Managing Natural Resources for Sustaining Future Agriculture

Research Briefings

Volume (1), No (4), 2009

Salinity and Waterlogging in the Indus Basin of

Pakistan: Economic Loss to Agricultural Economy
Sumia Bint Zaman1 and Dr. Shahid Ahmad2

May 2009

1
2

Research Internee, Natural Resources Division, Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, Islamabad.
Member Incharge Natural Resources Division, Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, Islamabad

1
Natural Resources Division, Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, Islamabad,
Pakistan

Managing Natural Resources for Sustaining Future Agriculture

Research Briefings

Volume (1), No (4), 2009

Salinity and Waterlogging in the Indus Basin of Pakistan: Economic Loss

to Agricultural Economy
Sumia Bint Zaman and Dr. Shahid Ahmad

a threat or danger

Motivation
The Research Briefing is aimed at presenting empirical analysis of economic loss taken place due to the twin
menace of salinity and waterlogging in the IBIS (Indus Basin Irrigation System), which is the lifeline of
Pakistan. The productivity and sustainability of the IBIS is a major challenge faced by the country because the
economic loss due to the twin menace is significant in agricultural GDP of the country. This was the basic
motivation to initiate this study. The Research Briefing includes spatial and temporal extent of salinity and
waterlogging in the IBIS, impact of salinity and waterlogging on the productivity of crops, gross value of
agricultural production and loss to the agricultural economy due to salinity and waterlogging. This Research
Briefing is possibly the pioneering work done, although as a first approximation, of the economic loss of salinity
and waterlogging on gross value production of agriculture.

1.

Background

1.1.

The Context

The canal commands of the IBIS are facing problems related to productivity and sustainability of irrigated
agriculture: a) loss of cultivatable lands due to urbanization, waterlogging and salinity; b) depletion of soil
fertility due to higher cropping intensity3 and inadequate fertilization from both organic and inorganic sources;
c) degradation of soil physical conditions 4 due to extremely low organic matter and degraded chemical
conditions; and d) use of poor quality groundwater. Salinity and waterlogging are the most serious problems
faced by irrigated agriculture in the IBIS.
Pakistans agriculture sector is heavily dependent on the IBIS for its contribution to the countrys GDP. The
IBIS contributes over 90% of the agricultural GDP in the country. The problem of salinity and waterlogging is
an outcome of the IBIS due to the lack of effective drainage system. Although, the country has invested heavily
in surface drainage but it is ineffective due to lack of O&M (operation and maintenance) and lack of linkages of
main drains with secondary and/or tertiary drains. In addition, the disposal of effluents to sea is difficult because
of the distance to the sea and thus the transport of effluents is a real challenge. The shortage of canal water
supplies has also forced the farmers to use groundwater of marginal to brackish in quality resulting in secondary
salinization (due to soluble salts) and/or sodification (due to sodium salts).
The share of agriculture sector to the GDP is around 21%. The major part of the IBIS was completed in 1880 by
constructing barrages on the run-of-the-river system to control and divert water to the canals. The prominent
features of the IBIS are its three major storage reservoirs (Tarbela and Chashma on Indus River and Mangla on
River Jhelum), an extensive network of 19 barrages, 12 inter-river link canals, 43 independent irrigation canal
commands, and over 107000 watercourses. The total length of the canals is about 61,000 kms. In addition, the
length of watercourses, farm channels and field drains is over 1.6 million kms (WB 1997).
1.2.

Problems and Constraints of Irrigated Agriculture

Irrigation is essential for the arid climates of Pakistan for achieving and sustaining food security. IBIS without
irrigation cannot even provide one-fourth of the gross value of production, what it is contributing with irrigation.
Thus contribution of irrigation can be taken as three-fourth to the total gross value production because
sugarcane, rice, cotton, fruits and vegetables cannot be grown without irrigation. However, inappropriate and
inefficient irrigation has raised the water table in the IBIS. Twin menace of salinity and waterlogging is
reducing the productivity of agricultural lands. These two problems co-exist at most of the places; however,

3
Cropping intensity is defined as the ratio of cropped area to the total area. Maximum possible cropping intensity for a given cropping
season is 100%, when all the area is under different crops.
4
Physical conditions of soil include aspects like soil aggregate stability, organic matter contents, water holding capacity, etc.

2
Natural Resources Division, Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, Islamabad,
Pakistan

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Volume (1), No (4), 2009

sometime problems with excess water occur in the absence of salinity (Kahlown and Azam 2002). Inefficient
irrigation is one of the root causes of salinity and waterlogging in the IBIS. Conveyance losses in canals and
watercourses due to inefficient irrigation result in deep percolation and ultimately contribute towards salinity
and waterlogging. Over-irrigation is not only loss of water but it is an added loss of fertilizer due to leaching.
Canal irrigation without adequate drainage in arid environments of the IBIS (flat topography, lack of natural
drainage, porous soils, and arid climate with higher soil evaporation) certainly leads to rising problems of
salinity and waterlogging. During 1950s, large area in the IBIS became waterlogged and soil salinity has
increased. Though the Government has started a series of SCARPs (Salinity Control and Reclamation Projects)
in late 50s to overcome the problems of salinity and waterlogging but despite of this effort, problem further
worsened over time (FAO 1997). Poor drainage is one of the main causes of salinity and waterlogging. Initially,
the IBIS was developed without any provision of drainage because water table during 1880s was at 30-45 m.
With the construction of canal irrigation system, the water conveyance losses and inefficient irrigation practices
in the IBIS over a period of 100 years based on 1980 WAPDAs basin-wide survey indicated that 42% area was
waterlogged (WAPDA 1981). Lack of drainage can be attributed to:
Pakistan being a vertical country, it is difficult to dispose-off the drainage effluents to the sea. The
O&M of the drainage system is not adequate until the secondary and tertiary drains are maintained with
active participation of farmers. Even the O&M of the trunk and main drains, which is the responsibility
of the public-sector institutions, is inadequate and the deferred maintenance has resulted into major
rehabilitation.
It is accepted all over the world that efficient irrigation can supplements drainage by reducing the
drainage surplus. But these interventions require huge capital investments to line the canals and
introduction of high efficiency irrigation systems.
The IBIS is very flat with a slope of 20 cm per km. As water moves from higher elevation to the lower
elevation, therefore drainage through gravity is difficult in the flat area. Thus pumping of drainage
effluents is essential to dispose the effluents. Farmers, who are the main beneficiaries of the drainage,
are not interested to pump drainage water for disposal. However, some of the farmers do pump
drainage water for re-use if the quality is reasonable as an input in the farming but not for drainage.
The other major constraint is the O&M of the vertical drainage using SCARP tubewells. Budgetary
constraints did not permitted sufficient financial outlays for effective O&M of the SCARP tubewells
and during late 90s most of the SCARP tubewells were transitioned rather abandoned and farmers were
provided support to install shallow tubewells. Initially, the allocations made for the O&M of the
SCARP tubewells were largely due to low tariff of electricity (Kemal et al. 1995). Pakistan's irrigation
and drainage systems have been deteriorating because of deferred maintenance and utilization beyond
design capacities.
1.3.
1.3.1.

Waterlogging and Salinity

Waterlogging

Waterlogging refers to a situation when the water table fluctuates within the root zone depth of crops (cereals,
cotton, and sugarcane) fruits, and vegetables for a period long enough to affect plant germination, establishment
and growth adversely (DMC 2002).
As per WAPDAs criterion the land having depth to water table of less than 3 m is classified as waterlogged and
further categorized into two classes.
Severely waterlogged area: Area having water table depth ranging from 0 to 1.5 m is called severely
waterlogged.
Less severely waterlogged area: Area having water table depth of 1.5 to 3 m is called less severely
waterlogged.
Currently, almost 43% of the area in the IBIS is classified as waterlogged having depth to water table of <3 m.
The province of Sindh is having largest percentage of the IBISs area (81%) classified as waterlogged (Table 1).
In the last few decades the waterlogged area has increased in the province of Sindh, whereas the province of
Punjab has experienced considerable reduction in the waterlogged area mainly attributed to the abstraction of
large amount of groundwater both from public and private tube wells (WAPDA 2005).
3
Natural Resources Division, Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, Islamabad,
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Volume (1), No (4), 2009

Table 1 Province-wise waterlogged area in the IBIS of Pakistan during 2006

Drainage Basin
Total Surveyed Area
0-1.5 m
1.5-3.0 m
Total
(million ha)
<3 m
10.0
0.56
1.376
1.94
Punjab
(6%)
(14%)
(20%)
5.7
3.04
1.600
4.63
Sindh
(53%)
(28%)
(81%)
0.40
0.40
0.002
0.40
NWFP
(100%)
(0.5%)
(100%)
0.6
0.02
0.131
0.15
Balochistan
(3%)
(22%)
(25%)
16.7
4.01
3.108
7.12
Total for Pakistan
(24%)
(19%)
(43%)
*Parenthesis shows percentage of area to the total surveyed area
Source:

>3 m
8.03
(80%)*
1.10
(19%)

0.44
(75% )
9.56
(57%)

Salinity & Reclamation Directorate, SCARP Monitoring Organization (SMO), WAPDA, Lahore, 2006.

20
06

20
02

20
01

20
00

19
99

19
98

19
97

19
94

19
93

19
92

19
89

19
79

Area (million hectare)

Analyzing the trends of waterlogging in Pakistan, data for waterlogging in Pakistan shows that waterlogging has
been high in 1990s due to heavy floods while droughts in early years of this decade has resulted lowering in
water table depth and reduction of waterlogged area in the IBIS (Figure 1). The overall analysis depicts that
there is no change in waterlogging on average basis. However waterlogged area was higher in early 1990s as
area of 15.23 million hectares was
waterlogged in 1992 but over the time, it
16
has decreased to 7.1 million hectare in 2006
14
12
(WAPDA 2006). Reduction in waterlogging
10
is mainly attributed to heavy installation of
8
public (SCARPs) and private tube wells and
6
excessive pumping of groundwater. During
4
late 90s most of the SCARP tube wells
2
0
were transitioned rather abandoned and
farmers were provided support to install
shallow tube wells.
Period (Years)

Figure 1. Waterlogged area in the IBIS (WAPDA 1981; 2006)

1.3.2.

Salinity

Soil salinity refers to soils having accumulation of free salts in the surface or profile of soils beyond the level
where optimum yield is drastically reduced as per WAPDAs criterion the lands having total dissolved solids of
over 4 dS/m are classified as saline soils. For sodic soils criterion of SAR is suggested in addition to the total
dissolved solids5. The soil salinity may be due to the presence of saline parent material or it may have developed
by human interference. Under arid climates where saline soils are abundant, high evaporation from the soil
surface continuously brings up more water from root zone and through capillary rise, results in salt
accumulation on the surface (Ansari et al. 2007). Salinity results in slowing down the plant growth. This
reduction in growth depends primarily on the inherent salt tolerance of the plant. Keeping in view the total
quantity of water applied during a given season, it happens even when good quality irrigation water is used,
highlighting the necessity to adopt best management practices to avoid or minimize these problems.
Surface Salinity
Surface salinity refers to the situation of the land where salts get accumulated on the surface of the land. Surface
salinity status as described by WAPDA includes four classes: a) non-saline (S1); b) slightly saline (S2);

The concentration of sodium relative to calcium and magnesium in the soil is defined as the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR). SAR is a
measure of soil sodicity. [http://www.gov.mb.ca/agriculture/soilwater]
4
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Volume (1), No (4), 2009

moderately saline (S3); and d) highly saline (S4). Each of the class is having different level of electrical
conductivity of the saturation extract (ECe) 6. The four salinity classes of S1, S2, S3, and S4 are having EC
levels of <4, 4-8, 8-15, and >15 dS/m, respectively (WAPDA 1981).
Three basin-wide soil salinity surveys were conducted during the periods of 1953-54, 1977-79, and 2001-03.
According to the surveys conducted by the Columbo Plan Assistance in 1953-54, out of the total surveyed area,
44% of the area was affected by surface salinity. The second survey conducted by WAPDA in 1977-79
indicated the reduction in the area affected by surface salinity as it was reduced to 28%. This reduction of
surface salinity was due to the installation of public (SCARPs) and private tubewells in the fresh and marginal
groundwater zones. Latest salinity surveys conducted during 2001-03 by the Soil and Reclamation Directorate
of WAPDA showed that 27% of the area is salt effected which is almost same as of the survey of 1977-79
(WAPDA 2006).
Table 2 Surface salinity status in the IBIS of Pakistan
Survey
Area Surveyed
Salt Free
Slightly
Period
(million hectare)
(S1)
Saline
(S2)
16.718
9.438
3.268
1953-54
(56%)
(20%)
16.718
12.063
1.862
1977-79
(72%)
(11%)
16.804
12.315
1.758
2001-03
(73%)
(10%)

Moderately
Saline
(S3)
1.486
(9%)
1.043
(6%)
0.637
(4%)

Strongly
Saline
(S4)
2.179
(3%)
1.322
(8%)
1.149
(7%)

Misc.
Land Type
0.347
(2%)
0.428
(3%)
0.945
(6%)

Sources: Salinity & Reclamation Directorate, SCARP Monitoring Organization, WAPDA, Lahore, 2001-2003

The overall analysis depicts that in the last two decades, the surface salinity has been slightly decreased in the
IBIS and salt affected area has been reclaimed with the additional supplies of surface and groundwater but the
abstraction of brackish groundwater has resulted in increased secondary salinization and sodification and thus
the net impact was almost stagnant trend of salinity.
Profile Salinity
Profile salinity is the presence of excess salts in the root zone in concentrations that hinder the plant growth by
affecting its germination and by affecting soil properties adversely. Profile salinity is divided into three
categories namely saline, saline-sodic, and non-saline sodic.
Saline: Soil containing sufficient soluble salts to interfere with the germination of most crops/plants is
called saline. The EC of saline soil is more than 4 dS/m. Saline soil does not contain enough
concentration of sodium salts measured in terms of SAR to affect the soil properties and plant growth
adversely (WAPDA 1981).
Saline-Sodic: Saline-Sodic soil contains not only sufficient quantity of soluble salts to interfere with
the growth of most crops/plants but also has enough concentration of SAR to affect the soil properties
and plant growth adversely. Such soils have EC of more than 4 dS/m and SAR of more than 13
(WAPDA 1981).
Sodic: Soil having sufficient exchangeable sodium to affect its properties and plant growth adversely is
called Sodic soil. Sodic soil has SAR more than 13 but EC of less than 4 dS/m (WAPDA 1981).
To estimate the profile salinity, three surveys were conducted during the periods of 1962-65, 1977-79, and
2001-03. Profile salinity was estimated by sampling the numbers of profiles in the IBIS. According to 1962-65
surveys, 45% of the surveyed area was affected by profile salinity while 1977-79 surveys indicated that area
affected by profile salinity was reduced to 39% due to the installation of public (SCARPs) and private tube
wells in the fresh and marginal groundwater zones. Latest surveys of 2001-03 indicated that profile salinity is
39% which is same as of the surveys conducted during 1977-79 (Table 3).

6
EC (Electrical Conductivity) is a measure of soluble salts within the soil. As the concentration of soluble salts increases, the EC of the soil
extract increases. EC is expressed in dS/m, mS/cm, or mmho/cm. [http://www.gov.mb.ca/agriculture/soilwater]

5
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Table 3 Soil profile salinity/sodicity status in the IBIS of Pakistan

Survey
Total Profiles
Normal
Saline
Saline-Sodic
Period
No
(NS-NS)
(S)
(S-S)
1962-65

23976

1977-79

63866

2001-03

24760

13109
(55%)
39302
(61%)
15019
(61%)

1536
(6%)
6814
(11%)
2146
(9%)

6447
(27%)
15100
(24%)
5576
(22%)

Non-Saline
Sodic
(NS-S)
2719
(11%)
2226
(3%)
2017
(8%)

Misc. Land
Type
165
(1%)
424
(1%)
2
(<1%)

Sources: Salinity & Reclamation Directorate, SCARP Monitoring Organization, WAPDA, Lahore, 2001-2003.

The overall analysis depicts that over the time, profile salinity has decreased negligibly. In the last three
decades, there is no change observed in profile salinity and the net area affected by the profile salinity has
remained almost the same. However, sodicity of the area has increased from 3% in 1979 to 8% in 2003. This is
a serious change. This is largely due to the use of sodic and saline-sodic groundwater and the phenomenon is
called as secondary salinization.

2.

Yield Loss Function of Salinity and Waterlogging

2.1.

Current State of Knowledge on Yield Loss

Twin-menace of waterlogging and salinity cause reduction in agricultural production by affecting the plant
growth adversely. Watson et al. (1978) highlighted the impact of waterlogging on the production of plants and
crops. Wheat, barley and oats were used to document the effects of waterlogging on productivity. In the first
experiment, irregular waterlogging reduced the vegetative growth and yield of wheat by 37 %, while continuous
waterlogging reduced the vegetative growth and yield by 55 %. Wheat grain yield was reduced by 40% in the
case of irregular waterlogging, while reduction was 53 % in the case of continuous waterlogging. The reduction
in the grain yield of barley and oats was 39 % for barley and 48 % for oats. In the second experiment
waterlogging at the early growth stages resulted in largest reduction in root and grain yield. Grain size was
reduced in some of the treatments.
Collaku and Harrison (2002) observed that grain per plant and tiller per plant had the sharpest reduction from
waterlogging. According to results grain yield per plant was decreased by 60%, tillers per plant by about 50%,
and kernel per spike and plant height had a less severe reduction of about 30% and 19%, respectively. Azhar et
al. (2005) assessed the four drainage projects for their impact on crop yield in the IBIS. The study was
conducted during 2001-04. The comparison of pre- and post-project conditions revealed that crop yield was
significantly improved due to project implementation revealed the fact that yield was reduced due to
waterlogging in the absence of drainage system. The yield increase ranged from 13% to 94% for most of the
crops. The exception was with rice, where the yield decreased by 23% mainly due to shortage of water supplies.
Maximum increase in the yield of cotton (80%), sugarcane (94%) and wheat (67%) was observed. For chilli, the
maximum increase of 147% was observed.
Kahlown and Azam (2002) evaluated the individual and combined impacts of waterlogging and salinity on the
yields of cotton, wheat, sugarcane and rice. The extent of yield loss as a result of the rise in water table from 12
m to less than 1 m was 27% and 33% for wheat and sugarcane crops, respectively, whereas it was 7% and 6%
with water table depth of 2-3 m. For cotton, a rise in water table from 23 m to12 m and less than 1 m gave a
yield decrease of about 11% and 60%, respectively. The rice crop preferred waterlogging, and in contrast to
other crops, gave about 7% less yield with a lowering of water table from 12 m to less than 1 m. The wheat
and sugarcane yields were having a decreasing trend with salinity in excess of 4 dS/m and had complete failures
with salinity of greater than 12 dS/m. The cotton crop demonstrated relatively higher salinity tolerance under a
deeper water table. The rice crop was a complete failure at salinity level of greater than 12 dS/m under water
table depths of less than 1 and 12 m. The combined impact of waterlogging and salinity was more harmful to
crop yields when compared with the individual effects of waterlogging.

6
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2.2.

Derivation of Yield Loss Function for Analysis

Different crops have varying levels of tolerance to waterlogging and salinity therefore causing different levels of
reduction for each of the crop. Some crops get severe loss of production due to being less tolerant to
waterlogging and salinity. On the other hand, some of the crops have waterlogging and salinity tolerant
characteristics therefore get less reduction in production as compared to the sensitive crops. Mango is most
sensitive to waterlogging and 81% reduction in yield was observed at water table depth of 0-1.5 m. Similarly,
cotton and sugarcane are having relatively higher sensitivity while, wheat is moderately tolerant to waterlogging
(Table 4). Due to unavailability of data for yield reduction of some of the crops, it is difficult to carry out the
analysis of loss in production for various crops. Major crops were selected for the analysis for which data was
available. As different crops have different levels of yield reduction, study has used average value of percent
reduction in the yield of different crops for the measurement of economic loss of waterlogging and salinity. On
an average, about 40% of crop production was reduced at water table depth of 0-1.5 m. Since data is not
available for yield loss of waterlogging at water table depth of 1.5-3.0 m, 20% reduction in crop production was
assumed to measure the loss of production due to waterlogging.
Table 4 Percentage reduction in crop yield due to high water table in the IBIS of Pakistan
Water-table Depth
Mango Cotton Sugarcane Wheat
Berseem
Summer
(meters)
Fodder
Percentage yield Reduction
100
98
91
79
77
80
0.00-0.25
100
57
66
49
45
27
0.25-0.50
100
35
46
29
24
0
0.50-0.75
87
21
29
28
9
0
0.75-1.00
63
12
5
5
2
0
1.00-1.25
38
5
1
1
0
0
1.25-1.50
Average (0.00-1.50)
81.3
38
39.7
31.8
26.2
17.8

Average

88
57
39
29
15
8
40

Sources: Integrated Irrigation and Drainage in Pakistan. ICID XIII Congress Special Session, 1987.

Salinity significantly limits crop production and consequently has negative effects. Different crops have
different levels of tolerance to salinity therefore causing different levels of reduction for each of the crop.
Analysis for some of the major crops was carried out to have an approximation for the loss of crop production
due to salinity. Threshold EC shows the level of EC of the soil at which crop yield decreased. Cotton is the most
salinity tolerant crop. Cotton crop production was reduced by 10%, 25%, and 50% in soils with EC level of 10,
12, and 16 dS/m respectively. Similarly, sugarcane and maize are relatively less tolerant to salinity. On an
average, field crops get reduction by 10%, 25%, and 50% in the soils with EC of 5.5, 7.4, and 10.6 dS/m,
respectively (Table 5).
Table 5. Relative salt tolerance of field crops in the IBIS of Pakistan
Field Crop
Threshold EC (dS/m) Corresponding to Yield Reduction
Percentage yield reduction
10%
25%
50%
9.6
13
17
Cotton
7.4
9.5
13
Wheat
3.8
5.1
7.2
Rice
3.4
5.9
10
Sugarcane
2.5
3.8
5.9
Maize
Sources: Adapted from Maas and Hoffman (1977) and Maas (1984)7.

As analysis was carried out for different categories of profile salinity, above mentioned values of yield reduction
are being used as proxies of reduction factor for saline, sodic, and saline-sodic lands. Since saline soils interfere
with the germination of plants but do not affect the soil properties and plant growth adversely, 10% reduction in

This data should only serve as a guide to relative tolerances among crops. Absolute tolerances vary depending upon
climate, soil conditions and cultural practices.

7
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the crop production was assumed for the saline lands for the estimation of loss of production in nominal terms.
Sodic soils have sufficient exchangeable sodium to affect its properties and plant growth adversely therefore
25% reduction in the crop production was estimated to measure the economic loss caused by sodicity. SalineSodic soil contains not only sufficient quantity of soluble salts to interfere with the growth of most crops/plants
but also had enough exchangeable sodium to affect the soil properties and plant growth adversely. Since salinesodic land is more harmful for plant growth, 50% reduction in crop production on saline-sodic land was
assumed to estimate the economic loss.

3.

Economic Loss of Waterlogging and Salinity in Indus Basin

Waterlogging and salinity reduce plant growth and resultantly reduce crop production. Pakistan is heavily
dependent on agriculture sector and thus loss of agricultural production poses serious threats to the economy by
reducing national income. According to the World Bank, total annual cost of crop losses due to salinity in
Pakistan were estimated from Rs. 15 to 55 billion. On an average, economic loss was Rs. 35 billion per annum,
which is equal to almost 0.6% of the GDP in 2004 (WB 2006). It is further highlighted that 25% reduction in
crop production of Pakistan is mainly attributed to salinity (WB 1994).
This part is presenting empirical analysis of economic loss taken place due to waterlogging and salinity
problems in the IBIS. This is possibly the pioneering work done although as a first approximation of the
economic loss of waterlogging and salinity on gross value production of agriculture. Major constraint faced by
the researchers is non-availability of data.
The analysis of loss due to waterlogging was carried out using temporal data. However, data for some of the
years were missing. Water table depth is reduced after the monsoon rains thus data were taken for the month of
October to estimate the affect of monsoon rains. Waterlogging was high in 1990s due to heavy floods, while
droughts in the early years of this decade has resulted in lowering of water table depth and reduction of
waterlogged area in the IBIS.
The 1979 basin-wide surveys of WAPDA specified 42% of the irrigated area as waterlogged resulted in loss of
crop production to the order of Rs. 1.323 billion, which is about 13% of crop production. Loss of crop
production was increased throughout the time period because of high waterlogging. Loss was lowest (9.2%)
during 2002 because of droughts which lowered the water table (Table 6).
Table 6 Loss of crop production due to waterlogging in the IBIS of Pakistan
Years
Area (million ha) under
Waterlogged
Loss of Crop
water table depth (m)
Area
Production
0-1.5
1.5-3.0
%
(million Rupees)
3.67
3.34
42
1323
1979
4.92
9.152
71
25060
1989
5.529
9.701
70
32217
1992
4.923
9.186
63
37039
1993
5.246
9.374
67
46978
1994
5.153
9.78
66
73312
1997
4.943
9.12
61
82185
1998
4.431
8.358
56
79895
1999
3.14
6.327
42
63042
2000
2.854
5.939
40
58849
2001
2.472
5.217
35
50018
2002
4.21
3.108
43
103734
2006

Loss
(%)
12.8
19.2
19.4
17
18.2
17.8
16.8
15
11.2
10.6
9.2
13.4

Analysis of loss of crop production due to salinity indicated that profile salinity resulted in to loss of crop
production of Rs. 2.130 billion which is almost 21% of crop production for the year 1779. Loss has decreased in
terms of percentage loss of crop production due to reduction in profile salinity. Loss of crop production was
about Rs 82.986 billion which is almost 14% of total crop production for the year of 2002 (Table 7). Combined
loss is almost 34% of the crop production for the year of 1979 which has decreased to 23% in 2002 due to
reduction in both waterlogging and salinity in this time period compared to 1979 (Table 8).
8
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Table 7 Loss of crop production due to salinity in the IBIS of Pakistan

Years
Profile Salinity (values in %)
Loss of Crop Production
Saline
Sodic
Saline-Sodic
Rs. In million
Percentage
11
3
24
2130
20.6%
1977-79
9
8
22
82986
13.9%
2001-03
Table 8 Combined loss of crop production due to waterlogging and salinity in the IBIS of Pakistan
Years
Loss of Crop Production
Loss of Crop Production
(Rs. In million)
(Percentage)
3453
34
1979
133004
23
2002
As most of the people are living in rural areas of Pakistan, and most of them are engaged in agriculture sector,
any reduction in production and resultantly reduced income can push them into poverty. As 50% of poor people
are engaged in agriculture sector, the situation can be more adverse if these problems are not addressed.

4.

Way Forward

Waterlogging and surface salinity has decreased over the time in the IBIS because of reclamation efforts like a)
excessive pumpage of groundwater; b) additional water supplies on saline lands. On the other hand, sodicity of
the land has increased in IBIS due to the application of brackish groundwater. Although reduction in salinity and
waterlogging has observed, these problems are still there to the extent enough to create considerable loss of
agricultural production.
The economic loss in gross value of agricultural production by salinity and waterlogging during the year 2002
was Rs. 133 billion which was almost 3% of GDP in this year and 23% of the agricultural GDP. This is a
significant loss to the agricultural GDP and its contribution to the national economy. This loss is not only in the
financial terms but at the same time it is loss of assets of the poor farmers. It reduces the livelihood of the
resource poor farmers who are normally small holders. Some of the small holders and resource poor farmers
have lost their livelihood due to salinity and waterlogging and they have been forced to turn as baggers. The
good example is the areas around the Chashma-Jehlum Link canal, where excessive seepage from the link canal
resulted in waterlogging to the extent that the land owners have lost their livelihood. The loss of livelihood is a
major threat to the security of the country as the major issue related to Pakistans economy is the unemployment and lack of adequate employability in the rural areas.
The technological and management advancements in the last few decades have demonstrated all over the world
that irrigation and irrigated agriculture can be modernized where productivity and sustainability can be
enhanced and attained on longer-term basis. The performance of canal irrigation system can be improved
significantly by managing irrigation in the IBIS. The new resources of water in future would come largely from
the saving of existing losses. Therefore improvement in the performance of canal irrigation system would not
only provide savings in existing water supplies but at the same time would enhance the productivity leading to
savings of Rs. 133 billion per annum. Some of the opportunities are listed as under:
Integrated land use system covering crops, plants, shrubs and grasses where salt-tolerance and
tolerance to waterlogging can be considered as the criterion for the selection of appropriate land use
systems. Further integration is needed with livestock and freshwater aquaculture. The livestock also
provides organic wastes which can be converted into organic composts and are essential for
maintaining soil health in the saline and sodic soils. Freshwater aquaculture is an appropriate method of
managing waterlogging at the farm level instead of disposing the effluents to the sea, which is a
constraint. Integrated land use and efficient irrigation would reduce the drainage surplus.
Furrow irrigation and planting on beds can provide not only savings in water use and increase in
yield rather waterlogging and salinity can also be managed better compared to the basin irrigation.
Sprinkler irrigation is effective in managing salinity under basin irrigation where significantly less
water is needed to leach down the soluble salts. Sprinklers can also be used effectively both for
reclamation and management of salt-affected soils.
9
Natural Resources Division, Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, Islamabad,
Pakistan

Managing Natural Resources for Sustaining Future Agriculture

Research Briefings

Volume (1), No (4), 2009

Drip farming provides an alternate to use poor quality of water and in soils which are saline or
sodic because area where trees are planted can be modified by adding organic composts.
Nature farming systems should be developed using organic composts and bio-fertilizers by
developing package of technology for various agro-ecological zones.
Drainage system in the IBIS has to be made effective for sustaining the basin health to dispose the
drainage effluents and to enhance productivity of both land and water resources.

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The NRD Research Briefings is a Series of Issues, which are being prepared and circulated to the
policy and decision makers, research and development experts, NGOs and private sector in the country

with an objective to synthesize and disseminate the research outputs related to natural resources

management research conducted by the establishments of the Natural Resources Division of PARC.
The NRD Research Briefings was started during February 2009 to present outputs of studies

undertaken
by the Natural Resources Division of PARC and its research establishments

including
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Reference: Zaman, S.B. and S. Ahmad. 2009. Economic loss of gross value of agricultural production
by salinity and waterlogging in the Indus basin of Pakistan. Vol. (1), No. (4), NRD, PARC, Islamabad,
Pakistan.
10
Natural Resources Division, Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, Islamabad,
Pakistan