SUBCOURSE EDITION

MM0486 8

MECHANICAL AND
ELECTRO-MECHANICAL
MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES
 U.S. ARMY SIGNAL CENTER AND FORT GORDON
Fort Gordon, GA

E R R A T A S H E E T

SIGNAL SUBCOURSE SM0486

EDITION 8

MECHANICAL AND ELECTRO-MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES

Effective: 6 Jun 86

IMPORTANT READ AND POST

ADMINISTRATIVE INSTRUCTIONS:
Make the following changes:

1. Examination, page 151, question 13

Delete "You apply 300 psig to a gage and it indicates 312 psig."
Add "A gage has a range of 0 to 300 psig and actually indicates 312 psig when
you apply a true pressure of 300 psig."

PLEASE NOTE

Proponency for this subcourse has changed from Signal

Center & School (SM) to Ordnance Missile and Munitions
Center & School (MM).

IMPORTANT READ AND POST

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READ THIS PAGE

GENERAL INFORMATION

This subcourse consists of one or more lessons and an examination. Each of the
lessons is divided into two parts; the text and the lesson exercises. For one
lesson subcourse the lesson exercise serves as the examination. A heading at the
beginning of each lesson gives the title, the hours of credit, and the objectives
of the lesson. The final examination consists of questions covering the entire
subcourse.

If a change sheet is included, be sure to post the changes before starting the
subcourse.

THE TEXT

All the text material required for this subcourse is provided in the packet. The
text is the information you must study. Read this very carefully. You may keep
the text.

THE LESSON EXERCISES

Following the text of each lesson are the lesson exercises. After you hove studied
the text of each lesson, answer the lesson exercises. After you have answered all
the questions, go back to the text and check your answers. Remember your answers
should be based on what is in the text and not on your own experience or opinions.
If there is a conflict, use the text in answering the question.

When you are satisfied with your answers, check them against the approved solution
in back of this text. Re-study those areas where you have given an incorrect
answer by checking the reference given after each answer.

THE EXAMINATION

After you have completed all the lessons and exercises, select the correct answer
to all the examination questions. Carefully mark the correct answer on the exam
response sheet. Be sure to include your social security number, subcourse number,
and edition number are correct. Final exams should be mailed in the envelope
provided. The exam will be graded and you will be notified of the results. Your
final grade for the subcourse will be the same as your examination grade.

*** IMPORTANT NOTICE ***

THE PASSING SCORE FOR ALL ACCP MATERIAL IS NOW 70%.

PLEASE DISREGARD ALL REFERENCES TO THE 75% REQUIREMENT.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This subcourse has been adapted from Air Force Career Development Course CDC
32470 for Army use.

Information and illustrations used to support the material in this subcourse

were adopted from manufacturer's instruction manuals published by the companies
listed below:

M. B. Electronics
Wm. Ainsworth and Sons, Inc.

SOLDIER'S TASK

This subcourse supports the following MOS 35H Tasks:

093-435-1270 Calibrate Torque Tester

093-435-1271 Calibrate Torque Wrench
093-435-1283 Calibrate Compound Gauge
093-435-1290 Calibrate Thermometer
093-435-3261 Calibrate Gram Weight Set
093-435-3300 Calibrate Thermometer Set

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CORRESPONDENCE COURSE
OF THE
U.S. ARMY SIGNAL CENTER & SCHOOL

AIPD Subcourse Number SM0486

Mechanical and Electro-Mechanical

Measurement Principles

(8 credit hours)

INTRODUCTION

Mechanical and electro-mechanical devices play an important role in our

everyday life. Lesson one of this subcourse includes information which will help
you understand molecular activity changes and the relationship of these changes to
heat. It also explains the operating principles for related heat sensing and
measuring instruments. The second lesson explains the physical principles of
pressure measurements and also includes information on pressure devices which you
must use and calibrate. Lesson three contains information on rotary and torque
measurements. It also includes information which will help you understand the
operating principle of the proving rug. Lesson four discusses the principle which
you must apply to perform vibration measurements and tells you when you must
calibrate vibration equipment. Lesson five teaches operation of the analytical
balance and principles of mass measurement. This subcourse is organized as follows:

Lesson 1 Temperature and Humidity Measurements..............2 Hours

Lesson 2 Pressure Measurements and Devices..................2 Hours
Lesson 3 Rotary Torque Measurements and Equipment...........1 Hour
Lesson 4 Vibration Measurements and Equipment...............1 Hour
Lesson 5 Weights and Balance................................1 Hour
Examination.................................................1 Hour

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LESSON 1: TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY MEASUREMENT

AIPD Subcourse Number SM0486...........MECHANICAL AND ELECTRO-MECHANICAL

MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES

Lesson Objective.......................Given learning objectives and text, you

should be able to answer all exercise
questions pertaining to the nature of heat
and temperature, temperature scales and
thermometers, heat sensing and measuring
instruments, and humidity with no errors.

Credit Hours...........................Two

TEXT

1. INTRODUCTION

Your next assignment may be the calibration of a temperature measuring

instrument or the use of a temperature measuring instrument for calibration
purposes. Your job will be much easier if you have a complete understanding of the
terms and principles associated with temperature measurements. The information
contained in this chapter concerns the nature of heat and temperature, the methods
by which heat is generated and transferred, the units used in temperature
measurements, and the principles applied in temperature measurements.

2. THE NATURE OF HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

a. Heat is considered to be a form of energy. The terms "thermal" and

"kinetic" are usually added as confusion factors. To make your day complete, some
authors use the terms "heat" and "temperature" as if they are the same. Let's see
if we can identify some of the terms associated with heat and temperature
measurements and establish practical definitions for these terms.

b. Heat. Most of us use the word "heat" without bothering to consider or

determine its true meaning. We usually have a general idea of what we mean when we
use the word, but for measurements in a laboratory, you must know precisely what
the word means and the conditions and limitations under which the meaning is true.
What answer would you give if a photographer, or an artist, or a common laborer
asked the question, "What is heat?" In your search for an answer, would you say
that heat:

Causes metals to expand?

Can be generated by rubbing two or more bodies together?
Is generated by compression?
Is an invisible weightless fluid called caloric?
Is electricity?

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Is a form of energy?

Is the total kinetic energy of moving molecules (a name applied to the kinetic
energy possessed by the moving molecules of a body)? Let's examine the list of
possible answers in sequence to see if any of them or a combination of them agrees
with your concepts of the nature of heat and what heat consists of.

(1) Heat and expansion. While the word "expansion" identifies one of the
effects heat produces in metals, it is not a satisfactory answer for the original
question of "What is heat?" We hope that you chose one or more of the other
answers. If you didn't, choose one before we proceed.

(2) Heat and friction. You know that the moving parts of the engine of
your car generate heat because of friction. In some instances, the intensity of
heat is such that the resulting expansion of metals prevents the movement of some
parts. Although the preceding statements are true, the original question has not
been answered; you have only chosen one method whereby heat is generated.

(3) Heat and compression. When a gas is compressed, the space between
individual molecules is decreased. The decrease in space between molecules results
in an increase in the activities of the molecules involved. The increase in the
activities of the molecules results in an increase in the kinetic energy of the gas
compressed. All of the statements concerning an increase in heat (kinetic energy)
by means of compression are true; but have we answered the original question on the
nature of heat? Partially, yes. We say partially because the use of the
expression "kinetic energy" in parentheses following heat indicates that heat is
kinetic energy.

(4) Heat is an invisible weightless fluid called caloric. At one time heat
was considered to be the caloric just described. With the development of the laws
of the conservation of energy, the idea that caloric (heat) could be increased or
decreased as a separate entity (a quantity existing independent of other
quantities) was disproved. The increase or decrease in the quantity of heat is
always accompanied by the transformation of one form of energy to another. Another
failure; we still haven't given a satisfactory answer to the original question.
This one isn't even partly true.

(5) Heat is electricity. If heat is electricity, then electricity is heat.

Well, technically no. You already know that electrons which constitute electrical
currents are forced through resistances by an EMF (electromotive force). The
movement of these electrical particles creates an increase in the activity (kinetic
energy) of the particles concerned and a subsequent increase in the quantity of
heat on the electrical conductor. This means that electricity can be used to
produce heat, but we can't say that they are the same.

(6) Heat as a form of energy. This statement is acceptable as a general

definition for heat, but it should be combined with the last state-

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ment in the list to give a better explanation of what heat is. Heat is a name
given to that form of energy which represents the total kinetic energy (force
created by molecular motion) possessed by the moving molecules of a body. There
are other definitions for heat, but this one contains the concept you need to fully
understand the nature of heat.

(7) Heat and Energy. You have already learned something of the statues of
matter and energy, the basic relationship of energy to heat, and how energy is
transformed from one type to another (such as electrical energy to heat energy).
Our primary concern in this section of the lesson is to increase this knowledge to
the extent that you can:

(a) Visualize, understand, and describe the molecular theory of matter.

(b) Understand the relationship between the molecular structure of

matter and kinetic energy.

(c) Understand the relationship between kinetic energy and heat.

(d) Associate the forms of energy and the transformation of energy with
heat.

(e) Apply your knowledge of the molecular structure of matter, the

relationship of molecular activity to kinetic energy, and the relationship of
kinetic energy and heat to the heat measurements you make.

c. The molecular theory of matter. Let's assume that all matter is composed
of tiny particles called molecules and the molecules are arranged in a lattice
structure, as shown in figure 1. The individual molecules attract or repel their
neighbors in accordance with the separation between molecules. Generally speaking,
when the separation is large, the force between molecules is small and is one of
attraction. The molecules of the material represented in figure 1 are located at
separations such that the forces of attraction and repulsion are equal to support
our discussion.

Figure 1. Molecular lattice structure.

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(1) The letters R and A shown in figure 1 represent the forces of repulsion
(R) and attraction (A) between the molecules. The line drawn through the middle of
the lines between molecules is used to show that the forces of repulsion and
attraction are equal to that distance. When a fixed lattice as shown (figure 1),
the forces between molecules nearly cancel each other so that there is very little
vibratory motion.

(2) The lattice structure shown in figure 1 is similar to the symmetry of

structure in crystals. If the molecules are pressed closer together, the force of
repulsion increases. If the molecules are forced farther apart, the force of
attraction increases. External forces exerted on the molecules of the lattice in a
solid cause the molecules to vibrate about their center positions. This vibration
motion is relatively weak, and the centers of the molecules remain fixed.

(3) In liquids the molecules are free to move greater distances. Since the
vibratory motion in liquids is greater than in solids, the energy which the moving
molecules can transfer to other molecules (kinetic energy) is greater. The
relationships between molecular separation forces, molecular kinetic energy, and
resulting-temperature conditions are shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1

THERMAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS, LIQUIDS, AND GASES

d. From the preceding paragraphs and Table 1, you should conclude that:

(1) Heat is the kinetic energy which a body possesses.

(2) Heat can be generated by means of electricity, compression, or friction.
(3) Kinetic energy is the work potential which a body possesses because of
its motion.
(4) Normally, the forces of attraction between molecules in a solid are
strong, the molecular energy is small, and the temperature values are low.

e. Molecular kinetic-energy level changes. Let us restate our conclusions

from the preceding paragraphs in a simple statement. When we think of heat, we
should think of kinetic energy. Because molecular kinetic

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energy is the energy of molecules in motion, heat considerations must also include
the vibratory motion of molecules. Our primary point of concern is that heat
measurements are affected by the vibratory motion of molecules and the relative
changes in their motion. An increase in the heat that a body possesses is due to
an increase in its kinetic energy. In order to increase the molecular kinetic
energy in a body, you must increase the energy which produces the vibratory motion.

(1) The circuit in Figure 2 is an example of changing the kinetic energy

(molecular vibratory motion) level of components (resistors) in an electrical
circuit.

(2) From the circuit in Figure 2, you can see that the only factor,
affecting the power (kinetic energy) dissipated by the resistors are the voltage
(E) and the current (I). It is a simple series circuit in which the total current
flows through each resistor. Since the resistances are equal, the voltage drops
across the resistors are equal, and each resistor dissipates the same amount of
power. This means that the power values listed in figure 2 apply to R1 and R2.
The differences in power values listed in figure 2 represent the changes in applied
power (voltage and current) caused by changes in the power switch position. The
resulting changes in power values (kinetic energy) also represent changes in the
energy losses in the form of heat. Table 2 is included to help you understand how
changes in the values of power applied to a circuit (or body) produce changes in
the kinetic energy of that body.

Figure 2. Energy, heat, and power in an electrical circuit.

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TABLE 2

Applied Energy--Kinetic Energy--Heat

(3) Figure 2 and table 2 summarize the information which supports the
following conclusions:

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(a) When you increase the level of energy applied to the molecules of a
material (in this case R1 and R2), there is a proportional increase in the kinetic
energy in the material.

(b) The increase in the kinetic energy in a material represents an

increase in the heat generated in the body.

(4) The wattage values for R1 and R2 in figure 2 were chosen arbitrarily.
From the energy developed in R1 and R2 as the applied voltage is increased, you can
imagine how the heat generated in each of these increases. From you experience in
testing electronic equipment, you know how hot some resistors get when they draw
too much current. If you compare the wattage values of R1 with the wattage
developed when the switch is in the 5 position, you can see that R1 will probably
"burn out" and cause an open circuit.

(5) Electrical energy is just one of the basic forms of energy which can be
transformed into heat. We used electrical energy as an example because we know
that you are familiar with many transformations of electrical energy to heat energy
which occur in electronic stoves, blankets, irons, and many other heating devices.

f. Temperature.

(1) The word "temperature" becomes important when you need to know the
intensity of heat in a body. You have watched water boil when fire from a stove
heats the water, or you have felt heat if you touched an object which has been
exposed to the sun. You have probably been in a room where the heat was so intense
that you could feel it on parts of your body. Our point is this: Regardless of how
heat is generated (sun, fire, friction, or other means), its generation causes an
increase in the motion of molecules in the material to which the heat is
transferred. What you feel as "heat", however, depends on the intensity of the
heat at a particular spot, not on the total amount of heat. An all-metal poker,
for instance, may be too hot to touch at the tip, but perfectly comfortable to hold
by the handle.

(2) When you measure the temperature of a body, you are measuring the
intensity of heat rather than the amount of heat. The amount of heat possessed by
a body at a given temperature depends on its weight and its specific heat. The
specific heat of a given material is the amount of heat necessary to raise the
temperature of a specific number of grams of that material 1°. Specific heat can be
expressed in calories-per-pound-per-degree Celsius or in BTU's-per-pound-per-degree
Fahrenheit. The relationship between the quantity of heat (in BTU's) and specific
heat is involved in the problem which follows: PROBLEM: How many BTU's are
necessary to heat 5 pounds of iron from 80° to 100°F.? Solution: The specific heat
of iron is 0.11 BTU/1° F. Therefore,

5 x 0.11 x (100 - 80)

= 0.55 x 20
= 11.00 BTU's

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3. TEMPERATURE SCALES AND THERMOMETERS

a. Temperature is a measure of the intensity of heat. Temperature indicates

the thermal state of a body and its ability to transfer heat to other bodies or
objects. We know that heat is present, or transferred, if we can measure it. The
measurement of heat requires the use of scales and measurement devices.

b. Temperature Scales. Temperature measurements have been made possible with

the use of scales such as those in figure 3. Figure 3 shows the relationships of
some of the temperature scales used in heat intensity measurements. Note the
difference in value for the freezing and boiling points of water on the different
scales.

Figure 3. Common thermometer scales.

(1) Temperatures for the most common of the scales shown in figure 3
(centigrade and Fahrenheit) can be converted from one scale to another by means of
a simple proportion:

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(2) You can make conversions to the Kelvin and Rankin scales using the
relations:

K = 273.16° + C.
R = 459.69° + F.

(3) Table 3 shows the differences in steam point, freezing point, and
absolute zero for the four scales shown in figure 3.

TABLE 3

Common Thermometer Scales

Mercury-in-Glass Thermometer

(4) You have been told that temperature is a measure of the intensity of
heat and that one of several scales used to indicate the intensity of heat is
usually a part of a temperature measuring instrument. Some of the more common
practical measuring instruments are listed in table 4, with their usable ranges.

c. Mercury-in-Glass Thermometer.

(1) Table 4 includes the mercury-in-glass thermometer in the list of common

temperature measuring instruments. In its simplest form, the mercury-in-glass
thermometer is a hollow glass tube, hermetically scaled at both ends, and expanded
into a bulb at its lower end. The bulb is filled with mercury, and most of the air
is evacuated from the tube before it is sealed. This partial vacuum permits the
free expansion of the mercury to the top of the tube. When the mercury is heated,
it expands and rises in the tube. When the mercury is cooled, it contracts and its
level in the tube is lowered. A typical mercury-in-glass thermometer is shown in
figure 4.

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Figure 4. Mercury-in-Glass Thermometer

(2) You can see that the temperature has caused an expansion of the mercury
in the tube. The temperature indicated by the scales is about 33°C. Using the
conversion formula previously stated, we can convert the reading taken from the
Celsius scale to a value on the Fahrenheit scale.

Our primary concern in the discussion of the mercury-in-glass thermometer is that

you understand the principle involved in its operation. This principle is based on
the expansion of mercury when heated.

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d. Resistance Thermometer.

(1) You calibrate liquid-in-glass thermometers such as the mercury-in-glass

thermometer and thermometer calibrators with a resistance thermometer. The
resistance thermometer is preferred over liquid-in-glass thermometers as a standard
for several reasons. Among these reasons are:

- Mercury freezes at -40° C.

- The pressure of mercury vapor becomes extremely high at temperatures in

excess of 360° C.

- The measurement accuracy of the resistance thermometer is far greater

than that of a liquid-in-glass thermometer.

(2) The resistance thermometer discussed in this volume consists

essentially of a pair of platinum helical (spiral) coils, bifilar-wound on a mica
form which is sealed in a Pyrex tube containing dry air. The Pyrex tube is
approximately 0.7 cm in diameter and 46 cm long, measured from the tube end of the
mount cover. This mount cover provides the means by which a clamp may be fastened
to the thermometer to mount it while it is in use. A four-lead cable 8 feet in
length, containing two potential and two current leads, forms part of the
resistance thermometer.

(3) When you use the resistance thermometer, immerse it approximately 9

inches in the medium having its temperature measure, and allow it to remain there
long enough to reach the temperature of the medium before any readings are
attempted (usually 5 minutes in a flowing liquid or 15 minutes in slow moving air).

TABLE 4

Ranges of Common Temperature Measuring Methods

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(4) Operating Principle. The operating principle of the resistance

thermometer is based on the fact that the resistance of an electrical conductor
increases when the conductor is heated. Resistance changes due to changes in
temperature can be accurately measured with the resistance bridges you have used
for other measurements. To calibrate the thermometer calibrator, you use a bridge
similar to the Mueller temperature bridge. Since the bridge is an integral part of
the measurement circuit, we discuss the Mueller temperature bridge as it is used in
a resistance thermometer circuit.

4. MUELLER TEMPERATURE BRIDGE.

Although you have had some training on the construction and use of the Mueller
temperature bridge, we would like to review its construction and the basis on which
it operates.

a. The Mueller temperature bridge is designed to measure temperatures or

temperature difference to a high degree of accuracy when used in conjunction with
precision resistance thermometers. The range of the bridge is 1 to 111.111 ohms.

b. The bridge is balanced by the use of a convenient set of six step-by-step

dial switches. Certain coils used with these dial switches must be kept at a
constant temperature while making temperature measurements. These coils are
mounted in a special thermally insulated block whose temperature is kept constant
by an electric heater controlled by a thermoregulator. The rectifier and relay for
operating temperature control are mounted in a separate container, thereby
preventing galvanometer deflections when the relay operates. With this arrangement
there is no need for temperature corrections.

c. The sensitivity of the instrument and the damping of the galvanometer can
be adjusted over a reasonably wide range. It is also possible to perform a quick
check of--and if necessary, to adjust the equality of the ratio arms of--the bridge
to read the current flowing in the resistance thermometer. A special terminal and
an adjustable resistor are used in the measurement so that the potential leads of
the thermometer can be equalized as necessary.

d. A mercury contact commutator permits reversing the connections to a four-

lead potential-terminal-type resistance thermometer so that you can cancel the
effect of lead resistance. A plug and block arrangement is used to determine
whether zero correction is necessary. Terminals are included for connections to
the external battery (for supplying the bridge), to the external galvanometer, and
to either a three- or four-lead resistance thermometer.

e. As the Mueller bridge principle is discussed, you should remember the

primary purpose for its discussion. The resistance thermometer is based on the
fact that for every degree the temperature increases or decreases a proportional
amount. These resistance changes can be detected

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and accurately converted from resistance to temperature values by the Mueller

bridges. You use the resistance thermometer to calibrate thermometers,
thermocouples, and thermometer calibrators.

f. An examination of the bridge circuit (figure 5) should help you understand

its operating principle and the operation of the controls you use to null the
bridge and obtain the temperature values. We can simplify the explanation of the
bridge circuit in figure 5 by using simplified circuits of its primary components.
For instance look at figure 6.

g. The diagram in figure 6 is a simplified version of the upper portion of

the Mueller bridge in figure 5. The resistances labeled "A" and "B" in figure 6
represent the ratio arms of the Mueller bridge in figure 5. The slidewire in
figure 6 is a resistance balancing device with the same function as the slidewire
where a null is obtained in the galvanometer (G). The null indicates the equality
existing between ratio arms A and B. You check the equality of the ratio arms by
interchanging arms A and B.

h. The bridge rheostat arm shown at A in figure 7 is the same R shown in

figure 5. The shunt type decade shown at B in figure 7 is the type of decade shown
in A of figure 7 and as part of R in figure 5. The inclusion of the rheostat arm
shown in figure 7 (and its shunt decades) permits measurements as small as 0.001
ohm. Special shunt type decades are used so that small resistance changes which
occur in devices such as the resistance thermometer are not masked (hidden) by
contact resistance.

i. The last division of the Mueller bridge discussed is shown in figure 8.

The resistor R represents the adjustable rheostat arm labeled "F" in figure 5. The
letter X represents a four-terminal resistance such as the one in the resistance
thermometer. L1, L2, L3, and L4 are the leads which connect the resistor
(resistance thermometer) to the bridge for a measurement.

j. If the galvanometer is connected to binding post 2, as shown in figure 9,

the resistance X and the lead L4 (with its resistance) is connected in the
adjustable arm R.

k. If the ratio arms A and B are equal resistances and the resistance of L1
is equal to that of L4, the bridge is balanced by adjusting the rheostat arm until
its resistance equals the resistance of the arm in which X is located. Usually,
leads L1 and L4 are interchanged and the successive readings averaged so that you
can record the reading presented when L1 is equal to L4 with the galvanometer at
its NULL position.

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Figure 5. Mueller temperature bridge.

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Figure 6. Mueller bridge ratio arms.

Figure 7. Mueller bridge rheostat arm and shunt decades.

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Figure 8. Mueller bridge four-terminal connections.

i. The last division of the Mueller bridge discussed is shown in figure 8.

The resistor R represents the adjustable rheostat arm labeled "R" in figure 5. The
letter X represents a four-terminal resistance such as the one in the resistance
thermometer. L1, L2, L3 and L4 are the leads which connect the resistor
(resistance thermometer) to the bridge for a measurement.

j. If the galvanometer is connected to binding post 2, as shown in figure 9,

the resistance X and the lead L4 (with its resistance) are connected into the
right-arm of the bridge. The lead L1 (with its resistance) is connected in the
adjustable arm R.

k. If the ratio arms A and B are equal resistances and the resistance of L1
is equal to that of L4, the bridge is balanced by adjusting the rheostat arm until
its resistance equals the resistance of the arm in which X is located. Usually,
leads L1 and L4 are interchanged and the successive readings averaged so that you
can record the reading presented when L1 is equal to L4 with the galvanometer at
its NULL position.

Figure 8. Mueller bridge four-terminal connections.

1. Measurement principle. Our primary purpose in discussing the Mueller

bridge is to complete the concept of the resistance thermometer measurement
principle.

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(1) In figure 9 the resistance thermometer is a four-terminal type. Its

value is equated to a resistance which is determined by the switch position of the
Mueller bridge variable arm (R) shown in figure 9. When the switches are
positioned so that the resistance X (resistance thermometer) is equal to the
resistance in the variable arm of the bridge, you determine the resistance and
temperature values by reading the dials on the bridge. Table 5 is a chart which
represents a partial list of resistance-temperature conversion values for a typical
base standard thermometer.

Figure 9. Four-terminal connections to an equivalent Mueller bridge.

(2) When you examine the values listed in table 5, you find that the values
listed are products of the reference temperature resistance value (0° = 25.54900
ohm) and the ratio indicated by the dials on the measuring device. As an example,
examine values of the two columns in table 5, A, and values of the two columns of
table 5, B.

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TABLE 5

Resistance-Temperature Conversion Values for Platinum Resistance Thermometer

(3) At 0°C. the resistance ratio indicated is 1.000000. Since the

resistance of the thermometer at 0° measures 25.54900, the calibration accuracy of
the thermometer is correct. At 1°C. the resistance ratio indicated is 1.003982.
When you multiply the ratio indicated by 25.54900, the product is very near the
value 25.65075. If you didn't know the temperature value (1°C.), you could find it
by using the product of the ratio and resistance (ohm) columns. If the ratio
indicated on your measuring device is 1.1977710 for 50°C. (value shown in table 5,
A, for 50°C), you

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determine the resistance of the thermometer by multiplying the ratio by 25.54900

(thermometer resistance at 0°). This product is nearly 30.60030. When you locate
the resistance value 30.60030 on the section of the resistance-temperature
conversion chart shown in table 5, A, you see that the temperature measured by the
resistance thermometer is 50°C.

5. THERMOMETER CALIBRATION

a. One of the requirements is that you learn more about the calibration of
thermometers. You must increase your ability to apply thermal measurement
principles in the calibration of thermometers. When we use the term "thermal
measurement principles," we are thinking of the physical laws and concepts of heat
and temperature which we have discussed. These theories and concepts form the
basis for the thermal principles applied when you calibrate thermometers. The
physical laws we have in mind are as follows:

Heat is the total kinetic energy of moving molecules.

Heat is transferred from one body to another by means of conduction,

convection, radiation-absorption, or some combination of these processes.

The intensity of heat in a body is called its temperature.

The intensity of heat in a body is indicated on scales which relate the

intensity of the heat in that body to the intensity of heat necessary to raise
water to its boiling point or lower water to its freezing point.

Electrical energy can be transformed into heat (kinetic) energy.

The absence of heat is cold.

b. The thermometer scales in figure 3 show that the freezing points and the
boiling points of water are reference points for thermometers regardless of the
scale used. From table 4 it should be obvious that you may be required to
calibrate thermometers other than the mercury-in-glass type. Regardless of the
type, the measurement principle and the laws of physics which support this
principle remain the same. For example, when you calibrate a thermometer, what
does the measurement process include? Regardless of the type of thermometer
calibrated, you merely insert the thermometer being calibrated into a measurement
chamber and compare the thermometer reading with the reading indicated on the
measurement chamber readout device. The answer to the question you are thinking is
yes; the measurement chamber readout device has to be calibrated with the
resistance thermometer before it is used.

c. Your laboratory uses a temperature calibrator to check the accuracy of

other temperature devices. The rough sketch in figure 10 represents one of the
calibrators which you may use.

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Figure 10. Thermometer calibrator.

d. No attempt is made in figure 10 to duplicate any of the calibrators you

may have seen. We want you to become familiar with the basic components of a
typical thermometer calibrator and the purpose of these components. The scale
shown in figure 10 illustrates some limitations of the typical calibrator.
Calibration checkpoints on the scale of the thermometer calibrated must be within
the limits of the calibrator scale.

e. Comparing the limits of the calibrator scale of figure 10 with the ranges
of the mercury-in-glass and alcohol-in-glass thermometers listed in table 4, you
see that all points on the scale of the mercury-in-glass thermometer are within the
range of the calibrator. Even though the lower limit of alcohol-in-glass
thermometer scale is lower than that of the calibrator, the alcohol-in-glass
thermometer can be calibrated at the minimum limit of its calibrator and maximum
point of the thermometer.

NOTE: When the boiling point of alcohol is attained, the thermometer may
explode.

f. The calibrator's operating principle is simple. The instrument contains

the components necessary for a refrigeration unit. Since cold is the absence of
heat, a refrigerant is used in the refrigeration unit to remove heat as necessary.
The amount of heat removed and the degree of cold reached depends on the position
of the calibrator indicator. The position of the indicator determines the amount
of refrigeration just as the thermostat in your home refrigerator determines the
amount of refrigeration and the degree of coldness.

g. To calibrate thermometers at or near the boiling point of water, you

adjust the necessary controls on the calibrator so that the refrigeration unit is
replaced by heating units. Just as you selected the degree of coldness with the
calibrator indicator, you select the temperature (intensity of heat)

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at which you wish the thermometers calibrated.

h. Although the "wells" (openings into which the thermometers are placed for
calibration) are not shown in figure 10, they are located in such a position in the
calibrator that they can be completely enclosed by a synthetic non-flammable oil
which is used in the heat transfer process. It doesn't matter whether you are
calibrating thermometer scales at the freezing point of water; the calibrator scale
must first be calibrated with the standard thermometer which is your reference.
You should realize that your greatest concern over your thermometer calibrator is
with its stability and repeatability, not its accuracy.

i. Let us check to see if any of the laws of physics listed or principles

based on those laws are involved in the use of the thermometer calibrator. The
first law concerns heat and kinetic energy. Heat is generated by electrical
currents. These currents consist of electrons which do move and do possess kinetic
energy. Therefore, you can see that the first law listed has an application. The
second law listed concerns the transfer of heat. When the calibrator is used for
thermometer calibration, a synthetic non-flammable oil was mentioned. One of the
purposes for using this oil is its heat conducting capabilities. So you can see
that the second law has an application in the use of the thermometer calibrator.

6. RELATED HEAT SENSING AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

You should know the thermal measurement principles and methods applied in the
operation and calibration of heat measuring devices such as thermocouples and
pyrometers.

a. Thermocouples. Remember that when two unlike metals, such as copper and
iron, are connected as shown in figure 11, the junction of the metals can be used
as a part of a temperature measuring device. If heat is applied to the left-hand
joint (A) shown in figure 11 while the right-hand joint (B) remains at room
temperature (cold), a voltage is generated which causes the galvanometer to
deflect. The amount of deflection is proportional to the difference in the
temperatures at A and B. This device is known as a thermocouple.

Figure 11. A simple thermocouple.

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(1) One typical thermocouple application is the cylinder temperature

measurement of an air-cooled engine. The connections for the indicating instrument
are shown in figure 12.

Figure 12. Thermocouple application

(2) The thermocouple unit represented in figure 12 is made of iron and

constantan, which is an alloy of copper and nickel. The leads to the engine
cylinder are insulated with asbestos and covered with a cotton braid, which is
impregnated with a fire and moisture resistant lacquer. One of the two junctions
of the unlike-metal leads is formed into a copper ring which serves as a spark plug
gasket. The other, which is the cold junction, is inside the galvanometer. The
instrument is calibrated to read temperature in degrees Celsius. Commonly used
thermocouples are made of iron vs constantan, chromel vs alumel (chromel is an
alloy of nickel and chromium while alumel is an alloy of nickel and aluminum), and
copper vs constantan.

(3) Some thermocouples (figure 13) are constructed by connecting a wire

made of platinum alloy to a wire made of pure platinum. Such a device may be
called a noble metal thermocouple. A very satisfactory thermocouple of this type
consists of one wire made of 90 percent platinum and 10 percent rhodium and another
wire made of pure platinum. Thermocouples often have ranges extending to 3000°F.
These thermocouples are often used as a standard for calibrating less expensive
thermocouples, or for special installations.

(4) The platinum-platinum rhodium thermocouple, shown in figure 13, is

typical of the thermocouples used for calibration purposes. Figure 13, A, shows
the outer configuration of the instrument, whereas figure 13, B, is a cutaway used
to show the internal composition and construction of the thermocouple. The
principle parts of the thermocouple shown in figure 13, B, are the head (5), a
primary protecting tube (11), and the thermocouple element (7). The thermocouple
wires are 25 1/2 inches long and extend up through an insulator (9), lava-insulator
spacer (8), and fish-spine

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Figure 13. Platinum-platinum rhodium thermocouple.

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insulator (6) and are clamped under the screws of the two terminals (3) in the
head. These terminals connect the lead wires to the thermocouple. The thermometer
(2) is also mounted on the head. The thermometer, covered by a protecting sheath,
extends into the head to measure the temperature at this point (reference junction).

(5) We are interested in the principle used as a basis for the construction
of the thermocouple. From our discussion of the simple thermocouple of figure 11
you can reason that there is a similarity on principle and construction of the
thermocouples shown in figures 11 and 13. Let's examine the corresponding
measurement circuits of the two thermocouples and see if we can establish a useful
comparison between the two.

(6) When you examine the measurement circuits A and B in figure 14, you see
that both circuits have hot junctions which are heated by an oven or other device
whose temperature is to be measured. Both measurement circuits use a galvanometer
as a readout device. However, in the measurement circuit B, a precision
potentiometer and a galvanometer are used to measure and indicate the voltage
developed across the thermojunction. The voltage developed is proportional to the
difference in temperatures between points a and b in both measurement circuits.
The relationships of junction voltages developed by various junction temperatures
are shown graphically in figure 15.

Figure 14. Thermocouple measurement circuits.

(7) Although the temperature scale indicated on the graph extends to 2000°
C., the platinum thermocouple is used for precise measurements between 0° and 1500°.
The temperature values and corresponding voltage values included in Figure 15
support the operating principles of the measurement circuits in Figure 14. We are
referring specifically to the B measurement circuit. In this circuit the reference
junction is maintained at 0° by means of an ice bath (two ice bottles could be
used). Any

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Figure 15. Junction temperatures versus junction emf.

difference in temperature between junctions a and b is indicated at the temperature

of junction a with respect to 0° (junction b reference temperature). Figure 15 is a
graphical presentation of how the thermocouple junction voltage increases as
junction temperature increases. The complete measurement circuit of Figure 14 is
shown in Figure 16.

Figure 16. Thermocouple measurement circuit using ice bath reference junction.

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(8) In addition to the readout device represented in Figure 14, Figure 16

includes connections for the standard cell and the battery (BA) which are a part of
the measurement circuit. A potentiometer of the type shown in Figure 16 should be
standardized before each measurement. The portion of a millivolt-temperature
conversion table (Table 6) shows how potentiometer scale values in millivolts are
converted to values in millivolts.

TABLE 6

Millivolt-Temperature Conversion Chart

(9) As an example of how Table 6 is used in a thermocouple temperature

measurement, suppose that you have filled the ice bath thermos bottles, shown in
Figure 16 with ice and water. Also suppose that after zeroing the galvanometer and
standardizing the potentiometer, you adjust the controls of the potentiometer for a
reading of 4.859. What is the value of the temperature measured? In Table 6,
4.859 (millivolts) is located opposite 560°. The value 4.859 is also located in the
fourth column. This means that the temperature measured is 564°. If you examine
the temperature values in the left column of the graph, you can see that there are
ten divisions between values. The in-between temperature values are obtained by
taking the left-hand column value (560) and adding the value indicated by the
column in which the potentiometer value is located (0.004).

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(10) A pyrometer is usually associated with the measurement of extremely

high temperatures. When properly designed, a pyrometer can be used for relatively
low temperature measurements. Some of the principle types of pyrometers in use are
as follows:

Optical pyrometers.
Seger cone pyrometers.
Thermoelectric pyrometers.
Direct-radiation pyrometers.
Resistance pyrometers.

Our discussion is limited to the principles involved in the operation of the

thermoelectric and optical pyrometers.

(a) Thermoelectric pyrometers. You should remember how a thermocouple

is designed to measure the difference in temperature between a cold and a heated
junction. A millivoltmeter equipped with a scale which is graduated to read in
degrees of temperature is often used with the thermocouple. This thermocouple-
millivoltmeter combination is sometimes called a millivoltmeter pyrometer and is a
typical thermoelectric pyrometer.

(b) Optical pyrometers. Temperature measurement with an optical

pyrometer consists of comparing the monochromatic illumination from the source
being measured with the illumination from the filament of a standard lamp. When
the intensity of illumination from the standard source is equal to the intensity of
illumination from the hot body (source measured), you can assume that both bodies
are at proportionate temperatures. The proportionate temperature of the hot body
is determined by the graduations on the pyrometer scale.

(2) The type of pyrometer you use will vary with the need. Optical
pyrometers may have serial numbers such as 8621, 8622, 8623, and 8626. These
pyrometers may have a suffix C, indicating that the instrument is designed for
centigrade temperature measurements. In all other respects the capabilities of the
instrument are the same as those using the Fahrenheit scale. Temperature ranges
for three of these instruments are as shown in Table 7.

(3) The two major parts of this instrument are the telescope and a control
box. The telescope is designed to fit the hand. The telescope has an eyeshield
which is used when sighting a body. A flexible cable connects the control box to
the telescope. The control box contains a galvanometer, a standard cell, and a
breather. The telescope consists of a lamp, a switch, and a means of focusing the
lamp filament and the image of the hot body. The pyrometer measurement principle
is included in the steps of the measurement procedure which follow. Examine the
steps to see if you can identify the measurement principle.

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TABLE 7

Leads Northup Optical Pyrometers

(a) Sight on the object whose temperature is to be measured and adjust

the focus knob for the sharpest image.

(b) Close the contacts by pressing the switch, which is located on the
lower right side of the telescope sight piece.

(c) Rotate the knurled knob until the filament of the lamp blends with
(has the same brilliance as) the image of the hot object (until an optical balance
is obtained).

(d) In making the optical balance, use the section of the lamp filament
which is opposite the index of the lamp.

(e) Move the telescope from the line of sight, keeping the switch
closed, and press in on the knob which is located on the lower left-hand corner of
the front panel. While holding the knob in, rotate it until the galvanometer
pointer balances at zero on its scale.

(f) Read the value of temperature (on the proper scale).

(4) We hope that you included the processes of reaching an optical balance
and adjusting the galvanometer pointer for a zero balance in your determination of
the measurement principle. When the processes mentioned are performed, the
intensity of light from the source whose temperature is to be measured equals the
intensity of light from the standard source; the

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temperatures of the two sources are proportionate. Because of the proportionate

relationships, the pyrometer is a direct reading instrument.

(c) Now that you have completed the material on the effects and
measurement of heat and temperature, let's proceed to the study of humidity to see
how it is related to temperature and heat and how it is measured.

7. HUMIDITY

a. Humidity is nothing more than water vapor, and there is always some water
vapor in the air. The term "humidity" is used to describe the amount of water in
the air. However, the amount of water vapor may differ from place to place. It
will vary in a given location depending on the temperature, wind, rainfall, and
other weather factors. Before we discuss the instruments used in measuring
humidity, let's look a little closer at the nature of humidity.

b. The Nature of Humidity. There are two types of humidity measurements

usually associated with the measurements of the moisture content in the air. They
are relative humidity and absolute humidity. Both express the amount of moisture
content in the air, but in different forms. Let's define these and other common
terms that are associated with humidity.

(1) Capacity of Air - Capacity of air is the amount of moisture which the
air can hold when it is saturated. Capacity usually is measured in grains per
3
cubic foot (gr/ft ). The capacity increases with an increase in temperature.

(2) Absolute Humidity - Absolute humidity is the amount of water vapor in a

cubic foot of air at any given time.

(3) Relative Humidity - Relative humidity of the air is defined as the

ratio of the amount of moisture which the air actually contains to its capacity.

EXAMPLE: When a quart bottle contains one pint of a liquid, it is 50 percent full.
If a cubic foot of air that could hold four grains of water vapor holds only two
grains of water vapor, it is 50 percent full or half saturated. Such air has a
relative humidity of 50 percent.

(a) Another term commonly used in relative humidity is vapor pressure,

or partial vapor pressure. Vapor or partial vapor pressure is the number of pounds
per square inch of the atmospheric pressure which consists of water vapor. Partial
vapor pressure cannot be greater than the saturation value of the air at any given
temperature. For all practical purposes, it is the percentage of water vapor
relative to the saturation value of a given volume of air at a given temperature.
in other words,

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the term "partial pressure" can be interchanged with relative humidity. The
meanings are the same.

(5) Now that we have defined the common terms associated with humidity,
let's see how temperature affects humidity. A cold room in a house usually feels
damp. However, if the same room is heated the dampness seems to disappear and the
room becomes dry. The amount of moisture in the room has not been reduced by
heating the room. However, the capacity of the air in the room for moisture
increases when the temperature is raised.

EXAMPLE: Suppose the air in a room at 32°F. contains 2 grains of water vapor per
cubic foot. As shown in Table 8, the capacity of air at 32°F. is 2.118 gr/ft3 or 94
percent. Such air will feel damp. When the temperature is raised to 68°F., the
amount of moisture is unchanged, but the capacity of the air is now 7.56 gr/ft 3
divided by 7.56 gr/ft3, or 26 percent. This air feels dry. We see that increasing
the temperature decreases the relative humidity. On the other hand, if the
temperature is lowered, the relative humidity will increase.

TABLE 8

Water vapor capacity of air

(c) Humidity Measurement Instruments. Instruments that are used to

determine relative humidity are called either psychrometers or hygrometers.
Generally, the act and dry bulb instrument is called a psychrometer and direct
indicators of relative humidity are called hygrometers. Hygrographs determine and
record relative humidity.

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(1) The psychrometer.

(a) The psychrometric method of determining humidity is of importance in

the field of meteorology, air conditioning, laboratories, etc. Basically, the
psychrometer consists of two thermometers, one having a dry bulb, the other a wet
bulb. The dry-bulb thermometer indicates the actual temperature of the air. The
wet-bulb thermometer has a cloth wick surrounding its bulb. This wick is moistened
with water. When the air is dry, the rapid evaporation of the water from the wick
cools the bulb and lowers the temperature indicated by the wet-bulb thermometer.
The lower the relative humidity, the more rapidly the water evaporates to produce a
greater difference between the wet- and the dry-bulb thermometer readings.

(b) Figure 17 illustrates a typical wet- and dry-bulb psychrometer. The

function of the saturated wick is to retain a thin film of water on the wet bulb so
that evaporation may continue until the wet-bulb temperature reaches a minimum.
Cotton or soft mesh linen is normally used because of excellent water absorbing
properties. Sizing the wick, encrustations due to mineral content of the water and
the thermometer will interfere with a continuous film of water on the thermometer
bulb. Foreign substances in the water or on the wick change the saturation vapor
pressure of the water and affect the results. Therefore, wicks should be clean and
should be replaced frequently, and distilled water should be used for moistening
the wick. The wick should extend beyond the bulb and on the stem of the
thermometer for an inch or so in order to reduce heat conduction along the stem to
the bulb.

Figure 17. Wet and dry bulb psychrometer

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(c) The temperature of the water used to moisten the wick should be at,
or slightly higher than, the wet-bulb temperature. This is especially important
when the ambient temperature is high and the relative humidity is low. If the
temperature of the water used to wet the bulb is too high, it may take a long time
for the bulb to cool to wet-bulb temperature. Before this point is reached, the
water may have evaporated sufficiently so that the thermometer never reaches the
wet-bulb temperature. If the moistening water temperature is appreciable lower
than the wet-bulb temperature, the thermometer temperature will climb throughout
the period of ventilation, remaining constant at the wet-bulb temperature only as
long as there is sufficient water to keep the bulb surrounded with a film of water.
If the temperature of the water used for moistening is at, or slightly above, the
wet-bulb temperature, the wet bulb will quickly attain the wet-bulb temperature and
remain at this value long enough to be easily and accurately read.

(d) Ventilation is obtained by swinging, slinging, or whirling the

thermometers at such rates as to produce the minimum velocity of 900 ft/min.
Stationary thermometers may be ventilated with a motor driven fan, so long as
minimum velocity is attained. Unventilated psychrometers are unreliable and hence
rarely used.

(e) The dry-and wet-bulbs of the psychrometer must be separated. This

is to prevent the air that passes the wet-bulb (and is thereby cooled by
evaporation) from contacting the dry-bulb and causing an erroneous dry-bulb
reading. In the case of a sling, or whirled, psychrometer this may be avoided by
placing the thermometers so that the air will flow across the dry bulb before
reaching the wet bulb. Therefore, a sling psychrometer should be swung in only one
direction, depending upon its construction and the placement of the thermometers.

(f) The heat absorbed by the wet bulb, due to radiation, tends to raise
the wet bulb temperature so that a true depression is not attained. This can be
minimized by radiation shielding. One method, as shown in Figure 18, is to
surround the wet bulb with an external primary metal shield and insert an auxiliary
shield with a moist wick. When the thermometer is ventilated, the auxiliary shield
attains a temperature close to that of the wet bulb. This practically eliminates
the source of radiation and conduction due to the difference in dry- and wet-bulb
temperatures.

(g) After the psychrometer is ventilated and the difference between the
dry-bulb and wet-bulb thermometers is determined, a chart similar to Table 9 is
used to compute relative humidity. Notice that with a given temperature
difference, the percentage of relative humidity depends upon

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Figure 18. Cross section of a shielded psychrometer.

the temperature of the dry-bulb thermometer. Keep in mind that relative humidity
varies with the air temperature.

TABLE 9

Relative Humidity

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(2) Mechanical Hygrometer. A mechanical hygrometer indicates relative

humidity directly; it is about 3 percent accurate if both temperature and humidity
are held constant at room temperature. The sensing element is usually a bundle of
human hair that has been put through some process to remove the oil from the hair.
The midpoint of several strands of hair is connected, through a lever arrangement,
to a pointer. As the humidity increases, the length of the hairs increases and
causes the pointer to move across the dial. Figure 19 shows this type of
hygrometer.

Figure 19. Hair type hygrometer

(a) The hair hygrometer indicates relative humidity over a wide range of
temperature, but its reliability decreases rapidly as the ambient temperature
decreases below freezing. Under changing humidity conditions there is a
considerable lag between the dial reading and the actual humidity. With
temperature and humidity stable at 77°F., a change in relative humidity will require
approximately 5 minutes for the hair hygrometer to indicate 90 percent of the
change. This time lag greatly affects accurate measurement under changing humidity
conditions.

(b) Many organic materials are hygroscopic. Such materials as wood

fibers and cotton string have been used. None of these seems to be any better than
human hair.

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(c) Hygrographs are recorders of relative humidity. A pen arm, which is

substituted for the pointer, traces an ink record on a clock-driven drum and graph-
paper mechanism.

(3) Dew point hygrometer. The dew point is that point where the humidity
in the air just starts to condense and form water droplets on exposed surfaces.
This condition exists when the relative humidity reaches 100 percent. Basically,
the procedure for detecting dew point is to cool a mirror until dew or frost just
condenses room surrounding air. The temperature at the surface of the mirror at
the instant dew or frost appears is defined as dew point. By using tables such as
tables 8 and 9, relative and absolute humidity may be calculated when the dew point
is known. One difficulty with this method is in measuring the exact temperature of
the mirror when dew or frost first occurs. Another difficulty is that any two
observers would probably not detect dew or frost at the same instant. It is
therefore, common practice for the dew point to be taken as the average temperature
at which dew or frost is first detected, on cooling of the mirror, and the
temperature at which the dew or frost vanishes when the mirror is warmed. This
procedure does not assure a correct answer, but it is close.

TABLE 8

Water Vapor Capacity of Air

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TABLE 9

Relative Humidity

(a) Photoelectric detection of the dew point has been used and is based
upon achieving an equilibrium condition of the mirror surface during which the
amount of dew or frost remains constant. This method agrees with visual methods,
within .1° C., down to -35° C.

(b) When the dew point is at or below the freezing point, the formation
of frost is not always positive due to the lack of a crystal nucleus for the frost
crystals to form on. In this case, supersaturation of the

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air may occur.

(c) A very simple dew point indicator is illustrated in Figure 20. Air
from the squeeze bulb is forced into the tank. This causes rapid evaporation of
the ether contained in the tank, which in turn cools the ether and the glass tube.
When the air in the tank is cooled to the dew point, dew forms on the glass tube.
When dew formation starts, the temperature of the ether may be read on the
thermometer. This is the dew point temperature.

Figure 20. Dew Point Hygrometer

(4) Other types of hygrometers. The gravimetric method of determining

humidity is employed only when calibrating instruments or in determining the exact
water vapor content of air. In the gravimetric method, a measured volume of air at
a known pressure and temperature is passed over a moisture absorbing chemical, such
as phosphorus pentoxide, and its increase in weight is measured.

(a) Other methods involving a color change of cobaltous salts have been
used. A very simple indicator may be made based on the change in color, from blue
to pink, of a cloth of paper impregnated with cobaltous

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chloride, as the humidity increases. A color comparison scale, when employed with
this indicator, gives a rough estimate of the relative humidity. Various other
similar chemicals have been used, more or less successfully.

(b) A great many experiments have been performed with various types of
materials for use in electrical hygrometers. Electrical hygrometry is based upon a
change in electric resistance of a hygroscopic material with changes in humidity.
The material may be metal wires with various chemical compounds placed between the
wires, such as polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl alcohol and lithium chloride,
phosphoric and sulfuric acid, and others. Plastics, underfired clays, cotton
impregnated with various solutions, and cotton wool and human hair have been
investigated. In some of these materials, the resistance appears to vary directly
with changes in humidity. In others, resistance appears to vary logarithmically
with changes in humidity.

(c) For specialized purposes, electrical hygrometers have proven to be

superior to other measuring devices, but for weather forecasting and general
humidity control the other types of hygrometers are better suited. However, it
would seem that, eventually, electrical hygrometers will replace most of the other
types of humidity measuring devices.

(5) This completes our discussion of humidity measuring instruments.

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ACCP SUBCOURSE NUMBER SM0486

MECHANICAL AND ELECTRO-MECHANICAL MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES

EXERCISES FOR LESSON 1

1. Which statement concerning heat is not true?

a. Heat causes metal to expand

b. Heat is generated by compression

c. Heat is a form of energy

d. Heat is the partial kinetic energy of moving molecules

2. Excessive friction in a car engine

a. may prevent movement of some parts.

b. increases oil viscosity.

c. decreases wear.

d. improve gas mileage.

3. As a gas is compressed

a. space between the molecules decrease.

b. temperature decreases.

c. partial kinetic energy is expended.

d. condensation is removed from the compressed gas to reduce corrosion

4. Electricity

a. is heat.

b. is obtained from kinetic energy.

c. when applied to a resistance reduces heat by electromotive force.

d. can be used to produce heat.

5. As molecules are pressed closer together

a. the forces of repulsion and attraction equalize.

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b. repulsion force increases.

c. attraction force increases.

d. repulsion force decreases.

6. Refer to Figure 2 and Table 2. When the viper is moved from position 1 to
position 2, kinetic energy is increases

a. 2 times. c. .05 watts.

b. 4 times. d. .2 watts.

Figure 2. Energy, heat, and power in an electrical circuit.

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TABLE 2

Applied energy--Kinetic energy--Heat

7. With an increase in temperature molecular motion in material

a. decreases. c. remains constant.

b. increases. d. is transferred to the tip of an

all-metal poker.

8. Most of the air is evacuated from the column of a mercury-in-glass

thermometer to

a. prevent contamination of the mercury.

b. permit use of a non-linear scale.

c. permit free expansion of the mercury to the top of the tube.

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d. maintain the mercury at a constant viscosity.

9. You obtain a resistance reading from the Mueller bridge of 26.111 ohms, the
temperature is approximately

a. 5.5° F. c. 5.5° C.

b. .5° C. d. 55° C.

10. What statement is true when calibrating an alcohol-in-glass thermometer?

a. Reduce the temperature of the calibrator so the alcohol freezes before

taking the first reading.

b. Insure that the thermometer is within the range of the calibrator.

c. Alcohol-in-glass thermometers are not as accurate as mercury-in-glass

thermometers.

d. Exercise caution when approaching the boiling point of alcohol.

11. A synthetic nonflammable oil is used with the thermometer calibrator to

a. prevent corrosion of the mercury contacts.

b. act as a media for heat transfer.

c. lubricate the thermometer calibrator.

d. protect the heating unit.

12. You are making a thermocouple temperature measurement and obtain a reading of
5.790 millivolts from the potentiometer. What is the value of temperature?

a. 655° K. c. 654° K.

b. 654° C. d. 655° C.

13. Measurement with an optical pyrometer consists of

a. comparing the illumination of the standard source to that of the hot

body.

b. determining the difference between the hot and cold junctions.

c. reading the millivolt output of the cold junction.

d. thermoelectric and optical computations.

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l4. The amount of moisture that air can hold when it is saturated

a. remains constant.

b. decreases with temperature.

c. is inversely proportional to air pressure.

d. increases with temperature.

15. When the relative humidity reaches 100%

a. increasing the temperature will form water droplets on exposed surfaces.

b. water droplets will form on exposed surfaces.

c. frost forms on exposed surfaces.

d. decreasing the temperature will increase the capacity of air.

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LESSON 2. PRESSURE MEASUREMENT AND DEVICES

AIPD Subcourse Number SM0486...........MECHANICAL AND ELECTRO-MECHANICAL

MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES

Lesson Objectives......................Given lesson objectives and supportive text,

you should be able to answer all exercise
questions pertaining to pressure principles,
pressure gages, barometers, and manometers
with no errors.

Credit Hours...........................Two

TEXT

1. INTRODUCTION

Your job assignment is the mechanical-electromechanical section includes the

calibration of all types of pressure measuring and indicating devices. You must
know the principles related to the operation and calibration of the pressure
measuring equipment sent to your section. The information in this lesson explains
the pressure principles associated with pressure measurements and the operating
principles of some pressure measuring devices.

2. PRESSURE PRINCIPLES

a. When the term "pressure principles" is used in this section, we are

referring to the theories and laws of physics which are applied to the following:

Definitions and terminology associated with the physical forces which affect
and are affected by pressure.

The nature of fluid pressure and its transmission in and through fluids.

Atmospheric pressure and vacuum.

b. Definitions and Associated Terminology. Most of the definitions for terms

used in this chapter are identified as they are needed. One of the paragraphs
which follows extends the definitions for mass and weight as they apply to pressure
measurements. The remaining paragraphs explain additional terms associated with
pressure measurements.

c. Mass and weight are two of the fundamental quantities which must be
clearly defined when used with pressure measurements. The mass of a body is a
measure of the matter which the body possesses. Although the mass of a body is
expressed in the same units as weight (grams, pounds, etc.), they are not the same.
The weight of a body is the pull or force

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of gravity acting on that body. The difference between mass and weight can be seen
when we compare a 5-pound weight with a 10-pound weight. If both weights are
dropped from heights in the same locality, their accelerations are the same (32
ft/sec/sec). However, the inertia (force resisting any change in the velocity of a
body) of the 10-pound weight is twice that of the 5-pound weight because of the
inertia of a body is directly proportional to its weight. Since the gravitational
pull on a body varies inversely with the square of the distance from the earth, the
weight of a body is not constant.

d. The force which tends to pull a body toward the center of the earth is
known as gravity. The intensity of force varies inversely as the square of the
distance that a body is moved away from the center of the earth. This means that
the "pull" of gravity on a body which is situated at sea level is greater than it
would be on the same body at a point 5000 feet above sea level.

e. There are several terms which are more directly related to the pressure
measuring instruments used in your laboratory. These terms and the corresponding
definitions are included in the list which follows:

Buoyancy--The "upward" force that pushes against a body which is submerged

wholly or partially in a liquid. The force with which the body is buoyed up is
equal to the weight to the liquid displaced by the body.

Resolution--The sensitivity of an instrument. The smallest alteration in the

quantity to be measured which produces any change whatever (response) in the
indication of the instrument.

Sensitivity--The degree of responsiveness. The rate of displacement of the

indicating element with respect to changes in the measured quantity.

Repeatability--Performance relative to the instrument itself. A measure of the

consistency of performance. The quality of repeatability is usually expressed in
terms of percentage variation of reading.

Hydrostatic Head--Sometimes referred to as hydraulic head, oil head, or head.

The height of a column of body of fluid above a given point considered as causing,
counteracting, or measuring pressure. In determining the quality of pressure
caused by a certain head, multiply the height of the column of fluid by the fluid
density.

Tolerance--A specified allowance for error or variation from standard operation

or measurement.

f. The terms included in the preceding list are used in technical documents
which provide information concerning equipment changes and calibration procedures.
When you are sure that you understand all of the terms listed, you should have very
little trouble understanding the material which follows in this chapter. Let's see
how these terms (some of which represent theories and laws of physics) are related
to other physi-

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cal conditions and laws which you must know and consider when you make pressure
measurements.

3. The Nature of Fluid Pressure and Its Transmission. In order to understand the
nature of pressure in a fluid, you must recall and understand Pascal's law
(principle) which concerns fluid pressure. We are referring to the law which
states: "Pressure applied to an inclosed fluid is transmitted equally in all
directions without loss and acts with equal force on equal surfaces." From this
law we can reason that the pressure existing in the fluid in an inclosed system
exerts a force at right angles against the walls surrounding the fluid, is shown in
Figure 1.

Figure 1. Fluid pressure within a system

a. The shape of a fire hose before the application of pressure from the fire
hydrant is illustrated in Figure 1, A. Figure 1, B, shows how equal forces are
applied in all directions on equal surfaces of the walls surrounding the water.
Figure 2 supports that portion of Pascal's law (principle) which concerns the
ability of a fluid to transmit pressure without a loss. The 5 lbs/in2 output of
the grease gun in Figure 2 depends on the seal made between the moving gasket and
the inner walls of the gun. It is obvious that the area of the piston surface is
four or five times that of the pimp opening. However, since the pressure exerted
by the piston is 5 pounds for each in2 of surface, the pressure exerted at the 1
in2 pump opening is 5 pounds.

Figure 2. A fluid transmits pressure without a loss

b. Hydraulic (Hydrostatic) Press Operating Principle. Let's examine Pascal's

principle as it is applied to the hydraulic (hydrostatic) press in Figure 3.

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Figure 3. Hydraulic (hydrostatic) press principle

c. The pressure transmitted to the bottom of the movable piston and the
distance the top of the piston moves is determined as follows. Since pressure in a
fluid is transmitted equally in all directions and acts with equal force on equal
surfaces, the 3-pound pressure applied by the hose piston whose inside dimension is
1 in2 is transmitted to each square inch of surface on the bottom of the movable
piston. Since there are 9 square inches of surface, the total upward force
(pressure) is 3 X 9, or 27 pounds. (See example A below.)

d. In our second example (example B) based upon Figure 3, if the area of the
large piston is 50 times the area of the small piston, then a force of 5 pounds
applied to the small piston applies a total force of 250 pounds/in 2 upward against
the large piston. In simple terms, the total upward force is the product of the
applied force and the ratio of the output (upward) piston area to the input piston
area. Simple ratios can be used to obtain the same answer. Referring again to
Figure 3, let the force applied to the piston whose cross-sectional area is 1 in 2
be represented by F1 and let F2 represent the total force on the bottom of the
piston. Let the cross-sectional area of the hose piston be represented by A1 and
the area of the large movable piston be represented by A2. The total force is the
proportion:

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e. The total force applied to the bottom of the movable piston in Figure 3 is
many times the force applied to the input, but the piston movement is very small.
This is true because the distances moved by the two pistons are inversely
proportional to the piston areas.

4. Atmospheric Pressure and Vacuum. You depend on both of these when a pressure
device such as the A-1 barometer is used to calibrate altimeters. As you study the
material on atmospheric pressure and vacuum and their effects on different devices,
you should attempt to establish relationships between the following:

Force and atmospheric pressure.

Fluid pressure and atmospheric pressure.

a. When we speak of air (atmosphere) pressure, we refer to the intensity of

the force, per unit area, which air exerts on an object. In most instances you
express pressure values as a given number if inches, centimeters, or millimeters of
mercury. These units were derived by pouring a quantity of mercury into a glass
tube. The open end of the tube was tilted so that the mercury could be poured into
an open dish or pan as the closed end of the tube was turned to an upright
position. The mercury from the tube was emptied into the dish until its level in
the tube dropped to 30 inches (76 cm or 760 mm), as shown in Figure 4.

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Figure 4. One atmosphere--standard pressure

6. The arrows in Figure L indicate that atmospheric pressure exerted on a body at

sea level is in a downward direction (toward the center of gravity of the earth).
This downward force (atmospheric pressure) is a measure of the weight of the air at
a given point (relative to sea level) at a given temperature. The average
atmospheric pressure exerted on a body at sea level is approximately 14.7 lbs/in2
and is called one atmosphere. This principle, illustrated in Figure 4, is based on
the fact that, in fluids, pressure is exerted in all directions by equal amounts.
Atmospheric pressure also exerts force in all directions. The air over a
horizontal surface exerts a force equal to the weight of all the air over the
surface. If the surface is not horizontal, the air still presses perpendicularly
against it with a force equal to the weight of all the air that would press on it
if it were in a horizontal position.

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c. Because the atmosphere is heavier at sea level that at points above sea
level, the standard pressure of one atmosphere (l4.7 lbs/in2 at 0° Celsius) exists
for sea level only. As the measuring instrument is moved from sea level to a
location above sea level, the level of mercury in a tube drops from 30 inches (76
cm or 760 mm) because the weight of the air above the tube becomes less as the
height increases. The decrease in the weight of air is indicated by a decrease in
atmospheric pressure.

d. The change in atmospheric pressure can be calculated if the total change

in height and the density of the air at the new location are known. You use the
following equation:

e. If the density of air is not known, divide the increase in height

(converted to feet) by 90 and multiply the quotient by 0.1. The answer represents
the number of inches of drop in the column of mercury. This means that the mercury
in the inverted glass tube of Figure 4 drops 0.1 inch for every 90-foot increase in
altitude, as shown in Figure 5.

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Figure 5. Atmospheric pressure changes

f. The values in Figure 5 show that the increase in altitude is greater than
90 feet. Therefore, the mercury level decrease in the tube is greater than 0.1
inch. To determine the drop (in inches), the total increase in altitude (500) is
divided by 90 and the result is multiplied by 0.1 to determine the decrease in the
mercury level. Now that you know the basic principles associated with force, fluid
pressure, and atmospheric pressure, we continue your study of pressure principles
by teaching the principles associated with pressure gages.

5. Pressure Gages

a. Normally when we think of measuring pressure, the gage is the first

instrument that crosses our mind. Let's begin our discussion of pressure measuring
instruments with -the gage. Pressure gages, in spite of their intended use, have a
number of common characteristics. Almost all pages indicate the pressure by means
of a pointer on a graduated dial. As shown in Figure 6, A, the pointer turns about
a point located in the center of the indicating dial in a concentric type gage, or
the pointer may be located off center as in the eccentric type gage of Figure 6, B.
Another common characteristic of gages is that the pressure to be measured is the
sole source of power required to provide an indication. This is accomplished
through the use of some sort of elastic chamber inside the gage

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case which converts the pressure to a motion which is translated through suitable
links and levers into proper motion of the pointer across the indicating scale.

Figure 6. Gages with concentric and eccentric scales

b. Classification of Gages. There are five basic ways by which gages can be
broadly classified. These are by:

A.S.A. standards.

Case type.

General field of use.

Specific end use.

Type of measuring element.

Of these five classifications we will discuss the classifications only by A.S.A.

standards, specific end use, and type of measuring element.

(1) Classification by A.S.A. standards. The American Society of Mechanical

Engineers sponsored and accepted standards for pressure and vacuum gages. These
standards were prepared by the American Standards Association and are referred to
as the "A.S.A. Standards." The standards classify gages into three grades of
accuracies to which they are to be

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manufactured. It also establishes a series of standard case sizes, mounting

dimensions, ranges, dial appearance, etc.

(2) The terms "accuracy" and "error in indication" are frequently used in
the definitions of the three grade classifications. At this point, therefore, let
us define these terms.

(3) "Accuracy" is the quality of exactness or correctness in the pressure

indication. It is measured and graded by the amount of degree of error between the
indicated pressure and the true pressure acting on the gage. For example, suppose
a gage has a range of 0 to 500 psig and actually indicated 260 psig when you apply
a true pressure of 250 psig.

(4) The "error" in pressure indication is plus 10 psig, and the accuracy,
expressed in percent of full scale (range of the gage), is calculated as follows:

(5) If the indication of the gage is 240 psig when a true pressure of 250
psig is applied, the error in pressure indication is minus 10 psig and the accuracy
is -2 percent.

c. Now lets turn our attention to the classification of gages. During this
discussion refer often to Figure 7, which graphically illustrates the A.S.A.
accuracies.

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Figure 7. A.S.A. accuracies

(1) A grade AA test gage is defined as that type gage wherein the error in
pressure indication at any point of scale is not to exceed ±1/2 percent of the
maximum pressure for which the scale is graduated (that is, ±1/2 percent of 500 psig
in the example given above, or ±2.5 psig). Grade AA gages are often said to be
"guaranteed accurate within ±1/2 percent of scale range." Grade AA gages are
normally used for the following purposes:

Research laboratories where accurate measurements are required.

Production testing.

Standards to check less accurate gages in the field or in a maintenance

shop.

Test stands.

(2) Even though this classification by A.S.A. is called a "test gage,"

gages with this accuracy are often used for other than strictly "test"
applications. Also, deal indicating gages can be obtained with accuracies even
better then ±1/2 percent (such as ±1/4 percent) for more exacting measurements.

(3) Classification of a gage by the A.S.A. standard accuracy may affect

other gage specifications. For example, Grade AA gages are not generally offered
in dial sizes below 4 1/2 inch diameter, because it is difficult to read this
degree of accuracy on a deal any smaller than 4 1/2 inches. In addition,
manufacture of gages to this high degree of accuracy is much more difficult as the
gage size decreases.

(4) In a grade A high grade commercial gage, as shown in Figure 7b, the
error in pressure indication is not to exceed ±1 1/2 percent of the scale range at
any point within the middle of the scale (above 25 percent

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of scale up to 75 percent of scale) and ±1 1/2 percent of the scale range over the
remainder of the range. In a grade A high grade commercial gage, the middle
portion of the scale is often referred to as the "working" portion because it is in
this portion that pressure indications are most frequently made. Grade A gages are
commonly used in power plants, refrigeration systems, hydraulic presses, and a
number of other applications where steam, water, oils, and gases are the principal
measured media. They often represent a good compromise between high accuracy and
initial cost.

(5) With a grade B commercial gage, the error in pressure indication is not
to exceed ±2 percent of scale range at any point within the middle half of scale
and, for the remainder, ±3 percent of scale range (see Figure 7c). Most of the
gages that are installed on air compressors, fire extinguishers, and similar
equipment fall into the Grade B classification. The accuracy is generally adequate
for such application, and the gage can be made suitably rugged, as well as compact
and economical.

(6) Classification by specific end use. A number of gage names have come
into being because they were designed for a specific end use. They use dictates
certain design features which may make the gage quite suitable for other uses, but
often the original name sticks.

a. One example is the ammonia gage, which has stainless steel internal
parts to withstand ammonia and its fumes. It also has two sets of scale
graduations: one for the pressure, and the other for the ammonia temperature
equivalent. The A.S.A. standards recognize this specific type, specifying that the
gage shall have "plainly inscribed" on its dial the word "Ammonia." Other gages
designed for specific service in refrigeration or air conditioning equipment have
similar design features. The dual scale usually has pressure graduations in black
numbers, and the refrigerant's temperature equivalent in red numbers. Arising from
the service needs, such gages usually have a convenient zero adjustment and
cellulose acetate crystals.

b. Oxygen gages are another type gage specifically designed for

measurement of oxygen pressure. A.S.A. standards specify that such a gage shall:

Be equipped with a reliable and efficient safety device to minimize

danger in the event of a ruptured element.

When delivered, be free of grease, oil, or any other substance which

reacts explosively with oxygen.

Bear the following inscription on the face of the dial: "OXYGEN--USE NO

OIL."

c. The hydraulic gage is specifically constructed for service at high

pressures, where water or noncorrosive liquid is the pressure medium, such as gages
for hydraulic presses.

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d. The hydrostatic-head gage employs one or more elastic chambers and

differs from ordinary types only in the graduation of the scale. The scale is
usually graduated to show the head of water, or other liquid, in feet. It may also
read in "psi" pressure. The gage finds uses in hot water heating systems, for
example, to show the head of liquid in the system.

e. Other gage names which are self-descriptive of their service include

"boiler", "welding", and "sprinkler". Generally, the gages have been specially
designed, or are modifications of a standard type, to meet specific codes or
specifications.

(7) Calibration of Gages. In calibrating pressure or vacuum gages, a

pressure standard is used to produce a known pressure or vacuum. With a known
pressure or vacuum the error (if any) of the gage being calibrated is determined.
In this discussion we will assume that we have a standard pressure available and we
will therefore concern ourselves only with the mechanics of gage calibration.

a. One of the first things to remember when preparing to calibrate a

pressure gage is that the gage must be mounted in exactly the same position as in
its normal installation. For example, if the gage is normally installed on the
horizontal position, it should be calibrated in the horizontal position.

b. The deviation in indication between the calibration standard and the

gage under test fall into one or more of the following classifications:

Friction.

Hysteresis.

Range error.

Scale shape error.

Zero shift.

c. Let’s look at each of these types of errors and discuss their nature
as well as their remedy.

(1) Friction.

a. Friction is the difference between the pointer indication

before and after light tapping. Additionally, this condition may be observed by
sluggish or erratic pointer movement either up or down scale. Friction may be
caused by many factors, the most common of which are dirt and excessive wear.

b. The correction for friction involves cleaning all bearing

surfaces and gear teeth. This -an usually be done by gentle agitation in a bath of

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suitable industrial solvent. The unit should then be promptly dried with a light
blast of clean, dry air. Keep in mind that when you use volatile cleaning fluids
you should take proper precautions for adequate ventilation.

c. Should the contamination and dirt be very stubborn, it may be

necessary to completely disassemble the movement parts to gain access to all
bearing holes. Great care should be exercised not to damage or distort the
hairspring. If excessively worn parts are evident they should be replaced.

(2) Hysteresis.

a. Hysteresis is the variation in pointer position, at any given

point, between upscale and downscale indication after light tapping to minimize
friction in the mechanism. Figure 8 illustrates an example of hysteresis.

Figure 8. Hysteresis-dial example

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b. It is important to understand that hysteresis differs from

friction in that when hysteresis is present in a gage it cannot be eliminated.
This condition will cause the indication to read high on decreasing pressure.
Hysteresis is a function of elastic chamber repeatability.

c. Since there is no mechanical correction which can be made, the

only solution is to make a correction chart and attach it to the gage. In this way
the user can make mental and visual corrections as necessary.

(3) Range error.

a. As shown in Figure 9, range error is the pointer error of

increasing, or decreasing, magnitude which is compounded as the pointer traverses
the scale from zero to maximum scale indication. At maximum applied scale
pressure, this condition causes the pointer to read short of maximum indication if
the spring is strong, or over maximum indication if the spring is weak. Range
error is a function of the distance between the center of the arbor (sector pivot
point) and the centerline of the linkage, which connects the spring with the sector.

Figure 9. Range error-dial example

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b. Figure 10 illustrates the method for correcting range error.

When the pointer traverses the dial too slowly or too rapidly, the leverage rates
at the tail of the sector must be moved to compensate or agree with the Bourdon
spring's motion. When the pointer moves too fast, the link screw should be
loosened and moved a little at a time in the direction "B". If the pointer moves
too slowly, the link should be moved in direction "A" until the indication agrees
with the master. When properly set, the screw should be tightened securely.

Figure 10. Adjustment to correct for range error

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(4) Scale shape error.

a. Scale shape error is a deviation in linearity which may vary

in value and create a plus and/or minus indication at various points over the
entire scale range, even though the indication at the beginning and end of the
scale is correct. Figure 11 illustrates a gage with scale shape error. Scale
shape error is a function of the length and position of the linkage, which connects
the spring to the sector.

Figure 11. Scale shape error-dial example

b. Correction for scale shape error involves rotation of the

entire movement, the locking screws of which are usually located at the rear of the
gage. As shown in Figure 12, units that do not provide the movement rotation
feature may provide for adjustment in the length of the link which has essentially
the same effect as rotation of the movement. Gages having lesser accuracy usually
do not provide any means of scale shape adjustment.

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Figure 12. Adjustment to correct for scale shape error

c. When the errors are increasingly plus for the first 50 percent
of the scale, the complete movement should be rotated in direction "A" as shown in
Figure 12, which has the same effect as shortening the link. Should the gage read
increasingly slow for the first 50 percent of the scale, the movement should be
rotated in direction "B", which produces the effect of lengthening the link. When
the pointer travel is evenly divided on both sides of center, the proper angle
between the link and sector tail has been established to provide the desired
linearity. The locking screws should now be properly tightened to secure this
position.

(5) Zero shift.

a. Zero shift is a linear deviation of constant value over the

entire scale range and may cause either a plus or minus indication. This condition
is usually caused by a shift of pointer position on the pinion or by a shift of the
dial position.

b. Compensation for zero shift is accomplished very simply by

repositioning the pointer; or in gages with adjustable dials, this is done by
adjusting the dial to agree with the indication of the pressure standard. You have
completed your study of pressure gages. Now you must learn how pressure principles
are applied in measurements performed with barometers.

8. Barometers. Since a barometer is an instrument which measures atmospheric

(barometric) pressure, we discuss the barometer capabilities (such as possessed by
the A-1 type) which permit the calibration of altimeters

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and other pressure measuring devices. We will also discuss the construction
principle applied in the design or the aneroid barometer.

a. Sighting the mercury level. After you have completed the operational
adjustments, you should give the table which supports the barometer several raps.
Rapping the table before each reading helps you adjust the meniscus shape in the
tube and cistern. The desired shape is shown in Figure 13. Error incurred by
improper meniscus shape may be as large as 0.15 mm.

Figure 13. Sighting the mercury level

b. Barometer application.

(1) When you use the barometer to calibrate aircraft altimeters, you
connect the equipment as shown in Figure 14. The altimeter operating principle has
already been discussed, but no attempt was made to establish its relation to the
altimeters. Simply, atmospheric pressures change as distances from the earth's
center of gravity change. The altimeter detects atmospheric changes and converts
atmospheric pressure values to altitude values. The A-1 barometer performs the
same function, except that you can't install an A-1 barometer with its mercury in
an aircraft as easily as you can install an altimeter. Let us return to our
equipment connection in Figure l4. The connections should suggest the following
conclusions:

a. Because a vacuum valve and a relief valve are used, a vacuum pump is
necessary

b. Because the vacuum pump is connected to the test chamber by way of

the vacuum valve, a partial vacuum is created in the test chamber by
the pump.

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c. Atmospheric pressure values created in the test chamber are

converted to altitude readings on the altimeter scales.

d. After the barometer is adjusted to read the vacuum pressure in the

test chamber, the altitude readings on the altimeters should agree
with the barometer scale readings.

Figure 14. Calibration of altimeters

Does the list of conclusions agree with yours? Did you draw additional
conclusions? There were more, but we hope that the ones listed were obvious to
you. Let's examine a typical altimeter calibration procedure to see if the
preceding list is sufficient.

(2) Connect the barometer to the system as shown in Figure 14. Check your
adjustment of the temperature and gravity indices for proper positions and adjust
the vernier slide to the desired pressure and altitude. Using the vernier clamp
locknut (Figure 15) make the final adjustment with the vernier adjusting nut.
Align the altitude index on the vernier slide with the desired altitude mark on the
scale within one of the following internals;

-1000 to 10,000 feet, marked each 100 feet.

10,000 to 50,000 feet, marked each 500 feet.

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50,000 to 100,000 feet, marked each 1000 feet.

100,000 to 150,000 feet, marked each 10,000 feet.

150,000 to 200,000 feet, no intermediate marking.

Figure 15. A-1 barometer computing correction mechanism

(3) You should realize that you have adjusted the barometer scales for a
reading at one of the altitudes in the preceding list. For the greatest accuracy,
correct the vernier slide setting using the calibration chart on the front of the
mounting platform (Figure 16). The calibration chart corrections signs (+ or -)
are proper as indicated and should be used when converting the observed reading to
true pressure values.

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Figure 16. Barometer calibration correction chart

(4) In some cases, you must reverse the sign when the reading to be
observed for a given true pressure is desired. For example, assume that an
altimeter is calibrated at 6000 feet. When the vernier slide altitude index is
positioned at 6000 feet, the pressure vernier indicates 609.00 mm. If the
calibration chart correction for a reading of 609.00 mm is -0.04 mm, it is added to
the 609.00 mm to obtain 609.04 mm, which is the true setting of the vernier slide
for 6000 feet.

(5) You can see that the preceding example is a direct reverse of the
procedure used in the example used for Figure 16. Let's continue with the
altimeter calibration which is our example of a typical A-1 barometer application.

(6) Open the vacuum valve slightly. The mercury should fall and the
altimeters should indicate an increase in altitude. As the pressure nears the
desired point, the meniscus inside the sighting ring is visible through the open
side of the ring. Continue to decrease the pressure (with the vacuum valve) until
the highest point of the meniscus appears to barely touch the lower edge of the
sighting ring as shown in Figure 13. If the pressure has been reduced too much, as
indicated by light being visible above the entire meniscus, close the vacuum valve
completely and slowly open the relief valve to allow the pressure to rise to the
proper point.

(7) After you have adjusted the pressure to
the sighting ring, the pressure in the test chamber
which the vernier slide was set. Read and record
readings should agree with the altitude for which
set.
align the mercury meniscus with
is the same as the altitude for
the altimeter readings. These
the barometer vernier slide is

9. The Aneroid Barometer.

a. Altimeters use aneroid barometers for their pressure sensing devices.

Therefore, we are primarily concerned with the construction principle of the
aneroid barometer and its pressure sensing capabilities. Figure 17 is included so
that you can see how the aneroid barometer construction principle is applied on
pressure measurements. To simplify our analysis of the aneroid construction
principle, we establish a set of conditions and a

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series of related mechanical movements which occur when the aneroid is subjected to
an increase or decrease in atmospheric pressures. These conditions and mechanical
movements are as follows:

(1) The partially evacuated chamber shown in Figure 17 has a thin

corrugated metallic cover which retains its shape and volume until
subjected to changes in atmospheric pressure.

(2) Arm A in Figure 17 is rigid so that slight changes in volume and shape
at P and P' can be transferred to multiplying levers connecting to B.

(3) The lever arm CB rotates about the pivot point to cause more or less
tension on the spring when arm A is moved down or up.

(4) As the tension on the spring is increased or decreased, the spindle N

turns in a counterclockwise or clockwise direction.

Figure 17. The Aneroid Barometer

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b. From an examination of Figure 17 you can reason that as a plane goes

higher, the pressure on the partial vacuum chamber is less, thereby allowing the
spring tension of the metal to return the chamber to its original shape. The
apparent increase in volume causes a slight upward movement of arm A. This upward
movement of arm A is multiplied by Levers B and BC, causing lever arm BC to rotate
in a counterclockwise rotation about the pivot point. You can see that a
counterclockwise rotation of the pointer (lower pressure--higher altitude). The
last section of this lesson presents the operating principle for typical
manometers. The basic pressure principles which affect the operation of barometers
also affect the operation of manometers.

10. Manometers.

a. Information in this section is limited to the well type manometer. We

will discuss the well type manometer which is direct reading (not necessary to add
fluid deflections above and below normal zero as is the case with U-type
manometers). The useful range is 61 inches for temperatures between 4.44° and 48.89
° C. (40° and 120° F.). We are primarily concerned with the principle on which the
manometer design is based and the operation of the instrument when it is used for
pressure measurements.

b. Since the manometer uses the fundamental principle of the balance of

hydrostatic forces to measure pressure, we will include an example here to explain
the balance of hydrostatic forces. Place a block of material with the dimensions
shown in Figure 18 on a scale platform. When the block of material in Figure 18 is
placed on the platform, the following relationships exist:

(1) The force exerted by the block on the scale platform equals the weight
of the block (8 pounds).

(2) If the block rests on side 1, the weight or force per unit area is 8 ,
2x1
or 4 pounds per square inch. This is the pressure developed by the
block against the scale platform. Similarity, if the block rests on
side II, the pressure is 2 pounds per square inch (total 8 pounds), and
for side III, 1 pound per square inch (total 8 pounds). Since the
scale platform exerts an equal force in the opposite direction,
regardless of the block position, there is a static balance. Without
such balance, motion occurs in the direction of the unbalanced force.

(3) If the volume remains fixed, then the pressures develop by materials of
different densities (weight per unit volume) vary in direct proportion
to the density.

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Figure 18. Relationship of Force and Pressure

The preceding example was included to establish a relationship between density

(weight per unit volume), volume, and the balance.

c. Pressures Associated with Manometers.

(1) The pressure existing in, or exerted by, a fluid is (among other
factors) a function of the amount of fluid present. In the case a of
gas, it is the total effect produced by all the molecules of the gas
and the individual velocities producing impact on all sides of a sealed
tube containing the gas. As gas is removed from the tube, the pressure
in the tube decreases as the tube volume per unit of gas increases.

(2) In engineering and scientific work, two pressures are commonly used for
reference: absolute zero and atmospheric. Atmospheric pressure is that
pressure existing at the location on or above the earth and is the
total effect of all air above to the limit of the atmosphere. It is
subject to change by reason of temperature changes and local weather
conditions. It is measured and indicated by a barometer at the
location. A graphic relationship between absolute and atmospheric
pressures is shown in Figure 19.

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Figure 19. Approximate Relationships of Reference Pressures

(3) In addition to establishing a relationship between absolute and

atmospheric pressures, Figure 19 also establishes the fact that vacuum
is based on atmospheric pressure; high vacuum approaches absolute zero,
low vacuum approaches atmospheric pressure. The conventional manometer
charts list pressures referenced to atmosphere. Such readings are
known as gage pressures. As may be seen from an inspection of Figure
19, absolute pressures may be obtained from gage pressures by
determining the barometric or atmospheric pressure existing at a given
time and place and adding the gage pressure to the atmospheric
pressure. For example, look at the chart in Figure 19 and locate the
absolute pressure of 18 psia. This value represents the sum of the
gage pressure (3 psi) and the approximate atmospheric pressure at sea
level (15 psia).

(4) We have studied the preliminary theories, conditions, and concepts of

manometer pressure measurement; now let's examine the principle on
which the operation of the well type manometer is based.

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d. Well Type Manometer Principle.

(1) The well type manometer used the principle of balancing an unknown
pressure with pressure exerted by an unknown pressure with pressure
with pressure exerted by a quantity of liquid whose density is known.
When a manometer well and tube A (A in Figure 20) are exposed to equal
pressures, P1, the balance created causes the surface of the liquids in
the tube and well to rise to equal levels.

Figure 20. Well type Manometer Schematic

(2) When a pressure such as P2 in Figure 20B, is applied to the manometer

well, the combined pressures P1 and P2 cause the liquid level in the
well to drop from level A to level C. The combined pressures cause the
liquid level in the tube to rise from the original level A to level B.
In the tube, the pressure at level C is equal to P1 plus the weight of
the column of liquid above C divided by the cross-sectional area of the
tube. In the well at level C, the pressure equals P1 plus P2. Since
these pressures are at the same level (c), they are equal, and the
basic equation for the manometer is:

Because h = h1 + h2 is the level change in the well and therefore

difficult to determine directly, h is calculated. Proper compensation
is made in the graduation of the scale which measures the level change
in the tube (h1).

(3) If P2 is less than P1, the level changes are in the opposite direction
so that C is above B. In practical operation, when P2 is less than P1,
the lower pressure is applied to the tube. The height is read from the
scale in the usual manner. When using the equation P2 = hd, h and d
must be in consistent units. If h is measured in inches, d is in
pounds per cubic inch and P2 is in

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pounds per square inch. Very frequently manometer scales are graduated
to read directly the desired units of pressure.

(4) The importance of the effect of the density of liquid used in the
manometer is apparent from the basic equation. For the same pressure,
a larger deflection (h) is obtained with a low-density liquid compared
with that from a high-density liquid. For low pressures, greater
precision in the determination of the pressure results when
substantially all of the useful range is used. For instance, if the
pressure is approximately 2 pounds per square inch, the deflection
using water is 55.4 inches, whereas using mercury, it would be 4.1
inches. Specific gravity is the ratio of density of a substance to the
density of water at 4° C. (39.2° F.). Therefore, the density of water
is used as a reference when determining the specific gravity of liquids
used in a manometer. Now that you know the principle on which the
manometer operates, let's discuss the manometer pressure measurement
process and some related considerations.

e. Manometer Pressure Measurements. A simplified system of basic test

connections is shown in Figure 21. You should realize that the system in Figure 21
should be improved by the addition of shutoff and vent valves. Some preliminary
checks, adjustments, and considerations which you should make are as follows:

(1) Before taking readings, check the manometer liquid level.

(2) Vent both the high- and low-pressure connections and check the liquid
against the corresponding fill mark.

(3) Turn the scale indicator knob (the larger of the two knurled knobs
under the manometer channel) until the proper scale (gage pressure or
vacuum-absolute pressure) is in position, visible through the glass
cover.

(4) If gage pressure or vacuum is to be determined, turn the zero set knob
(the smaller knurled knob just below the scale indicator knob) in
either direction as required to bring the zero mark in line with the
liquid meniscus in the tube.

(5) If absolute pressure readings are made, position the scale to indicate
the current barometric pressure in line with the liquid meniscus in the
tube, making certain that the manometer is vented at the time of
setting.

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Figure 21. Manometer basic test connections

(6) It is not necessary to make adjustments prior to each reading, but they
should be made before each set of readings using the same scale. If
absolute pressure readings are being made, the scan setting should be
checked against the actual barometric pressure hourly, or more often
during periods of rapidly changing weather conditions. When checking
or calibrating altimeters, use the scale marked "Using Mercury, Read
Altitude in Thousands of Feet." Position the scale so that the
millimeter graduation (on edge of scale) equal to the barometric
pressure at the test location is aligned with the fill mark on the
mercury-fill plate adjacent to the scale. Altitude must be related to
absolute pressure rather than gage pressure. For the standard
atmosphere, the standard pressure at sea level (zero altitude) is 760
millimeters of mercury. Positioning the scale at the local barometric
pressure (in millimeters of mercury) automatically sets the altitude
scale at the correct pressure altitude for the test location. It is
not necessarily the absolute altitude because the barometric pressure
at sea level, at the time of test, may not be 760 millimeters of
mercury. When the altimeter (an instrument connected for a test) and
manometer are properly connected for a test, as shown in Figure 21,
application of vacuum (or pressure) simulates pressure altitude from
the test location.

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(7) With suitable connections made and the manometer adjusted, apply
pressure (or vacuum) to the manometer and the instrument being tested.
Gradually apply pressure, covering the entire instrument range, and
record comparative readings. Should varying manometer readings be
obtained as you increase or decrease pressure, it may indicate a soiled
glass tube. CAUTION: The range of the instrument being tested--not the
manometer--determines the maximum pressure or vacuum that should be
applied.

(8) Depending on the liquid used, the meniscus may be concave or convex.
Always read the liquid level in the center of the tube (tangent to
meniscus surface) regardless of the form the liquid takes. The
manometer scales are graduated for observed readings at 20° C. (68° F.)
If measurements are made at a temperature other than 20° C. (68° F), the
readings must be multiplied by a temperature correction factor.

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AIPD SUBCOURSE NUMBER SM0486

MECHANICAL AND ELECTOR-MECHANICAL MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES

EXERCISES FOR LESSON 2

1. The major difference between mass and weight is that

a. the weight of a body is not constant.

b. mass is measured in dynes and weight in grams or pounds.

c. gravity affects mass inversely with the square of the distance.

d. at an acceleration of 32 ft./sec/sec the enertia of a 5-lbs. weight is

twice that of a 10-lbs. weight.

2. Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is

a. exerted in the direction of piston travel.

b. exerted equally in all directions with a loss.

c. at right angles to the applied force.

d. equal in all directions without loss.

3. You have a hydraulic press which has a hose piston area of 3 in2 and a
movable piston area of 24 in2. What is the total upward force (pressure)
generated by the movable piston with 20 pounds applied?

a. 120 pounds c. 160 pounds

b. 1440 pounds d. 20 pounds

4. Atmospheric pressure at sea level is approximately

a. 760 cm of mercury. c. 76 in of water.

b. 76 cm of mercury. d. 30 cm of water.

5. The barometer at your station indicates 29.3 inches. The altitude at this
local is approximately

a. 90 feet. c. 500 feet.

b. 630 feet. d. 5000 feet.

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6. Oxygen gages must

a. be oiled prior to use.

b. not be used with nitrogen.

c. never be used with oil.

d. be calibrated frequently to minimize danger from a ruptured element.

7. A pressure gage should be calibrated

a. using secondary reference standards.

b. using secondary transfer standards.

c. in the same position as it is normally used.

d. with compressed nitrogen to prevent contamination.

8. Range error

a. increases at higher scale indications.

b. is the same throughout the range of the dial.

c. is not a repeatable error.

d. cannot be corrected by a mechanical adjustment and a correction chart

must be prepared.

9. Zero shift is compensated for by

a. rotating the movement in direction A or B.

b. lengthening the link.

c. shortening the link.

d. repositioning the pointer.

10. Rapping the table before each reading

a. levels the meniscus in the tube.

b. helps adjust the meniscus shape.

c. increases the error by as much as 15 mm.

d. knocks loose contaminating deposits from the tube.

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11. The partially evacuated chamber shown in Figure 17

a. is rigid.

b. changes shape with changes in atmospheric pressure.

c. increases in length when subjected to a vacuum.

d. decreases in length when subjected to a vacuum.

12. The two reference pressures commonly used in scientific and engineering work
are

a. absolute and atmospheric.

b. absolute and 10 psi.

c. barometric and atmospheric.

d. barometric and absolute.

13. You are calibrating an absolute pressure gage at 20 psia. Your standard,
referenced to atmospheric pressure, should indicate approximately

a. 20 psi. c. 5 psi.

b. 20 inches vacuum. d. 5 psia.

14. Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of

a. the substance to the density of water.

b. the substance to the density of alcohol.

c. water to the density of the substance.

d. the substance to the density of mercury.

15. When calibrating an altimeter, altitude is simulated by

a. vacuum and pressure.

b. vacuum.

c. the specific gravity of mercury.

d. 760 millimeters of mercury.

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LESSON 3. ROTARY AND TORQUE MEASUREMENTS

AIPD Subcourse Number SM0486...........Mechanical and Electro-mechanical

Measurement Principles

Lesson Objectives......................Given learning objectives and supportive

text, you should be able to answer all
exercise questions pertaining to rotary and
torque measurements with no errors.

Credit Hours...........................One

TEXT

1. INTRODUCTION

Sometime in your assignment as a calibration specialist you will be required to

calibrate rotary and measuring devices. Your job will be much easier if you have a
complete understanding of the terms and principles associated with rotary and
torque measurements. You should apply what you have learned to the jobs you
perform. Keep in mind that our goal is to help you prepare yourself for
performance when you are assigned to jobs involving rotary or torque equipment in
your laboratory. We will begin this lesson with a discussion of rotary
measurements. After that we will take up torque measurements.

2. Rotary Measurements. Rotary measurements are made with several types of

instruments. In this section we will discuss three types of rotary measurement
devices: the mechanical tachometer, the optical tachometer, and the stroboscope.
Before we begin our discussion of these instruments, look at some of the basic
principles of rotation and rotary measurement.

a. Rotation. When every part of a body, except the center, moves in a circle
and all the circles have the same center, the body is said to be in a rotary
motion. As a body rotates, it turns through an angle. There are several ways to
measure angular rotation: Among these are degrees, revolutions, or radians.

b. Angular measurement.

(1) When a radius vector rotates about a fixed point, it generates a

circle, as shown in Figure 1. The circular line formed by the head of the vector
is called the circumference of the circle. The angular displacement for a complete
revolution of the rotating radius vector is 360°. Measurement of an angle which is
less than a complete revolution is frequently made in degrees. We say a right
angle has 90° and lesser angles may have 45°, 30°, or some other value. This is the
degree method of indicating angular rotation.

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Figure 1. Generating a circle by a rotating vector

(2) When it is necessary to determine the number of complete rotations that

shaft or wheel makes, it is customary to say 300 revolutions, 60 revolutions, etc.
This is the revolution method of describing rotary motion. Still another way of
describing angular displacement is by radian measure. When the length of the
radius of the circle is laid off on the circumference, an angle called a radian is
determined. Figure 2 shows the radian designated by θ.

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Figure 2. A radian angle θ, when S is equal to r.

(3) If you designate C the circumference of a circle and d the diameter,

you have

C = πd

But the diameter is twice the radius, so

C = π2r

or

C-= 2 π r

You know the circumference of a circle represents 360° of rotation, so

360° = 2 π r

then

Dividing

r = 57.3° (approximate)

Hence, you see that a radian is numerically very near 57.3°.

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c. Angular velocity. From Figure 2, you can see that if s were twice as long
as shown, the angle would be 2 radians, and if s were three times as long, the
angle would be e radians. Thus, the number of radians is equal to the distance, s,
on the circumference divided by the radius. Expressing this mathematically

(1) The angular velocity of rotation may also be expressed as the number of
radians per period of time; for example, the number of radians per second.
Restating the expression (1) above, which is

and applying it to a rotating vector, you have s equal to the space on the
circumference covered by the rotating vector, r equal to the length of the radius,
and equal to the number of radians. Dividing both sides by time, t, you get

(2) If t equals seconds, the left member of the equation above can be
stated as radians per second and the right member as space per second, divided by
radius. It is common practice to let the Greek letter ω stand for radians per
second. Hence,

(3) Also, space or distance covered per second is velocity, which can be
represented by the letter v

(4) Solving for s in equation (4) gives

S = vt

(5) Restating (2) you have

Substituting the value of s from (5) in the right numerator gives

(6) Canceling t's gives

(7)

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(8) Substituting

This formula gives the following statement: Radians per second equal the velocity
of a point on the circumference divided by the radius where the velocity is in the
same units (per second) as the radius. The formula (3) can be solved for v, giving

v = ωr

This is a convenient expression for arriving at the speed of a point on a rotating

body, such as the tip of an airplane propeller. To relate to rpm, the following
expression may be used:

where is radians per second. Now that you have looked at the basic principles of
rotation, look at the most simple of rotary measuring devices, the mechanical
tachometer.

(3) The Mechanical Tachometer. A mechanical tachometer is a device which

normally consists of a shaft which is physically pressed against the center of a
rotating shaft. By means of gearing or a pendulum arrangement, information is
translated to an RPM indicator.

a. The pendulum type of mechanical tachometer operates on the principle

shown in Figure 3. You may recognize it as the old governor principle.

Figure 3. The basic principles of a pendulum type mechanical tachometer

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b. As shaft "A" and the contactor are pressed against a rotating

object, the collar "B" is forced up shaft "A" by the centrifugal force of weights
"W" pulling outward, acting through pivots "C" and "D" and "E". Note that the
pointer is attached to collar "B". Adjacent to this pointer is an RPM scale. The
faster the rotating object turns--the greater the force of weights "W" pulling
outward--the farther collar "B" will move carrying the pointer upscale.

c. The advantages of the mechanical tachometer are that it is

economical and simple to operate. The major disadvantage of the mechanical
tachometer is its loading effect on the rotating object. For example, suppose the
maximum speed of a small electric motor is to be checked. Because of the loading
effect (slowing down) caused by the pressure of the mechanical tachometer, a true
maximum speed of rotation will not be indicated. The other rotary measurement
divides in this section do not have a loading effect on the rotating object.

d. Mechanical tachometers can be calibrated by means of a tachometer

tester such as the Sweeney Model 1000 shown in Figure 4. The Sweeney Model 1000
tachometer tester is a synchronous motor with seven gear driven output shafts of
known rotational speeds. The rotating speed of the synchronous motor is as stable
as the frequency of the alternating voltage applied to it. Since the frequency of
the power supplied by major power companies is regulated to within ±0.1 cps, the
rotational speed of the mechanical outputs of the Model 1000 is extremely accurate
and suitable as a standard for calibrating mechanical tachometers.

Figure 4. Sweeney Model 1000 Tachometer Tester

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e. The seven outputs from the Sweeney Model 1000 are: 300, 500, 600,
720, 800, 1000, and 1800 rpm. To extend these ranges, the unit is supplied with
speed converters for increasing or decreasing the speed of any output shaft. The
speed converters supplied with the tachometer tester can increase or decrease the
output of any shaft by a factor of 4, 10, or 30. Thus, a tachometer can be
calibrated at almost any speed within its range.

(4) The Optical Tachometer. The optical tachometer is a very exact method
of measuring rotary motion. With the optical tachometer the number of revolutions
in a given time are literally counted. The optical tachometer has no loading
effect upon the shaft being measured. However, the optical tachometer is not as
simple to use as the mechanical tachometer and required the use of an electronic
counter as a readout device.

a. The optical tachometer is shown in Figure 5 as it is set up for a

rotary measurement. To make a rotary measurement of this type, a disc with evenly
spaced sections of reflective material is attached to the output shaft of the
rotating device. From the construction of the disc, you can see that the beam of
light is broken periodically. The end result in the development of pulses of light
which contact the photocell and cause pulses of energy to be generated in the
photocell circuit.

Figure 5. The Optical Tachometer

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b. The pulses are counted by an electronic counter such as a 524B.

With the counter set up to count for a specific period of time, the number of
pulses counted can be converted to rpm. Let's consider an example where 600 pulses
are counted during a period of exactly 10 seconds, from a disc that has six
reflecting segments. If 600 pulses were counted during 10 seconds, 3600 pulses
would be counted during 1 minute. However, since there are six reflecting segments
on the disc, we must divide 3600 by 6. Thus, the shaft is rotating at 600 rpm. As
you can see by this example, if the disc has six reflecting segments and the pulses
are counted for 10 seconds, the readout is in rpm.

c. A schematic diagram of the optical tachometer is shown in Figure 6.

When switch S1 of this circuit is closed, the l10-volt, 60-cycle AC applied to J1
causes voltages to be developed across the secondaries of transformer T1. One of
the secondaries develops the voltage for the light and its beam illustrated as DS1
in Figure 6. The DC voltage developed by the rectifier-filter circuit provides a
sort of threshold voltage across photocell, electrical impulses are developed and
passed by way of C2 and J2 to the electronic counter. The amplitude of the
electrical pulse varies from 3 volts rms for an object rotating at 180 rpm to 2
volts rms for a rotation speed of 200,000 rpm.

Figure 6. Optical tachometer schematic diagram

d. To calibrate this tachometer, you replace the rotating element,

shown in Figure 5, with a rotating device whose rpm is known. You apply the
tachometer output pulses to a frequency standard (counter) whose input impedance is
at least 1 megohm. The high-input impedance minimizes the effects of loading. The
frequency counter (standard) readings should agree with the rpm settings of the
rotating device (standard).

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(5) The Stroboscope. The stroboscope is an electronic tachometer that

provides a direct and accurate means of measuring rotary speeds from 60 to 15,000
rpm. The stroboscope is especially versatile in application because it does not
require mechanical connection to the device under observation and will not absorb
power or influence operational speeds. Remote or inaccessible mechanisms may be
observed at considerable distance provided a "line of sight" is available and
ambient light levels are lower than the stroboscope's output.

a. Stroboscope principles. Stroboscopic effects may be produced when

an intense light of short duration, is repeated at precise intervals. If this
light is directed upon a rotating or vibrating object, the stroboscopic effect will
be observed when the repetition frequency of the light is in proper ratio to
movement frequency. If the frequency of movement and light repetition are exactly
matched, the moving object will be viewed distinctly only once each cycle. The
object will appear to be stationary, since it will be illuminated by the flash of
light at precisely the same phase of each cycle. This "single image" apparent
cessation of motion will also occur when the light frequency is submultiple (half,
third, quarter, etc.) of movement frequency. Multiple images occur when the light
frequency is a multiple of movement frequency. This phenomenon occurs because the
moving object is illuminated more than once each cycle. Satisfactory stroboscopic
effects will occur only when the pulsed light is more intense than the ambient
light and the light pulses are short enough to prevent smear of blur.

b. Stroboscope operation and use. The stroboscope shown in Figure 7

operates from a 115-volt, 60-cycle AC powerline. It consists of a power supply,
oscillator, pulse amplifier, and a flasher tube. The complete unit is mounted in
an easily portable metal case. The flashing rate is varied by turning a knob and
reading rpm directly from the scale.

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Figure 7. The Stroboscope

(1) The stroboscope is simple to operate. The light from the stroboscope
is directed upon the part to be measured and the large knob is adjusted until the
part appears to stop. The rpm of the part is then read directly from the scale.
This action adjusts the frequency of the internal oscillator so that it is firing
the stroboscopic light once for each rotation of the part. If the internal
oscillator is firing the light slightly faster than the part is rotating, the part
will appear to be turning slowly in the reverse direction.

(2) If the part is uniform or symmetrical, place an identification mark

with chalk or crayon on the portion to be viewed. If approximate speed is known,
turn to appropriate portion of dial scale and adjust large knob until part appears
stopped. The dial scale will read in revolutions per minute. If speed is unknown,
start at the highest end of the dial scale and work downward until a single
stationary image is obtained.

(3) When stroboscope speed exceeds that of the moving object, multiple
images will be seen; the first single stationary image will be seen at fundamental
frequency. If the stroboscope is operated at a speed less than the fundamental
frequency, single images will be seen at 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, . . of the speed of the
moving part.

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(4) If the stroboscope flashes N times the speed of the moving object, N
images will be seen.

(5) The stroboscope has a built-in calibration system using the line
frequency as the standard. A vibrating reed, oscillating at twice the line
frequency, is mounted near the flasher tube so that its end can be viewed during
the calibration procedure. A pair of calibration potentiometers (one for the high
end and one for the low end of the dial) act as oscillator trimmers and correct for
dial errors. With the dial set at a point that is a multiple or submultiple of the
line frequency, the prescribed potentiometer is adjusted until the reed appears to
stop. This adjustment is made at points near both the high and the low end of the
dial.

(6) The stroboscope can also be used for the observation of equipment in
motion. Moving equipment can be studied in either the "stopped" state or in
apparent motion.

(7) This ends the discussion of tachometers and stroboscopes. Now turn
your attention to a type of rotational measurement in which you measure rotational
force (torque) instead of speed or frequency. A study of the proving ring as a
vertical force (torque) measurement device is included.

6. Torque Measurements. When your laboratory supports missile or special type

aircraft installations, you use torque calibrators to calibrate or adjust torque
wrenches and handles. Your ability to calibrate the torque devices. This section
includes a brief discussion on torque wrenches and handles to include the Sweeney
and Baldwin type torque wrench calibrators. In addition, this section explains
some of the principles applied when proving rings are used for torque measurements.

a. Torque Wrenches and Handles. Maintenance and repair shops stock torque
wrenches of all sizes. The purpose of these wrenches is expressed in two
paragraphs taken from two different torque wrench (handle) publications. The title
of each paragraph is "Purpose." The paragraphs are as follows:
The purpose of these wrenches is to apply an adjustable, predetermined,
torque-limiting force to bolts, nuts, and other threaded parts.
The torque handle described in this technical manual is designed to limit
the torque applied to fastening components (nuts, bolts, screws, etc.), the limit
being adjustable, in graduated increments by the operator.

b. Although the paragraphs in the preceding list were taken from two
different publications, you can see that both include the function of limiting
torque applied to nuts and bolts by specific amounts.

c. Compare the operating procedures for two typical torque devices to help
you understand how the devices are operated. In the first operating procedure you
make the following preliminary adjustments.

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Slide back the lock ring to the UNLOCK position.

Set the desired torque value by rotating the index on the handle to the
value on the calibrated barrel.

Slide the lockring up to the LOCK position. (The groove or index on the
handle lines up with the groove on the barrel.)

d. After the preliminary adjustments are complete, the torque wrench then
operates like an ordinary wrench until the torque limit is reached. A breakthrough
occurs which allows the wrench to move freely and sharply before reaching a
positive stop. A release of the wrenching pressure automatically resets the torque
wrench and it is ready for the next operation. The torquing force should be
applied in a smooth, steady motion. The natural tendency is to, overtorque, with
resultant damage to the fastener or the torque wrench. The torque wrench operator
should proceed carefully until he is able to anticipate the breakthrough action.

e. After prolonged storage or shipment, turn the wrench through a few release
cycles. This action permits the internal mechanism to redistribute a thin film of
lubricant throughout the working parts. You may have to perform this operation
when wrenches are brought to the laboratory. When changing the handle setting to
the lowest reading on the scale, be extremely careful after reaching the lowest
increment reading to avoid shearing the stop pins inside the handhold by further
turning in this direction. The pins are designed as a resistant point to enable
you to determine when you have reached the low handle setting. These pins, when
sheared, allow the handle to disengage from the body and give an erratic torque
value.

f. If the preceding procedure was familiar, you are learning about torque
wrench operation. Examine the second procedure so that you can compare the two.

g. When you wish to set the torque handle to the selected value, unlock the
grip and adjust the handle to the desired setting on the micrometer type scale;
then relock the grip and install an attachment on the square drive of the handle.
Apply the handle assembly to the fastener to be torqued and pull the handle in a
clockwise direction with a smooth and steady motion. A fast or jerky motion
results in an improperly torqued fastener. When the torque applied reaches the
predetermined torque setting of the handle, the handle automatically releases or
"breaks," producing approximately 150 to 200 free travel. The release is distinct,
is easily detected by the mechanic, and is an indication of completed torquing
action on the fastener.

h. In many torquing applications it is necessary to use various accessories

other than those that operate coaxially with, and are attachable to, the square
drive of the torque handle, i.e., common sockets, screwdriver attachments, and
internal wrenching adapters. Any extension or adapter

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which does not operate coaxially with the square drive of the torque handle affects
the predetermined torque value.

i. When you compare the second procedure with the first (without regard to
the type of wrench or manufacturer), there are at least four operation principles
which are common to both of the procedures presented and are common to most of the
torque wrenches which you calibrate. These common principles are as follows:

Torque wrenches have to be unlocked before the desired torque value is set
in on their calibrated scales.

The torque wrench has to be locked after it is set for a specific torque
value.

Always apply torque to a nut or bolt with a smooth, steady motion. A fast
or jerky motion results in an improperly torqued fastener.

When the torque you apply reaches the predetermined value indicated on the
torque wrench (handle) scale, you feel the handle automatically release or
"break."

j. If you have never calibrated a torque wrench, you need to know the
symptoms of common malfunctions and the corrections necessary for torque wrench
calibrating adjustments. When you want to accurately test the tripping points of
the torque wrench, you need an indicating torque measuring device of the Baldwin 4
type to react against the wrench throughout the range of the wrench.

k. Testing devices are normally of two basic types: a spring-loaded type and
a weight type. Sometimes it is recommended that you use the dead-weight type
because greater accuracy can thus be obtained. The technical bulletin for the
wrench being tested provides specific instructions on calibration requirements.
The TB should be checked to see if it contains calibration instructions for the
wrench being calibrated.

l. Irregularity in performance of the wrench is classified as consistently

out of calibration throughout the range (consistent error); inconsistently out of
calibration on either the high or low side of the range (progressively higher or
lower throughout the range); or inconsistently out of calibration varying from one
side of the correct value in certain portions of the range to the opposite side of
the correct value in other portions of the range (variation from one side of the
correct setting in the low range to the opposite side in the high range).

m. Since you are not required to be an expert on torque wrenches, you should
not hesitate to use the applicable TB prepared for the torque wrench you must
calibrate. In all torque requirements, the desired torque value is predetermined
and may be found in the applicable end item instruction and overhaul manual.

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7. Sweeney Type Torque Wrench Calibrator. The Sweeney type torque wrench testers
used in your laboratory provide a simple positive means of testing the accuracy of
torque wrenches or other torquing devices. The Army inventory includes Sweeney
type calibrators (testors). These testers are models 71, 73, and 75. The general
construction of the three models is the same. The difference in the three models
are found in the sizes of the instruments, the ranges covered by each, and the
scale divisions. Table 1 analyzes some of these differences.

TABLE 1. Torque wrench tester specifications

a. Torque tester (models 71, 73, and 75) construction principle. Sweeney
type torque testers are constructed of heat-treated aluminum alloy and alloy
steels. They are equipped with machined leveling pads to facilitate installation
on walls, beams, or benches. No springs are used in their construction. The
primary moving part of each unit is a dead-weight pendulum accuated by a gear
segment and pinion mounted in life-sealed roller bearings. Torque applied to the
input transmits movement to the pendulum which, in turn, moves a stay-set indicator
over a combination scale calibrated in both foot-pounds and inch-pounds. Maximum
dimensions for the three models listed are as follows:

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b. Torque tester (models 71, 73, and 75) operating principle. The torque
tester's principle of operation is based on a geared-down pendulum rather than
springs; it is geared down through a gear segment and a pinion mounted in life-
sealed roller bearings. The torque applied to the input segment transmits movement
to the pendulum which in turn moves a stay-set indicator over a scale. The
trigonometric scale is calibrated in both inch-pounds and foot-pounds converted
from the angle through which the pendulum is moved. The direct readings obtained
are accurate within 2 percent. The reading of the stay-set scale is compared with
the torque wrench reading to determine the accuracy of the torque wrench scale
reading.

c. Torque tester application. Review some procedural principles you may have
applied on torque wrench testing and add such as are necessary for you to advance
to the technician level. The primary application of the Sweeney torque tester is
illustrated in Figure 8. This illustration shows how torque wrenches are checked
using any one of the three models of torque testers.

Figure 8. Torque Tester Application

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(1) When you use the torque tester to check a torque wrench, you should
proceed as follows:

Mount torque wrench on torque tester.

Pull torque wrench slowly and smoothly to desired torque.

Check reading of torque wrench against reading of torque tester.

Repeat the two steps directly preceding this one at least twice.

(2) An average of three or more readings gives the amount of error

introduced by the torque wrench, and the variation between readings shows whether
or not you are pulling the torque wrench correctly. This completes our discussion
of the Sweeney type torque calibrators. Now compare the Sweeney operating
principle with the construction and operating principle for the Baldwin type torque
calibrator.

8. Baldwin Type Torque Calibrator. If your shop is equipped with a model 4 torque
wrench tester, various types of torque wrenches and handles can be calibrated
quickly and accurately. The tester is designed for preset (clickoff or breaking)
type wrenches. You can test beam, flexible hose, and other types of torque
wrenches on this equipment if the proper adapters are available and the wrench is
within the equipment range. The tester accommodates wrenches with square drives up
to 1 inch in size with pressure capabilities up to 2000 foot-pounds. To increase
your ability in the use of the tester, you must learn more of the instrument's
torque application system and the instrument's torque measuring system.

a. Torque application system. Figure 9 is included so that you can identify

the external controls and components of the Baldwin 4 tester as the torque
application system is discussed. The Baldwin 4 torque calibrator, shown in Figure
9, is designed around the Baldwin-Lima Hamilton SR-4 strain gage transducer. The
strain gage transducer is a sensing device which uses the basic strain gage
principle for the measurement of forces, torques, and pressures. In the model k
tester, force is applied to the stationary-held torque wrench through the SR-4
transducer (torque cell). At the same time, the result of the applied force
(torque) is continuously indicated on the equipment dial, which is calibrated in
inch-pounds and foot-pounds. When you compare the torque indicated on the dial
when the wrench slips with the torque wrench settings, you can determine the
accuracy of the torque wrench scale.

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Figure 9. Baldwin 4 Operation Controls and Indicators

b. Figure 10 shows how and where various forces are applied when the torque
tester is operated and the direction which the resulting forces take. Figure 10
also shows how the adjustable stop may be positioned on the slide bar to
accommodate torque wrenches of different lengths.

(1) As is shown in Figure 6, the torque application system consists of a

pneumatic section which applies a controlled force and a mechanical section which
converts this force to a measurable torque. The piston and cylinder assembly is
the main component of the pneumatic section. Piston movement is regulated by three
control valves series-positioned in the cylinder air line. These valves are as
follows:

A rate control valve, which regulates the flow of incoming air and
consequently the rate of piston shaft movement.

An actuator valve, which directs the regulated air into the piston cylinder
or vents the piston cylinder to atmosphere.

A holding valve, which can stop piston movement by sealing off the cylinder
supply.

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Figure 10. Torque Application System

(2) The mechanical section of the torque application system is identified

in Figure 6 and is composed of the following components:

A torque lever.

A torque cell (SR-4 strain gage transducer.)

The torque wrench.

A stop and slider bar assemble (the stop is adjustable over the complete
length of the bar).

(3) The torque lever, which is the connecting link between the piston rod
and the torque cell, is pinned to the torque cell mount (a steel shaft-like piece
supported by a set of flange type ball bearings). The torque cell is assembled
directly onto the mount while the square drive of the torque wrench fits into a
compatible opening in the top of the torque cell. The handle of the torque wrench
is positioned hard against the slider bar stop.

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(4) When you place the actuator valve lever in the APPLY position,
pressurized air is introduced into the piston and cylinder assembly, causing the
piston rod to move out at the desired rate of speed, as indicated by the arrow in
Figure 10. The piston rod movement, in turn, is transmitted to the SR-4 torque
cell through the connecting torque lever so that the resultant force is as
indicated by the arrow. The result is a strain or torquing action of increasing
magnitude on both the cell and the torque wrench. The torque is developed because
the stationary-held torque wrench is mounted on the torque cell. The strain on the
cell and torque wrench continues to increase until you move the actuator valve
lever to the RELEASE position or close the holding valve.

(5) When you test preset wrenches, there is a temporary slack in strain as
the torque wrench slips at its preset value, but even in this case, the strain
continues to be exerted until one of the two previously mentioned valve positions
is changed.

c. Torque measuring system. The torque measuring system, as shown in Figure

11, is basically a simple Wheatstone bridge circuit complete with amplifier and
power supply. A motor driven dial indicator and slidewire assembly are also
included to form a null-balance type of measuring system.

Figure 11. Torque Measuring System Schematic Diagram

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(1) When you study the schematic diagram of Figure 11 and compare this
diagram with the torque application system of Figure 10, you should understand the
relationships of the bridges illustrated in Figure 11 and the operation of the
measuring system. One of the bridges (external) is located in the SR-4 cell, while
the other (internal) is located in the instrument proper. The external-bridge
resistors are actually four SR-4 strain gages, each consisting of a length of very
fine wire arranged in the form of a grid and bonded to a resin carrier.
Physically, the four strain gages are cemented to the surface of the SR-4 cell.

(2) When you activate the power switch identified in Figure 9, power (12
volts DC) is applied continuously to the two series-opposed bridges. When there is
no torque exerted on the SR-4 cell, the error voltage is zero as the outputs from
the two opposing bridges balance each other. However, as soon as a force is
exerted on the ST-4 cell, an error voltage proportional to the strain exerted on
the cell is directed to the amplifier, due to a change in bridge resistance. The
error signal is amplified to drive the motor which is connected to the indicator
dial and slide wire assembly. The slide wire is driven to change instrument bridge
resistance so as to wipe out the error signal and stop motor operation. During
this operation, the dial (mechanically connected to the motor) is continuously
indicating the value of the error voltage in either inch-pounds or foot-pounds.

d. Torque calibrator application and operation. We feel that the knowledge

you have already gained can be reinforced if we include a simplified operating
procedure for the torque calibrator. You should not attempt to memorize the
procedure. On the other hand, you should examine each step to see if you can
recognize a principle in the step or a reason for the step. The entire procedure
should be preceded by a check to see if your air supply is developing the required
80 psig.

(1) Table 2 is included so that you can understand the function of each
control mentioned in the operating procedures which follows the table. You should
refer to Table 2 and Figures 9, 10, and 11 as you study the steps in the operating
procedure. Prior to the test of a torque wrench, you should prepare the torque
calibrator as indicated in the steps which follow.

a. Place the range switch to the proper range position determined by

the size of torque wrench being tested. (Are you sure you understand the operation
of the range switch? If you are not, read the function in Table 2).

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TABLE 2. Torque Wrench Tester Controls and Indicator

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b. When the range switch is positioned for a particular wrench test,

the indicator scale to be read is illuminated.

c. Adjust the zero know of range selected for a zero indication on the
dial. (Do you understand why? If not, consult the function column of Table 2.)

d. Place the square drive of the torque wrench to be tested in the

square opening of the torque cell. Use an adapter if necessary.

e. Loosen the knurled thumb nut of the stop and slide the stop along
the slider bar until the stop is positioned at the approximate center of the torque
wrench handle.

(2) Before we proceed with the calibration preparation, let us be sure that
the two preceding steps are understood. Examine Figure 12 and Table 2 as you read
these steps again. Proceeding with steps in the calibrator preparation:

a. Tighten the stop thumb nut (horizontal adjust--Figure 12).

b. Loosen the wingnut and move the adjust block vertically until the
torque wrench is approximately level. (See Figure 12.)

c. Tighten the wingnut.

d. If the torque wrench handle is not positioned against the stop

(minimum amount of slack), it will be necessary to remove the wingnut and screw and
reverse adjustment block.

e. Set the torque wrench to the required setting for testing.

(3) When you compare the preparation steps with the actual test procedure
you should realize that the preparation of the calibrator for a test is as
important as the test. Before you start the test, you must check to be sure that
the calibration shutoff valve is open (see Figure 9 and Table 2). Follow the
calibration procedure closely so that you can move the torque actuator switch to
its RELEASE position the moment clickoff occurs. If you don’t move the switch of
the RELEASE at clickoff, the torque wrench under test may be damaged.

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Figure 12. Wrench Test Stop Adjustments

(4) After you have prepared the calibrator for a test you can proceed as
follows:

a. Place the torque actuator switch (see Figures 9, 10, and Table 2) in
the APPLY position while observing dial indicator movement.

b. At this time strain is transmitted through the torque cell to the

wrench under test. When the torque applied to the wrench reaches the preset value
of the torque wrench, an audible click should be heard.

c. Note the reading of the dial indicator at clickoff and move the
torque actuator switch to the RELEASE POSITION.

d. Compare the dial indicator reading with the scale setting of the
torque wrench under test. The readings should be within the tolerances as
specified in the technical order prepared for the wrench tested.

9. Proving Rings. Proving rings are instruments which utilize the laws of
elasticity to measure force. They come in a variety of ranges and are used as a
transfer standard to calibrate torque wrench calibrators and other force measuring
devices. Figure 13 illustrates a proving ring in place on the torque wrench
calibrator.

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Figure 13. Proving Ring Mounting

a. The proving ring is essentially a precision ring of spring steel that

compresses a given dimension when a given force is applied to it. The proving ring
if Figure 13 used a micrometer and a vibratory wand to measure the deformation of
the ring. The wand is mounted on the micrometer; and as the micrometer is
adjusted, the vibrating wand moves closer or farther away from a metal block
(called the anvil) mounted on the opposite side of the proving ring. As the
micrometer is adjusted, the vibrating action of the wand senses the exact point
where the wand first touches the anvil. Two measurements are made with the
micrometer, one before force is applied to the ring and another after force is
applied to the ring. The difference in micrometer readings is the amount of ring
distortion produced by the force.

b. To relate the distortion of the proving ring to the amount of torque that
should be sensed by the torque cell, the length of the calibration arm must be
considered. Table 3 lists the calibration lengths for different ranges of the
ranges of the torque wrench tester. As you can see from Table 3, the longer the
Calibration arm, the higher the torque range that can be calibrated.

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TABLE 3. Calibration Arm Size

c. Because no metal is perfectly elastic, calibration charts are made for

each individual proving ring. These charts indicate the amount of deformation for
different loads as checked against a standard. Another important factor in the use
of proving rings is temperature. Since proving rings are calibrated at a standard
temperature, use at other temperatures results in errors that must be compensated
for. Therefore, a chart for temperature corrections is also provided for each
proving ring.

d. Accurate use of proving rings requires the use of both types of charts as
well as the use of the proper calibration arm. Calibration and certification of
the proving ring is reaccomplished periodically by comparison with a standard of
greater accuracy. If necessary, the correction charts are reaccomplished at this
time.

e. In using the proving ring to calibrate torque wrench calibrators, you must
be aware of several precautions. Proving rings are very precise instruments, and
they can easily be damaged beyond repair. Since large forces are involved in using
the proving ring, improper use can be very dangerous. Some of the more important
precautions are listed below.

(1) Be sure that you read and understand all of the instructions before
beginning a calibration procedure. Follow directions exactly and double check your
work. It is recommended that two people perform the calibration procedure. One
person can manipulate and read the proving ring and the other person can operate
the tester and read its dial indications.

(2) Be sure that the proving ring is positioned properly before force is
applied to it. If the proving ring is not positioned properly with respect to the
force applied to it, the ring may snap out of the calibrator and strike you or
other personnel in the area.

(3) Use extreme care in handling the proving ring to prevent dropping or
striking it. A proving ring that has been dropped or jarred severely must be
recalibrated before use. Do not overload the proving ring.

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(4) Avoid handling the proving ring with your bare hands. Fingerprints may
cause damaging etch spots on the proving ring. Also, the heat from you can
increase the temperature of the proving ring and induce errors.

10. You have completed the reading material for this chapter. Answer the review
exercises for this chapter; they will help you to understand the information
presented.

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ACCP SUBCOURSE NUMBER SM0486

MECHANICAL AND ELECTRO-MECHANICAL MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES

EXERCISES FOR LESSON 3

1. Three ways to measure angular rotation are

a. degrees, revolutions, and radians.

b. RPM, radians and revolutions.

c. radians, velocity, and RPM.

d. degrees, revolutions, and velocity.

2. A radian is equal to approximately

a. 360°. c. 60.3°.

b. 90°. d. 57.3°.

3 The output of any shaft can be increased or decreased by means of

a. speed converters. c. transducers.

b. mechanical reducers. d. rotary reducers.

4. The pulses of light which contact the photocell are generated by

a. a mechanical tachometer.

b. a disc with evenly spaced sections of reflective material.

c. light generated by the unit under test.

d. a solid white disc.

5. You are using an optical tachometer with a disc that has 4 reflective
segments. 400 pulses are counted each second. The shaft is rotating at

a. 100 rpm. c. 1600 rpm.

b. 400 rpm. d. 6000 rpm.

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6. When using a stroboscope, ambient light level must be

a. of sufficient intensity to view the rotating disc.

b. the same as the stroboscope output.

c. lower than the stroboscope output.

d. higher than the stroboscope output.

7. The built-in calibration standard of the stroboscope is a

a. vibrating reed. c. crystal oscillator

b. shaded disc. d. line frequency.

8. Irregularity in performance of a torque wrench is classified as

a. high and low error. c. consistent error.

b. overall accuracy. d. repeatability.

9. The Sweeney testers model 71, 73, and 75 uses

a. springs and gears.

b. gears and a pendulum.

c. springs and a pendulum.

d. a pinion and ball bearing assembly.

10. What pressure is required for the Baldwin type torque calibrator?

a. 4 psig c. 12 volts DC

b. 8 psig d. 80 psig

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LESSON 4. VIBRATION MEASUREMENTS AND EQUIPMENT

AIPD Subcourse Number SM0486...........Mechanical and Electro-Mechanical

Measurement Principles

Lesson Objective.......................Given learning objectives and supportive

text, you should be able to answer all
exercise questions pertaining to vibration
theory, Velocity Pickup 4-102A, Vibration
Meter 1-117, and vibration pickup
calibrators with no errors.

Credit Hours...........................One

TEXT

1. INTRODUCTION

Unwanted vibrations exist whether we like them or not. Many of the inflight
operating characteristics of jet aircraft, rockets, and missiles are affected by
mechanical vibrations can be reduced it their location and magnitude are known.
This chapter includes information on pickups, vibration meters, and vibration
pickup calibrators.

2. VIBRATION THEORY. You must increase your understanding of vibration

terminology as you learn more about the nature of different types of vibration and
vibration measurement techniques and principles.

a. Vibration Terminology. You have used many of the terms associated with
the vibration testing. It is important that you understand the meanings of these
terms and new terms as they relate to the vibration measurement process. Most of
the terms are defined as they are used. However, there are some terms which you
should understand before you begin a study of vibration measurements. These terms
are as follows:

FREQUENCY---Cycles per second, each cycle representing the motion-of a device

or mass from its mean position to one extreme of travel, to the other extreme, and
its return to the mean position.

DEFLECTION OR AMPLITUDE---The distance a device or mass travels from the mean

position to either extreme.

DISPLACEMENT---Represents the travel from one extreme to the other.

ACCELERATION---The maximum rate of change of velocity during a cycle.

Acceleration is expressed technically in centimeters or feet per second.

b. When you examine the first term listed, you may question the definition
provided for frequency. Since a vibrating body moves a maximum distance from a
reference point and then moves a maximum distance in the

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opposite direction, it moves through one complete cycle of motion. We admit the
waveform is not essentially that of a sine wave; nevertheless, its movement is
measured in cycles per second or vibrations per second.

c. The term "amplitude" has the same meaning for the vibration waveform that
peak value has for in AC voltage. The term "amplitude" is directly associated with
the term "displacement". Displacement values in vibration measurements are
comparable to peak-to-peak AC voltage values. Since the acceleration associated
with vibration may be expressed in feet per second per second (or feet per second
squared), you may suspect that the force of gravity is involved.

d. In aircraft work, gravity is a fundamental quantity, and the acceleration

of gravity is a unit of acceleration. This unit is called a G; one G equals
approximately 980 centimeters per second per second, or 32.2 feet per second per
second. The accelerations are specified in G's.

3. TYPES OF VIBRATION. Vibration measurements deal with a type of vibration known

as steady-state vibrations. Steady-state vibrations are not transient in nature
and continue until the primary cause of the vibration is shut down or eliminated.

a. One of the fundamental causes of vibration in machinery and rotating

equipment is imbalance in the rotating components. This imbalance may be
considered as a heavy spot, or weight, for which there is no compensation. Such
imbalance can be reduced by having an equivalent weight located on the opposite
side of-the rotating component directly opposite the heavy spot. You have probably
experienced this imbalance in the tires on your car. In such cases you merely have
your wheels balanced by the proper placement of weights. If you have watched the
device used in wheel balancing, you saw how a stroboscopic instrument was used to
position the weight and remove the imbalance.

b. Imbalance may also be though of in the sense that each rotating component
has a mass center. If this mass center is not physically located at the same point
as the rotating center, the part is out of balance when rotating. Thus it may be
seen that balance is affected by concentricity as it is affected by heavy spots.

c. Imbalance involves both a weight and a distance function. Standard terms

which are most often used when referring to imbalance are "ounce inches", "gram
inches", "micro ounce inches", and "pound inches". If a 2-gram weight is added to
a part which has previously been balanced and the weight is placed 5 inches from
the center of rotation, an imbalance of 10 gram inches exists in the rotating part.
If a weight of 10 grams is added at a radius of 1 inch, the imbalance is 10 gram
inches. An imbalance of 10 gram inches manifests itself in the same manner and
causes the same amount of vibration without regard to whether a large weight was
added at a small radius or a small weight was added at a large radius. The number
of gram inches determines the severity of the unbalanced condition and the
resulting vibration.

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d. If a rotating part is not concentric with its axis of rotation, imbalance

results. The extent of the imbalance depends upon the number of gram inches or
ounce inches of imbalance introduced. As an example, if a 20-pound (320 ounce)
pulley is mounted two thousandths inch (.002") off center, the imbalance is 320 x
.002, or 0.64 ounce inch. The next section of this chapter discusses one of the
devices used to detect vibrations.

4. VELOCITY PICKUP 4-102A. The velocity pickup translates physical vibrations

into measurable electrical signals. The assembly is used to detect vibrations in
any single linear direction regardless of orientation. To obtain direct readings
of amplitude or average velocity, you must connect the velocity pickup to a
vibration meter.

a. Pickup Construction. Figure 1 shows an exterior view (A), a cutaway (B),

and a schematic (C) of the pickup. Examining Figure 1, you see a cylindrical
magnet mounted on helical springs. The magnet assembly responds to Vibration by
moving along the axis of a coil without coming in contact with the winding. The
coil winding is such that the direction is reversed from one end to the other, thus
forming two separate sections connected electrically at the center of the coils.

b. Pickup Operation. The schematic diagram of Figure C, shows how the pickup
coil is wound. As the pickup vibrates with the member to which it has been
attached, the magnet assembly tends to become stationary in space, though moving
with respect to the coil. This motion causes the coil windings to cut magnetic
flux and produce a voltage which is directly proportional to the velocity of
motion. Since the two sections of the coil are wound in opposing directions, the
voltages induced are additive, thus doubling the sensitivity of the velocity pickup
assembly.

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Figure 1. Velocity Pickup 4-102A

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c. Pickup Attachment. You attach the pickup to the part being tested so that
there is no loose motion between the part and the pickup. The point at which
vibration is to be measured must be considered in the installation of the pickup
assembly. When desirable, the pickup may be secured to a rigid probe which can be
held manually Against the point to be checked. The weight of the pickup, or of the
pickup together with the probe, should be less than one-tenth the weight of the
vibrating member. Weights heavier than one-tenth the weight of the vibrating
member will load the member and produce false readings.

d. Pickup Sensitivity.

(1) The pickup is designed for sensitivity along the axis of the magnet
assembly motion. In this respect, the pickup is sufficiently insensitive to motion
across the sensitive axis to be used to establish the angular orientation of a
plane of vibration. When you attach a pickup, its installation on the Vibrating
member must be in alignment with the desired direction of measurement. This
characteristic is important when you are attaching a pickup to a vibrating member
or probe.

(2) The output of this velocity pickup is fed to a-vibration meter which
interprets vibration characteristics. Vibration meters require periodic
calibration to insure the accuracy of their indicating devices. The pickup
sensitivity (corrected sensitivity) must be known in millivolts per inch per second
when working into the 10 kilohm input resistance of a vibration meter. If the
corrected sensitivity is not provided in the manufacturer's specifications, it can
be calculated by using the circuit diagram of Figure 2 and the formula which
follows:

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Figure 2. Equivalent Circuit of Vibration Meter Input

(3) Referring to Figure 2 and the preceding formula, if E is known to be

9.0 millivolts per degree per second and R1 is known to be 700 ohms, using the
equation for corrected sensitivity

gives the following sample calculation:

(4) When the manufacturer's specifications do not give the open circuit
voltage but state the voltage across some resistive load other than 10 kilohms, you
can calculate the corrected sensitivity as follows:

Designate E3 as the voltage known.

Designate R3 as the resistive load known.

Calculate E1, the corrected sensitivity.

With E3 known to be 105 millivolts per inch per second R3 to be 150

kilohms, and E1 to be 750 ohms, the following sample calculation is given:

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5. VIBRATION METER 1-117

a. This meter is a small, portable precision instrument which, if used in

conjunction with self-generating or torsional pickups, measures the average
velocity and peak-to-peak displacement of mechanical vibrations. Vibration
frequency can be calculated from the velocity and displacement settings. The
instrument has four input channels, each of which accommodates any self-generating
pickup with characteristics compatible with the meter. Sensitivity controls
independently adjust each channel to the type of pickup being used. The output of
the selected channel is normally read on the meter directly, either as displacement
(peak-to-peak distance in miles) or average velocity (inches per second). Let's
examine the meter panel controls and the operation and calibration of the meter.

Figure 3. Vibration Meter Front Panel

b. Panel Controls. All of the operating controls are placed on the front
panel of the instrument. The scope jack J-7, indicating meter, a pilot light, and
the power switch S-5 are also located on this panel. These controls, switches, and
the indicator can be seen in Figure 3.

(1) Indicating meter M-1 reads average vibrating velocity in inches per
second or tens of degrees per second. It also reads peak-to-peak displacement of
vibratory motion in thousandths of an inch (mils) or hundredths of a degree.
Values are read from the upper or lower scale, depending on the range selector
setting. Either average velocity or peak-to-peak displacement is indicated,
depending on the operation selector (S-4) setting.

(2) A channel selector (S-1 in Figure 3) connects any one of four vibration
pickup channels (and its sensitivity control) to the amplifier

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of the meter. The connection is made through the input network. The four
sensitivity controls are located in the lower center of the panel. The appropriate
control is switched into the circuit being operated by use of the channel selector.
The input network selector S-3 chooses one of three networks to be used with the
operating circuit. The OUT position of the network selector is used to apply the
unfiltered pickup signal directly to the attenuator amplifier. A calibrate signal
switch and potentiometer (s-6 and R-35) taps a portion of the filament supply
voltage to provide the attenuation amplifier with an adjustable calibration
voltage. The voltage regulator for the supply distorts the sine wave; however, the
resultant wave is suitable for setting the gain of the first half of the amplifier.

(3) Operation selector switch S-4 is used in selecting the calibration,

velocity, or displacement function of the meter. In addition, the switch provides
two ranges of sensitivity for each measurement function. Range switch S-2 is a 7-
position attenuator whose setting indicates the full-scale meter reading. The
reading must be multiplied by the factor indicated on the operation selector.

c. Operation. As a technician you need to know the relationships existing

between the panel controls, meter circuits, and operation procedures. The primary
circuits of the vibration meter are shown in Figure 4. The signal from the
vibration pickup is fed into an attenuation network in such a manner that the
pickup in each channel always looks into a fixed impedance.

Figure 4. Vibration Meter Block Diagram

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(1) The diagram in Figure 4 indicates that the signal from the pickup goes
to the amplifier section. This section consists of two parts: the first with
adjustable gain; the second with fixed gain. For velocity measurements, the two
sections are connected in series by a linear attenuator network. For displacement
measurements, this linear network, is replaced by an integrator. During
calibration, the fixed-gain amplifier and meter circuitry are used to adjust a
"calibrate signal" voltage to the proper value. This voltage is then applied to
the input of the instrument. When this is done, the gain may be adjusted to permit
direct reading of velocity or displacement from the meter. In a practical
application, you must fasten the pickup securely to the machine or structure under
study. You must locate the point of vibration and fasten the pickup at that point.

(2) In some instances the pickup is attached to a lightweight, rigid probe

and held manually against the vibration checkpoint. The average velocity may be
read directly from the meter. The frequency of vibration may be calculated from
the reading of displacement and velocity by the use of the following equation.
With f representing the frequency of vibration (cycles per second), Vaverage as the
average velocity of vibration (inches per second), and D as the peak-to-peak
displacement in inches, the equation reads:

(3) When you operate the equipment to measure vibration, certain

preliminary control settings are made as follows:

Turn the calibrate signal and sensitivity controls to full counterclockwise

positions.

Turn the range control to its OFF position.

Leave the input network and channel selectors in any position.

Connect the meter powerline cord to 115 volts AC. Turn the power switch to
its ON position.

(4) After you complete the preliminary control settings, you must complete
a series of meter circuit checks. You perform the zero test by indexing the
operation selector through the V x 1.0, D x 1.0, and D x 0.1 positions. A reading
of not more than 2 percent of full scale should be obtained, indicating a noise
level of less than 2 percent. You continue the meter circuit tests with the
calibrate signal test. Turn the operation selector to C and then depress the
calibrate signal knob for a one-third to full-scale deflection of the pointer. Set
the meter indicator at 5 on the lower scale and release the calibrate signal knob,
preparatory to the sensitivity control test.

(5) When you perform the sensitivity control test, index the channel
selector to each of its four positions. At each position, the output meter reads
full scale when the applicable channel sensitivity control is

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turned clockwise, if the circuit is operating properly. After the preliminary

circuit checks and control settings have been made, the measurement procedure
should be performed as follows:

(a) If pickups being used are not connected, they should be plugged into
meter circuits as required.

(b) Calibrate or match each pickup with the channel in which it is used.

(c) Locate or mount the pickup firmly on the structure to be measured.

For some studies, a pickup may be manually attached to the structure member with
screws and bolts.

(d) Set the channel selector for connection with the pickup whose output
is being metered.

(e) If a pickup signal is to be metered without the use of filters or

other modifying methods, turn the input network control to its OUT position.

(f) If you use filters or similar devices in the metering circuit, turn
the input network control to its proper number in order to introduce the desired
conditioning effect on the signal. The filtering unit must be plugged into its
proper internal socket.

(g) To measure peak-to-peak displacement, turn the operation selector to

one of the D positions.

(h) For average velocity measurement, turn the operation selector to one
of the V positions. You should adjust the range switch so that meter readings will
be above midscale. If the switch is set to the 5, 50, or 500 position, read the
upper scale figures. If the switch is set to the 15, 150, or 1500 position, read
the lower group of figures.

(6) You can use any readout device whose characteristics are compatible
with the vibration meter.

d. Meter Calibration. Although you are required to calibrate all precision

measuring equipment in accordance with the procedures outlined in technical
bulletins, the calibration of the meter is important enough that some of the
individual steps should be included in this section. We are not interested in
teaching a procedure, but we hope that the inclusion of the steps in the procedure
helps you to understand the principles applied when the meter is calibrated.

(1) In order to assure the proper calibration of a vibration meter, the

pickup must be calibrated as previously discussed. The corrected sensitivity for
the pickup must also be calibrated. After preliminaries have been completed, the
internal test voltage can be used in the calibration of the meter. You should
proceed as follows:

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(a) calculate the corrected sensitivity of the pickup and divide the
corrected sensitivity of pickup by 10.

(b) With the input network and range selectors in any position, set the
channel selector to the channel to be calibrated. (The pickup may be either
connected or disconnected.)

(c) Turn the operation selector to C and then depress and turn the
calibrate signal control. Turn the control until the meter indication as read on
the lower scale corresponds to the corrected sensitivity in millivolts per inch per
second divided by 10, as previously calculated.

(d) Release the calibrate signal control and adjust the meter to read
full scale by using the sensitivity control applicable to the channel in which a
pickup is to be used.

(e) Each channel using a pickup is calibrated according to the procedure

discussed in the previous steps. In each case, the appropriate channel sensitivity
control should be used.

(2) In the preceding steps of the calibration procedure, you are adjusting
the sensitivity of the meter to the corrected sensitivity of the pickup. This
completes our discussion of the vibration meter. Let's proceed to the typical
pickup calibrator.

6. VIBRATION PICKUP CALIBRATORS. The material covered in this chapter is included

to help you understand how mechanical vibrations can be detected by means of a
pickup and how the displacement or velocity resulting from the vibration can be
measured by using a typical vibration meter. A typical meter calibration procedure
is included so that you can know the basic steps involved in assuring that the
vibration meter sensitivity matched that of the pickup. Information is included in
this section to help you understand how vibration pickups are calibrated. We will
discuss the major components of the PC1-A Vibration Pickup Calibrator, its
operating theory, and the procedure need to calibrate a pickup.

a. Vibration Exciter. The vibration exciter consists of two major

components: the body structure and the moving element assembly.

(1) The body structure contains two permanent magnets which are used to
supply two separate field of magnetic force across annular air gaps. The moving
element assembly consists essentially of the following:

Driver coil.

A signal generating coil.

An exciter table.

Two support flexures.

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A connecting rod.

(2) The moving element assembly is mounted in the body structure so that
the two rod-connected coils are centered in the annular air gaps of the two
permanent magnets. The two flexures serve to position the coils and to constrain
the reciprocating movement of the element assembly.

b. Electric Panel Assembly. The electric panel assembly is equipped to

provide the following:

An alternating electric current to the driver coil.

Amplification of the signal from the generator coil.

Control of the amplitude of vibration produced at the exciter table.

Amplification of the electric signal received from the vibration pickup

under test.

A means of comparing the signal voltages of the vibration pickup and the
signal generator.

c. Operating Theory. Figure 5 will help you to understand the operating

principle of the calibrator.

(1) Locate the AC input on the circuit, you can see that the 115-volt input
power is applied to a transformer containing two secondary coils. The first
secondary reduces the input voltage to 3.5 volts AC, which is used to energize the
driver coil of the calibrator's moving element. The remaining secondary coil
raises the input voltage to 125 volts. Leads from this secondary are wired into a
selenium rectifier and voltage-doubler circuit which produces 250 volts B+ supply
for the amplifier circuit.

(2) The operation of the PC1-A exciter mechanism and its signal generator
is based upon fundamental principles of electromagnetic theory. Alternating
current, at 3.5 volts, is passed through the driver coil of the moving element from
the transformer. This current creates an alternating magnetic field around the
driver coil. Because the driver coil is located in the air gap of a strong
permanent magnet, an interplay of magnetic forces takes place whenever the driver
coil is energized. The alternating characteristic of the flux field around the
coil, reacting against the permanent magnet field, imparts a reciprocating movement
to the driver coil so that it moves in and out of the permanent magnet air gap
within the limits imposed by available voltage.

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Figure 5. Pickup Calibrator Schematic

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(3) The reciprocating movement of the driver coil is transferred to the

signal generator coil by the connecting rod. The signal generator coil is forced
to move in and out of the fixed magnetic field of the signal generator permanent
magnet at the same rate as that produced at the driver coil. The cutting of
magnetic lines of force by the wires of the signal generator coil produces a
voltage at the terminals of the coil.

(4) The third component of the moving element assembly (the exciter table)
is attached to the same rod as the driver coil and the signal generator coil. All
three moving element components are thus forced to move in the same manner and at
the same rate. Since the table and the signal generator coil are moving at the
same rate, and since the voltage produced by the movement of the signal generator
coil through the air gap of the signal generator permanent magnet is proportional
to the rate of coil movement, the voltage output of the signal generator coil can
be used as an indication of table velocity.

(5) Examine the input circuits in Figure 5, you can see that the output
voltage of either the calibrator signal generator or the vibration pickup under
test can be fed to the amplifier circuit depending on the selected position of a
two-pole, double-throw switch mounted on the panel. In one of the selector switch
positions, the value of the output of the amplified calibrator signal generator or
vibration pickup is controlled by two variable resistors arranged in series. This
hookup permits vernier adjustment to the desired value. Amplitude of vibration
produced at the calibrator table is controlled by a panel-mounted rheostat, which
controls the current in the moving element driver coil.

(6) The signal generator output across the null indicator meter is adjusted
by a calibrated potentiometer. The potentiometer is equipped with a calibrated
dial that reads directly in sensitivity units of millivolts per inch per second.
An AC output jack is tied in between the calibrated potentiometer and the amplifier
to provide a means of reading actual calibrator signal generator voltage output
with an accessory vacuum tube voltmeter during testing of the calibrator, after
repair or overhaul. Any meter or other device plugged into the output jack must
have a high input impedance (2 megohms or larger) to prevent loading the signal
generator or pickup coils.

d. Calibrator Application. Before we proceed to the calibration of a pickup,

let's examine the instrument panel and the controls which you use in the
calibration of a pickup. The controls and panel components are shown in Figure 6.

(1) The model PC1-A calibrator meter panel provides the means of comparing
vibration pickup voltages with the output of the signal generator. The panel is
equipped with an on-off power switch which controls the operating voltage for the
circuits represented on the panel and to the voltage needed for the exciter's
driver coil. The amplitude of the exciter table's movement is limited by the
position of the amplitude control.

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The amplifier gain control is used to vary the voltage amplification of the
vibration pickup and signal generator outputs. The outer knob is used for coarse
adjustments, and the inner knob is used for fine adjustments. Both adjustments are
used to center the null meter pointer. Additional controls and accessories located
on the meter panel are as follows:

Pickup input phone jack--feeds the pickup input to the meter panel.

AC output phone jack--to facilitate signal generator or pickup output

monitoring.

Pickup/signal generator selector switch--allows selection of output of

either the signal generator or the vibration pickup.

Null indicator meter--used to determine when the pickup output and signal
generator output are balanced. The meter is most sensitive in the center
position.

Sensitivity control--adjusts signal generator output across null indicator

meter.

Figure 6. Pickup Calibrator Front Panel

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(2) The calibrator is designed to test vibration pickups that register in either
the vertical or horizontal position. You have to determine the type of pickup
being tested and position it according to its orientation axis (vertical or
horizontal). For vertical operation, place the case on a firm support with the
cover at the top. For horizontal operation, place the case so that when the cover
is removed, the meter panel is vertical and faces in your direction. Mount the
pickup to be calibrated on the PC1-A exciter table with the rear end of the pickup
away from the operator. The table is provided with four holes tapped for No. 6-32
NC-2 threaded bolts. Selection of the proper size mounting bolts and table
mounting bolt holes depends on the type of vibration pickup being calibrated.

(3) The preliminaries are over. You can proceed with the pickup
calibration, using the procedure which follows. As you read each step of the
procedure, locate the component in Figures 5 and 6.

(a) Connect the voltage output cable of the vibration pickup to the
meter panel by means of the jack marked PICKUP INPUT. Do not connect the vibration
pickup signal voltage output cable to the calibrator jack marked AC OUTPUT. This
jack is used only to measure the voltage output of the calibrator signal generator
during overhaul adjustment of the calibrator itself.

(b) Attach the power cord of the calibrator to an electrical power

source which produces a regulated input of 115-volt, 50-60 cycle, single-phase
alternating current.

(c) Rotate the knob marked AMPLITUDE to the full counterclockwise

position (minimum amplitude) and move the calibrator power switch to the ON
position. After the pilot lamp lights, move the signal selector switch marked
PICKUP/SIG GEN to PICKUP.

(d) Rotate the amplitude adjustment to an appropriate midpoint between

the arrow and the maximum position and adjust the amplifier gain knob until the
null indicator meter registers a zero reading. You should not handle the tester
excessively when in use since this can affect the sensitivity readings.

(e) Throw the signal selector switch to SIG GEN and adjust the
calibrator potentiometer knob marked MV/IN/SEC MULTIPLY X 10 until the null
indicator dial is zeroed.

(f) Taking care not to disturb the adjustment of the calibrator, throw
the signal switch to its PICKUP position. The null indicator should remain at
zero. If a zero null indicator reading is not obtained, repeat steps b, c, d, and
e until there is no change in the null indicator reading when the selector switch
is thrown from SIC GEN to PICKUP.

(g) Read and record the vibration pickup sensitivity directly from the
calibrator potentiometer in terms of millivolts per inch per second.

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(4) Before shutting down the calibrator with the power switch, reduce the
amplitude of vibration to a minimum by rotating the amplitude control knob to the
full counterclockwise position of its adjustment range. You should use the tester
only on a rigid surface, preferably in the same area, each time pickups are tested.
An oscilloscope must be used with the tester in order to observe the waveform being
generated by the pickup.

(5) This completes the operating procedure used with the pickup calibrator.
You are required to calibrate the pickup calibrator. However, since you must use
the procedure outlined in the TB, explanation of the calibration procedure is not
included in this course.

(6) Before you begin the next lesson, be sure to answer the exercise
questions.

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ACCP SUBCOURSE NUMBER SM0486

MECHANICAL AND ELECTRO-MECHANICAL MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES

EXERCISES FOR LESSON 4

1. A major cause of vibration is the

a. strobscope.

b. imbalance of the rotating parts.

c. displacement of the rotating parts.

d. weight added to the counterpoise.

2. A velocity pickup is used to

a. measure the velocity of a moving object.

b. connect the vibration meter to the cylindrical magnet.

c. measure the revolutions per minute (RPM) of a rotating shaft.

d. translate vibrations into electrical signals.

3. The input impedance of a vibration meter is

a. 10 kilohms. c. 600 ohms.

b. 1 kilohm. d. 50 ohms.

4. The vibration meter 1-117 has

a. a variable frequency filter.

b. an average velocity filter.

c. four input channels.

d. three external monitor jacks.

5. The meter reading obtained from the vibration meter

a. is direct reading.

b. must be multiplied by the factor indicated on the operation selector.

c. is direct reading for peak-to-peak displacement.

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d. is direct reading for average velocity.

6. You are performing the sensitivity control test. If operating properly, the
output meter will indicate

a. half scale on all channel positions.

b. full scale on all channel positions.

c. full scale for channel 1 and 2 and half scale for channel 3 and 4.

d. half scale for channels 1 and 2 and full scale for channels 3 and 4.

7. The sensitivity of the vibration meter is adjusted

a. to the corrected sensitivity of the pickup.

b. to the sensitivity of the pickup.

c. for maximum sensitivity.

d. for minimum sensitivity.

8. The electric panel of the pickup calibrator provides

a. amplification of the driver coil.

b. a direct current to the driver coil.

c. control of the vibration produced by the coil.

d. a means of comparing the signal voltages of the vibration pickup and

the signal generator.

9. What voltage is passed through the driver coil of the PC1-A exciter?

a. .35 V DC c. 3.5 V DC

b. .35 V AC d. 3.5 V AC

10. Vibration pickup sensitivity is read

a. directly in volts per inch per second.

b. directly in millivolts per inch per second.

c. indirectly in millivolts per inch per second.

d. directly in millivolts per inch per second, after applying correction

factors.

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LESSON 5. WEIGHTS AND BALANCES

AIPD Subcourse Number SM0486...........Mechanical and Electro-Mechanical

Measurement Principles

Lesson Objective.......................Given learning objectives and supportive

text you should be able to answer all
exercise questions pertaining to mass and
its measurements, and the analytical (micro)
balance with no error.

Credit Hours...........................One

TEXT

1. INTRODUCTION

The training information in this chapter is a continuation of your training in

the areas of length, mass, and time measurements. This chapter is designed to help
you increase your knowledge of the principles applied when weights and balances are
used in mass measurements. A review of mass measurement principles is combined
with construction and operation principles to help you become proficient at your
job. The sections in this chapter teach the fundamental theories of mass and its
measurements; construction and operation principles for bullion balances; metric
analytical balances, and the weights associated with each type of balance.

2. MASS AND ITS MEASUREMENT

a. The mass of an object is a measure of its inertia. Inertia is usually

defined as that general property of matter which causes a body in motion to remain
in motion or a body at rest to remain at rest unless acted upon by an external
force. Any discussion on mass and balances must also include a discussion of
weights, since in our gravitional environment any mass always exhibits the property
of weight. The relationship between mass and weight is so inseparable that mass
determinations by means of comparing unknown weights to reference standards are
referred to as "weighing processes."

b. Mass Standards. The metric standard of mass in the kilogram. Smaller

units are used in the measurements you perform. Mass standards similar to the one
in Figure 1 are generally called weights. The National Bureau of Standards, in
order to identify weights as to their general precision, stability, and use, has
set up classifications for different weights. Although not mandatory, this scheme
has found wide acceptance in commerce and industry. Weights, as described by NBS,
are divided into four basic classifications, which are:

(1) Precision Laboratory Standards.

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(2) General Laboratory Weights.

(3) Commercial Standards (state references, working and field standards

used in law enforcement).

(4) Trade Weights (weights used in the sale of commodities and services).

Figure 1. Mass Standards

c. Since all mass standards (weights) are basically the same, with exceptions
such as manufacturing tolerances and requirements, we restrict our instruction to
weight classification 1, which is typical of all classifications. Classification 1
is made up of four separate groups or classes of weights, which are:

Class J - Metric weights designed as mg standards.

Class M - Metric weights designed as reference standards for work of the

highest precision.

Class S - Metric weights designed as working standards for the calibration

of other weights.

Class S-1 Precision weights used for routine analytical work. Included
weights are expressed in units of avoirdupois, apothecary, and
troy, as well as metric weights.

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d. Although the information presented is used on tolerances, denominations

and materials, weights in all classes must meet the following NBS requirements:

Material - hardness, corrosion resistance, contamination, magnetic

properties, density.

Design - general shape, thickness, number of pieces.

Surface - irregularities, porosity.

Denominations - systems of units, numerical series.

Tolerances - acceptance, maintenance.

Marking - identification.

Handling - lifters.

e. Tolerances. We don't include all of the classes into which weights are
divided. The classes identified are included so that you realize differences
between weights used in your laboratory. The list which follows compares
acceptance and maintenance tolerances for some of the different classes of weights.

TABLE 1. Classes of Weights

f. From the preceding list of comparisons, you should conclude that a single
class of weights has an acceptance tolerance which each weight-must meet when
manufactured and a maintenance tolerance which each weight must meet while it is in
use. As indicated in the preceding list of comparisons, weights of different sizes
within a given class may or may not be the same.

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g. Characteristics. Some classes of weights have provisions for adding or

removing small amounts of weight for adjustment purposes. Class S and S-1 weights
have removable knobs which cover a small chamber within the weight. Small filings
or shot added to or removed from the chamber are used to trim the weights to
maintain tolerance such as those in the preceding list. Weights of one class
generally are supplied in sets such as those shown in Figure 2. Weight sets are
delivered in various denomination sequences; however, the most common acceptable
sequences are: 5-3-2-1, 5-2-2-1, or 8-4-2-1. The sequences listed are in the
descending order. In some instances you may see them identified in the ascending
order.

h. The usual 1-2-2-5 weight arrangement and the recently established 1-2-3-6
sequences are related to a binary-coded-decimal (BCD) sequence. In some instances
a true binary sequence has replaced the BCD sequence because the use of four
weights in 16 possible combinations expands their range by a factor of 1.6 without
additional decoding problems. The consideration of BCD versus binary coded systems
is a matter of decreasing the search-steps (trial and error weight matching) to a
minimum, and at the same time reducing the maximum number of weights required.

i. Materials. Weight measurements are subjected to errors caused by

humidity, absorption, desorption, wear, influence of electrostatic charges, and
temperature effects. These effects tend to cause temporary or permanent changes in
the value of the standard weights, thereby producing weight measurement errors. In
an effort to reduce the errors caused by the changes in materials, large mass
standards are usually restricted to the following material:

Platinum-iridium (90% - 10%)

Platinum

Stainless steel (25% chromium, 20% nickel)

Nonmagnetic nickel chromium (80% - 20%)

Brass-plated with rhodium, platinum, or chromium.

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Figure 2. Weight Sets and their Case

j. The materials are listed in the order of their preference with regard to
stability. The first four materials are also considered applicable for use in
smaller weights, in addition to materials such as gold (alloy), tantalum, and
aluminum. It is important to assume that the total error caused by changes in any
of the materials in the preceding list does not exceed one to ten parts per million
(ppm).

k. Mass Measurements. Since weight is the force with which a mass or body is
attracted to the center of the earth (the pull gravity), mass measurements
determine the force W (weight) produced in a gravitational field: W = (M) (G).
This force depends on gravity (G) which varies with latitude and altitude. Known
masses whose values are calibrated for specific locations are sometimes used. The
process by which an unknown weight (mass) is compared with a calibrated weight
(mass) is called a weighing.

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l. Simple comparisons. The simple method of comparing two weights is to let

them hang from opposite ends of a lever which is supported and pivoted at its
center. Exact measurements require that you know the ratio of the beam (lever)
arms; that you suspend the weights from equal, corresponding points from each of
the ends of the beam; and that the friction at the pivot point be reduced to its
lowest value.

m. Measurement methods. Some of the methods used for weight measurements are
as follows:

(1) Direct method - Place the sample (unknown) weight on one of the pans
suspended from one of the beam (lever) arms, and the calibrated weights on the
other pan.

(2) Transposition method - Perform two successive direct weighings,

reversing the sample and weight positions in the second weighing.

(3) Substitution method - Place the unknown in the right pan and
counterbalance with calibrated metal weights placed in the left pan. Bring the
balance into equilibrium, first by the addition of weights to the left-hand pan and
second by the movement of the left-hand rider (metal accessory placed on the beam)
while the right-hand rider remains at zero. Replace the unknown in the right pan
with standard weights and move the right rider to the same equilibrium point as
before. The weight of the unknown is the sum of the substituted weights and the
reading of the rider.

n. Let us examine each of the measurement methods listed to be sure that you
understand the principle used. In the statement which described the direct weight
measurement method, we are referring to the use of a balance such as the one
represented in Figure 3. When the calibrated weights on the right pan
counterbalance the unknown mass on the left pan, the weights of the known and
unknown masses should be within 3 to 5 grams of each other. The condition whereby
the two weights are nearly equal is evidenced by the fact that the instrument
pointer no longer moves. When the nearly balanced condition is reached, the pan
arrests (devices designed to restrict the movement of pans) are released. The pans
are released so that the right-hand rider on the beam shown in Figure 4 can be
manipulated until the pointer in Figure 3 remains between the extreme graduation
marks on the scale. After you bring the balance into approximate equilibrium, the
total weight on the left hanger (unknown mass) is the sum of:

(1) The weights on the right side.

(2) The effective weight of the rider or beam weight determined by its
position.

(3) Plus or minus the swing of the pointer interpreted in milligrams.

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Figure 3. Representative Balance Assembly

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Figure 4. Beam with Rider

o. You interpret the beam information in Figure 4 by noting the location of

the rider on the beam and considering the weight of the rider. If you move a 10-mg
rider from zero (at the center) to 10 at the right side of the beam, it has the
same effect as-placing a 10-mg weight on the right pan in Figure 3. Leave the
riders on the beam to prevent a change in the center of gravity of the moving
system. This change is often caused by the removal and replacement of riders.

p. Our description of the transposition method of weight measurement needs

clarification. Your first step is the determination of the unknown by the direct
weighing method. Next, you transpose the loads (move the unknown and standard to
opposite pans) so that the unknown weight (mass) is on the left pan. After a
second reading is taken, determine the true

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weight of the unknown by extracting the square root of the product of the two
weighings. You can approximate the true value of the unknown mass simply by taking
the average of the two weighings (one half the algebraic difference of the two
added to the smaller). Because our description of the substitution method of
weight measurement was quite extensive, an expansion is not necessary.

3. ANALYTICAL (MICRO) BALANCE

a. In this section we discuss the conversion of units between the

avoirdupois, troy, and apothecary mass measurement systems. In addition, we
discuss factors which must be considered in mass measurements. The factors
discussed are buoyancy volume, density, and sensitivity. After we establish
relationships between buoyancy and volume and density, we discuss the sensitivity
of a balance. The section ends with explanations of the construction and operation
of a typical analytical balance.

b. Mass Measurement Systems. Although the kilogram is an accepted standard

for mass measurements, most manufacturers use the avoirdupois system, which is
based on the ton, pound, dram, and grain. The basis for any of the three systems
mentioned is the grain. The grain, which is the same in all three systems, is
defined as being equal to .064798918 grams, or conversely:

15.432356 grains = 1 gram

The relative magnitude of the units in each systems follows:

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c. The numbers directly to the right of the terms indicate the conversion
between adjacent units, while the number to the far right indicates the number of
grains per pound. Notice that the basic difference between the troy and apothecary
systems is the terms employed to subdivide the pound. The troy and apothecary
systems are used very little and restricted to highly specialized fields. The
preceding list of values indicates the necessity to identify the system of units
used for each measurement.

d. If 1 grain is equal to 15.432356 grains as stated, we can check the

relationships of the value listed for the different weight measuring systems.
Examples:

(1) In the avoirdupois system, 27.343 grains x 16 grams equals

approximately 437 grains per ounce. When you divide 437 grains by 15.432356 (one
gram), you find that 1 avoirdupois ounce is equal to approximately 28.3 grams per
ounce. Multiplying 28.3 grams per ounce by 16 ounces per pound, you find that
there are approximately 452 grams in 1 pound. (AVOIRDUPOIS)

(2) In the troy system, 24 grains x 20 pennyweights equals approximately

480 grains per ounce. When you divide 480 grains by 15.432356 grains (one gram),
you find that 1 troy ounce is equal to approximately 31.1 grams per ounce.
Multiplying 31.1 grams per ounce by 12 ounces per pound, you find that there are
approximately 373 grams-in one pound. (TROY)

e. For your convenience Table 2 lists conversion factors for most of the
common mass units. You should be able to use the values listed to convert from one
system to another. Let's continue our study of mass measurement theory associated
with analytical balances by examining two considerations which are factors in the
accuracy of measurements made with analytical balances. These considerations are
buoyancy and sensitivity.

f. Mass Measurement Considerations. Although the material presented in this

section concerns the construction and operation of analytical balances, the
discussion of buoyancy and sensitivity which follows applies to any other mass
measurement device.

g. Buoyancy. The lifting effect which air has on a body is considered when
standard masses are used or calibrated. Any body immersed in a fluid or suspended
in air is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid or air.
Because of this buoyant force, exact numerical values of the apparent mass of
standards used with a typical analytical balance are based on specific values of
air density and the density of the standard mass.

h. The density of air depends on temperature, pressure, and humidity. From

specified values of these factors, standard conditions for air are specified as 1.2
milligrams/cm3. However, because the density of a given material is a factor in
buoyant force determinations, the comparison of weights of different densities
requires the calculation of a buoyancy correction.

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i. As an example, let's compare a 100-gram stainless steel mass with a 100-

gram brass standard and compute the buoyancy correction using a value of 10 grams
per cm3 for the density of stainless steel and a value of 8.4 grams per cm 3 for
brass. Because the volumes of the masses are factors in the buoyancy correction
computation, compute the volumes with the formulas which follow:

TABLE 2. Conversion Factors for Units of Mass

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Figure 5. Type ION Analytical Balance

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You determine the volume of the brass standard by using the first formula, and
substituting the given values for the mass and density of brass.

You determine the volume of the stainless steel mass by using the second formula
and substituting the given values for the mass and density of the stainless steel
mass.

Because the buoyant effect is proportional to the difference between the two
volumes, the volumetric difference is found by

ΔV = VBr - Vas
= 11.9 cm3 - 10 cm3
= l.9 cm3

j. Knowing that the volume of a mass can be determined from the formula V =
M, we can transpose values in the formula to develop the formula for mass in terms
P
of volume and density, M = (V)(p). Using 1.9 cm3 (the

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difference of the two volumes) and 0.0012 gm/cm3 (the density of air), we determine
the value (in terms of mass) of the error caused by the buoyancy of air is

k. We could also figure the buoyant effect air has on each of the two
different masses and then subtract to find the difference in buoyant effect. Since
the brass standard had the greatest volume, we can state that air had the greatest
effect on it. From the preceding example since the brass was our standard, we
should add the mass correction due to buoyancy to the stainless steel mass.

l. Now, using the information and examples, determine the buoyancy correction
for the 100-gram stainless steel mass in the example after we arbitrarily change
its density from 10 grams per cm3 to 12.5 grams per cm3. Use the questions which
follow as a guide to your solution:

(1) What value or values do you need? Examine the example. The volumes of the
unknown and the standard were computed. Since brass is our standard in this
problem, its volume is the same. For the stainless steel mass with the arbitrary
density of 12.5 grams per cm3 its volume becomes:

(2) What is the second step, after the volumes for stainless steel and
brass are known? As stated before, one easy method of finding an equivalent mass
for buoyancy is to find the difference between the two masses and then find the
product of the calculated differences and the density of air, (ΔV) (ρ). This means
that your next step is to determine the differences in volume for the 100-gram mass
standard brass and the 100-gram mass of stainless steel.

(3) You know the difference between the two volumes. What next?

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m. Sensitivity. The sensitivity of a balance is defined as the amount of

weight required to cause a given swing or deflection. This may be stated in
various ways. For example, if a 4-mg weight causes the pointer to swing 10
divisions, it may be stated that the balance has a sensitivity of 0.4 mg per
division. Likewise, it might be stated that the balance has a readability of 1/4
division and a sensitivity of 0.1 mg. In the latter case, the balance has a
detectable sensitivity of 1/4 division or 0.1 mg. If the pointer were allowed to
come to rest, it would be found that this 4-mg weight only caused a change of 5
divisions in the final rest point of the pointer from the zero or initial rest
point. Now, it should be stated that the balance has a sensitivity of 0.8 mg per
division. You should be aware that there are different ways to define the term
"sensitivity of a balance" but for the purposes of this course and your calibration
program, the sensitivity is the amount of weight required to change the rest point
of the balance one division. Now that you have completed your study of mass
measurement considerations, let’s study the construction and operating principles
of a typical analytical balance.

n. Typical Analytical (Micro) Balance. The construction and operation

principles for the typical analytical balance are so interdependent that it is
difficult to teach one without teaching the other. However, in this section, we
identify some of the major components of a typical analytical balance before we
teach the basic operating principles for the balance.

o. Construction. The illustration in Figure 5 shows how the knurled

digitizer drum of the analytical balance protrudes through the front panel to
permit manipulation for the digital readout shown in the illustration. Only the
upper portion of the front panel is shown in Figure 5A. The lower portion of the
instrument is constructed so that square openings on the front and sides permit
easy access to the single pan on which tares and weights are placed, as shown in
Figure 5B.

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Figure 6. Single Pan and Door Location

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p. When the expression "tare" is used, we refer to a round container in which

the calibrated masses (weights) are placed before the weighing. Taring devices are
constructed with loops or hooks on the top so that they can be lifted off or
suspended above the pan so that masses can be added to or taken from the container.
The taring device permits setting the balance readout to zero even when an empty
container (tare) on the pan. The readout then becomes a direct indication of the
net weight of the material placed in the container. By use of a taring device, you
eliminate the necessity for making two weighings and subtracting the tare weight
from the gross weight to determine the net weight. After you zero the balance by
removing the appropriate tare discs stored in tie drawer beneath the pan shown in
Figure 5B, the containers placed on the pan for zero are tared and become a "part
of the balance."

q. You use the front panel knobs (9.1g, 1g, and 10g) shown in Figure 5A, to
add calibrated weights to, or remove them from the weight measurement arm. One of
the knobs which is not shown in Figure 5A is the arrestment knob, shown in Figures
5B, and 6. This control arrests (secures) or releases the balance pan. You use
the digitizer control shown in the illustration to move the optical scale line,
which is just below the reference gap into the gap, and to center this scale line
in the reference gap. Additional information on balance construction is included
in the explanation on balance operating theory.

r. Balance operating theory. The analytical balance illustrated in Figures 5

and 6 is typical of the substitution type balances. Although many new variations
of the analytical balance exist, an age-old principle is still applied. A pivoted
lever called the balance beam has the unknown mass suspended from one end and the
standard suspended from the other. The beam is brought into a near equilibrium
state by bringing the center of gravity directly underneath the pivot, shown in
Figure 6, and by making the pivot area as small as possible (a few thousandths of
an inch). Under these conditions, any small weight difference between the unknown
and standard masses results in a large beam deflection (rotation), and the beam
angle deflection becomes a sensitive indication of equality (or inequality). The
mass of the standard is changed by manipulating the controls in Figure 5A, marked
"10G" (grams), "1G," and "0.1G," and the digitizer drum until an equality is
indicated.

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Figure 7. Arrangement of Weights on the type ION Balance

s. The top view of an analytical balance, depicted in Figure 7, shows how the
calibrated weights are placed on the balance beam. Although the side view of
calibrated weights in Figure 8 is taken from the mode SCN balance, calibrated
weights loaded on the beam of the model ION balance have the same general
appearance when viewed from the side. Figure 9 is included so that when you
compare other analytical balances with the model ION, you will recognize that their
controls and operating principles are basically the same.

t. Compare the readouts in the windows and on the scales of the panels in
Figures 5A and 9 to see if they are the same as the weighing results stated in the
figures. Although the weighing results are the same for both instruments, you can
see that control titles such as DIGITIZER DRUM and MICROMETER KNOB are different.
Also, you can see changes in the methods used to obtain decimal readouts. However,
you should remember that the basic principle of operation is the same. The 10G,
1G, and smaller controls on both balance models are manipulated to add or remove
calibrated weights to or from the balance beam to bring the balance into
equilibrium.

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Figure 8. Side view of Weights on a Typical Analytical Balance

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u. The sequence of measurement for the balances in Figures 5A, and 9 are
check zero, weigh, and read the results. The micrometer knob and the digitizer
drum have stops which let you know that you have turned them to their zero
positions. After zeroing the digitizer or micrometer, you release the pan inside
the balance by rotating the arrestment knob (not shown) to the released position.
The zero procedure is complete after you rotate the zero knob until the zero line
of the optical scale is centered in the reference gap.

Figure 9. Type 21 Analytical Balance

v. When you start the weighing procedure, you should arrest the beam and load
the pan. The access doors and the pan we have referenced can be seen in Figure 6.
In both models of the balance, the arrestment knob is turned to its PART REL
position while the movement of the pan is watched. If the pan swings, turn the
arrestment knob back and forth several times between the PART REL and RELEASED
positions until the swinging stops. During the weighing process, you turn each of
the knobs (10G, 1G, and 0.16G) from 0 to 10-20-30 until the "remove weight" appears
in the read-

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out window. After the "remove weight" appears, turn each of the controls back one
step. If the "remove weight" does not appear even when the knob is in its highest
position, leave it in that position; do not turn back one step.

w. On the model 10N, balance if the digitizer drum is between numbers during
the weighing process, move the number that shows the most into full view. On the
model 21 in Figure 9 or similar balances, you have a micrometer instead of a
digitizer. When the scale stops, turn the micrometer knob slowly until the scale
line just below the reference gap is centered in the gap. There is a slight
difference in the interpretation of the two scale readings.

x. Read the model 10N scale in Figure 5A, from left to right as indicated.
You should realize that the balance optical scale is extended beyond 100 divisions
for easier weighings near the scale ends. The first "1" of the divisions 100-120
has to be carried mathematically into the digits at the left. The results of the
weighing by the model 21 balance in Figure 9 are read from the left to the right--
digits in the windows first, optical scale second, and micrometer scale last. Tens
of milligrams (45 in the example of Figure 9) are read on the optical scale. Read
milligrams and tenths of milligrams are the micrometer scale (6.7 in the example).
The fact that each line on the optical scale is equal to 10 milligrams (not 1 mg)
could cause some confusion. For this reason, you should record each digit as a
separate number without regard to the significance of each digit. To complete your
study of the material in this lesson, answer the review exercises prepared for this
lesson.

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AIPD SUBCOURSE NUMBER SM0486

MECHANICAL/ELECTROMECHANICAL MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES

EXERCISES FOR LESSON 5

1. Which unit is the metric standard of mass?

a. Pound. c. Gram.

b. Ounce. d. Kilogram.

2. How are class S and S-1 weights adjusted for an in tolerance condition?

a. By removing knobs and adding or removing small-filings or shots

b. By using a Taring Device

c. By drilling holes in them or adding solder

d. Replace out of tolerance weight

3. Which material is preferred, in regard to stability, for use in large mass

standards?

a. Platinum-iridium c. Aluminum alloy

b. Iron d. Copper

4. What is the purpose of the Taring Device?

a. It permits setting the balance readout to zero

b. It's used as a counterbalance

c. It's used to hang weights

d. It's used to store weights

5. In the calibration program what is meant by Sensitivity of a Balance?

a. The detectable sensitivity

b. The rest point of the indicator

c. When the pointer indicates zero

d. The amount of weight required to change the rest point of the balance
one division

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6. Which buoyancy correction formula is used for stainless steel?

a. Pss = M/Vbr c. Vbr = M/Pbr

b. Vss = M/Pss d. SVs = P/Mss

7. If most manufactures use the ton, pound, dram, and grain, what measuring
system are they using?

a. Troy c. Avoirdupois

b. Apothecary d. Trade

8. The mass of an object is a measure of its

a. length. c. circumference.

b. inertia. d. volume.

9. How is the Model 10N scale read?

a. From left to right c. Micrometer dial first

b. Right to left d. None of the above

10. The sequence for measurement for the balances in Figure 5A and 9 are

a. check zero, weight, remove weights.

b. weigh, check zero, remove weights.

c. check zero, weigh, read results.

d. install pan, weigh, read results.

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SUBCOURSE NUMBER SM0486

APPROVED SOLUTION

Lesson One..........................Temperature and Humidity Measurements

1. d para 2b 6. b para 2e(2) 11. b para 5i

2. a para 2b(2) 7. b para 2f 12. d para 6a(9)

3. a para 2b(3) 8. c para 3c(1) 13. a para 6b(10)(b)

4. d para 2b(5) 9. c para 4 (2) 14. d para 7b

5. b para 2c(2) 10. d para 5e 15. b para 7c (3)

Lesson Two..........................Pressure Measurements and Devices

1. a para 2c 6. c para 6b 11. b para 9a(1)

2. d para 3 7. a para 7 12. a para 10c(2)

3. c para 3d 8. a para 7c(3)(a) 13. c para 10c(3)

4. b para 4a 9. d para 7c(4)(b) 14. a para 10d(4)

5. b para 4f 10. b para 8a 15. a para 10e(6)

Lesson Three........................Rotary Torque Measurements and Equipment

1. a para 2a 6. c para 5a

2. d para 2b(3) 7. d para 5b(5)

3. a para 3e 8. c para 61

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4. b para 3e 9. b para 7b

5. d para 4b 10. d para 8d

Lesson Four.........................Vibration Measurements and Equipment

1. b para 3a 6. b para 5c(5)

2. d para 4 7. a para 5d(2)

3. a para 4d(2) 8. d para 6b

4. c para 5a 9. d para 6c(2)

5. b para 5b(3) 10. b para 6d(3)(9)

Lesson Five.........................Weights and Balance

1. d para 2b 6. b para 3i

2. a para 2g 7. c para 3b

3. a para 2i 8. b para 2a

4. a para 3p 9. a para 3x

5. d para 3m 10. c para 3u

All concerned will be careful that neither this solution nor information
concerning the same comes into the possession of students who have not completed
the work to which it pertains.

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