Defint PDF

The Differential
Definition 1. If the function f is defined by the equation y = f (x), then

the differential of y, denoted by dy, is given by
dy = f 0(x)x
where x is in the domain of f 0 and x is an arbitrary increment of x.
Definition 2. If the function f is defined by the equation y = f (x), then
the differential of x, denoted by dx, is given by
dx = x
where x is in the domain of f 0 and x is an arbitrary increment of x.
Chapter 1: Definite Integral and Integration
Example 1. Given y = 4x2 3x + 1, we determine y, dy and y dy

for x = 2, x = 0.1, 0.01, 0.001.
x
2
2
2
x
0.1
0.01
0.001
y
1.34
0.1304
0.013004
dy
1.3
0.13
0.013
y dy
0.04
0.0004
0.000004
We observe that as x gets closer to zero, the difference between y

and dy gets smaller. Hence, dy is an approximation of y when x is
small.
For a fixed value of x, say x0,
dy = f 0(x0)dx = f 0(x0)x.
Also,
f (x0 + x) f (x0) + dy.
Properties of Differentials
In the following, u and v are functions, and k and n are constants.
Derivative Rule
dk
=0
dx
d(ku)
du
=k
dx
dx
d(u + v) du dv
=
+
dx
dx dx
dv
du
d(uv)
=u +v
dx
dx
dx
du
dv
d(u/v) v dx u dx
=
dx
v2
d(un)
du
= nun1
dx
dx
Differential Rule
dk = 0
d(ku) = kdu
d(u + v) = du + dv
d(uv) = udv + vdu
d(u/v) =
vdu udv
v2
d(un) = nun1du
Example 2. Use differentials to approximate the value of
26.2.
We observe that 26.2 is close to 25, and we already know

that the
square root of 25 is 5. So, we begin with the equation y = x and we
estimate the change in y when x is increased from 25 to 26.2.
dx
1.2
dy =
= = 0.12
2 x 2 x
Hence,
f (x0 + x) f (x0) + dy
f (26.2) f (25) + 0.12
= 5.12
The estimated value of
26.2 is 5.12.
Example 3. Use differentials to approximate the volume of a spherical shell

1
whose inner radius is 4 in. and whose thickness is 16
in.
4 3
The volume of a sphere is given by V = r which gives us
3
dV = 4r2dr
Since r = 4 nd dr =
1
16 ,
we have
dV = 4(4)2
1
= 4
16
The approximate volume of the spherical shell is 4 in.3
Example
1000 in.3
cents per
measured
4. A closed container in the form of a cube having a volume of

is to be made by using six equal squares of material costing 20
square inch. How accurately must the side of each square be
so that the total cost of material will be correct to within $3.00?
Let C dollars be the total cost of material.

C = 0.20(6x2) = 1.2x2 and dC = 2.4xdx
For the volume of the cube to be 1000 in.3, x = 10. Hence, the cost of
the material will be exactly $120 if the length of a side of the squares is 10
in. We wish to find |x| so that |C| 3.
We have C = 2.4xx and |C| = 24|x| when x = 10. Since we
want 24|x| 3 it follows that |x| 0.125.
The side of each square should be measured to within 0.125 in so that
the total cost of material will be correct to within $3.00.
Exercises.
Find dy.
1. y = (2x 3)4
2. y = (sin x + cos x)2
10
3. y = (x + sin 2x)2
Solve each of the following.
1. Use differentials to approximate the value of
26.91.
2. Assuming that the equator is a circle whose radius is

approximately 4000 miles, how much longer than the equator
would a concentric coplanar circle be if each point on it were

2 feet above the equator? Use differentials.
3. A tank has the shape of a cylinder with hemispherical ends.
If the cylindrical part is 100 cm lone and has a radius of 10
cm, about how much paint is required to coat the outside of
a tank to a thickness of 1 millimeter?
4. Einsteins Special Theory of Relativity says that mass m is
related to velocity v by the formula
m0
m=p
.
2
2
1 v /c
Here m0 is the rest mass and c is the velocity of light. Use
differentials to determine the percent increase in mass of an

object when its velocity is increased from 0.9c to 0.92c.
Antidifferentiation
Definition 3. A function F is called an antiderivative of the
function f on an interval I if F 0(x) = f (x) for every value x
in I.
Theorem 1. If f and g are two functions defined on an
interval I, such that
f 0(x) = g 0(x)
for all x I
then there is constant K such that

f (x) = g(x) + K
for all x I.
10
Theorem 2. If F is a particular antiderivative of f on an

interval I, then every antiderivative of f on I is given by
F (x) + C
(1)
where C is an arbitrary constant, and all antiderivatives of

f on I can be obtained from (1) by assigning particular values
to C.
11
Definition 4. Antidifferentiation is the process of finding the

R
set of all antiderivatives of a given function. The symbol
denotes the operation of antidifferentiation, and we write
Z
f (x)dx = F (x) + C
where F 0(x) = f (x) and d(F (x)) = f (x)dx. The expression
F (x) + C is the general antiderivative of f .
12
Theorem 3.
Z
dx = x + C
Theorem 4.
Z
af (x)dx = a
f (x)dx
where a is a constant.
Theorem 5.
Z
Z
Z
[f (x) + g(x)]dx = f (x)dx + g(x)dx
13
Theorem 6. If f1(x), f2(x), . . . , fn(x) are defined on the same

interval,
Z
[c1f1(x) + c2f2(x) + + cnfn(x)]dx =
c1
f1(x)dx + c2
f2(x)dx + + cn
fn(x)dx
where c1, c2, . . . , cn are constants.

Theorem 7. If n is a rational number,
Z
n+1
x
xndx =
+ C n 6= 1.
n+1
14
Example 5.
Z
1.
dx
=
3
x
Z
2.
Z
3.
Z
4.
2
x
1
3
x dx =
+C = 2+C
2
2x
x7dx =
9/2
9/2
x
2x
x7/2dx =
+C =
+C
9/2
9
36x5dx = 36
2dx
= 2
x
x5dx = 6x6 + C
Z
x
1/2
dx = 4 x + C
15
4x3
5. (4x 5)dx =
5x + C
3
Z
Z
6. (x 4)(2x + 3)dx = (2x2 5x 13)dx
Z
2x3 5x2
=
13x + C
3
2
16
Theorem 8.
Z
sin xdx = cos x + C
Theorem 9.
Z
cos xdx = sin x + C
Theorem 10.
sec2 xdx = tan x + C
Theorem 11.
Z
csc2 xdx = cot x + C
17
Theorem 12.
Z
sec x tan xdx = sec x + C
Theorem 13.
Z
csc x cot xdx = csc x + C
18
Example 6.
Z
1.
(3 sec x tan x 5 csc2 x) dx =

Z
Z
3 sec x tan x dx 5 csc2 x dx = 3 sec x + 5 cot x + C
2
2 cot x 3 sin x
2.
dx = 2
sin x
= 2 csc x + 3 cos x + C
Z
Z
csc x cot x dx 3
sin x dx
19
Some Techniques of Antidifferentiation

Theorem 14. The Chain Rule for Antidifferentiation.
Let g be a differentiable function, and let the range of g be
an interval I. Suppose that f is a function defined on I and
that F is an antiderivative of f on I. Then
Z
f (g(x))[g 0(x)]dx = F (g(x)) + C
Proof. It is known that F 0(g(x)) = f (g(x)). Hence,

Dx[F (g(x))] = F 0(g(x))[g 0(x)] = f (g(x))g 0(x).
20
Therefore, it follows that

Z
f (g(x))[g 0(x)]dx = F (g(x)) + C.
Theorem 15. If g is a differentiable function and n is a
rational number,
Z
n+1
[g(x)]
[g(x)]n[g 0(x)]dx =
+ C n 6= 1
n+1
21
Example 7. Evaluate the following indefinite integrals.

Z
Z
1.
x(2x2 + 1)6dx
7.
r2 sec2 r3dr
r
Z
Z
p
1
dt
2
8.
1 2
2.
3x 4 x dx
t
t
Z
Z
s
3.
ds
9.
sin3 cos d
2+1
3s
Z
Z
p
t
2
dt
10.
x(x + 1) 4 2x2 x4dx
4.
t+3
3/2 2

Z
Z
1
t 1
3
1/4 5
dt
5. (x + 3) x dx
11.
t+
2
t
t
Z
Z
6.
t cos 4t2dt
12.
sec x tan x cos(sec x)dx
22
Exercises. (TC7, pages 334-335)

Z p
Z
1.
1 4y dy
6.
Z
2.
Z
3.
Z
4.
Z
5.
p
3
x x2 9 dx
x2(x3 1)10 dx
Z
7.
x x + 2 dx
3 2xx2 dx
Z
8.
y
dy
4
5
(1 2y )
2r
dr
7
(1 r)
cos 4 d
Z
9.
Z
10.
6x2 sin x3 dx
y csc 3y 2 cot 3y 2 dy
23
Area
Definition 5.
n
X
F (i) = F (m) + F (m + 1) + + F (n 1) + F (n)
i=m
where m and n are integers, and m n.

Theorem 16.
n
X
c = cn, where c is any constant
i=1
24
Theorem 17.
n
X
c F (i) = c
i=1
n
X
F (i), where c is any constant
i=1
Theorem 18.
n
X
[F (i) + G(i)] =
i=1
n
X
i=1
F (i) +
n
X
G(i)
i=1
25
Theorem 19. If n is a positive integer, then

n
X
n(n + 1)
i =
2
i=1
n
X
i=1
n
X
i=1
n
X
i=1
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
=
6
n2(n + 1)2
=
4
i4
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)(3n2 + 3n 1)

=
30
26
Definition 6. Suppose that the function f is continuous on the

closed interval [a, b], with f (x) 0 for all x [a, b], and that
R is the region bounded by the curve y = f (x), the x axis,
and the lines x = a and x = b. Divide the interval [a, b] into
n subintervals, each of length x = (b a)/n, and denote
the ith subinterval by [xi1, xi]. Then if f (ci) is the absolute
minimum function value on the ith subinterval, the measure of
the area of region R is given by
A = lim
n+
n
X
f (ci)x
i=1
This equation means that for any > 0 there is a number

N > 0 such that if n is a positive integer and
27
n

X

if n > N then
f (ci)x A < .

i=1
Example 8. Find the area of the region bounded by the curve

y = x2, the x axis, and the line x = 3 by taking inscribed
rectangles.
28
We can also define the measure of the area of the region R

by
A = lim
n+
n
X
f (di)x
i=1
where f (di) is the absolute maximum value of f in [xi1, xi].

In this case, the area is computed by taking circumscribed
rectangles.
Example 9. Find the area of the region bounded by the curve
y = x2, the x axis, and the line x = 3 by taking circumscribed
rectangles.
29
The Definite Integral and Its Properties

Definition 7. Let f be a function whose domain includes the
closed interval [a, b]. Then f is said to be integrable on [a, b]
if there is a number L satisfying the condition that, for any
> 0, there exists a > 0 such that for every partition for
which |||| < , and for any wi in the closed interval [xi1, xi],
i = 1, . . . , n, then

n
X

f (wi)ix A <

i=1
30
For such a situation we write

lim
||||0
n
X
f (wi)ix = L
i=1
Definition 8. If f is a function defined on the closed interval

[a, b], then the definite integral of f from a to b, denoted by
Rb
f (x)dx, is given by
a
Z
f (x)dx = lim
a
||||0
n
X
f (wi)ix
i=1
if the limit exists.
31
Theorem 20. If a function is continuous on the closed

interval [a, b], then it is integrable on [a, b].
Definition 9. Let the function f be continuous on [a, b] and
f (x) 0 for all x in [a, b]. Let R be the region bounded by
the curve y = f (x), the x axis, and the lines x = a and x = b.
Then the measure A of the area of region R is given by
A =
lim
||||0
Z
=
n
X
f (wi)ix
i=1
f (x)dx
a
32
Theorem 21. If a > b and
Rb
a
f (x)dx exists, then
Z
f (x)dx =
f (x)dx
b
Theorem 22. If f (a) exists, then

Z
f (x)dx = 0.
a
Theorem 23. If is any partition of the closed interval [a, b],

then
n
X
lim
i x = b a
||||0
i=1
33
Theorem 24. If f is defined on the closed interval [a, b], and

if
n
X
f (wi)ix
lim
||||0
i=1
exists, where is any partition of [a, b], then if k is any

constant,
lim
||||0
n
X
kf (wi)ix = k lim
i=1
||||0
n
X
f (wi)ix
i=1
34
Theorem 25. If f is defined on the closed interval [a, b], and

if
n
X
f (wi)ix
lim
||||0
i=1
exists, where is any partition of [a, b], then if k is any

constant, then
Z b
Z b
kf (x)dx = k
f (x)dx
a
Theorem 26. If f and g are integrable on the closed interval

[a, b], then f + g is integrable and
Z b
Z b
Z b
[f (x) + g(x)]dx =
f (x)dx +
g(x)dx
a
a
35
Theorem 27. If f is integrable on the closed intervals [a, b],

[a, c], and [c, b],
Z
[f (x) + g(x)]dx =
a
f (x)dx +
a
f (x)dx
c
Theorem 28. If f is integrable on a closed intervals

containing a, b and c, then
Z
Z
[f (x) + g(x)]dx =
Z
f (x)dx +
f (x)dx
c
regardless of the order of a, b and c.
36
The Mean-Value Theorem for Integrals

Theorem 29. It the functions f and g are integrable on the
closed interval [a, b], and if f (x) g(x) for all x in [a, b],
then
Z
Z
b
f (x)dx
a
g(x)dx.
a
37
Theorem 30. Suppose that the function f is continuous on

the closed interval [a, b]. If m and M are, respectively, the
absolute minimum and absolute maximum values of f on
[a, b] so that
m f (x) M, for a x b,
then
Z
m(b a)
f (x)dx M (b a).
a
38
Theorem 31. The Mean Value theorem for Integrals

If the function f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b],
there exists a number c in [a, b] such that
Z
f (x)dx = f (c)(b a).

a
Definition 10. If the function f is integrable on the closed

interval [a, b], then the average value of f on [a, b] is
Rb
a
f (x)dx
ba
39
The Fundamental Theorems of Calculus

Theorem 32. The First Fundamental Theorem of the
Calculus
Let f be continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and let x

be any number in [a, b]. If F is the function defined by
Z
F (x) =
f (t)dt
a
40
then
dx
F 0(x) = f (x)
(2)
f (t)dt = f (x)
(3)
(If x = a, the derivative in (2) may be a derivative from the

right, and if x = b, it may be a derivative from the left.)
41
Example 10. Compute the following derivatives:

d
1.
dx
d
2.
dx
1
dt;
3
t +1
x2
cos tdt
42
Theorem 33. The Second Fundamental Theorem of

the Calculus
Let the function f be continuous on the closed interval
[a, b] and let F be a function such that
F 0(t) = f (x)
for all x in [a, b]. Then,
Z
f (t)dt = F (b) F (a).

a
43
Example 11. Evaluate the following definite integrals.

Z 3
Z 5
2
2
1.
(3x + 5x 1)dx
5.
x x 4dx
4
Z1
Z
4
4
2.
x(2 + x)dx
6.
|x 2|dx
1
4
Z 3
Z /6
1
3.
dy
7.
(sin 2x + cos 3x)dx
3
1 (y + 2)
0
Z 1/2
Z 3
1
x
21
dx
8.
4.
sec t tan tdt
2
3
2
2
0
1 (3x 1)
44

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The Differential

Definition 1. If the function f is defined by the equation y = f (x), then

Chapter 1: Definite Integral and Integration

Example 1. Given y = 4x2 3x + 1, we determine y, dy and y dy

We observe that as x gets closer to zero, the difference between y

Example 2. Use differentials to approximate the value of

We observe that 26.2 is close to 25, and we already know

Chapter 1: Definite Integral and Integration

Example 3. Use differentials to approximate the volume of a spherical shell

The approximate volume of the spherical shell is 4 in.3

Chapter 1: Definite Integral and Integration

4. A closed container in the form of a cube having a volume of

Let C dollars be the total cost of material.

Chapter 1: Definite Integral and Integration

2. Assuming that the equator is a circle whose radius is

would a concentric coplanar circle be if each point on it were

differentials to determine the percent increase in mass of an

Chapter 1: Definite Integral and Integration

then there is constant K such that

Theorem 2. If F is a particular antiderivative of f on an

where C is an arbitrary constant, and all antiderivatives of

Chapter 1: Definite Integral and Integration

Definition 4. Antidifferentiation is the process of finding the

Chapter 1: Definite Integral and Integration

Chapter 1: Definite Integral and Integration

Theorem 6. If f1(x), f2(x), . . . , fn(x) are defined on the same

where c1, c2, . . . , cn are constants.

Chapter 1: Definite Integral and Integration

Chapter 1: Definite Integral and Integration

Chapter 1: Definite Integral and Integration

sec2 xdx = tan x + C

csc2 xdx = cot x + C

Chapter 1: Definite Integral and Integration

Chapter 1: Definite Integral and Integration

(3 sec x tan x 5 csc2 x) dx =

Chapter 1: Definite Integral and Integration

Some Techniques of Antidifferentiation

Proof. It is known that F 0(g(x)) = f (g(x)). Hence,

Therefore, it follows that

Chapter 1: Definite Integral and Integration

Example 7. Evaluate the following indefinite integrals.

Chapter 1: Definite Integral and Integration

Exercises. (TC7, pages 334-335)

Chapter 1: Definite Integral and Integration

F (i) = F (m) + F (m + 1) + + F (n 1) + F (n)

where m and n are integers, and m n.

c = cn, where c is any constant

F (i), where c is any constant

Theorem 19. If n is a positive integer, then

n(n + 1)(2n + 1)(3n2 + 3n 1)

Chapter 1: Definite Integral and Integration

Definition 6. Suppose that the function f is continuous on the

This equation means that for any  > 0 there is a number

Example 8. Find the area of the region bounded by the curve

Chapter 1: Definite Integral and Integration

We can also define the measure of the area of the region R

where f (di) is the absolute maximum value of f in [xi1, xi].

Chapter 1: Definite Integral and Integration

The Definite Integral and Its Properties

Chapter 1: Definite Integral and Integration

For such a situation we write

Definition 8. If f is a function defined on the closed interval

if the limit exists.

This equation means that for any > 0 there is a number