitive then
previous techniques. Pollution and manufacturing of goods containing lead is illegal,
so it is important that monitoring of lead ion concentrations are conducted.
- Phosphate ions- anions
o Found in waterways (naturally)
o Essential for normal aquatic growth.
o If concentration becomes too high= algal bloom make water unusable,
degradation of lake. Loss of oxygen results in death of fish etc, build up of
sediments. EUTROPHICATION
o Phosphate ions are derived from sewage, fertilisers, detergents.
o Monitoring is required as a predictor of Eutrophication.
o Colorimetric method is used (very sensitive), molybdenum blue test,
spectrophotometer.

3.5: first hand investigation to measure sulphate content of lawn fertiliser. Explain the chemistry
involved.
Ba 2+(aq) + SO4 2- (aq) BaSO4 (aq)
See separate sheet!
3.6: evaluate the reliability of the results of the above investigation and propose solutions to
problems encountered in the procedure
- Heating will coagulate the precipitate, ensuring it is collected
- Use samples of fertiliser with a greater mass will lessen % error in accuracy
- Quantitative filter paper has very fine pores, no solid will escape
- Improve reliability by repeating or using a glass filter.
- Experiment assumes that ppt is only barium sulphate, without any impurities like ions/
water

3.7: interpret secondary data from AAS measurements and evaluate the effectiveness of this in
pollution control
See bronwyns book! And sheet
- Detect presence of heavy metals and concentrations eg. mercury, lead, cadmium, arsenic
- EPA monitors and evaluates levels protects environment by controlling and minimising
pollution/ waste.
- AAS is quantitative, and can determine concentrations. Without it pollution would go
undetected.
- However it has limitations, it tests for a range of metals but must be done separately.

HSC STUDY BUDDY

Human activity has caused changes in the composition and the structure of the atmosphere.
Chemists monitor these changes so that further damage can be limited
4.1: describe the composition and layered structure of the atmosphere

Layers of the Earth
This
Module
Sucks
Terribly








4.2: identify the main pollutants found in the lower atmosphere and their sources

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HSC STUDY BUDDY

4.3: describe ozone as a molecule able to act both as an upper atmosphere UV radiation shield and
a lower atmosphere pollutant





Why does concentration of gases (oxygen and nitrogen) decrease as
altitude increases: force of gravity pulls gases towards the earths surface,
therefore concentration decreases as altitude increases

Why is there more ozone in the stratosphere than there is in the troposphere?
- Ozone is made when oxygen is broken into free radials using energy from Uv light. Intensity
of short wave length UV light, needed to break up O molecules is greater in the stratosphere
than in the troposphere.
- O2 (g) 2O. (g) O2 (g) + O. (g) O3 (g)

Ozone concentration is low/ stable in the troposphere. Why is this so?
UV

1. O2 (g) 2O (g)
2. O2 (g) + O (g) O3 (g)
3. O3 (g) O2 (g) + O (g)
4. 2O (g) O2 (g)
The overall equation:
1. 2O3 3O2

-
-
-

Oxygen free radicals react with O to form ozone

Ozone decomposes to form O
Reverse reactions keep concentration of ozone fairly stable in the stratosphere, unless
pollution caused by high temp combustion to form NO2 increases
- O free radicals are formed by Uv or O or NO2
Presence of pollutants eg. NO2 in lower atmosphere promotes the formation of ozone.
UV

NO2 (g) NO (g) + O (g)

O2 (g) + O (g) O3 (g)

Ozone in troposphere= BAD
Ozone in stratosphere= GOOD
- In troposphere: (electrical energy from storms provide energy for decomposing O2). Ozone
is poisonous, causing the breakdown of biological molecules due to ozone reacting with
carbon compounds. In turn causing respiratory problems, fatigue, lowers resistance to
infection, disrupts biochemical reactions (strong oxidising agent). Therefore it is a pollutant
- In stratosphere: (provides energy to decompose O2 ozone), ozone protects the earth
from radiation by absorbing high energy UV, allowing low energy UV to reach earth. High
energy UV, could cause cancer (skin). Want to trap UVB and UVC

4.4: describe the formation of a coordinate covalent bond
Coordinate covalent bond: formed by non-metal atoms sharing electrons, when one atom (donor
atom) contributes both electrons into the pair of electrons holding the atom together
- Every acid-base reaction involves the formation of a co-ordinate covalent bond, since
hydrogen ion does not contribute any electrons when it bonds to the non-bonding pair on
the base.

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4.5: demonstrate the formation of coordinate covalent bonds using Lewis electron dot structures
Hydronium ion




Ammonium ion





Ozone



Carbon monoxide




4.6: compare the properties of the oxygen allotropes O2 and O3 and account for them on the basis
of molecular structure and bonding
Allotrope: different forms of the same element. They have the same atoms, but different bonding















Differences in physical properties: ozone is bigger, heavier, with more electrons. Therefore greater
molecular interaction. Ozone has stronger dispersion forces therefore higher mp/bp. Greater mass=
greater density.

4.7: compare the properties of the gaseous forms of oxygen and the oxygen free radical
Oxygen molecule: stable form of the element. All electrons are paired and stable.
Oxygen free radical: can be formed when UV splits oxygen. It is very reactive, unstable, 2 unpaired
electrons. They want to from covalent bonds therefore doesnt stay as a free radical for long.
Combines to form ozone, NO NO2.

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HSC STUDY BUDDY

4.8: identify the origins of CFCs, and halons in the atmosphere

Haloalkanes: an alkane in which one or more H atoms are substituted by halogen atoms.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): Haloalkanes, when all Hs are replaced by F or Cl. Compounds containing
only Cl, F or C.
- Features : Odourless, non-toxic, non-flammable, inert substances
- Origin : developed as a replacement for ammonia in refrigeration, used as aerosol spray
propellants, foaming agents.
- Example: CCl3F (trichlorofluoromethane), CCl2F2 (dichlorodifluoromethane)
Halons: haloalkanes where all Hs are replaced by Cl, F or Br (Carbon, bromine and other halogens)
- Features: dense, non-flammable liquids
- Origin: fire extinguishers
- Example: CBrClF2 (bromochlorodifluoromethane) or CBrF3
CFCs are no longer produced. However CFCs used in air conditions prior to 1987 still release CFCs.

4.9: identify and name examples of isomers of haloalkanes up to 8 carbons long























4.10: discuss the problems associated with the use of CFCs and assess the effectiveness of steps
taken to alleviate these problems
- In the troposphere, CFCs are inert, non-toxic, insoluble. They are dense and slowly diffuse
into the stratosphere stability causes them to persist for decades
- In Stratosphere, problems= CFCs are broken down by UV to produce Chlorine free radicals,
which react with ozone and remove it from the atmosphere. Depletion of ozone= increased
levels of UV
- Compounds which break down in troposphere (HCFCs) or have no Cl (CFCs) can be used as a
replacement

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4.11: analyse information that indicates changes in atmospheric ozone concentrations, describe
the changes observed and explain how this
information was obtained
- graph shows a decrease in levels of CFCs,
and has begun to stabilize
- level of ozone concentration was
obtained by instruments in satellites such
as UV spectrophotometers
o these measure the intensity of
light received at a wavelength at
which ozone absorbs and then at
wavelengths either side of this,
that ozone doesnt absorb --.
Comparison gives total
concentration
o measured in Dobson units
o balloons can be used to carry
instruments into the atmosphere

4.12: write equations to show the reactions involving CFCs and ozone to demonstrate the removal
of ozone from the atmosphere
UV

1. CCl3F Cl + CCl2F
2. Cl + O3 ClO + O2 (breaks down ozone)
3. ClO + O Cl + O2

Steps 2 and 3 can continue again and again to form a chain reaction
The net result of these last 2 reactions is the conversion of O3 O2

4.13: model isomers of haloalkanes using simulations, molecular model kits or pictorial
representations

4.14: identify alternative chemicals used to replace CFCs and evaluate the effectiveness of their
use as a replacement for CFCs
Uses of CFCs: refrigerants solvents, propellants in aerosol cans
Reasons: non-toxic, inert
Problems with use: stable CFCs reacg upper atmosphere where they destroy ozone
1. HCFCs (hydrochlorofluorcarbons)
- More reactive than CFCs due to higher reactivity of C-H bonds, therefore majority
are destroyed in troposphere
- Temporary substitute for CFCs until better compounds are found long term
toxicity to humans is unknown
2. HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons)
- Contain no Cl
- More expensive and less effective as refrigerants, but dont react with ozone
3. Hydrocarbons to a lesser extent eg. Butane
- Used as aerosol propellants
- Problems- flammable, release hydrocarbons into atmosphere
- React to form photochemical smog

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Why it is unlikely ozone concentration in stratosphere will change significantly in the next few
years
- CFCs= inert, non-toxic, insoluble. Relatively dense gas molecules and diffse slowly
into stratosphere.
- Stability n troposphere means they arent destroyed and persist for decades
- Steps to alleviate problems with CFCs appear to be effective as levels of ozone have
stabilized
- Decades before CFCs/ halons are eliminated as one Cl free radical can cause
breakdown of 1000 ozone molecules.
Why ozone concentration in stratosphere is at its lowest in spring over polar regions. Explain
processes which contribute to the ozone holes at these times
The chain reaction of chlorine free radicals with ozone can be terminated by 2 different
reactions.
- The chlorine free radical can react with methane to form hydrogen chloride gas and a CH3.
Neither of these products reacts with ozone.
Cl + CH4 HCl + CH3

The ClO reacts with nitrogen dioxide gas in the stratosphere to remove the free radical. The
product does not release the Cl on exposure to UV light.
ClO + NO2 ClONO2
In winter, at the poles, atmosphere is cold/ dark and the air patterns do not allow mixing of
the air over the poles with other air. Under these conditions, the products of the
termination reaction can react and release chlorine into the atmosphere.
HCl + ClONO2 Cl2 +HNO3
During winter, the chlorine in the stratosphere has no effect on the ozone level. However, in
spring, when sunlight returns to the pole, there is a dramatic breakdown of the chlorine
molecules into chlorine free radicals. The concentration of ozone drops dramatically,
creating an ozone hole over the polar regions in spring (October November) in the
southern hemisphere.

Human activity also impact on waterways. Chemical monitoring and mgmt assists in providing safe
water for human use and to protect the habits of other organisms
5.1: identify that water quality can be determined by considering: concentration of common ions,
total dissolved solids, hardness, turbidity, acidity, dissolved oxygen and biochemical oxygen
demand
Factor
Definition
Causes
How it is measured
Common ions
Chlorine, sulfate salinity of water
AAS for metals, gravimetric
Carbonate: cause pH to increase
analysis
(carbonates= bases), may affect

plant growth
Ca and Mg: indicate hardness of
water
Phosphate: excessive= can cause
algal blooms, predictor of algal
blooms
Nitrate: indication of sewage/
fertilisers
Turbidity
Degree of transparency of water.
Presence of suspended Gravimetric analysis
Determined by the presence of
solids that cant be
Meter tube
suspended solids
filtered. Eg. Clay, silt,
Secchi disk
industrial solids,
Turbidity meter
bacteria, faecal matter,

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TDS (total dissolved

solids)
DO (dissolved
oxygen)

BOD (biochemical
oxygen demand)

pH
hardness

Total amount of dissolved solids,

mass of solids dissolved per unit of
volume
Amount of oxygen dissolved in
water

Quantity of oxygen needed by

aerobic bacteria to break down all
the organic matter in a water
sample
Acidity of water

algae
Presence of dissolved
solids eg salt
Rocks minerals in soil
Depend on salinity,
temp, conc of dissolved/
suspended pollutants.
High temp= low O
Rate of flow
Amount of O used in
respiration
Pollution/ waste. Higher
the pollution= higher
the BOD

Presence of CO2/
pollution
Hard water= wont lather with soap. Presence of Ca, Mg
Contains Ca, Mg

Gravimetric chemical analysis

(ppt then separate)
Conductivity meter
Calibrated oxygen sensor
electrode
titration

DO sensor
Seal/ incubate 5 days
Measure DO
Calculate BOD
pH meter
indicator
Titration (stoichiometry)

5.2: identify factors that affect the concentrations of a range of ions in solution in natural bodies
of water such as rivers/ oceans
1. Pathways from rain to water body
- if rain passes quickly to water body, TDS will generally be small and main ions will b NO3,
PO4, CO3, Ca, Mg. if rain soaks in underground water, it will contain increased ions
- if water flows into deep aquifers contain heavy metals (Fe, Mn Cu, Zn)
2. pH of rain

- more acidic the rain, more likely it is that ions/ minerals will dissolve in it from rocks/ soil
3. Nature of human activity in catchment area
- Agriculture. Land clearing increase run off of sediments and therefore increase the amount
of material that is able to dissolve in water
4. Effluent discharged into water bodies

- includes sewage, stormwater run off, and industrial effluents
5. Leaching from rubbish dumps

- heavy metals eg. Cadmium, Hg, Pb, Zn, NO3, PO4 (Eutrophication in excessive amounts).

5.3: describe and assess the effectiveness of methods used to purify and sanitize mass water
supplies

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HSC STUDY BUDDY

Screening aeration Flocculation Sedimentation Filtration chlorination pH

adjustment(stabilization) fluoriationstorage reservoir

Treating waste water
Primary treatment: screened, solids removed, chlorinated
Secondary: treated further, remove organic solids
Tertiary: colloidal particles/ mineral ions are removed.

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5.4: describe the design/ composition of microscopic membrane filters and explain how they
purify contaminated water
- thin film of synthetic polymer, which has
small pores of uniform size
- Prose sizes range from 0.2- 0.5 micrometers
(10^-6). These pore sizes are big enough for
water molecules to pass through but small
enough to trap microorganism and some
viruses
- Membrane filters are used in industries-
bottle water, soft drink ,beer

Advantages:
o Filter smaller particles than other
filters
o A thin-liquid flows through them
rapidly
o Strong, can withstand pressure
o Can be cleaned and reused
- Microfiltration membranes: remove microscopic parasites Giardia, viruses
- Ultrafiltration membranes: remove particles from 100 nanometers to 2 nanometers. Paint
particles, organic molecules
- Nanofiltration membranes: less than 1 nanometer, remove ions from water.

5.5: first hand investigation to use qualitative/ quantitative tests to analyse and compare quality
of water samples
Qualitative: description/ use of words
Quantitative: use of numbers and statistics
Test
Method
Qualitative/ Quantitative
Concentration of ions
AAS
Quantitative
Flame test
Qualitative
ppt
Quantitative
Insoluble solids
Filter measured sample, dry
Quantitative
and weigh residue
TDS
Filter, evaporate a measured
Quantitative
amount, dry and weigh residue
Hardness
Ppt tests to determine Ca
Quantitative
Ability to lather with soap
Qualitative
Turbidity
% light transmitted through
Quantitative
depth at which lines can be
seen
Acidity
Indicators
Qualitative
Data logger with probe
Quantitative
DO
Data logger with O probe
Quantitative
BDO
Difference between initial and
Quantitative
final DO after 5 days in dark
Phosphate
Colorimetric- add ammonium
Quantitative
molybdite, measure depth of
colour when a blue compound
forms
SEE PRAC SHEET

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5.6: information on the range and chemistry of the tests used to identify heavy metal pollution of
water, monitor possible Eutrophication of waterways
Nitrogen-to-phosphorus ratio: measurement associated with water quality
- Conc of NO3 and PO4 ions are important predictors of algal blooms. Both these are essential
nutrients for algal growth but in excess can lead to Eutrophication and degradation of water
- Ratio o N to P has an impact on algal growth
- Diff species require diff ratios
- High N:P promotes blue-green algae
- Low N:P promotes green algae
- To avoid algal blooms, EPA has recommended levels. Total N= 0.1-1ppm, Total P= 0.001-
0.1ppm

Heavy Metals: transition metals and lead, Arsenic.
- In water, heavy metals can be damaging to health. Monitoring conc is vital
- AAS can be used
- Lead: poison, retards intellectual development in children, brain damage,
- Mercury: pollutant, toxic, bioaccumulative. Damages nervous system, death in fish/ animals.
Unborn children are affected if mothers eat contaminated fish.

Algal Blooms: excessive growth of algae which covers streams/ dams with geen sludge unstable
for people
- Factors: temp (warm), rate of flow (still), level of UV (high), concentration of nutrients
(high) fertilizers, sewage
Eutrophication: process by which a water body becomes enriched by nutrients eg. PO4, NO3,
making algal blooms highly likely.
- Tests for monitoring Eutrophication:
o Monitoring presence of PO4, in waterways is used as a predictor
o Colourimetric method needs to be very sensitive to pick up low concentrations
o Molybdenum blue test
o Spectrophotometer, which measures the absorbance of light at a particular
frequency .
o Absorbance test of the sample is compared with absorbance of standard phosphate
solutions

5.7: information on features of the local town water supply in terms of: catchment area, possible
sources of contamination in this catchment, chemical tests available to determine levels/ types of
contaminants, physical and chemical processes used to purify water, chemical additives in the
water and the reasons for the presence of these additives
SEE SHEET
Catchment area:
- 5 major systems form the Sydney catchment area
- 16000 sq km. to south and west of Sydney
- Warragamba system
- Upper nepean
- Woronora system
- Blue Mountains system
- Shoalhaven system
- All have rivers, lakes, dams, reservoirs, pumping stations, filtration plants, pipes
Contamination:
- Turbidity: rub off from bushland, grazing land
- High levels of iron/ manganese:high natural levels leached from the soil and rock

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- Treated/ untreated sewage

- Microbes
- Pesticides
- Mining: zinc, copper, lead
- Grazing/ native/ feral animals
Chemical tests for contaminants
- Contamination with acids and bases: pH meter
- Metal ions: EDTA titration, lather with soap(hardness)
- Salt: AAS, flame photometry, volumetric analysis
- Nitrogen/ phosphorus: colourimetrically
Purifying water
Physical processes: screening, coagulation, sedimentation, filtration
Chemical processes: aeration to oxidize iron, manganese, oxidation, lime softening to ppt, CaOH
addition (raise pH), pH adjustment, addition of Cl and NH3 to kill microbes, addition of F (dental
health)