INVESTIGATING THE EFFICACY OF CODED FEEDBACK

IN L2 WRITING ASSIGNMENTS
ESTER D. JIMENA, HERWINDY MARIA TEDJAATMADJA, AND MENG TIAN
Assumption University of Thailand
One of the most frustrating tasks in L2 writing class is correcting
students recurring errors. As teachers, we are always in search of the
most suitable method to use in error correction for our students. This
empirical study investigates how coded feedback, as opposed to the
direct correction method, helps students improve accuracy in
grammar, vocabulary, and spelling in in-class writing assignments.
Its research findings come from analyzing data gathered from
freshmen students taking Preparatory English Course at the
Assumption University of Thailand.

INTRODUCTION
To most teachers, correcting students errors is one of the most frustrating tasks in language
teaching. Being in the field, we share the sentiments of such frustrations when our students
keep on making similar errors even after being corrected. Although some students were
eager to read the comments and corrections we made in their writings, most of them made
similar errors in their succeeding works. We appreciated those who approached us after
class and inquired about their mistakes, but not many of them did. At times we even
wondered whether our comprehensive correction actually helped the students make
progress or not. In other words, does the time we spend in correction do really help boost
students learning experience in class? Does it lead to learner progress? How can we help
them to become responsible for reducing their errors?
As we reflected on it, we realized that students needed more than just transcribing teachers
correction in their writing to avoid making similar errors in their future writing. The
realization of helping students fix their errors on their own prompted us to conduct this case
study to investigate the efficacy of coded feedback, as opposed to direct correction, in

correcting the L2 writing assignments of students taking up Preparatory English Course, a

six-hour English course every week.
This case study is expected to help teachers to deal with the selection of error correction
methods. As it compares two common error correction methods, the result will show which
error correction is effective to reduce students making errors in grammar, vocabulary and
spelling. This paper also provides several practical suggestions for teachers to adapt in their
teaching context.
SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
However, there were several limitations we faced when conducting the research. First,
participants who did not complete the three writing assignments were excluded from the
study. Second, the data used in this study were limited to those taking English Preparatory
Class of the academic year 2005. Therefore, our study only represents the results of the
group selected.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Scholars and linguists agree with the idea that errors are predictors of language learning.
Davis and Pearse explain that errors are integral part of language learning and not
evidence of failure to learn (2000: 103). Thus, they should be percevied as rites of passage
between what has been and what has to be learned still (Smith, 1994) since they are
considered provisional forms (Yule and Tarone, 1995: 7). More specifically, in second
language learning, Hedge points out that errors are now seen as reflections of a learners
stage of interlanguage development (2000: 15). Hence, errors should be treated carefully
from the perspectives of both the teachers and the students.
Truscott (1996, cited in Ferris, 2003: 42) emphazises the goal of error correction for the
betterment of students writing accuracy; so, in order to achieve that purpose, grammatical

error correction is emphasized; which is in accordance with Sterns definition of error

correction (1992); that it is an inevitable process learners have to go through if they want to
learn grammar. This way, Krashen (1987: 11) says, it helps learners to stimulate grammar
learning. Richards & Lockhart (1996: 188) add that error correction includes not only
grammar; but also content improvement. To reiterate, error correction is an integral part of
learning process to enhance students progress.
Among the four skills in language learning, writing is the easiest to correct because it is
something concrete, but it is also problematic in terms of assessment. It is possible for a
considerable gap to exist between the learners and the teachers views on what errors in
writing should be treated and how. For example, a study conducted by Leki (1991 cited in
Scott, 1996) of ESL freshmen writing indicates students interest in having their errors
pointed out and not just comments on their writings organization and content. She, along
with Raimes (1983 in Scott, 1996) and Krashen (1987) agree that not all errors are to be
corrected, instead the focus should be on errors that need immediate attention. Hence, error
correction will be more effective if errors are manageable and portable to learners level
and readiness to self-correct (Ellis, 1994 and Davies and Pearse, 2000).
Although teachers perceptions of errors varies and, in most cases, subjective, the types of
errors to be corrected depend on what is being asked or what is being taught to the students.
When these conditions are not met, the teachers turn to their individual judgement of
learners performance in class. In addition, the goal of language learning and teaching
highlights the pedagogical decision to correct only what is being taught and to give teachers
direction about what information is lacking (Wajnryb, 1992: 51).
What have been discussed here put forward the fact that errors are integral parts of
language learning carefully from the perspectives of the students and the teachers; and thus,
appropriate error correction method is needed.

It is an error correction method that directly provides the correct form to learners errors.
The strength of direct correction is that it is
less threatening and helpful to low proficiency learners (Ferris, 2002) . These students are
not yet capable of self-correct; thus, they need remedial guidance which is provided by
direct correction. However, it can increase learners dependency on teachers since they
might assume that it is just the teachers responsibility to correct their errors; this way,
students will just copy and the purpose of giving correction will not be achieved (Harmer,
1998 and Hedge, 2000). Furthermore, it is also possible that teachers might misinterpret
students original meaning, especially with ambiguous sentence. (Ferris, 2002)

On the other hand, coded feedback indicates not only where errors are located, but also
types of mistakes by using a correcting code (Bartram and Walton, 1991: 8). This method
makes correction much neater and faster due to the simple and systematical codes (Harmer,
2001). After the teachers and students are familiar with the codes, this method can actually
lessen the correction time and busy teachers, especially, will benefit more from it. The
responsibility given by
this method helps students to learn more effectively in the long run by being more
responsible through the process of self correction (Ferris, 2002 and Gower, Phillips and
Walters, 1995). However, t
he weaknesses of this method can not be ignored since
errors not specified in the error correction codes may be ignored, especially idiosnycratic
errors (Gower, Phillips and Walters, 1995: 168). It might be
threatening for low proficiency learners who are not equipped with the ability for selfcorrect and confusion might occur when students and teachers are not yet familiar with the
codes (Bartram and Walton, 1991 and Ferris, 2002)
RESEARCH QUESTIONS

This case study sought answers to the following questions:

1. Do students who receive coded feedback produce more accurate writing in grammar,
vocabulary and spelling than those who receive direct correction within the period of two
months?
2. What kinds of errors are reduced by coded feedback?
3. What kinds of errors are reduced by direct correction?
METHODOLOGY
21 freshmen students from two classes of the Institute for English Language Education at
Assumption University who are currently enrolled in the English Preparatory Class
participated in this study. Nine students received direct correction and the rest were treated
with coded feedback. The average age of the subjetcs is eighteen and they have learnt
English at high schools and achieved more or less the same level of proficiency, preintermediate. Since some of them graduated from international schools, their English
background is varied.
The data collection for this study took place for two months, from the middle of July until
the middle of September. To indicate students starting point of L2 writing proficiency, both
groups had to compose an in-class essay on a certain topic, treated as the pre-test or the
starting point of L2 writing proficiency. We marked this essays with comments to motivate
them to write. After the pre-test, we oriented our students with the use of codes to help
them accustomed to it since they were required to keep an error awareness sheet to record
their errors to monitor the frequency of errors they made. Then, 3 in-classs writing
assignments were administered to measure their progress. Students were required to revise
their writing according to the feedback marked on their writing. Finally, students had to
work on the post-test essay on a similar topic as the pre-test at the end of two months,
treated as their final point of L2 writing proficiency. To evaluate the efficacy of coded
feedback, teachers compared the progress from both groups.

The following codes in the table below were used in correcting students written
works. They are adapted from Lalandes ECCO (in Scott 1996: 103), Harmer (2001),
Hogue (1996), and Bartram and Walton (1991).
Types of Errors

Corrective Symbol

1. Tense

2. Verb Form

VF

3. Subject Verb Agreement

SV

4. Passive / Active Voice

P/A

5. Singular / Plural

S/P

6. Pronoun

PR

7. Article

Art

8. Wrong Word

VOC

9. Spelling

SPE

10. Word Order

WO

11. Something is missing

12. Not Clear

13. Omit

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1. Coded feedback: summary of the pre-test and post-test result reveals a 21%
decrease in the total number of errors
Types of Errors
T
VF
SV
PA
S/P
PR
WO
ART
VOC
SPE
MISS
OMIT
NC

Pre-test (192)
No. of errors
11
11
35
0
6
13
1
0
13
13
39
36
14

Post test (152)

No. of errors
7
9
9
1
5
8
2
2
25
13
28
38
5

Based on Table 1, the pretest and post test results reveal that students reduced their total
number of errors by 21% from 192 to 152. The results highlight the importance of selfcorrection in helping students become more responsible for their own progress in attaining
writing accuracy. This coincides with previous research (Lalande, 1982, Ferris, 1995c,
Ferris and Hedgcock, 1998, Reid, 1998b cited in Ferris, 2002: 19, Bates, Lane and Lange,
1993, Gower, Phillips & Walters 1995, Xiang, 2004) which signify that coded feedback is
effective in reducing errors gradually.
In particular, coded feedback reduced the following errors: T, VF , SV, S/P, PR, ^ and NC.
According to Ferris (2002: 23), these errors are categorized as treatable because they are
related to linguistic structure that occurs in a rule-governed way. On the other hand, errors
on PA, WO, ART, VOC, and OMIT were increased. Except for PA and ART errors, the
rest are classified by Ferris (2002: 23) as untreatable because of their idiosyncratic and
individualistic nature. Significantly, the error on SPE maintained its frequency from the

pre-test to the post-test results, which means this mechanical error needed more attention
and practice.

Table 2 Errors frequency of the three in-class writing assignments in Coded Feedback
Types of Errors
T
VF
SV
PA
S/P
PR
WO
ART
VOC
SPE
MISS
OMIT
NC

1st Writing (29)

No. of errors
0
2
2
0
0
1
0
0
5
0
7
9
3

2nd Writing (38)

No. of errors
6
11
2
0
0
2
0
0
9
3
3
1
1

3rd Writing (47)

No. of errors
2
8
0
0
0
5
0
0
10
6
6
7
3

Table 2 indicates students inconsistency in correcting their errors as revealed in their

revised writing. This is due to the fact that in the process of receiving coded feedback
students were figuring out the correct form of their errors, which, we believe, is the starting
point of language awarness indicated by noticing (Ellis, 1994: 361).
Table 3 Direct Correction: a summary of pre-test and post-test result reveals a 17%
increase in the total number of errors
Types of Errors
T
VF
SV
PA
S/P
PR

Pre-test (110)
No. of errors
8
10
13
1
6
2

Post test (132)

No. of errors
1
7
20
1
6
1

WO
ART
VOC
SPE
MISS
OMIT
NC

0
0
13
8
23
26
0

1
0
15
10
24
40
6

Table 3 shows that students increased their total number of errors by 17% from 110 in the
pre-test to 132 of the post-test. Nonetheless, errors on

T, VF and PR are reduced.

Meanwhile, errors on SV, VOC, SPE, WO, ^ , OMIT and NC are increased. However,
errors on PA and S/P are neither reduced nor increased. On the other hand, the students
committed no error on article in the course of the investigation. This implies the methods
weakness of providing the correct form to students errors without allowing them to selfcorrect. Thus, students progress is less likely to thrive.

Table 4 Errors frequency of the three in-class writing assignments in Direct

Correction
Types of Errors
T
VF
SV
PA
S/P
PR
WO
ART
VOC
SPE
MISS
OMIT
NC

1st Writing (8)

No. of errors
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
3
0

2nd Writing (0)

No. of errors
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

3rd Writing (1)

No. of errors
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Students dependency on the teachers as sole providers of correct forms of the language is
clearly seen from Table 4. During the process of receiving direct correction, students
eliminated almost all of their errors. This is due to the fact that correct forms are provided,
hence easier for revision purposes. Since the method does not give students the opportunity
to self-correct (Brannon and Knoblauch, 1982, Sommers, 1982, Zamel, 1985, cited in Ferris
2002: 65), it spoon feeds the students as they mainly transcribe teachers correction without
making further attempt to self- correct (Hedge, 2000).
In conclusion, coded feedback reduces treatable errors more effectively than direct
correction. It is the result of giving the students oppportunities to reflect on and correct their
own errors. Direct correction, on the other hand, is helpful in reducing idiosyncratic errors
and may take longer time to facilitate students progress in writing accuracy.
IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY
Based on the results, coded feedback helps students improve their writing accuracy in terms
of grammar. In terms of vocabulary and spelling, students need guidance. Teachers should
provide ample assistance through activities like brainstorming, using concrete objects,
visuals like pictures, posters and so on to elicit words.
In addition, coded feedback might not be as effective as direct correction in treating
untreatable errors, which are individualistic in nature. These errors might be reduced
through highlighting them during class discussion, however teachers should be careful not
to offend those who made the errors. On the other hand, the treatment of these errors
depends on students level of proficiency regardless of what method is adopted. Thus, it is
vital for teachers to get to know their students capacities and potentialities.
In addition, the use of error awareness sheet serves as teachers guide in determining which
errors need immediate attention. Hence, the instruction in the remedial class can focus on
these errors. However, to enhance the effectiveness of the remedial class, the use of error

awareness notebook should be encouraged among students as a means to monitor their

errors and correction received.
The result also indicates that in order to make direct correction more effective, it could be
modified by simply underlining students recurring errors and requiring them to self correct
first. Correct forms are later provided in their revised version as a comparison of their own
correction with the teachers, thus giving the students the opportunity to self-correct.

RECOMMENDATION FOR FURTHER STUDY

Lastly, since this study was limited in scope, replication of this study with students in more
than one academic years is highly recommended. A longitudinal approach is proposed to
yield a long-term result.
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ESTER D. JIMENA is an English lecturer at Central Philippine University, Philippines.

Her research interests are error analysis, reflective teaching, motivation, and learners
autonomy in language teaching.
HERWINDY MARIA TEDJAATMADJA is an English lecturer at Petra Christian
University, Indonesia. Her present research interests are language learning strategies, EFL
writing and language teaching methodology.
MENG TIAN is an English lecturer at Foreign Languages Faculty in Shanxi Teachers
University, China. Her main research interests are group dynamics, fluency and creative
writing.