Caroline Chisholm Catholic CollegeTEACHER: Ms.

Driessen

E.O.Y PREP NOTES

2015
PSCYHOLOGY
VCE: UNIT 3 & 4 NOTES

States of Conscious:
Conscious refers to the awareness of internal and external Environment

Caroline Chisholm Catholic CollegeTEACHER: Ms. Driessen

E.O.Y PREP NOTES

Changing array of thoughts, feelings, sensations, perceptions, memories. A hypothetical Construct

Personal (subjective to your thoughts), Selective (select or ignore), Continuous (always thinking about
something, is empty), Changing (never stationary)

Continuum of Consciousness
TOTAL AWARENESS
Focused & Selective Attention (Controlled processes)
Divided Attention (Automatic Processes)
Day Dreaming
Meditation
Hypnosis
Light Sleep
Deep Sleep
Anaesthesia
(unconsciousness)
Co
Coma
mpl
(Unconsciousn
ete
ess)
lac
k of
aw
are
nes
s

Psychological Characteristics

Awareness

Attention

Content
Limitations
Cognitive
Distortions
Emotions
Self-control
Time
(percept)
Sensation
and
Perception

NWC (NORMAL WORKING CONSCIOUS)

Clear organised, alert, awake and aware of our
thoughts, feelings and our internal and external
environment
Controlled ^ awareness, concentration
Automatic moderate awareness & conscious effort,
routine memories
Selective focused attention, serial, what is important
(CPE)
Divided simultaneous tasks, both auto-processing, diff.
tasks
Thoughts controlled, logical & organised thinking, process
info simult. , block out things (neg. experience)
Generally good at making, creating and accessing
memories.
Brain actively stores & retrieves information
Generally appropriate/match situation
Coordination, physical restraint, fine motor control, act
rationally
Generally accurate

ASC (ALTERED STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS)

distinctly different from NWC
Sleeping, daydreaming, INDUCED: meditation,
alcohol, hypnosis/sedative/anaesthetic/coma
Low level awareness, limited process skills

Accurate perception generally what you think you see it

what you actually see
Sensation (collecting stimulus from
environment)\perception (making sense of stimulus)

Inaccurate perception, perception is blunted, dulled or

heightened, hallucinations (not there), dellusions (fake
belief)
*talk about 5 senses: visual, auditory (ear), olfactory
(taste) & tactile (skin)

Low level of ability to attend to stimuli

Less control, logic, organisation * limit processing

ability intoxicated, sleeping (nightmare)
Disrupted memories less accurate, less info is stored,
cannot access. At times did not even occur
Intensified, blunted, inappropriate
Less not none self-control, poor co-ord., fewer
inhibitions, impulsive,
Distorted (inaccurate)

Physiological Characteristics
Heart Rate
Body
Temp.
GSR

Electrocardiography (ECG) detects, amplifies and record electrical activity of the heart muscle.
It is sig. faster or slower in an ASC BUT does not state which state the person is in
Normal: 37 drops 1 degree (only small changes)
Electrical Conductivity of the Skin sweat (a state of arousal) , brain activity increases in adrenaline body
tension & alertness = sweat

Caroline Chisholm Catholic CollegeTEACHER: Ms. Driessen

Brain wave
Patterns

E.O.Y PREP NOTES

EEG Detects, amplifies and records the elctrical activity of the brain *Beta [awake] (HFLA), Alpha [relaxed] (MF-HMA), Theta [light sleep] (MHA-MLF), Deta [deep sleep] (HA-LF)
frequency decreases and amplitude increases. *alchol induced state mix of beta and alpha waves

SLEEP

Sleep is a period of regular rest for the body and mind, occurring naturally during ever
24 hour period
Ways in which sleep is ASC it is an ASC as consciousness is temporarily & partially suspended & the characteristics of sleep
are different from NWC
Characteristic
Level of Awareness
Content Limitations
Controlled &
Automatic Processes
Perceptual &
Cognitive
Disturbance
Emotional Memories
Self-control
Time Orientation

During Sleep (ASC)

Low level of awareness of external and internal
stimuli, limited processing skills
Less control over thoughts
Control usually not possible but some automatic
process may be possible
Inaccurate, lower than NWC, impared memory

Heightened/blunted (e.g. nightmare)

Lowered control
Highly inaccurate

Example
Not aware of surroundings
Experience strange & unusual thoughts in our
dreams
You may walk, talk or eat while asleep
Illogical thoughts, cant remember your
dreams
Over-react
(e.g. snore, teeth grinding)
Sleep for 3 hours but feels like 5 minute
snooze

** clearly indicate how this is different to NWC

As light decreases (dusk) it triggers the pineal gland to release melatonin =sleepiness (peaks at midnight) and
decreases with morning
o
Melatonin rich food bananas, oranges, tomatoes, turkey, oats, rice etc
o
Other ways to increase melatonin 30 min pre-sleep no electrical light activity, dark room, light curtains
Body rhythms: Look at particle point in time and see if its at the same point in less than 24 hours, ex. Sleep wake cycle
or body temperature (CIRCADIAN), if reaches point in less than 24 hours, ex. Sleep stages cycle its ULTRADIAN.

Studying Sleep
EOG detects, amplifies and records the electrical activity of muscles surrounding the eye
EMG- detects, amplifies and records electrical activity of the muscles
EEG detects, amplifies and records the electrical activity of brain patterns
NREM & REM
Eye Movement
Brainwaves
Physiological arousal
Muscles

NREM
None
Alpha delta
Decreases
Some movement

Dreams
Duration
Type or
Replenishment

10% of time, illogical

75-80% total nights sleep
Body growth hormone secreted, increases
after physical exersion

REM
Rapid
Beta-like, sawtooth
Increases
Atoria/sleep paralysis, muscles relaxed. Paradoxial sleep
body/min inactive
50% of time
Increases during night
Mind sort & consolidate memories, increases after
psychological stress

NREM
=80% sleep time, Hypnogogic stage* - alpha brain waves
Absence of rapid eye movements, level of arousal is lowered, dreaming occurs less frequently but more illogical &
fragmented than REM

Caroline Chisholm Catholic CollegeTEACHER: Ms. Driessen

STAGE 1:
2-10mins, decreased
heart rates,
respiration, body temp.
, *hypnic jerk,
decreased alpha waves
& 50% theta waves

STAGE 2:
20-30 mins, decreased
heart rate, respiration,
body temp. Light
Sleep. EEG - *sleep
spindles*, *k-complex*

E.O.Y PREP NOTES

STAGE 3:
3-10mins, decreased
heart rate, respiration,
body temp, brain
activity. Breathing
slow & steady,
moderately deep
sleep. Beginning of
slow wave sleep. 2050% delta waves

STAGE 4:
20-30 mins, muscles
completely relaxed,
person hard to wake,
deep sleep - 'sleep
inertia' or 'sleep
drunkness'. Sleep
walking, talking, night
terors, bed wetting
occurs here and stage
3. 50% delta waves

REM
Up to 1 hour at a time, dream state, increased heart rate, blood pressure, breathing yet muscles stay relxed paradoxical
sleep*, sawtooth brainwaves beta & alpha waves, most frequent & vivid dreaming occurs here
Internal bodily function becomes more active but muscles effectively paralysed, about 90 mins per night for adult
Brain Wave Patterns
1. beta waves the main type of brain waves recorded when an individual is awake and alert; These waves are
characterised by high frequency and low amplitude.
2.

alpha waves the main type of brain waves recorded when an individual is relaxed but awake; These waves are
characterised by medium frequency and medium to low amplitude.

3.

theta waves recorded in the lighter stages of sleep; These waves are characterised by medium frequency and a
mixture of high and low amplitude.

4.

delta waves associated with deep sleep and characterised by high amplitude and low frequency.
Brain Wave Patterns

State/stage of Sleep

B (beta)

Awake (sawtooth)

A (alpha)
T (theta)

Drousy
50%
50%

D (delta)

50%
50%

Stage 1 (NREM)
Stage 2 (NREM)
Stage 3 (NREM)
Stage 4 (NREM)

The difference between stages at types of sleeps is there is 4 stages of sleep in NREM and the two types of sleep is
NREM & REM.

Caroline Chisholm Catholic CollegeTEACHER: Ms. Driessen

E.O.Y PREP NOTES

EXAM TIPS
Make sure you are clear as to which muscles are being monitored by an EOG they are the ones surrounding the eye
or that control eye movement. The muscles in or of the eye are different they are involved in focusing the lens and in
the context of discussing an EOG, an answer that referred to these muscles would be marked incorrect in an exam.

Again, remember DARE: Like an EEG and EMG, an EOG also detects, amplifies and records electrical activity this time,
of the muscles controlling the eyes.

In REM sleep, the EOG would not show rapid eye movement, but rather high electrical activity of the muscles
controlling eye movement. Make sure the term electrical activity is included in any answer about the EOG.

Dreaming
80% REM (longer & more clearer than NREM dreams), brain area emotions & imagery are more active, REM behaviour
disorder- no sleep paralysis, but should have sleep paralysis
Purpose of Sleep
RESTORATIVE THEORY sleep is vital for replenishing the mind & body
NREM
Replenishes the body, restores tissue
+ Releases growth hormone. After vigorous activity we
have more NREM sleep (especially SWS, stage 3 and 4)
Immune cells (fight disease and infection) are produced
during sleep.
*Problem: People who are inactive also experience as much
NREM sleep as those who are active, extreme exercise
required to see an increase in NREM

SURVIVAL THEORY for survival

REM
REM sleep important for consolidation (forming long
term memories)
+ more REM after stress, REM improves mood, more
rEM for babies
*Problem: People with brain damage or taking
medication preventing REM sleep do not experience
more memory problems than usual. Dolphine and
whales have no REM but are intelligent/memory

Caroline Chisholm Catholic CollegeTEACHER: Ms. Driessen

Factor

Explanation

E.O.Y PREP NOTES

Supporting Evidence

Hunting for food

An animals required amount of

sleep is associated with its feeding
habits

Grazing animals sleep less as they need to find more food

(low in calories) to survive compared to meat

Hiding from
predators

Sleep depends of vulnerability to

predators

Prey animals attract less attention asleep & motionless

Small prey animals with safe burrows sleep more

Conserving
energy

Sleep reduces the need for food

Hibernation in winter (food is harder to gather)

Avoiding Danger

Sleep can prevent accidents

Humans able to sleep at night (safe)

Sleep

Support for theory: Relatively unprotected animals of prey sleep little to be alert in case of predators

Problems with theory: (students refer text and add notes)

Animals which sleep more are vulnerable to attack as the brain disengages from the external
environment while sleeping - Theory does not explain why our awareness decreases (does not make
sense for survival).

Does not address negative physical and psychological effects from lack of sleep ie the suggestion that
sleep in itself is necessary for survival

Deprivation
Usually after 4 sayds becomes unbearable but most symptoms are reversed after a good nights sleep
Sleep debt accumulate amount of sleep loss but not total of actual lost sleep
Affects A,B,C
PSYCHOLOGICAL
Disorientation, delusions, hallucinations
Greater problems with simple rather than difficult tasks
Partial depreivation irritable, aggressive, anxious,
emotional
1 hour loss = decreased mood, fontal lone activity
memory, rea tion times, attention
Long Term anxiety, depression, ADHA

PHYSIOLOGICAL
Trembling hands, droopy eyelids, starring problem
focusing eyes, pain insensitive, headaches
Decreases growth hormones (released in sleep) +
muscles strength & endurance
Decrease motor functions, immune system (increase
cortisol- stress hormones)
Long Term: High blood pressure, risk of heart disease,
obesity & diabetes
REM Sleep Deprivation effect decreased concentration, memory, motor coordination, high anxiety
o
REM rebound compensate sleep by having more REM, people normally have 5-6 REM sleep
micro-sleeps appear awake but sleep brain waves (e.g. driving)

Sleep- wake cycle across the lifespan

Age
New Born
1-12 months
1 3 years
3-5 years
5 12 years
Adolescence
Adults
Elderly

Average Hours Sleep

16-18 (around 8-9 hours REM)
14- 18
12-15
11-13 (around 2-3 hours REM
sleep)
9 11
9 10
78
6 ( around 1.2 hours REM)

lifespan
o
o

INFANTS sleep around 16 hours a day (50% REM)

o
Restorative theory to organise longterm memory, integrate new information
o
Or because their brain is not mature
enough to maintain deep NREM sleep
ADOLESCENCE melatonin (inducing sleepliness)
and cortisol (alertness) levels are often released
at up to 2 hours later than during other times in

Phase delay sleep/wake pattern shifts forward so they sleep later shifts back to adult patterns
Sociocultural factors expectations, socialising, homework, soirts, online gaming, school and work

Caroline Chisholm Catholic CollegeTEACHER: Ms. Driessen

E.O.Y PREP NOTES

Delayed Sleep Phase Disorder

An individuals circadian rhythm does not match the ecternal environment (melatonin not being realised when sun goes
down). Often fall asleep a couple of hours after midnight.
o
Cause: insentive to envrionemtn cues (not picking dawn), long biologiocal clock, imbalance of hormones
(melatonin)
o
To treat: Exposure to bright light in early morning, walk in the early morning, psychologists help to deal with
stress, taking melatonin
SLEEP TIPS!

Room lighting, vigorous exercise beforehand, regularise sleep, relaxing activity before bed (no electricity), melatonin rich
food, limit naps, create relaxed atmosphere (cool, dark, quiet), prioritise sleep, dont drink caffeine 6 hours before sleep,
meditation

FORGETTING

Cue is any piece of information that helps retrieve information from LTM. It activates related NODES and
interconnect ideas info. Without cue cant begin to find memory trace
Recognition is like cues as specific cues are given. It is more sensitive than recall only when there is no
distraction. False positive is false recogntion

DEFINITION: Difficulties accessing or retrieving information previously stored in LTM

Not forgetting: Unavailable memories ineffective encoding pseudo-forgetting, memory thought to be

forgotten no memory trace to

THEORIES OF FORGETTING (RMID)

RETRIVAL FAILURE
Failure to use cues
TOT: not being able to retrieve info/memory already known
requires the appropriate cue
PROS/CONS: + evidence TOT , - memory may not have
been encoded or consolidated, right cue may not have
been use. Thus difficult to determine whether forgotten
INTERFERENCE
Existing memories (new or old) impair retrieval of
required memory (especially if info is similar and close
in time)
Retroactive: Forget OLD memories ; retrieving
disrupted new info interferes with ability remember
old memories
Proactive: Forget NEW memories; encoding
disrupted old memories interfere with ability to
remember new information

MOTIVATED FORGETTING (Freud)

Determined to block from the conscious ming
info that is traumatic of threatening. (Defence
mechanism)
Repression: Unconscious blocking of
memories, generally cued by something
Suppression: Conscious or deliberate effort
to keep information from conscious awareness
DECAY

When learning occurs physical changes occur

in the brain (memory trace is formed).
However, it fades overtime due to lack of use
or activation.

The Forgetting Curve

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885): Memorised a list of nonsense syllables and tested himself at various times
General pattern for lots of materials and learning conditions
Amount of forgetting is less for: 1) meaning material (semantically encoded) 2) Little difference in rate of
forgetting easy or difficult material (if well learnt), slow or fast learners
Thus the more meaningful the material the better it is encoded
CRITICISMS: Not so dramatic for meaningful material, there may be proactive interference due to non-sense
syllables less so with meaningful material

MEASURES OF RETENTION
RECALL
Reproduce info with fewest possible cues.
Least sensitive measure of rentention
Serial (recall in the order presented) - least
sensitve reccall, Free (recall in any order),
Cued (Recall using cues provided) -most
sensitive recall

RECOGNITION
Identify the correct info
from alternatives (more
sensitive if no distractors)

RELEARNING
Learning something
previously memorised. If
learned faster the second
time is it assumed
something is remembered.
saving score: ***

Caroline Chisholm Catholic CollegeTEACHER: Ms. Driessen

E.O.Y PREP NOTES
ENHANCING MEMORY: CONTEXT AND STATE DEPENDENT CUES

Recreate conditions (physical and psychological) under which info was learned
Encoding specific principal more closely cues match the original learning condition, greater chance of
recall
CONTEXT
Environmental Cues (sights, sounds, smells)
May be done by revisiting the place, or imagining
being there
Time between must be same amount of time
passed
Research: Godden &Baddeley (1975) words
learned and recalled either on beach or under
water ; recall up to 20% more when consistent
20-50% recall

STATE
Physical and Psychological cues (drugs, mood)
May be done via hypnosis
Research: Bower (1981) learn words in a happy
or sad state, recall is better if in the same state

MNEMONIC DEVICES
Any system of technique that aids memory. Useful for: encoding, linking new info with old and organisation.
Narrative Chaining
Link unrelated items to create
a story. More unusual the
easier to remember. Good for
serial recall

Acronyms
Using the 1st letter of each
word to create a
pronounceable word or
name. (VTAAC, ANZAC)

Acrostics
Making phrases or sentences
from words that begin with
the 1st letter of each word.
(NESW)

RECONSTRUCTING MEMORIES
Remembering past events and features and putting them together for recall memory not an exact replica
Influence by expectation beliefs, ideals, mood
SCHEMA preconceived idea of the world and things in it. Info is stored in a personally meaningful way
according to personal culture and experience
False memory: Exaggerate events, change details, gaps filled-in
Eye witness: Loftus Research , concluded: Act of retrieving info from memory is a reconstructive process,
the process of memory search (retrieval/recall( can be influenced by wording of a question; misinformation
suggested by a question can be stored as an updated representation of memory; also effected by revisiting
an event in your mind
Absolute comparison compare 2 memory (subsequential photos), Relatively comparison
simulatenous photos shown (compare to each other), Double blind procedure both person administrating
the test dont know the answer (crime investigations)

LEARNING
A relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience

Stimulus is something in the environment that evokes a specific response/reaction

Little Albert Experiment: Caused harm; acquired learning through Classic Conditioned
through repeated pairings between the loud noise and the rat (fear); maintained learning
through Operant Conditioning by crawling away from the rat (B) made Little Albert feel
better (C). (Antecedent is seeing the rat)
Reciprocal inhibition is a therapeutic technique that attempts to replace an undesired
response with a more desirable one by counter conditioning.
Basic Principles: ABC
ANTECEDENT
th e ev en ts tha t p reced e
(co m e be fo re) a respo n se

NOT LEARNING:

B E H AV IO U R
respo n se , w ha t is d o n e in
th is co n d itio n

CONSEQ UENCE
E ve nts th a t occu r a fter th e
respo n se (th e eff ect of th e
b eh a viou r) - d et. if B
h a p p en s ag ain g ive n th e
sa m e A

Caroline Chisholm Catholic CollegeTEACHER: Ms. Driessen

E.O.Y PREP NOTES
Reflex actions (simple, automatic, involuntary response (controlled by NS) such as
blinking, flinching, breathing and so on to a specific stimulus does not require any prior
experience)
Fixed action patterns aka species specific behaviour (Innate [controlled by NS]
instinctive predisposition to respond in a certain way to a stimuli set of behaviour ex.
Mating, building a nest etc.)
Maturation Behaviours (Innate, genetically programmed behaviours resulting from
physical growth and development at predictable ages such as crawling, walking any
permanent changes due to puberty).
If not permanent and not from experience it is not learning
LEARNING THEORIES
Behaviourist (Conditional or Operational
Conditioning)
A change in behaviour indicates learning

Cognitive (Observational learning)

A change in brain structure indicates
learning acquisition of learning

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (Ivan PAVLOV)

Ivan Pavlov found that dogs began to salivate before receiving any food. Dog associates
the bell with food
Learning based on the repeated association of two normally unrelated stimuli
A previously reflexed response (UCR) to a stimulus becomes learned response (CR) after
being associated with new stimulus thus learning has occurred when a stimulus
consistently produces a response that it did not previously produced
Conditioned reflex (simple behaviour) : an automatic response that occurs because of
previous experience - e.g. answering the phone when it rings)
Conditioned Emotional Response (complex behaviour): Emotional reaction to a stimulus
that previously did not produce an emotional response e.g. increased heart rate at the
sound of a drill. Phobias are learned this way.
Elements (CC TERMS) :
1. NS (neutral stimulus) : stimulus does not elicit any response before conditioning
(e.g. bell)
2. CS (conditional stimulus) : After repeated association with the UCS, the CS triggers
the same response as the UCS
3. CR (conditioned response): Learned response elicited by a CS (e.g. salvation)
4. UCS (unconditioned stimulus) : Any stimulus which consistently produces a
particular naturally occurring automatic response (e.g. food)
5. UCR (unconditioned response) : Response which occurs automatically when UCS is
presented (e.g. salvation)
PRINCIPLES/PROCEESS (CC TERMS)
1. ACQUISITION: Repeated associations to gain the knowledge of skill. UCS and CS
close together in time (.5 5 sec optimal)
2. CONDITIONED (learning): CS (alone produces the CR
Stimulus Generalisation: Stimuli similar to the CS also triggers the CR
Stimulus Discrimination: CR alone activated to the CS only
3. EXTINCTION: CS is consistently presented without the UCS causing a decrease in
strength/rate of the CR (fastest for simple behaviour)
4. SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY: Extinction must occur first. The absent of the CS, and
then presenting it following a rest period in which the CR is weaker.
OPERANT CONDITIONING

Caroline Chisholm Catholic CollegeTEACHER: Ms. Driessen

E.O.Y PREP NOTES
SKINNER BOX: Hungry rat engages in trial and error learning until it would press the
lever which would disperse a food pellet
THORNDIKE (Cat in cage with lever learns to press to get fish)
o Trial & Error Learning: organism continues to explore their environment until
discovering a response that allows them to reach their desired goal (and
eliminating unsuccessful behaviours)
o Law of Effect: Probability of a behaviour being repeated is determined by its
effect, in that satisfying consequence increases a chance of a behaviour being
repeating, unsatisfactory consequence decrease the chance of repetition of
behaviour

Learning based on consequences the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated is determined

by its consequences
THREE PHASE MODEL: Antecedent/stimulus Behaviour/operant Consequence
Discriminative stimulus: stimulus associated with reinforcement, discriminates which stimuli to
respond to

PRINCIPLES/PROCEESS (OC TERMS)

5. ACQUISITION: Response most quickly established through continuous reinforcement
6. CONDITIONED (learning): Behaviour is purposefully produced
Stimulus Generalisation: Respond to other similar stimuli (stereotypes)
Stimulus Discrimination: Respond only to a particular stimulus (sniffer
dogs)
7. EXTINCTION: Decrease rate of response with continuous non-reinforcement ( though
response rate may initially increase) less likely to have extinction when partial
reinforcement ( Consequence is absent)
8. SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY: Extinction must occur first. Response suddenly reemerges following a rest period from the stimulus. Often a weaker and shorter lasting
response (rest from Antecedent)
OBSERVVATIONAL LEARNING

Observers behaviours changes after viewing the behaviour and consequences of another (model)
Can be views as Vicarious operant conditioning (whether the model is reinforced/punished) or
vicarious classical conditioning (influenced by observing a model repeatedly associating a
neutral and UCS).

BANDURAS SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY: Often called a bridge between behaviourist and
cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory and motivation.
3 components: People can learn through observation; internal mental slates are an
essential part of this process; Learning does not necessarily lead to change in behaviour
`
PROCESS:
1. ATTENTION: Learner pays attention to the model (notice)
a. Influenced by: MODEL (likeable, familmiar, attractive); OBSERVOR (interest,
young); SITUATION (distractors)
2. RETENTION: Learner mentally represents and retains what has been observed
(remember)
3. REPRODOCTION: Learner must be able to convert the mental representations into
actions (produce)
a. External reinforcement- given a reward; Vicarious reinforcement- observe
another being rewarded; self-reinforcement- meeting own standards
o

Direct VS indirect learning

Non/observable evidence
of learning
Role of cognition in

10

OBSERVATIONAL
Indirect
Both

OPERANT
Direct
Observational

Yes - In attention and retention

No it is more behavioural

Caroline Chisholm Catholic CollegeTEACHER: Ms. Driessen

learning
Active learning: Role of
learner
Reinforcement
FEATURE
Acquisition

(AKA main
researcher)

Spontaneous
Recovery
Partial
Reinforcement
Role of learner

Timing
(stimulus &
response)
Nature of the
response
Elements
Principles/Proc
ess

E.O.Y PREP NOTES

Yes pay attention and reproduce

Active

Yes increases behaviour

Yes increases behaviour

CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
Response learned by
association of 2 stimuli
RESPONDANT LEARNING
IVAN PAVLOV: Dog
salivating at the sound of
the bell
When CS is introduced
Weakens the response
(passive learner)
PASSIVE no
environmental
consequence
Stimulus before response

Involuntary (reflexes)

OPERANT
CONDITIONING
Response learnt by
association with its
consequence
INSTRUMENTAL LEARNING
SKINNER: Rats in skinner
box, THORNDIKE: Hungry
cat in cage
When stimulus
reintroduced
Strengthens the response

OBSERVATIONAL
LEARNING
Response determined
by consequence
SOCIAL LEARNING ALBERT BANDURA: Kids
observed and intimated
violence by model
When antecedent is
reintroduced
?

ACTIVE environmental
consequence
Stimulus after response

UCS, NS, CS, UCR, CR

Mostly voluntary
(intentional)
A, B, C

ACQ COND.
(discrimination) EXTINC.
SPON. RECOVERY

ACQ COND.
(discrimination) EXTINC.
SPON. RECOVERY

Model, observer,
situation
ACQ ATTEN. RETEN.
PERFORM.
REPRODUCE
(motivation/reinforceme
nt)

ENFORCIING BEHAVIOUR
SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT:
o Continuous Reinforcement: Everytime the desired response occurs, important to
use during acquisition
o Partial Reinforcement: Some of the times the desired behaviour occurs, more
resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement
o Reinforcement is given after
FIXED INTERVAL a fixed amount of time has passed (ex. Fixed wage)
VARIABLE INTERVAL the first correct response after a varied amount of
time (ex. Fishing) slowest acquisition, resistant to extinction
FIXED RATIO a fixed number of correct behaviours (ex. Piece work or
fruit picking) rapid responding, steady rate of acquisition
VARIABLE RATIO a varied number of correct responses (ex. Gambling)
rapid responding, steady rate of acquisition, resistant to extinction
REINFORCEMENT: Increases/strengthens the likelihood of a behaviour/response
occurring again( most effective when reinforcement immediately follows the desired
response and is appropriate)
o POSITIVE: Giving something POSITIVE/GOOD
o NEGATIVE: Taking away something NEGATIVE/BAD

11

Caroline Chisholm Catholic CollegeTEACHER: Ms. Driessen

E.O.Y PREP NOTES
PUNISHMENT: Decreases/weakens the likelihood of a behaviour/response occurring
again (During or after is best and consistency and intensity)
o POSITIVE: Giving something NEGATIVE/BAD
o NEGATIVE: Taking away something POSTIVE/GOOD

APPLICATIONS (counter-conditioning) for CC

GRADUATED EXPOSURE/SYSTEMATIC DESENSISTATION: Replacing a negative response with

a positive one by:
1. Teach relaxation techniques (slow breathing, relaxing muscles)
2. Break fear into a fear/anxiety hierarchy from least to most feared
3. Move through the hierarchy associating relaxation with each stage

AVERSION THERAPY: Replacing a positive response with a negative response (alcohol). However,
problems is overgeneralising the behaviour and the distress it is likely to cause.
o Pairing the Antabuse (medicine that makes one feel ill) with the stimulus

FLOODING: Exposed to the fear in a sudden, complete and immersing manner. Will fear the
anxiety, yet survive the situation. BUT harm to the individual in feeling such extreme anxiety

SHAPING: Reinforcing successive responses that closely resemble or progress towards

the desired response. By breaking down a complex target behaviour and reinforcing each
step as it is successfully mastered

TOKEN ECONOMIES: Desirable behaviour rewards with a symbolic reinforcement (e.g. star)
which can later be exchanged for tangible reinforcements (e.g. food or privileges). It is a tangible
secondary reinforcer which are learned and can be exchanged for primary reinforcers. Positive
they do not lose their value as quickly

Mental Health
Normality: Patterns of behaviour or personality traits that are typical, or that conform to some standard
of proper and acceptable ways of behaving
Table 1: CONCEPTS OF NORMALITY
Sociocultural
Behaviour typical of the
cultural values and beliefs
of a society (norms)
Ex. Looking at peoples
eyes

Functional
Ability to interact and involve oneself in society
Ex. Avoiding relationships, unable to maintain a job

Historical
Behaviour that is
acceptable in a
particular era
Ex. Gender roles,
clothes

Situational
Behaviour that is
acceptable in a setting or
general circumstance
Ex. Wearing pjs at school

Medical
Physically healthy: The absence of illness with an
under-lying physical cause
Ex. Colour-blindness, schizophrenia (someone that
thinks they are being watched or seeing things)

Statistical
Behaviour and
experiences of the
statistical majority
Ex. IQ

Health: A state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of
disease or infirmity
Mental Health: A state of emotional and social well-being in which the individual can cope with the
normal stresses of life and achieve their potential. It includes being able to work productively and
contribute to community life. Mental health is not simply the absence of mental illness
Mental Health Mental Health Problem (mild temporary psychological issue) Mental Illness
(serious & long-lasting)

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Main types of mental illness: Mood disorders depression, anxiety, psychosis, paranoia, SUBSTANCE
DISORDERS, DEVELOPMENT DISORDERS ADHD, SLEEP DISORDERS
Classification
Categorical Approaches: Groups psychological problems into broad categories or groups that share
common symptoms

DSM-IV-TR (Diagnostic and Statistic Manual of mental Disorders, Edition IV): Categorises
mental disorders into 16 major categories and provides information on how it progresses, age of
onset, degree of impairment, frequency, relationship with gender, age, culture.
o
o
o
o
o

AXIS 1: CLINICAL DISORDERS

Ex. Depression, anxiety, paranoia, alcohol abuse, schizophrenia
AXIS 2: DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS & PERSONALITY DISORDERS
Ex. Schziphrenia, dependent, down syndrome, OCD,
AXIS 3:MEDICAL OR PHYSICAL CONDITIONS
Diabetes, lung issues, hypertentsion
AXIS 4: PSYCHOLOGICAL AND/OR ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Family, social life, work pressure
AXIS 5: GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF FUNCTIONING
1-10: Persistent danger of severely hurting self of others OR persistent inability to
maintain minimum personal hygiene OR serious suicidal act with clear expectation of
death
41-50: Serious symptoms OR any moderate difficulty in social, occupational, or school
functioning
51-60: Moderate symptoms OR any moderate difficulty in social, occupational, or school
functioning
91-100: Superior functioning in a wide range of activities, lifes problems never seem to
get out of hand, is sought out by others because his or her many qualities. NO
symptoms

ICD-10 (International Classification of Diseases, Edition 10): A categorical system that

diagnoses and classifies mental disorders based on recognised symptons including a detailed
description.

STRENGTHS
Provides a common language for therapists (able
to diagnose more accurately)
Aids in diagnosis and treatment
Allows for consistency
Good inter-rate reliability

WEAKNESSES
May categorise people inappropriately
Does not allow for atypical symptoms
associated with a disorder
Relies on personal accounts of symptoms

Dimensional Approaches: No discrete categories, based on a spectrum or continuum of disorders.

Individuals are given a profile of high or low scores across different dimensions.
STRENGTHS
Lessens the likelihood of labelling
Shows relationship between biological
and social factors
Allows individuals to see improvement

WEAKNESSES
Creates greater inconsistency amongst professionals
Disagreements of how many continuums are
necessary
Low inter-rater reliability

Labelling & Stigma: Naming certain characterisitcs of an individual is labelling. Labelling

associated with mental illness is often derogatory and this is due to stigma (social disapproval of
characteristics (schizophrenia), beliefs, behaviour etc)
o Advantages: Diagnosis and treatment
o Disadvantages: can be derogatory, confronting, people may behave consistently with the
label, judgement on themselves, can affect employment, crime, lowers self-eteem.
To deal with stigma improve knowledge and awarementss

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Biopsychosocial Framework
BIOLOGICAL: Genetic
factors

PSYCHOLOGICAL:
Personality

SOCIAL: Culture &

Environment

RISK: Genetic predisposition,

chemical imbalance, drinking,
driving, drugs, low physical
activity

RISK: Negative thinking, feeling

a lack of control,
catastrophizing, poor reality
testing

RISK: Poor family dynamics,

unaccepting society, Low SES,
lack of access to recreational
activites

Stress
A physiological and psychological tension produced by internal(catastrophizing) and external forces
(loud noises)

+ Eustress: Realises adrenalin to optimise performace, may be perceived as energising

- Distress: Emotional and physical pressures that have a negative effect

Stress Reactions: Physical and/psychological reactions to perceived threatening situations

Psychological (thinking/feelings):
o Emotional: Frustration, depression, irritability, aggression, hopelessness, angry
o Cognitive: Decrease attention & concentration, forgetful, poor problem solving, distorted
perceptions of self, catastrophizing
o Behavioural: Poor sleeping, change diet, lack of socialising, drug abuse, no motivation to
work

Physiological: Sympathetic Nervous system is activated

o Short Term: Adrenalin realised, flight flight response
Fight/Flight: The autonomic nervous system is activated to help the body deal with a
sudden threat
Providing the body with the energy to respond to the stressor to wither face or run away
from the stressor.
Adrenalin & noradrenaline: maintain alertness and help the body fight the
stressor
Cortisol: Reduces inflammation (repairs the body and speeds up the healing
process suppressing the immune system
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis: physiological responses to
chronic stress (long term persistent stressors that has a negative impact on the body)
involving the coordinated efforts of the hypothalamus, pituitary gland and the adrenal
cortex of the adrenal glands
1) Hypothalamus activated when stressor(threat) is present
2) Stimulates the Pituitary glands
3) Pituitary gland secretes hormone ACTH which flow in blood stream to
adrenal
4) Adrenal glands secrete hormone adrenalin, noradrenalin & cortisol
5) Stress hormones energise the body
Negative impact: Although hormone provides the body with energy to
deal with the stressor. But if stressor persists the effects on the ongoing
presence of cortisol can increase blood pressure and lowered immune
system function, and psychological effects such as the impairment of
memory and other cognitive functions

Transactional Model: Lazuras and Folkmans model of stress and coping depends on the persons
appraisal (interpretation) of whether the stressor is threatening and their ability to cope with it

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STRESSOR

Primary
Appraisal
Irrelevant,
harmful.,
challenging,
benefical etc. ?

Secondary
Appraisal
Judgement,
*emotional forcast,
resources

STRENGTHS
Integrates physiological, cognitive &
emotional elements (shows how thinking
affects the body)
Helps people recognise their own roles in
interpreting stressors
Distinguishes between eustress/distress
Human subjects used in research
REASSESS a stressor to be more positive

E.O.Y PREP NOTES

Outcome
Either having or
not having the
resouces leads
to
EUSTRESS/DISTR
ESS

LIMITATIONS
Seen as too simplistic
Does not allow for the
uncontrollable physical
responses to stress
Little on cultural and social
factors

Problem-focused Coping: Aims to change the source of stress by employing strategies such as
gaining information.
Emotion-focused coping: Aims to mediate the systematic associated with perception of stress.
Employing strategies such as relaxation, escape avoidance, accepting responsibility, positive
reappraisal, physical exercise

Stress & Illness: Relationship the more intense and prolonged the stress the greater chance of
illness

Psychosomatic Illness: Physical symptoms and illness as a result of psychological stress (person
legitimacy have a physical problem). Most common are gastrointestinal and respiratory.

SOCIAL, CULTURAL & ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINANTS OF STRESS

Factors
Social
Cultural

Environmental

Exacerbate (+)
Social readjustment/major life events
Social isolation
Acculturation (adapting to new
culture)
Racism
Poverty
Crowding
Catastrophe; natural/technological
disaster

Exacerbate (worsen stress)

Social
Social readjustment/major life events
Social isolation
Cultural

Environme
ntal

15

Acculturation, e.g. adopting a new

culture
Racism
Poverty
Crowding
Catastrophe: natural/technological
disaster

Alleviate (-)
Social support

Cultural participation
Ethnic enclaves

Employment; access to basic

necessities
Avoidance; policy to minimise
crowding
Stress inoculation

Alleviate (relieve stress)

Social readjustment/major life
events
Social support
Cultural participation
Ethnic enclaves

Employment: access to basic

necessities
Avoidance: policy to minimise
crowding
Stress inoculation (treatment)

Caroline Chisholm Catholic CollegeTEACHER: Ms. Driessen

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ALLOSTATIS (new approach to explaining stress (biopsychosocial))

When multiple functions are involved in a dynamic balance in response to a stressor that when
perceived stressful, the brain turns on the allosatic response (autonomic, endocrine and immune (bio))
and turns off once dealt with
Perceive
stressful
situation & brain
(PSYC) turns on

(BIO) Activates
allosatic
systems
(autonomic,
endocrine,
immune)

Brain monitors
bodily process
(PSYCH) & stressor
and coping
strategies (social)
turns it off

Influenced by prior experience (PSYCH), context or circumstance (SOCIAL) and genetics (BIO)

Homeostasis: A single response regulating the balance of the internal rhythms of the body to
maintain stability. (Heart rate, breathing etc)
ALLOSTATIC LOAD: Amount of stress
If after the stress has passed and the systems are not turned off or over-used or too many stressors, it
may cause a build-up of stress hormones (cortisol) which decreases the immune system functioning
(impact functioning the ANS (heart rate, blood pressure, immune system,
neurotransmitters)
If prolonged: Long term damce and a breakdown in physical andpr mental functioning can
occur such as CVD, diabetes, mental disorders.
TYPES
o
o
o
o

REPEATED HITS: Repeatedly exposed to multiple stressors in a short period of time

LACK OF ADAPTION: Not habituating to repeated stressors of the same type
PROLONGED RESPONSE: Body does not turn off allostatic responses after stress has
passed
INADEQUATE RESPONSE: One allostatic system doesnt respond (weak) when it turns on
so other systems increase to compensate

COPING WITH STRESS

BIOFEEDBACK: Can learn to control bodily processes (e.g. heart rate, muscle tension) through
receiving real time information about autonomic functioning. Measures brainwaves, heart function,
breathing, muscle activity and skin temperature.
o PROCESS: 1) taught relaxation techniques 2)attached to biofeedback machine 3) induce
relaxation techniques
MEDITAION: Mental exercises to focus attention, interrupt typical flow of thoughts to achieve a
relaxed state. Generally requires a quiet environment, reduces muscle tension.
o Progressive muscle relaxation: Tighten then relax muscle in targeted areas in the body
PHSYCIAL EXERCISE: refers to an activity that requires exertion with the purpose of improving
fitness or health. Alters hormones, circulation, and muscle tone assisting in stress management.
Returns body to homeostasis more quickly. Decrease heart rate, blood pressure, cortisol levels and
increases the immune system and endorphins.
o Research shows it increases serotonin levels and increases neurogenesis
SOCIAL SUPPORT: Close positive relationships: family , friends, local, community groups
OTHERS: Being organised, balance in life, recognise and accept limitations, laughing etc.

The Nervous System

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3 main functions: To receive information, To process information, To co-ordinate responses (send messages to muscles,
organs, glands)

Caroline Chisholm Catholic CollegeTEACHER: Ms. Driessen

E.O.Y PREP NOTES

Central Nervous System (brain spinal cord) is interdependent with Peripheral Nervous Sysytem (Somatic Nervous
System & Autonomic Symphathetic & Parasymphatethic)
Central Nervous System
Role: To process information and activate appropriate action
Brain oversees what we think, feel and do
Spinal cord links brain and other parts of the body. Column of nerve tissue with ascending and descending tracts.
Spinal reflex: automatic neural response, independent of the brain
Peripheral Nervous System
Role: To transmit information between organs, glands, muscles and the CNS
Somatic Nervous System (aka skeletal nervous system controls the muscles attached to bones, controls voluntary
movement
Sensory (afferent) CNS
Motor (efferent) CNS
Autonomic automatic. Controls bodys internal muscles, organs and glands. Self-regulatory, constantly functioning.
Mostly not in conscious control except when using biofeedback

Sympathetic
activity in muscles, organs and glands in times of activity, stress, threat
May send message to the adrenal gland to release adrenalin and noradrenalin to......
heart rate, blood pressure, Breathing. Release sugars and fats, digestive process
Parasympathetic
activity in muscles, organs and glands
Counterbalances sympathetic nervous system activity
Maintains homeostasis, heart rate, blood pressure, Breathing. digestive process
CEREBAL CORTEX
The outer covering of the two cerebral hemispheres.
Information processing, learning, memory, problem solving, sensory and motor control.
Around 3mm thick and contains around 70% of the CNS neurons.
AREAS:

Motor

Somatosensor
y

Auditory

Visual

Primary Sensory
Specialised receptors detect and respond to sensory information
This includes: *Visual cortex (occipital lobe), *Auditory Cortex (temporal lobe), *Somatasensory cortex (parietal lobe)
Primary Motor
Receive and process information about voluntary movement
*Motor cortex (frontal)
Association
Integrates information from sensory, motor and other brain areas and structures, Enables thinking, learning and
remembering, 75% of cerebral cortex
LOBES

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E.O.Y PREP NOTES

Frontal Planning, initiative, self-awareness, personality, emotional control

Damaged: prefrontal cortex slowed thoughts, flat affect, problems planning

Motor area paralysis

Temporal Auditory, some memory tasks (face and object recognition, procedural), emotional responses

Damaged:
Deafness, auditory hallucinations, poor facial recognition
Right problems locating sounds, rhythm
Left - Wernickes cant comprehend speech

Parietal Sensory touch, pressure, temperature. Association areas link with visual and auditory cortex to
locate objects in space (right) and locate body parts (left)
Damaged: Right poor awareness of external objects (neglect syndrome), Left - Poor motor movements
Occipital Visual information
Damaged: Holes in visual field, blindness Association unable to name objects. Visual agnosia cant recognise by vision

BROCAS & WERNICKES

Brocas: Frontal Lobe, Left
Hemisphere, Controls muscles
enabling speech (speech
production)
Wernickes: Temporal Lobe, Left
Hemisphere, Processes speech,
reading, writing (speech
comprehension)

Corpus Callosum allows communication between hemispheres

HEMISPHERES
Similarities: Similar in size, shape, structure, Carry out many of the same functions at approximately the same location in
each hemisphere
Differences: In behaviour and cognition

Left: Language, Logic, Attention to detail, Serial behaviours, Organising and interpreting, Rhythm and time
Right: Visual, Spatial, Synthesis of information, Thinking globally, Understanding metaphors

STUDIES INVESTIGATING THE PROCESS OF THE BRAIN

Aphasia Any language impairment due to brain damage

TEST: Get them to explain a picture

BROCAS APHAISA - Paul Broca (1800s)

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E.O.Y PREP NOTES

Found: people with damage to Brocas area could understand what was said to them, but could not say all or some of
the words.

Brocas Aphasia - Short sentences (mostly nouns and verbs), problems articulating speech (non-fluent broken
speech)

Aka

Awareness of problem

**Speech production

WERNICKES APHASIA - Carl Wernicke (1800s)

Found: People with damage to Wernickes area had problems understanding and producing meaningful speech.

Wernickes Aphasia - Long sentences, fluent, yet makes no sense, partial or complete loss of ability to recall names,
use of meaningless words

Little awareness of problem, speech comprehension

Aka

Spatial Neglect

Damage to the left or right parietal lobe from a stroke or brain injury. Usually right parietal lobe is damaged in spatial
neglect patients.

Neglect the opposite side of your world (body and visual field/environment)

Anosognosia (lack of knowledge of illness) is often present

Demonstrates role of parietal lobe in receiving sensory information, contra-lateral functioning

Hemispheric Specialisation (intact brains)

Wada Test

Anaesthetic injected into an artery in the neck, which puts to sleep the hemisphere on the same side.

Found: Left Hemisphere remain speechless for several minutes, Right Hemisphere speechless for a few
seconds

Hemispheris Specialisation: Split Brain Studies(Roger Sperry (1914-94)

An area of the Corpus Callosum is cut, Usually performed to control epilepsy

Information presented to the left or right visual field only

SPLIT BRAIN RESEARCH

FINDINGS: Information in the right visual field (left hemisphere) could be named, Information in the left visual field (right
hemisphere) could not be named (could point/draw with their left hand).
Michael Gazzaniga - cognitive neuroscience

Case study W.J.

Information to the left visual field (right hemisphere) W.J. said he saw nothing, but pressed a lever which
indicated a stimulus had been seen. Therefore while the stimulus was registered he could not verbalise he
had seen it.

Concluded right hemisphere visual and spatial

left hemisphere - verbal

VCAA 2012 Ex 1 m/c Q15-17

Sperry and Gazzaniga

2 Patients were required to focus on a central fixation point on a screen. Under the screen there was a
selection of objects. Patients were presented with a picture of one of these objects

on the screen to either the left or right of the fixation point. Patients were asked to reach under the screen
and identify the pictured object by touching it.
Results: Patients were unable to name an object that was presented to the left of the fixation point but
could identify the object with their left hands by touching it.
Patients were able to name objects that were presented to the right of the fixation point.
Patients often denied seeing anything at all when the object was presented to the left of the fixation
point.

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E.O.Y PREP NOTES