CHAPTER 2

DIODE CIRCUITS AND

THEIR APPLICATIONS
2.1 Diode Characteristics
2.2 Diode Circuit Analysis
2.3 Diode Application
2.4 Zener Diodes
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2.1 DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

Diode
- component that restricts the direction of flow of charge carriers.
- Allow an electric current to flow in 1 direction but block it in
the opposite direction.
Circuits that require current flow in 1 direction typically include 1
or more diodes in the circuit design.
Today the most common diodes are made from semiconductor
materials such as Si or Ge.
Fig 2.1 - example of diode and symbol

Fig 2.1 Diode: (a) semiconductor crystal; (b) symbol of diode

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2.1 DIODE CHARACTERISTICS (cont)

Complete IV characteristics - by combining fwd-biased
and reverse-biased IV characteristic as shown in Fig
2.2.

Fig 2.2 Complete IV

Characteristic of pn
junction

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2.1 DIODE CHARACTERISTICS (cont)

Diode current-voltage relationship - Shockley equation:

vD = diode voltage
Is = saturation current
n = emission coefficient (1 < n < 2)
VT = thermal voltage given as:

k = Boltzmann's constant (1.38 x 10-23 J/K)

q = electron charge (1.6 x 10-19 C)
T = temperature operation (K)
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2.1 DIODE CHARACTERISTICS (cont)

To find the diode voltage given the diode current:
By applying KVL to the diode circuit in Fig 2.3 , will
obtain:
Eqn 2.4 can be solved
using additional eqn
which can be obtained
from Load Line Analysis
of diode.
Fig 2.3 The diode circuit
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2.1 DIODE CHARACTERISTICS (cont)

The diode IV x-tic curve and
eqn (2.4) is plotted in the
same graph as shown in
Fig 2.4.
When ID = 0, yields VD = Vss
Point A
When VD = 0, yields
ID = Vss/R point B.
Connecting points, A and B,
load line.
The intersection between
load line and diode x-tics is
called the operating point.

Fig 2.4 Diode characteristic with load line

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2.2 DIODE CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

In analysis, the diode is assumed to be ideal (either ON or OFF
state).
Fig 2.5(a) - Diode OFF (reverse-biased), Vcathode > Vanode open
circuit and Idiode = 0
Fig 2.5(b)- Diode ON (forward-biased), Vcathode < Vanode.
short circuit and Idiode 0.

Fig 2.5 Diode biased; (a) Reverse-biased; (b) Forward-biased

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EXAMPLE 2.1

Referring to circuit below, determine ID and VD for the fwdbiased circuit (assuming the diode is Si).

Solution:
The amount of current flows through the fwd-biased diode
depends on source voltage E, the type of diode (Si, Ge) &
resistor R. Considering the diode is Si, VD = VF = 0.7V. The
current will be determined using the Ohm's Law;
hence
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EXAMPLE 2.2
Determine the diode current ID and diode voltage VD for the
reverse biased circuit by assuming;
(a) Diode breakdown voltage VBR = 90V, E = 10V and R = 1k
(b) Diode breakdown voltage VBR = 90V, E = 100V and R = 2k

Solution:
a. Since E < VBR the reverse-biased diode behaves like an
open circuit. Hence, the only current flow is the reverse
saturation current Is, which is very small a few A for a Si
diode and a few A for a Ge diode.
VD = -E = -l0V
ID = Is 0;
b. Since E > VBR, reverse breakdown occurs, VBR drops
across the diode and the remainder of the source voltage
(E - VBR) drops across the resistor R.

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EXAMPLE 2.3
Determine the diode current ID and diode voltage VD for
the circuit below.

Solution:
Convert the above circuit to a simple series circuit by
using Thevenin' s Theorem.
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 Thevenin's voltage is the voltage across R2, using

voltage divider;

Thevenin's resistance Rth is R1 //R2 ;

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Inserting the diode into the Thevenin's equivalent circuit;

Since the diode is Ge,

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EXAMPLE 2.4
Determine the diode current ID and the output voltage Vo
for the circuit below;

Solution:
The voltage drop across Si diode is 0.7V and Ge is 0.3V.
Hence, the voltage drop across both diodes is 1V.

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2.3 DIODE APPLICATIONS

Widely used in electronic circuits applications such as
rectifier, clipping and clamping circuits etc.
2.3.1 Half-wave Rectifier
In a half-wave rectifier, an ac source is connected to a
diode and a load resistor, RL as shown in Fig 2.6 (a).

(a)

(b)

Fig 2.6 Half-wave Rectifier; (a) circuit; (b) output voltage

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2.3.1 Half-wave Rectifier (cont)

Sinusoidal input voltage (Vin) goes +ve diode fwd biased &
conduct current through the load resistor (RL). The current
produces output voltage across RL which has the same shape as
the +ve input voltage as shown in Fig 2.6(b) for time t1 to t2.
Input voltage goes ve diode reverse biased no current
flow voltage across load resistor RL is zero. The output
voltage for the 2nd cycle is shown in Fig 2.6(b) for time t2- t3.
The net result of
-wave rectifier
is only the +ve
cycle of the ac
input voltage
appear across the
load resistor. The
output for 2
cycles is shown in
Fig 2.6(b).

Fig 2.6
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2.3.1 Half-wave Rectifier (cont)

Avg value for wave rectified output voltage:
-value measured on a dc voltmeter.
- Mathematically is area under the curve over a full cycle
and divided by 2, the number of radian in full cycle as
shown in Fig 2.7.
- Eqn 2.5 shows the VAVG
approximately 31.8% of Vp
Vp = peak voltage.

Fig 2.7 Average value of

half-wave rectified signal

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2.3.1 Half-wave Rectifier (cont)

The Barrier Potential (Si = 0.7V, Ge = 0.3V) will have an
effect on the wave rectifier. During the +ve cycle, the
input voltage must overcome the Barrier Potential before
the diode become fwd-biased. The expression for the
peak value is;

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2.3.2 Full-wave Rectifier

Full-wave rectifier allows 1-way current through the load
during 3600 of the input cycle.
2 types of full-wave rectifiers :
- Centre-tapped Rectifier
- Bridge rectifier
2.3.2.1 Centre-tapped Rectifier
Is a full-wave rectifier that uses 2
diodes connected to the
secondary centre-tapped x-former.
The input voltage is coupled
Fig 2.8(a) Centre tapped
full wave rectifier
through the x-former to the
centre-tapped secondary.
Half of the total secondary voltage appears between
the centre tap and each end of the secondary winding
as shown in Fig 2.8(a).
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2.3.2.1 Centre-tapped Rectifier (cont)

For a +ve half-cycle input voltage, the polarities of the
secondary voltages are shown in Figure 2.8(b).
D1 - fwd-biased, D2 - reverse biased.
Current will flow to RL through D1.
Output will be the same as the half-cycle of the input
voltage.

Fig 2.8 (b) Centre-tapped full-wave rectifier - positive half-cycle

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2.3.2.1 Centre-tapped Rectifier (cont)

For a -ve half-cycle input voltage, the voltage polarities on
the secondary are shown in Fig 2.8(c).
D1 - reverse-biased, D2 - fwd-biased.
Current will flow to RL through D2

Fig 2.8(c) Centre-tapped full-wave rectifier - Negative half-cycle

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2.3.2.1 Centre-tapped Rectifier (cont)

X-former turn ratio have an effect to the output
voltage.
If x-former turn ratio =1, the peak value of rectified
output voltage is equal to half of the peak value of
input voltage minus the potential barrier.

To get output voltage with peak equal to input peak

minus the potential barrier, a step-up x-former with
turn ratio =2 must be used.

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2.3.2.2 Bridge Rectifier

Uses 4 diodes shown in Fig 2.9.
When the input cycle is +ve,
- D1 and D2 - fwd-biased
- D3 and D4 - reverse biased.
- The current path is shown in Fig 2.9(a).
- The output voltage obtained across RL will be the
same as the +ve half input cycle.

Fig 2.9(a) The full-wave bridge rectifier - +ve half-cycle

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2.3.2.2 Bridge Rectifier (cont)

When the input cycle is -ve,
- D3 and D4 fwd-biased, D1 and D2 reverse-biased.
- The current direction and the output voltage across RL
shown in fig. 2.9(b).

Fig 2.9 (b) The bridge full-wave rectifier - -ve half cycle
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2.3.2.2 Bridge Rectifier (cont)

The current flowing through resistor RL is in the same
direction for both half-cycles.
During the +ve half cycle and -ve half cycle, 2 diodes
will always in series with the load resistor. If these
diodes are taken into account, the output voltage is;

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2.3.3 Clipping Circuit

The diode clipper circuit divide into +ve Diode Clipper and -ve
Diode Clipper as shown in Fig 2.10.
Positive Diode Clipper Fig 2.10(a)
- The circuit will clip (removed) the +ve part of the input
voltage.
- As the input goes +ve, the diode becomes fwd biased and
conducts current.
- Point A is limited to +0.7V when the input voltage exceeds
this value.
- When the input voltage goes back to 0.7V, the diode is
reverse-biased and appears as an open circuit.
- The output voltage look likes the -ve part of the input
voltage, with magnitude determined by the voltage divider
formed by R1 and the load resistor RL.

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2.3.3 Clipping Circuit (cont)

Fig 2.10 The clipper circuit; (a) +ve Diode Clipper ;

(b) -ve Diode Clipper
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2.3.3 Clipping Circuit (cont)

Negative Diode Clipper Fig 2.10(b)
-ve half cycles of the input voltage will be removed.
When the diode is turned around as shown in Fig 2.10(b),
the -ve part of the input voltage is clipped off.
The diode is fwd-biased during the -ve part of the input
voltage. Point A is held at -0.7V by the diode drop.
When the input voltage goes above -0.7V, the diode is no
longer fwd-biased and the output voltage across load
resistor RL is proportional to the input voltage.

Fig 2.10(b)

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2.3.4 Clamping Circuit

A clamper adds a dc voltage to the signal.
Positive Clamper
Fig 2.11(a) - basic idea for a +ve clamper.
When a +ve clamper has a sinewave input, it adds a +ve dc
voltage to the sine wave shifts the ac reference level
(normally zero) up to a dc level.
The effect is to have an ac voltage centered on a dc level.
This means that each point on the sine wave is shifted
upward, as shown on the output wave.

Fig 2.11(a) Positive clamper shifts waveform upward;

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2.3.4 Clamping Circuit (cont)

Positive Clamper (cont)
Fig 2.11(b) shows an equivalent way of visualizing the effect
of a +ve clamper. An ac source drives the input side of the
clamper. The Thevenin voltage of the clamper output is the
superposition of a dc source and an ac source.
The ac signal has a dc voltage of Vp added to it. This is why
the entire sinewave of Fig. 2.11(a) has shifted upward so
that it has a +ve peak of 2Vp and a -ve peak of zero.

Fig 2.11 (b) +ve clamper adds a dc component to signal.

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2.3.4 Clamping Circuit (cont)

Positive Clamper (cont)
Fig 2.12(a) is a +ve clamper
- initially C uncharged.
- 1st -ve half cycle of input voltage, the diode turns on Fig. 2.12(b).
- At -ve peak of the ac source, the C has fully charged
and its voltage is Vp with the polarity shown in fig
2.12(b).

Fig 2.12 (a) Ideal +ve clamper (b) at the +ve peak
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2.3.4 Clamping Circuit (cont)

Positive Clamper (cont)
Slightly beyond the -ve peak, the diode shuts off (Fig.
2.12(c)). The RLC time constant is made much larger (at
least 100 times) than the period T of the signal.
Stiff clamper: RLC > l00T ----(2.10)
For this reason, the capacitor
remains almost fully charged during
the off time of the diode. To a 1st
approximation, the capacitor acts
like a battery of Vp volts. This is why
the output voltage in Fig. 2.12(a) is
a positively clamped signal. Any
clamper that satisfies Eq. (2.10) is
called a stiff clamper.
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2.3.4 Clamping Circuit (cont)

Positive Clamper (cont)
The idea is similar to the way a wave rectifier with a
capacitor-input filter works. The 1st quarter cycle charges
the capacitor fully. Then, the capacitor retains almost all of
its charge during subsequent cycles. The small charge that
is lost between cycles is replaced by diode conduction.

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2.3.4 Clamping Circuit (cont)

Positive Clamper (cont)
Fig. 2.12(c) - charged C like a battery with a voltage Vp. This
is the dc voltage that is being added to the signal. After the
1st quarter cycle, the output voltage is a +vely clamped sine
wave with a reference level of 0; that is, it sits on a level of
0 V.

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2.3.4 Clamping Circuit (cont)

Positive Clamper (cont)
Fig 2.12(d) -Since the diode drops 0.7V when conducting,
the capacitor voltage does not quite reach Vp. For this
reason, the clamping is not perfect, and the -ve peaks have
a reference level of -0.7V.

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2.3.4 Clamping Circuit (cont)

Positive Clamper (cont)

Fig 2.12 +ve clamper (a) Ideal +ve clamper; (b) at the +ve peak;
(c) beyond the +ve peak; (d) clamper is not quite perfect.
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2.3.4 Clamping Circuit (cont)

Negative Clamper
If diode in Fig. 2.12(d) turned around become -ve
Clamper (Fig. 2.13).
Capacitor voltage reverses, and the circuit becomes a
-ve clamper.
Clamping is less than perfect because the +ve peaks
have a reference level of 0.7 V instead of 0 V.

Fig 2.13 -ve clamper

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2.3.4 Clamping Circuit (cont)

Both +ve and -ve clampers are widely used. For
instance, tv receivers use a clamper to change the
reference level of video signals. Clampers are also used
in radar and communication circuits .

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2.4 ZENER DIODE

Use for voltage regulation.
Symbol - Fig 2.14.
p-n junction device which is designed for a specific reverse
breakdown voltage.
The reverse breakdown voltage for a zener diode << the
regular diode and referred as the nominal zener voltage Vz.
The breakdown voltage level Vz is set by carefully
controlling the doping level during manufacture.
Zener diode is designed to operate in reverse breakdown.

Figure 2.14 Zener Diode symbol

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2.4 ZENER DIODE (cont)

2 types of reverse breakdown in a zener diode are zener and
avalanche.
Zener effect: high reverse voltages can provide e- enough
energy to "jump" from valence band to conduction band, thus
creating free e-. Hence, the diode conducts a high current
under reverse bias.
Avalanche effect: Minority carriers in the depletion region are
strongly accelerated by the electric field, thus creating e- hole
pairs by impact ionization. The increase of free carriers
increases the current, which provides more carriers to create
impact ionization.
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2.4 ZENER DIODE (cont)

From zener diode IV x-tic (fig. 2.15), when reverse voltage VR is
increased, the reverse current IR remain extremely small up to
the 'knee' of the curve. The reverse current is also called zener
current Iz. At this point, the breakdown effect begins.

Fig 2.15 IV
characteristic of
zener diode

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2.4 ZENER DIODE (cont)

The internal zener resistance RZ begins to decrease as
reverse current increases rapidly. From the bottom of the
knee, the zener breakdown voltage Vz remains essentially
constant as zener current Iz increases as shown in Fig. 2.15.

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2.4 ZENER DIODE (cont)

The ideal model of zener diode in reverse breakdown and the
ideal x-tic curve is shown in Fig. 2.16. It has constant voltage
drop equal to the nominal zener voltage. This constant voltage
drop across the zener diode produced by reverse breakdown
is represented by a dc voltage symbol even though the zener
diode does not produce a voltage.

Fig 2.16 Ideal zener

diode; (a) ideal model;
(b) Ideal x-tic curve
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2.4 ZENER DIODE (cont)

Fig 2.16 Ideal zener diode; (a) ideal model;

(b) Ideal x-tic curve
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2.4.1 Application of Zener Diode

Use as a voltage regulator for providing stable constant
reference voltages.
Figure 2.17
zener diode is used to regulate a dc voltage.
As the input voltage varies (within limit), the zener
diode maintains a nearly constant output voltage across
its terminal.
However, as Vin changes, lz will
change proportionally so that the
limitation on the input voltage
variation are set by the min and
max current (IZK and IZM)
R is the series current limiting
Fig 2.17 The zener
resistor.
diode as regulator
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2.4.1 Application of Zener Diode (cont)

Refer to Fig 2.17, the absolute lowest current that will
maintain regulation is specified at IZK and for example zener
diode 1N4740A is 0.25mA and represents no load current.
The power specification is 1 W.
Thus
For min zener current, the voltage
across 220 resistor is
Since
Then
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For the max zener current, the voltage across the 220
resistor is,
VR = IZMR = (l00mA)(220) = 22V
Therefore,
Vin(max) = 22V + 10V = 32V
This shows that this zener diode can ideally regulate an input
voltage from 10.055V to 32V and maintain an approximate
10V output. The output will vary slightly because of the zener
impedance, which has been neglected in this calculation.

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EXAMPLE 2.5
Determine the min and max input voltages that can be
regulated by the zener diode in fig below.
Solution:
From the datasheet for lN4733A:
Vz = 5.1V at Iz= 49mA, IZK= 1mA and
Zz = 7 at Iz. For simplicity,
the equivalent circuit is show next.

Izk = Min Current

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At IZK = 1 mA, the output voltage is,

VOUT 5.1V - Vz = 5.1V - (IZ IZK) ZZ
= 5.1V - (49mA -1mA)(7) = 4.76V
Therefore,
Vin(min) = IZKR + VOUT = (1mA)(100) + 4.76V = 4.86V
To find the max input voltage, 1st calculate the max zener current.
Assume the temperature is 50oC or below and the power
dissipation is 1 W.
At IZM, the output voltage is,
Therefore,

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