Kepler (Spacecraft) - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

10/29/2015
Kepler(spacecraft)Wikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Kepler(spacecraft)
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
ThisarticleisabouttheNASAspacetelescope.FortheEuropeancargospacecraft,seeJohannes
KeplerATV.ForthetelescopeinventedbyJohannesKepler,seeKeplerianTelescope.Forotheruses,
seeKepler(disambiguation).
KeplerisaspaceobservatorylaunchedbyNASA
todiscoverEarthlikeplanetsorbitingother
stars.[5]Thespacecraft,namedafterthe
RenaissanceastronomerJohannesKepler,[6]was
launchedonMarch7,2009.[7]
Designedtosurveyaportionofourregionofthe
MilkyWaytodiscoverdozensofEarthsize
extrasolarplanetsinornearthehabitablezoneand
estimatehowmanyofthebillionsofstarsinthe
MilkyWayhavesuchplanets,[8][9][10]Kepler's
soleinstrumentisaphotometerthatcontinually
monitorsthebrightnessofover145,000main
sequencestarsinafixedfieldofview.[11]This
dataistransmittedtoEarth,thenanalyzedto
detectperiodicdimmingcausedbyextrasolar
planetsthatcrossinfrontoftheirhoststar.
KeplerispartofNASA'sDiscoveryProgramof
relativelylowcost,focusedprimaryscience
missions.Thetelescope'sconstructionandinitial
operationweremanagedbyNASA'sJet
PropulsionLaboratory,withBallAerospace
responsiblefordevelopingtheKeplerflight
system.TheAmesResearchCenterisresponsible
forthegroundsystemdevelopment,mission
operationssinceDecember2009,andscientific
dataanalysis.Theinitialplannedlifetimewas3.5
years,[12]butgreaterthanexpectednoiseinthe
data,fromboththestarsandthespacecraft,meant
additionaltimewasneededtofulfillallmission
goals.Initially,in2012,themissionwasexpected
tobeextendeduntil2016,[13]butonJuly14,2012,
oneofthespacecraft'sfourreactionwheelsused
forpointingthespacecraftstoppedturning,and
completingthemissionwouldonlybepossibleif
allotherreactionwheelsremainedreliable.[14]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler_(spacecraft)
Kepler
Artist'simpressionoftheKeplertelescope
Missiontype
Spaceobservatory
Operator
NASA/LASP
COSPARID
2009011A
SATCAT
34380
Website
kepler.nasa.gov
(http://kepler.nasa.gov/)
Missionduration
Planned:3.5years
Elapsed:6years,7monthsand
20days
Spacecraftproperties
Manufacturer
BallAerospace&Technologies
Launchmass
1,052.4kg(2,320lb)[1]
Drymass
1,040.7kg(2,294lb)[1]
Payloadmass
478kg(1,054lb)[1]
Dimensions
4.7m2.7m(15.4ft8.9ft)[1]
Power
1100watts[1]
Startofmission
Launchdate
March7,2009,03:49:57UTC[2]
Rocket
DeltaII(792510L)
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Then,onMay11,2013,asecondreactionwheel
failed,disablingthecollectionofsciencedata[15]
andthreateningthecontinuationofthemission.[16]
Launchsite
CCAFSSLC17B
CapeCanaveral,FL
Contractor
UnitedLaunchAlliance
OnAugust15,2013,NASAannouncedthatthey
hadgivenuptryingtofixthetwofailedreaction
wheels.Thismeantthecurrentmissionneededto
bemodified,butitdidnotnecessarilymeanthe
endofplanethunting.NASAhadaskedthespace
sciencecommunitytoproposealternativemission
plans"potentiallyincludinganexoplanetsearch,
usingtheremainingtwogoodreactionwheelsand
thrusters".[17][18][19][20]OnNovember18,2013,
theK2"SecondLight"proposalwasreported.This
wouldincludeutilizingthedisabledKeplerina
waythatcoulddetecthabitableplanetsaround
smaller,dimmerreddwarfs.[21][22][23][24]OnMay
16,2014,NASAannouncedtheapprovalofthe
K2extension.[25]
Enteredservice
May12,2009,09:01UTC
AsofJanuary2015,Kepleranditsfollowup
observationshadfound1,013confirmed
exoplanetsinabout440stellarsystems,alongwith
afurther3,199unconfirmedplanet
candidates.[B][26][27]Fourplanetshavebeen
confirmedthroughKepler
'
sK2mission.[28]In
November2013,astronomersreported,basedon
Keplerspacemissiondata,thattherecouldbeas
manyas40billionEarthsizedplanetsorbitingin
thehabitablezonesofSunlikestarsandred
dwarfswithintheMilkyWay.[29][30][31]Itis
estimatedthat11billionoftheseplanetsmaybe
orbitingSunlikestars.[32]Thenearestsuchplanet
maybe3.7parsecs(12ly)away,accordingtothe
scientists.[29][30]OnJanuary6,2015,NASA
announcedthe1000thconfirmedexoplanet
discoveredbytheKeplerSpaceTelescope.Four
ofthenewlyconfirmedexoplanetswerefoundto
orbitwithinhabitablezonesoftheirrelatedstars:
threeofthefour,Kepler438b,Kepler442band
Kepler452b,arenearEarthsizeandlikelyrocky
thefourth,Kepler440b,isasuperEarth.[33]
Orbitalparameters
Referencesystem
Heliocentric
Regime
Earthtrailing
Semimajoraxis
1.0132AU[3]
Eccentricity
0.036091[3]
Perihelion
0.97667AU[3]
Apohelion
1.0498AU[3]
Inclination
0.44745degrees[3]
Period
372.53days[3]
Argumentof
perihelion
2.9411degrees[3]
Meananomaly
41.177degrees[3]
Meanmotion
0.96635deg/day[3]
Epoch
March13,2015(J2000:2457094.5)[3]
Maintelescope
Type
Schmidt
Diameter
0.95m(3.1ft)
Collectingarea
0.708m2(7.62sqft)[A]
Wavelengths
430890nm[3]
Transponders
Bandwidth
Xbandup:7.8bps2kbps[3]
Xbanddown:10bps16kbps[3]
Kabanddown:Upto4.3Mbps[3]
Contents
1Spacecraft
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1Spacecraft
1.1Camera
1.2Primarymirror
1.3Performance
1.4Spacecraftorbitandorientation
1.5Spacecraftoperations
1.6Spacecrafthistory
2Fieldofview
3Objectivesandmethods
4Planetfindingprocess
4.1Findingplanetcandidates
4.2Confirmingplanetcandidates
5Missionresultstodate
5.12009
5.22010
5.32011
5.42012
5.52013
5.62014
5.72015
6Missionstatus
6.1Extension
6.2Reactionwheelissues
6.3SecondLight(K2)
7Datareleases
7.1Followupsbyothers
7.2Citizenscientistparticipation
8Confirmedexoplanets
9KeplerInputCatalog
10Seealso
11Notes
12References
13Externallinks
Spacecraft
Thespacecrafthasamassof1,039kilograms(2,291lb)andcontainsa1.4meter(55in)primarymirror
feedinganapertureof0.95meter(37.4in)atthetimeofitslaunchthiswasthelargestmirroronany
telescopeoutsideEarthorbit.[34]Thespacecrafthasa115deg2(about12degreediameter)fieldofview
(FOV),roughlyequivalenttothesizeofone'sfistheldatarm'slength.Ofthis,105deg2isofscience
quality,withlessthan11%vignetting.Thephotometerhasasoftfocustoprovideexcellentphotometry,
ratherthansharpimages.Themissiongoalisacombineddifferentialphotometricprecision(CDPP)of20
ppmforam(V)=12solarlikestarfora6.5hourintegration,thoughtheobservationssofarhavefallen
shortofthisobjective(seemissionstatus).AnEarthliketransitproducesabrightnesschangeof84ppm
andlastsforthirteenhourswhenitcrossesthecenterofthestar.
Camera
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Thefocalplaneofthespacecraft'scameraismadeoutof42CCDsat2200x1024pixels,whichmadeitat
thetimethelargestcamerayetlaunchedintospace,possessingatotalresolutionof95megapixels.[35][36]
Thearrayiscooledbyheatpipesconnectedtoanexternalradiator.[37]TheCCDsarereadouteverysix
seconds(tolimitsaturation)andcoaddedonboardfor58.89secondsforshortcadencetargets,and1765.5
seconds(29.4minutes)forlongcadencetargets.Duetothelargerbandwidthrequirementsfortheformer,
thesearelimitedinnumberto512comparedto170,000forlongcadence.However,eventhoughatlaunch
KeplerhadthehighestdatarateofanyNASAmission,the29minutesumsofall95millionpixels
constitutemoredatathancanbestoredandsentbacktoEarth.Therefore,thescienceteamhaspreselected
therelevantpixelsassociatedwitheachstarofinterest,amountingtoabout6percentofthepixels(5.4
megapixels).Thedatafromthesepixelsisthenrequantized,compressedandstored,alongwithother
auxiliarydata,intheonboard16gigabytesolidstaterecorder.Datathatisstoredanddownlinkedincludes
sciencestars,pmodestars,
smear,blacklevel,
backgroundandfullfieldof
viewimages.[37][38]
Primarymirror
TheKeplerprimarymirroris
1.4meters(4.6ft)in
diameter,thelargestmirror
locatedoutsideEarthorbit.
Manufacturedbyglass
makerCorningusingultralowexpansion(ULE)glass,themirroris
specificallydesignedtohaveamassonly14%thatofasolidmirror
ofthesamesize.[39][40]Inordertoproduceaspacetelescopesystem
withsufficientsensitivitytodetectrelativelysmallplanets,asthey
passinfrontofstars,averyhighreflectancecoatingontheprimary
mirrorwasrequired.Usingionassistedevaporation,SurfaceOptics
Corp.appliedaprotective9layersilvercoatingtoenhance
reflectionandadielectricinterferencecoatingtominimizethe
formationofcolorcentersandatmosphericmoisture
absorption.[41][42]
Kepler
'
simagesensorarray.The
arrayiscurvedtoaccountforPetzval
fieldcurvature.
KeplerinAstrotech'sHazardous
ProcessingFacility
Performance
Intermsofphotometricperformance,Keplerisworkingwell,much
betterthananyEarthboundtelescope,butstillshortofthedesign
goals.Theobjectivewasacombineddifferentialphotometric
precision(CDPP)of20partspermillion(PPM)onamagnitude12
starfora6.5hourintegration.Thisestimatewasdeveloped
allowing10ppmforstellarvariability,roughlythevalueforthe
Sun.Theobtainedaccuracyforthisobservationhasawiderange,
dependingonthestarandpositiononthefocalplane,withamedian
of29ppm.Mostoftheadditionalnoiseappearstobeduetoa
Comparisonofprimarymirrorsizes
fortheKeplerspacecraftandother
notableopticaltelescopes.
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largerthanexpectedvariabilityinthestarsthemselves(19.5ppmasopposedtotheassumed10.0ppm),
withtherestduetoinstrumentalnoisesourcesslightlylargerthanpredicted.[43]Workisongoingtobetter
understand,andperhapscalibrateout,instrumentnoise.[44]
SincethesignalfromanEarthsizeplanetissoclosetothenoiselevel(only80ppm),theincreasednoise
meanseachindividualtransitisonlya2.7event,insteadoftheintended4.This,inturn,meansmore
transitsmustbeobservedtobesureofadetection.Scientificestimatesindicatedthatamissionlasting7to
8years,asopposedtotheoriginallyplanned3.5years,wouldbeneededtofindalltransitingEarthsized
planets.[45]OnApril4,2012,theKeplermissionwasapprovedforextensionthroughthefiscalyear
2016,[13][46]butthisalsodependedonallremainingreactionwheelsstayinghealthy,whichturnedoutnot
tobethecase(seeSpacecrafthistorybelow).
Spacecraftorbitandorientation
KeplerorbitstheSun,[47][48]whichavoidsEarthoccultations,stray
light,andgravitationalperturbationsandtorquesinherentinan
Earthorbit.Thephotometerpointstoafieldinthenorthern
constellationsofCygnus,LyraandDraco,whichiswelloutofthe
eclipticplane,sothatsunlightneverentersthephotometerasthe
spacecraftorbits.[37]
Kepler
'
ssearchvolume,inthecontext
oftheMilkyWaygalaxy.
ThisisalsothedirectionoftheSolarSystem'smotionaroundthe
centerofthegalaxy.Thus,thestarswhichKeplerobservesare
roughlythesamedistancefromthegalacticcenterastheSolar
System,andalsoclosetothegalacticplane.Thisfactisimportantif
positioninthegalaxyisrelatedtohabitability,assuggestedbythe
RareEarthhypothesis.
NASAhascharacterisedKepler
'
sorbitas"Earthtrailing".[49]Withanorbitalperiodof372.5days,Kepler
slowlyfallsfurtherbehindEarth.
Spacecraftoperations
KeplerisoperatedoutofBoulder,Colorado,bytheLaboratoryforAtmosphericandSpacePhysics(LASP)
undercontracttoBallAerospace&Technologies.Thespacecraft'ssolararrayisrotatedtofacetheSunat
thesolsticesandequinoxes,soastooptimizetheamountofsunlightfallingonthesolararrayandtokeep
theheatradiatorpointingtowardsdeepspace.[37]Together,LASPandBallAerospacecontrolthe
spacecraftfromamissionoperationscenterlocatedontheresearchcampusoftheUniversityofColorado.
LASPperformsessentialmissionplanningandtheinitialcollectionanddistributionofthesciencedata.
Themission'sinitiallifecyclecostwasestimatedatUS$600million,includingfundingfor3.5yearsof
operation.[37]In2012,NASAannouncedthattheKeplermissionwouldbefundeduntil2016.[13]
Communications
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NASAcontactsthespacecraftusingtheXbandcommunicationlink
twiceaweekforcommandandstatusupdates.Scientificdataare
downloadedonceamonthusingtheKabandlinkatamaximum
datatransferrateofapproximately550KBps.TheKeplerspacecraft
conductsitsownpartialanalysisonboardandonlytransmits
scientificdatadeemednecessarytothemissioninordertoconserve
bandwidth.[50]
Datamanagement
SciencedatatelemetrycollectedduringmissionoperationsatLASP
Kepler
'
sorbit.Thespacecraft'ssolar
issentforprocessingtotheKeplerDataManagementCenter
arrayisadjustedatsolsticesand
(DMC)whichislocatedattheSpaceTelescopeScienceInstituteon
equinoxes.
thecampusofJohnsHopkinsUniversityinBaltimore,Maryland.
Thesciencedatatelemetryisdecodedandprocessedinto
uncalibratedFITSformatsciencedataproductsbytheDMC,whicharethenpassedalongtotheScience
OperationsCenter(SOC)atNASAAmesResearchCenter,forcalibrationandfinalprocessing.TheSOCat
NASAAmesResearchCenter(ARC)developsandoperatesthetoolsneededtoprocessscientificdatafor
usebytheKeplerScienceOffice(SO).Accordingly,theSOCdevelopsthepipelinedataprocessing
softwarebasedonscientificalgorithmsdevelopedbytheSO.Duringoperations,theSOC:
1. ReceivescalibratedpixeldatafromtheDMC
2. Appliestheanalysisalgorithmstoproducelightcurvesforeachstar
3. Performstransitsearchesfordetectionofplanets(thresholdcrossingevents,orTCEs)
4. Performsdatavalidationofcandidateplanetsbyevaluatingvariousdataproductsforconsistencyasa
waytoeliminatefalsepositivedetections
TheSOCalsoevaluatesthephotometricperformanceonanongoingbasisandprovidestheperformance
metricstotheSOandMissionManagementOffice.Finally,theSOCdevelopsandmaintainstheprojects
scientificdatabases,includingcatalogsandprocesseddata.TheSOCfinallyreturnscalibrateddataproducts
andscientificresultsbacktotheDMCforlongtermarchiving,anddistributiontoastronomersaroundthe
worldthroughtheMultimissionArchiveatSTScI(MAST).
Spacecrafthistory
InJanuary2006,theproject'slaunchwasdelayedeightmonthsbecauseofbudgetcutsandconsolidationat
NASA.[51]ItwasdelayedagainbyfourmonthsinMarch2006duetofiscalproblems.[51]Atthistime,the
highgainantennawaschangedfromagimballeddesigntoonefixedtotheframeofthespacecraftto
reducecostandcomplexity,atthecostofoneobservationdaypermonth.
TheKeplerobservatorywaslaunchedonMarch7,2009,at03:49:57UTCaboardaDeltaIIrocketfrom
CapeCanaveralAirForceStation,Florida.[2][7]Thelaunchwasasuccessandallthreestageswere
completedby04:55UTC.ThecoverofthetelescopewasjettisonedonApril7,2009,andthefirstlight
imagesweretakenonthenextday.[52][53]
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OnApril20,2009,itwasannouncedthattheKeplerscienceteamhadconcludedthatfurtherrefinementof
thefocuswoulddramaticallyincreasethescientificreturn.[54]OnApril23,2009,itwasannouncedthatthe
focushadbeensuccessfullyoptimizedbymovingtheprimarymirror40micrometers(1.6thousandthsofan
inch)towardsthefocalplaneandtiltingtheprimarymirror0.0072degree.[55]
OnMay13,2009,at00:01UTC,Keplersuccessfullycompleteditscommissioningphaseandbeganits
searchforplanetsaroundotherstars.[56][57]
OnJune19,2009,thespacecraftsuccessfullysentitsfirstsciencedatatoEarth.Itwasdiscoveredthat
KeplerhadenteredsafemodeonJune15.AsecondsafemodeeventoccurredonJuly2.Inbothcasesthe
eventwastriggeredbyaprocessorreset.ThespacecraftresumednormaloperationonJuly3andthe
sciencedatathathadbeencollectedsinceJune19wasdownlinkedthatday.[58]OnOctober14,2009,the
causeofthesesafingevents
wasdeterminedtobealow
voltagepowersupplythat
providespowertothe
RAD750processor.[59]On
January12,2010,one
portionofthefocalplane
transmittedanomalousdata,
suggestingaproblemwith
Diagramshowingtheinteriorof
focalplaneMOD3module,
Kepler
coveringtwooutofKepler
'
s
42CCDs.AsofOctober
2010,themodulewas
describedas"failed",butthe
coveragestillexceededthe
sciencegoals.[60]
Keplerdownlinkedroughly
twelvegigabytesofdata[61]
Kepler
'
slaunchonMarch7,2009
aboutoncepermonth[62]
anexampleofsucha
downlinkwasonNovember2223,2010.[63]
A2004conceptualdrawingofKepler
OnJuly14,2012,oneofthefourreactionwheelsusedforfine
pointingofthespacecraftfailed.[64]WhileKeplerrequiresonlythreereactionwheelstoaccuratelyaimthe
telescope,anotherfailurewouldleavethespacecraftunabletocontinueinitsmission.[65]
OnJanuary17,2013,NASAannouncedthatoneofthethreeremainingreactionwheelsshowedincreased
friction,andthatKeplerwoulddiscontinueoperationfortendaysasapossiblewayofsolvingtheproblem.
Ifthissecondwheelshouldalsofail,theKeplermissionwouldbeover.[66][67]OnJanuary29,2013,NASA
reportedthesuccessfulreturntonormalsciencecollectionmode,[68]thoughthereactionwheelstillexhibits
elevatedanderraticfrictionlevels.[69]
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OnMay11,2013,anotherreactionwheelfailed,andthespacecraftwasputinpointreststate(PRS)by
May15,2013.[15]InPRS,thespacecraftusesacombinationofthrustersandsolarpressuretocontrol
pointing.[15]Thefueluseislow,whichallowstimetoattemptrecoveryofthespacecraft.[15]
ThespacecraftautomaticallywentintoathrustercontrolledsafemodewiththesolarpanelsfacingtheSun
andwithanintermittentcommunicationlinkwiththeEarth.Inthisstatethefuelwouldlastforseveral
months.CommandsweresenttothespacecrafttoputitintoPointRestState.Thisstatereducedfuel
consumptionfuelreserveswouldlastforseveralyearsinthisstate.Thisstatealsomakescommunication
possibleatanytime.Workwasstartedonthepossibilityofgettingatleastonereactionwheelworking
again.[70][71]
InJuly2013,thespacecraftremainedinpointreststatewhilerecoveryeffortswereplanned.[72]ByAugust
15,2013,attemptstoresolveissueswithtwoofthefourreactionwheelsfailed.[17][18][19]Anengineering
reportwasorderedtoassessthespacecraft'sremainingcapabilities.[17]
Fieldofview
Keplerhasafixedfieldofview(FOV)againstthesky.Thediagramtotherightshowsthecelestial
coordinatesandwherethedetectorfieldsarelocated,alongwiththelocationsofafewbrightstarswith
celestialnorthatthetopleftcorner.Themissionwebsitehasacalculator(http://kepler.nasa.gov/cgi
bin/ra2pix.pl)thatwilldetermineifagivenobjectfallsintheFOV,andifso,whereitwillappearinthe
photodetectoroutputdatastream.DataonextrasolarplanetcandidatesissubmittedtotheKeplerFollow
upProgram,orKFOP,toconductfollowupobservations.
Kepler
'
sfieldofviewcovers115squaredegrees,around0.25percentofthesky,or"abouttwoscoopsof
theBigDipper".Thus,itwouldrequirearound400Keplerliketelescopestocoverthewholesky.[73]The
KeplerfieldcontainsportionsoftheconstellationsCygnus,Lyra,andDraco.
Objectivesandmethods
ThescientificobjectiveofKepleristoexplorethestructureanddiversityofplanetarysystems.[74]This
spacecraftobservesalargesampleofstarstoachieveseveralkeygoals:
TodeterminehowmanyEarthsizeandlargerplanetsthereareinornearthehabitablezone(often
called"Goldilocksplanets")[75]ofawidevarietyofspectraltypesofstars.
Todeterminetherangeofsizeandshapeoftheorbitsoftheseplanets.
Toestimatehowmanyplanetsthereareinmultiplestarsystems.
Todeterminetherangeoforbitsize,brightness,size,massanddensityofshortperiodgiantplanets.
Toidentifyadditionalmembersofeachdiscoveredplanetarysystemusingothertechniques.
Determinethepropertiesofthosestarsthatharborplanetarysystems.
Mostoftheextrasolarplanetspreviouslydetectedbyotherprojectsweregiantplanets,mostlythesizeof
Jupiterandbigger.Keplerisdesignedtolookforplanets30to600timeslessmassive,closertotheorderof
Earth'smass(Jupiteris318timesmoremassivethanEarth).Themethodused,thetransitmethod,involves
observingrepeatedtransitofplanetsinfrontoftheirstars,whichcausesaslightreductioninthestar's
apparentmagnitude,ontheorderof0.01%foranEarthsizeplanet.Thedegreeofthisreductionin
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brightnesscanbeusedto
deducethediameterofthe
planet,andtheinterval
betweentransitscanbeused
todeducetheplanet'sorbital
period,fromwhichestimates
ofitsorbitalsemimajoraxis
(usingKepler'slaws)andits
temperature(usingmodelsof
stellarradiation)canbe
calculated.
Theprobabilityofarandom
planetaryorbitbeingalong
thelineofsighttoastaris
thediameterofthestar
DiagramofKepler
'
sinvestigatedarea
dividedbythediameterof
Thephotometer'sfieldofviewinthe
withcelestialcoordinates
constellationsCygnus,Lyraand
theorbit.[76]ForanEarth
Draco
likeplanetat1AUtransiting
aSollikestartheprobabilityis0.47%,orabout1in210.[76][C]For
aplanetlikeVenusorbitingaSollikestartheprobabilityisslightlyhigher,at0.65%[76]suchplanetscould
beEarthlikeifthehoststarisalateGtypestarsuchasTauCeti.Ifthehoststarhasmultipleplanets,the
probabilityofadditionaldetectionsishigherthantheprobabilityofinitialdetectionassumingplanetsina
givensystemtendtoorbitinsimilarplanesanassumptionconsistentwithcurrentmodelsofplanetary
systemformation.[76]Forinstance,ifaKeplerlikemissionconductedbyaliensobservedEarthtransiting
theSun,thereisa12%chancethatitwouldalsoseeVenustransiting.[76]
Kepler
'
s115deg2fieldofviewgivesitamuchhigherprobabilityofdetectingEarthlikeplanetsthanthe
HubbleSpaceTelescope,whichhasafieldofviewofonly10sq.arcminutes.Moreover,Kepleris
dedicatedtodetectingplanetarytransits,whiletheHubbleSpaceTelescopeisusedtoaddressawiderange
ofscientificquestions,andrarelylookscontinuouslyatjustonestarfield.Oftheapproximatelyhalfmillion
starsinKepler
'
sfieldofview,around150,000starswereselectedforobservation.Morethan90,000areG
typestarson,ornear,themainsequence.Thus,Keplerwasdesignedtobesensitivetowavelengthsof400
865nmwherebrightnessofthosestarspeaks.MostofthestarsobservedbyKeplerhaveapparentvisual
magnitudebetween14and16butthebrightestobservedstarshaveapparentvisualmagnitudeof8or
lower.Mostoftheplanetcandidateswereinitiallynotexpectedtobeconfirmedduetobeingtoofaintfor
followupobservations.[77]Alltheselectedstarsareobservedsimultaneously,withthespacecraft
measuringvariationsintheirbrightnesseverythirtyminutes.Thisprovidesabetterchanceforseeinga
transit.Themissionwasdesignedtomaximizetheprobabilityofdetectingplanetsorbitingother
stars.[37][78]
SinceKeplermustobserveatleastthreetransitstoconfirmthatthedimmingofastarwascausedbya
transitingplanet,andsincelargerplanetsgiveasignalthatiseasiertocheck,scientistsexpectedthefirst
reportedresultstobelargerJupitersizeplanetsintightorbits.Thefirstofthesewerereportedafteronlya
fewmonthsofoperation.Smallerplanets,andplanetsfartherfromtheirsunwouldtakelonger,and
discoveringplanetscomparabletoEarthwereexpectedtotakethreeyearsorlonger.[47]
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DatacollectedbyKeplerisalsobeingusedforstudyingvariablestarsofvarioustypesandperforming
asteroseismology,[79]particularlyonstarsshowingsolarlikeoscillations.[80]
Planetfindingprocess
Findingplanetcandidates
OnceKeplerhascollectedandsentbackthedata,rawlightcurves
areconstructed.Brightnessvaluesarethenadjustedtotakethe
brightnessvariationsduetotherotationofthespacecraftinto
account.Thenextstepisprocessing(folding)lightcurvesintoa
moreeasilyobservableformandlettingsoftwareselectsignalsthat
seempotentiallytransitlike.Atthispoint,anysignalthatshows
potentialtransitlikefeaturesiscalledathresholdcrossingevent.
Thesesignalsareindividuallyinspectedin2inspectionrounds,with
thefirstroundtakingonlyafewsecondspertarget.Thisinspection
eliminateserroneouslyselectednonsignals,signalscausedby
instrumentalnoiseandobviouseclipsingbinaries.[81]
Artist'simpressionofKepler
ThresholdcrossingeventsthatpassthesetestsarecalledKeplerObjectsofInterest(KOI),receiveaKOI
designationandarearchived.KOIsareinspectedmorethoroughlyinaprocesscalleddispositioning.Those
whichpassthedispositioningarecalledKeplerplanetcandidates.TheKOIarchiveisnotstatic,meaning
thataKeplercandidatecouldendupinthefalsepositivelistuponfurtherinspection.Inturn,KOIsthat
weremistakenlyclassifiedasfalsepositivescouldendupbackinthecandidateslist.[82]
Notalltheplanetcandidatesgothroughthisprocess.Circumbinaryplanetsdonotshowstrictlyperiodic
transits,andhavetobeinspectedthroughothermethods.Inaddition,thirdpartyresearchersusedifferent
dataprocessingmethods,orevensearchplanetcandidatesfromtheunprocessedlightcurvedata.Asa
consequence,thoseplanetsmaybemissingKOIdesignation.
Confirmingplanetcandidates
OncesuitablecandidateshavebeenfoundfromKeplerdata,itisnecessarytoruleoutfalsepositiveswith
followuptests.
Usually,Keplercandidatesareimagedindividuallywithmoreadvancedgroundbasedtelescopesinorder
toresolveanybackgroundobjectswhichcouldcontaminatethebrightnesssignatureofthetransitsignal.[83]
AnothermethodtoruleoutplanetcandidatesisastrometryforwhichKeplercancollectgooddataeven
thoughdoingsowasnotadesigngoal.WhileKeplercannotdetectplanetarymassobjectswiththis
method,itcanbeusedtodetermineifthetransitwascausedbyastellarmassobject.[84]
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KeplermissionnewexoplanetcandidatesasofJuly23,2015. [85]
Throughotherdetectionmethods
Thereareafewdifferentexoplanetdetectionmethodswhichhelptoruleoutfalsepositivesbygiving
furtherproofthatacandidateisarealplanet.Oneofthemethods,calleddopplerspectroscopy,requires
followupobservationsfromgroundbasedtelescopes.Thismethodworkswelliftheplanetismassiveoris
locatedaroundarelativelybrightstar.Whilecurrentspectrographsareinsufficientforconfirmingplanetary
candidateswithsmallmassesaroundrelativelydimstars,thismethodcanbeusedtodiscoveradditional
massivenontransitingplanetcandidatesaroundtargetedstars.
Inmultiplanetarysystems,planetscanoftenbeconfirmedthrough
transittimingvariationbylookingatthetimebetweensuccessive
transits,whichmayvaryifplanetsaregravitationallyperturbedby
eachother.Thishelpstoconfirmrelativelylowmassplanetseven
whenthestarisrelativelydistant.Transittimingvariationsindicate
thattwoormoreplanetsbelongtothesameplanetarysystem.There
areevencaseswhereanontransitingplanetisalsodiscoveredin
thisway.[86]
Circumbinaryplanetsshowmuchlargertransittimingvariations
betweentransitsthanplanetsgravitationallydisturbedbyother
planets.Theirtransitdurationtimesalsovarysignificantly.Transit
timinganddurationvariationsforcircumbinaryplanetsarecaused
AphototakenbyKeplerwithtwo
bytheorbitalmotionofthehoststars,ratherthanbyother
pointsofinterestoutlined.Celestial
planets.[87]Inaddition,iftheplanetismassiveenough,itcancause
northistowardsthelowerleftcorner.
slightvariationsofthehoststars'orbitalperiods.Despitebeing
hardertofindcircumbinaryplanetsduetotheirnonperiodic
transits,itismucheasiertoconfirmthem,astimingpatternsoftransitscannotbemimickedbyaneclipsing
binaryorabackgroundstarsystem.[88]
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Inadditiontotransits,planetsorbitingaroundtheirstarsundergoreflectedlightvariationsliketheMoon,
theygothroughphasesfromfulltonewandbackagain.SinceKeplercannotresolvetheplanetfromthe
star,itseesonlythecombinedlight,andthebrightnessofthehoststarseemstochangeovereachorbitina
periodicmanner.Althoughtheeffectissmallthephotometricprecisionrequiredtoseeacloseingiant
planetisaboutthesameastodetectanEarthsizedplanetintransitacrossasolartypestarJupitersized
planetswithanorbitalperiodofafewdaysorlessaredetectablebysensitivespacetelescopessuchas
Kepler.Inthelongrun,thismethodmayhelpfindmoreplanetsthanthetransitmethod,becausethe
reflectedlightvariationwithorbitalphaseislargelyindependentoftheplanet'sorbitalinclination,anddoes
notrequiretheplanettopassinfrontofthediskofthestar.Inaddition,thephasefunctionofagiantplanet
isalsoafunctionofitsthermalpropertiesandatmosphere,ifany.Therefore,thephasecurvemayconstrain
otherplanetaryproperties,suchastheparticlesizedistributionoftheatmosphericparticles.[89]
Kepler
'
sphotometricprecisionisoftenhighenoughtoobserveastar'sbrightnesschangescausedby
dopplerbeamingorastar'sshapedeformationbyacompanion.Thesecansometimesbeusedtoruleouthot
Jupitercandidatesasfalsepositivescausedbyastarorabrowndwarfwhentheseeffectsaretoo
noticeable.[90]However,therearesomecaseswheresucheffectsaredetectedevenbyplanetarymass
companionssuchasTrES2b.[91]
Throughvalidation
Ifaplanetcannotbedetectedthroughatleastoneoftheotherdetectionmethods,itcanbeconfirmedby
determiningifthepossibilityofaKeplercandidatebeingarealplanetissignificantlylargerthananyfalse
positivescenarioscombined.Oneofthefirstmethodswastoseeifothertelescopescanseethetransitas
well.ThefirstplanetconfirmedthroughthismethodwasKepler22bwhichwasalsoobservedwitha
Spitzerspacetelescopeinadditiontoanalyzinganyotherfalsepositivepossibilities.[92]Suchconfirmation
iscostly,assmallplanetscangenerallybedetectedonlywithspacetelescopes.
In2014,anewconfirmationmethodcalled"validationbymultiplicity"wasannounced.Fromtheplanets
previouslyconfirmedthroughvariousmethods,itwasfoundthatplanetsinmostplanetarysystemsorbitin
arelativelyflatplane,similartotheplanetsfoundintheSolarSystem.Thismeansthatifastarhasmultiple
planetcandidates,itisverylikelyarealplanetarysystem.[93]Transitsignalsstillneedtomeetseveral
criteriawhichruleoutfalsepositivescenarios.Forinstance,ithastohaveconsiderablesignaltonoise
ratio,ithasatleastthreeobservedtransits,orbitalstabilityofthosesystemshavetobestableandtransit
curvehastohaveashapethatpartlyeclipsingbinariescouldnotmimicthetransitsignal.Inaddition,its
orbitalperiodneedstobe1.6daysorlongertoruleoutcommonfalsepositivescausedbyeclipsing
binaries.[94]ValidationbymultiplicitymethodisveryefficientandallowstoconfirmhundredsofKepler
candidatesinarelativelyshortamountoftime.
AnewvalidationmethodusingatoolcalledPASTIShasbeendeveloped.Itmakesitpossibletoconfirma
planetevenwhenonlyasinglecandidatetransiteventforthehoststarhasbeendetected.Adrawbackof
thistoolisthatitrequiresarelativelyhighsignaltonoiseratiofromKeplerdata,soitcanmainlyconfirm
onlylargerplanetsorplanetsaroundquietandrelativelybrightstars.Currently,theanalysisofKepler
candidatesthroughthismethodisunderway.[95]PASTISwasfirstsuccessfulforvalidatingtheplanet
Kepler420b.[96]
Missionresultstodate
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TheKeplerobservatorywasinactiveoperationfrom2009through
2013,withthefirstmainresultsannouncedonJanuary4,2010.As
expected,theinitialdiscoverieswereallshortperiodplanets.Asthe
missioncontinued,additionallongerperiodcandidateswerefound.
2009
NASAheldapressconferencetodiscussearlyscienceresultsofthe
KeplermissiononAugust6,2009.[97]Atthispressconference,it
wasrevealedthatKeplerhadconfirmedtheexistenceofthe
previouslyknowntransitingexoplanetHATP7b,andwas
functioningwellenoughtodiscoverEarthsizeplanets.[98][99]
SinceKepler
'
sdetectionofplanetsdependsonseeingverysmall
changesinbrightness,starsthatvaryinbrightnessallbythemselves
(variablestars)arenotusefulinthissearch.[62]Fromthefirstfew
monthsofdata,Keplerscientistshavedeterminedthatabout7,500
starsfromtheinitialtargetlistaresuchvariablestars.Thesewere
droppedfromthetargetlist,andreplacedbynewcandidates.On
November4,2009,theKeplerprojectpubliclyreleasedthelight
curvesofthedroppedstars.[100]
DetailofKepler
'
simageofthe
investigatedareashowingopenstar
clusterNGC6791.Celestialnorthis
towardsthelowerleftcorner.
Thefirstsixweeksofdatarevealedfivepreviouslyunknown
planets,allveryclosetotheirstars.[101][102]Amongthenotable
resultsareoneoftheleastdenseplanetsyetfound,[103]twolow
masswhitedwarfs[104]thatwereinitiallyreportedasbeingmembers
ofanewclassofstellarobjects,[105]andawellcharacterizedplanet
orbitingabinarystar.
2010
DetailofKepler
'
simageofthe
investigatedarea.Thelocationof
TrES2bwithinthisimageisshown.
Celestialnorthistowardsthelower
leftcorner.
OnJune15,2010,theKeplermissionreleaseddataonallbut400of
the~156,000planetarytargetstarstothepublic.706targetsfrom
thisfirstdatasethaveviableexoplanetcandidates,withsizes
rangingfromassmallastheEarthtolargerthanJupiter.The
identityandcharacteristicsof306ofthe706targetsweregiven.The
releasedtargetsincludedfivecandidatemultiplanetsystems.Datafortheremaining400targetswith
planetarycandidateswastobereleasedinFebruary2011.(Fordetailsaboutthislaterdatarelease,seethe
Keplerresultsfor2011below.)Nonetheless,theKeplerresults,basedonthecandidatesinthelistreleased
in2010,implythatmostcandidateplanetshaveradiilessthanhalfthatofJupiter.TheKeplerresultsalso
implythatsmallcandidateplanetswithperiodslessthanthirtydaysaremuchmorecommonthanlarge
candidateplanetswithperiodslessthanthirtydaysandthatthegroundbaseddiscoveriesaresamplingthe
largesizetailofthesizedistribution.[106]Thiscontradictedoldertheorieswhichhadsuggestedsmalland
Earthlikeplanetswouldberelativelyinfrequent.[107][108]BasedonextrapolationsfromtheKeplerdata,an
estimateofaround100millionhabitableplanetsintheMilkyWaymayberealistic.[109]However,some
mediareportsoftheTEDtalkhaveledtothemisunderstandingthatKeplerhadactuallyfoundthese
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planets.ThiswasclarifiedinalettertotheDirectoroftheNASAAmesResearchCenter,fortheKepler
ScienceCouncildatedAugust2,2010states,"AnalysisofthecurrentKeplerdatadoesnotsupportthe
assertionthatKeplerhasfoundanyEarthlikeplanets."[110][111][112]
In2010,Kepleridentifiedtwosystemscontainingobjectswhicharesmallerandhotterthantheirparent
stars:KOI74andKOI81.[113]Theseobjectsareprobablylowmasswhitedwarfsproducedbyprevious
episodesofmasstransferintheirsystems.[104]
In2010,theKeplerteamreleasedapaperwhichhaddatafor312extrasolarplanetcandidatesfrom306
separatestars.Only33.5daysofdatawereavailableformostofthecandidates.[106]NASAalsoannounced
dataforanother400candidateswerebeingwithheldtoallowmembersoftheKeplerteamtoperform
followupobservations.[114]ThedataforthesecandidatesweremadepubliconFebruary2,2011.[115]
2011
Asizecomparisonoftheexoplanets
Kepler20e[116]andKepler20f[117]
withVenusandEarth
OnFebruary2,2011,theKeplerteamannouncedtheresultsof
analysisofthedatatakenbetween2MayandSeptember16,
2009.[115]Theyfound1235planetarycandidatescircling997host
stars.(Thenumbersthatfollowassumethecandidatesarereally
planets,thoughtheofficialpaperscalledthemonlycandidates.
Independentanalysisindicatedthatatleast90%ofthemarereal
planetsandnotfalsepositives).[118]68planetswereapproximately
Earthsize,288superEarthsize,662Neptunesize,165Jupitersize,
and19uptotwicethesizeofJupiter.Incontrasttopreviouswork,
roughly74%oftheplanetsaresmallerthanNeptune,mostlikelyas
aresultofpreviousworkfindinglargeplanetsmoreeasilythan
smallerones.
ThatFebruary2,2011releaseof1235extrasolarplanetcandidates,included54thatmaybeinthe
"habitablezone",including5lessthantwicethesizeoftheEarth.[119][120]Therewerepreviouslyonlytwo
planetsthoughttobeinthe"habitablezone",sothesenewfindingsrepresentanenormousexpansionofthe
potentialnumberof"Goldilocksplanets"(planetsoftherighttemperaturetosupportliquidwater).[121]All
ofthehabitablezonecandidatesfoundthusfarorbitstarssignificantlysmallerandcoolerthantheSun
(habitablecandidatesaroundSunlikestarswilltakeseveraladditionalyearstoaccumulatethethree
transitsrequiredfordetection).[122]Ofallthenewplanetcandidates,68are125%ofEarth'ssizeorsmaller,
orsmallerthanallpreviouslydiscoveredexoplanets.[120]"Earthsize"and"superEarthsize"isdefinedas
"lessthanorequalto2Earthradii(Re)"[(or,Rp2.0Re)Table5].[115]Sixsuchplanetcandidates
[namely:KOI326.01(Rp=0.85),KOI701.03(Rp=1.73),KOI268.01(Rp=1.75),KOI1026.01(Rp=1.77),
KOI854.01(Rp=1.91),KOI70.03(Rp=1.96)Table6][115]areinthe"habitablezone."[119]Amorerecent
studyfoundthatoneofthesecandidates(KOI326.01)isinfactmuchlargerandhotterthanfirst
reported.[123]
ThefrequencyofplanetobservationswashighestforexoplanetstwotothreetimesEarthsize,andthen
declinedininverseproportionalitytotheareaoftheplanet.Thebestestimate(asofMarch2011),after
accountingforobservationalbiases,was:5.4%ofstarshostEarthsizecandidates,6.8%hostsuperEarth
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sizecandidates,19.3%hostNeptunesizecandidates,and2.55%hostJupitersizeorlargercandidates.
Multiplanetsystemsarecommon17%ofthehoststarshavemulticandidatesystems,and33.9%ofallthe
planetsareinmultipleplanetsystems.[124]
ByDecember5,2011,theKeplerteamannouncedthattheyhaddiscovered2,326planetarycandidates,of
which207aresimilarinsizetoEarth,680aresuperEarthsize,1,181areNeptunesize,203areJupiter
sizeand55arelargerthanJupiter.ComparedtotheFebruary2011figures,thenumberofEarthsizeand
superEarthsizeplanetsincreasedby200%and140%respectively.Moreover,48planetcandidateswere
foundinthehabitablezonesofsurveyedstars,markingadecreasefromtheFebruaryfigurethiswasdueto
themorestringentcriteriainuseintheDecemberdata.[125]
OnDecember20,2011,theKeplerteamannouncedthediscoveryofthefirstEarthsizeexoplanets,Kepler
20e[116]andKepler20f,[117]orbitingaSunlikestar,Kepler20.[126]
BasedonKepler
'
sfindings,astronomerSethShostakestimatedin2011that"withinathousandlightyears
ofEarth",thereare"atleast30,000"habitableplanets.[127]Alsobasedonthefindings,theKeplerteamhas
estimatedthatthereare"atleast50billionplanetsintheMilkyWay",ofwhich"atleast500million"arein
thehabitablezone.[128]InMarch2011,astronomersatNASA'sJetPropulsionLaboratory(JPL)reported
thatabout"1.4to2.7percent"ofallSunlikestarsareexpectedtohaveearthlikeplanets"withinthe
habitablezonesoftheirstars".Thismeansthereare"twobillion"ofthese"Earthanalogs"intheMilky
Wayalone.TheJPLastronomersalsonotedthatthereare"50billionothergalaxies",potentiallyyielding
morethanonesextillion"Earthanalog"planetsifallgalaxieshavesimilarnumbersofplanetstotheMilky
Way.[129]
2012
InJanuary2012,aninternationalteamofastronomersreportedthateachstarintheMilkyWayGalaxymay
host"onaverage...atleast1.6planets",suggestingthatover160billionstarboundplanetsmayexistinthe
MilkyWay.[130][131]Kepleralsorecordeddistantstellarsuperflares,someofwhichare10,000timesmore
powerfulthanthesuperlative1859Carringtonevent.[132]Thesuperflaresmaybetriggeredbyclose
orbitingJupitersizedplanets.[132]TheTransitTimingVariation(TTV)technique,whichwasusedto
discoverKepler9d,gainedpopularityforconfirmingexoplanetdiscoveries.[133]Aplanetinasystemwith
fourstarswasalsoconfirmed,thefirsttimesuchasystemhadbeendiscovered.[134]
Asof2012,therewereatotalof2,321candidates.[125][135][136]Ofthese,207aresimilarinsizetoEarth,
680aresuperEarthsize,1,181areNeptunesize,203areJupitersizeand55arelargerthanJupiter.
Moreover,48planetcandidateswerefoundinthehabitablezonesofsurveyedstars.TheKeplerteam
estimatedthat5.4%ofallstarshostEarthsizeplanetcandidates,andthat17%ofallstarshavemultiple
planets.InDecember2011,twooftheEarthsizedcandidates,Kepler20e[116]andKepler20f,[117]were
confirmedasplanetsorbitingaSunlikestar,Kepler20.[126][137][138]
2013
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AccordingtoastudybyCaltechastronomerspublishedinJanuary2013,theMilkyWayGalaxycontainsat
leastasmanyplanetsasitdoesstars,resultingin100400billionexoplanets.[139][140]Thestudy,basedon
planetsorbitingthestarKepler32,suggeststhatplanetarysystems
maybecommonaroundstarsintheMilkyWay.Thediscoveryof
461morecandidateswasannouncedonJanuary7,2013.[141]The
longerKeplerwatches,themoreplanetswithlongperiodsitcan
detect.[141]
SincethelastKeplercatalogwasreleasedin
February2012,thenumberofcandidatesdiscovered
intheKeplerdatahasincreasedby20percentand
nowtotals2,740potentialplanetsorbiting2,036
stars.NASA[141]
Acandidate,newlyannouncedonJanuary7,2013,wasKepler69c
(formerly,KOI172.02),anEarthlikeexoplanetorbitingastar
similartotheSuninthehabitablezoneandpossiblya"prime
candidatetohostalienlife".[142]
InApril2013,awhitedwarfwasdiscoveredbendingthelightofits
companionreddwarfintheKOI256starsystem.[143]
AchartshowingKeplerdiscoveries,
incontextofalldiscovered
exoplanets(through2013),withsome
transitprobabilitiesindicatedfor
examplescenarios.
InApril2013,NASAannouncedthediscoveryofthreenewEarth
likeexoplanetsKepler62e,Kepler62f,andKepler69cinthehabitablezonesoftheirrespectivehost
stars,Kepler62andKepler69.Thenewexoplanets,whichareconsideredprimecandidatesforpossessing
liquidwaterandthuspotentiallylife,wereidentifiedusingtheKeplerspacecraft.[144][145][146]Amorerecent
analysishasshownthatKepler69cislikelymoreanalogoustoVenus,andthusunlikelytobe
habitable.[147]
OnMay15,2013,NASAannouncedthespacecrafthadbeencrippledbyfailureofareactionwheelthat
keepsitpointedintherightdirection.Asecondwheelhadpreviouslyfailed,andthespacecraftrequires
threewheels(outoffourtotal)tobeoperationalfortheinstrumenttofunctionproperly.Furthertestingin
JulyandAugustdeterminedthatwhileKeplerwascapableofusingitsdamagedreactionwheelstoprevent
itselffromenteringsafemodeanddownlinkingpreviouslycollectedsciencedataitwasnotcapableof
collectingfurthersciencedataaspreviouslyconfigured.[148]ScientistsworkingontheKeplerprojectsaid
therewasabacklogofdatastilltobelookedat,andthatmorediscoverieswouldbemadeinthefollowing
coupleofyears,despitethesetback.[149]
AlthoughnonewsciencedatafromKeplerfieldhadbeencollectedsincetheproblem,anadditionalsixty
threecandidateswereannouncedinJuly2013basedonthepreviouslycollectedobservations.[72]
InNovember2013,thesecondKeplerscienceconferencewasheld.Thediscoveriesincludedthemedian
sizeofplanetcandidatesgettingsmallercomparedtoearly2013,preliminaryresultsofthediscoveryofa
fewcircumbinaryplanetsandplanetsinthehabitablezone.[150]
2014
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OnFebruary13,over530additionalplanetcandidateswere
announcedresidingaroundsingleplanetsystems.Severalofthem
werenearlyEarthsizedandlocatedinthehabitablezone.This
numberwasfurtherincreasedbyabout400inJune2014.[151]
OnFebruary26,scientistsannouncedthatdatafromKeplerhad
confirmedtheexistenceof715newexoplanets.Anewstatistical
methodofconfirmationwasusedcalled"verificationby
multiplicity"whichisbasedonhowmanyplanetsaroundmultiple
starswerefoundtoberealplanets.Thisallowedmuchquicker
confirmationofnumerouscandidateswhicharepartof
multiplanetarysystems.95%ofthediscoveredexoplanetswere
smallerthanNeptuneandfour,includingKepler296f,wereless
than21/2thesizeofEarthandwereinhabitablezoneswhere
surfacetemperaturesaresuitableforliquidwater.[93][152][153][154]
Histogramofexoplanetdiscoveries.
Theyellowshadedbarshowsnewly
announcedplanetsincludingthose
verifiedbythemultiplicitytechnique
(February26,2014).
InMarch,astudyfoundthatsmallplanetswithorbitalperiodsoflessthan1dayareusuallyaccompanied
byatleastoneadditionalplanetwithorbitalperiodof150days.Thisstudyalsonotedthatultrashort
periodplanetsarealmostalwayssmallerthan2EarthradiiunlessitisamisalignedhotJupiter.[155]
Keplerdatahasalsohelpedscientistsobserveandunderstandsupernovaemeasurementswerecollected
everyhalfhoursothelightcurveswereespeciallyusefulforstudyingthesetypesofastronomical
events.[156]
OnApril17,theKeplerteamannouncedthediscoveryofKepler186f,thefirstnearlyEarthsizedplanet
locatedinthehabitablezone.Thisplanetorbitsaroundareddwarf.[157]
InMay2014,campaignfields0to13werereportedanddescribedindetail.[158]
InJuly2014,thefirstdiscoveriesfrompostKeplerfielddatawerereportedintheformofeclipsing
binaries.DiscoverieswerederivedfromaKeplerengineeringdatasetwhichwascollectedpriorto
campaign0[159]inpreparationtothemainK2mission.[160]
OnSeptember23,2014,NASAreportedthattheK2missionhadcompletedcampaign1,[161]thefirst
officialsetofscienceobservations,andthatcampaign2[162]wasunderway.[163]
Campaign3[165]lastedfromNovember14,2014toFebruary6,2015andincluded"16,375standardlong
cadenceand55standardshortcadencetargets".[158]
2015
InJanuary2015,thenumberofconfirmedKeplerplanetsexceeded1000.Atleasttwo(Kepler438b
andKepler442b)ofthediscoveredplanetsannouncedthatmonthwerelikelyrockyandinthe
habitablezone.[33]AlsoinJanuary2015,NASAreportedthatfiveconfirmedsubearthsizedrocky
exoplanets,allsmallerthantheplanetVenus,werefoundorbitingthe11.2billionyearoldstar
Kepler444,makingthisstarsystem,at80%oftheageoftheuniverse,theoldestyet
discovered.[166][167][168]
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InApril2015,campaign4[169]wasreportedtolast
betweenFebruary7,2015,andApril24,2015,andto
includeobservationsofnearly16,000targetstarsandtwo
notableopenstarclusters,PleiadesandHyades.[170]
InMay2015,Keplerobservedanewlydiscovered
supernova,KSN2011b(Type1a),before,duringand
afterexplosion.Detailsoftheprenovamomentsmay
helpscientistsbetterunderstanddarkenergy.[164]
KeplerobservedKSN2011b,aTypeIa
OnJuly24,2015,NASAannouncedthediscoveryof
Kepler452b,aconfirmedexoplanetthatisnearEarthin
supernova,intheprocessofexploding:
sizeandfoundorbitingthehabitablezoneofaSunlike
before,duringandafter. [164]
[171][172]
star.
TheseventhKeplerplanetcandidatecatalog
wasreleased,containing4,696candidates,andincrease
of521candidatessincethepreviouscatalogreleaseinJanuary2015.[173][174]
OnSeptember14,2015,astronomersreportedunusuallightfluctuationsofKIC8462852,anFtype
mainsequencestarintheconstellationCygnus,asdetectedbyKepler,whilesearchingfor
exoplanets.Variousexplanationshavebeenpresented,includingcomets,asteroids,andanalien
civilization.[175][176][177]
Missionstatus
Keplerwaslaunchedin2009.Itwasverysuccessfulatfindingexoplanets,butfailuresintwooffour
reactionwheelscrippleditsextendedmissionin2013.Withoutthreefunctioningwheels,thetelescope
couldnotbepointedaccurately.
Extension
InApril2012,anindependentpanelofseniorNASAscientists
recommendedthattheKeplermissionbecontinuedthrough2016.
Accordingtotheseniorreview,Keplerobservationsneededto
continueuntilatleast2015toachieveallthestatedscientific
goals.[179]OnNovember14,2012,NASAannouncedthe
completionofKepler
'
sprimarymission,andthebeginningofits
extendedmission,whichmaylastaslongasfouryears.[180]
Reactionwheelissues
InJuly2012,oneofKepler
'
sfourreactionwheels(wheel2)
failed.[17]OnMay11,2013,asecondwheel(wheel4)failed,
PredictedstructureoftheMilkyWay
threateningthecontinuationofthemission,asthreewheelsare
galaxyoverlaidwiththeoriginal
[15][16]
necessaryforitsplanethunting.
Keplerhasnotcollected
Keplersearchspace. [178]
sciencedatasinceMaybecauseitisnotabletopointwithsufficient
accuracy.[141]OnJuly18and22reactionwheels4and2weretested
respectivelywheel4onlyrotatedcounterclockwisebutwheel2raninbothdirections,albeitwith
significantlyelevatedfrictionlevels.[181]Afurthertestofwheel4onJuly25managedtoachievebi
directionalrotation.[182]Bothwheels,however,exhibitedtoomuchfrictiontobeuseful.[19]OnAugust2,
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NASAputoutacallforproposalstousetheremainingcapabilitiesofKeplerforotherscientificmissions.
StartingonAugust8,afullsystemsevaluationwasconducted.Itwasdeterminedthatwheel2couldnot
providesufficientprecisionforscientificmissionsandthespacecraftwasreturnedtoa"rest"stateto
conservefuel.[17]Wheel4waspreviouslyruledoutbecauseitexhibitedhigherfrictionlevelsthanwheel2
inprevioustests.[182]SendingastronautstofixKeplerisnotanoptionsinceitorbitstheSunandismillions
ofkilometersfromEarth.[19]
OnAugust15,2013,NASAannouncedthatKeplerwouldnotcontinuesearchingforplanetsusingthe
transitmethodafterattemptstoresolveissueswithtwoofthefourreactionwheelsfailed.[17][18][19]An
engineeringreportwasorderedtoassessthespacecraft'scapabilities,itstwogoodreactionwheelsandits
thrusters.[17]Concurrently,ascientificstudywasconductedtodeterminewhetherenoughknowledgecan
beobtainedfromKepler
'
slimitedscopetojustifyits$18millionperyearcost.
Possiblefutureusesincludesearchingforasteroidsandcomets,lookingforevidenceofsupernovas,and
findinghugeexoplanetsthroughgravitationalmicrolensing.[19]Anotherproposalistomodifythesoftware
onKeplertocompensateforthedisabledreactionwheels.Insteadofthestarsbeingfixedandstablein
Kepler
'
sfieldofview,theywilldrift.However,softwarecouldtrackthisdriftandmoreorlesscompletely
recoverthemissiongoalsdespitebeingunabletoholdthestarsinafixedview.[183]
Previouslycollecteddatacontinuestobeanalyzed.[184]Itisexpectedthataround90%ofthe3,548
candidateplanetspreviouslyidentifiedbyKeplerwillbeconfirmedwhenthedataanalysisiscomplete,a
processthatwilltakeseveralyears.AsofAugust2013,135ofthosecandidateshavebeenconfirmed.[19]
SecondLight(K2)
InNovember2013,anewmissionplannamedK2"SecondLight"waspresentedfor
consideration.[22][23][24][185]K2wouldinvolveusingKepler
'
sremainingcapability,photometricprecisionof
about300partspermillion,comparedwithabout20partspermillionearlier,tocollectdataforthestudyof
"supernovaexplosions,starformationandsolarsystembodiessuchasasteroidsandcomets,..."andfor
findingandstudyingmoreexoplanets.[22][23][185]Inthisproposedmissionplan,Keplerwouldsearcha
muchlargerareaintheplaneofEarth'sorbitaroundtheSun.[22][23][185]
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K2proposalexplained(December11,2013). [23]
Inearly2014,thespacecraftunderwentsuccessfultestingfortheK2mission.[186]FromMarchtoMay
2014,datafromanewfieldcalledField0wascollectedasatestingrun.[187]OnMay16,2014,NASA
announcedtheapprovalofextendingtheKeplermissiontotheK2mission.[25]Kepler
'
sphotometric
precisionfortheK2missionwasestimatedtobe50ppmonamagnitude12starfora6.5hour
integration.[188]InFebruary2014,photometricprecisionfortheK2missionusingtwowheel,finepoint
precisionoperationswasmeasuredas44ppmonmagnitude12starsfora6.5hourintegration.Theanalysis
ofthesemeasurementsbyNASAsuggeststheK2photometricprecisionapproachesthatoftheKepler
archiveofthreewheel,finepointprecisiondata.[189]
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K2missiontimeline(August8,2014). [190]
OnMay29,2014,campaignfields0to13werereportedanddescribedindetail.[158]
Field1oftheK2missionissettowardstheLeoVirgoregionofthesky,whileField2istowardsthe"head"
areaofScorpiusandincludestwoglobularclusters,Messier4andMessier80,[191]andpartofthe
ScorpiusCentaurusAssociation,whichisonlyabout11millionyearsold[192]and120140parsecs(380
470ly)distant[193]withprobablyover1,000members.[194]
OnDecember18,2014,NASAannouncedthattheK2missionhaddetecteditsfirstconfirmedexoplanet,a
superEarthnamedHIP116454b.Itssignaturewasfoundinasetofengineeringdatameanttopreparethe
spacecraftforthefullK2mission.Radialvelocityfollowupobservationswereneededasonlyasingle
transitoftheplanetwasdetected.[195]
Datareleases
TheKeplerteamoriginallypromisedtoreleasedatawithinoneyearofobservations.[196]However,this
planwaschangedafterlaunch,withdatabeingscheduledforreleaseuptothreeyearsafterits
collection.[197]Thisresultedinconsiderablecriticism,[198][199][200][201][202]leadingtheKeplerscienceteam
toreleasethethirdquarteroftheirdataoneyearandninemonthsaftercollection.[203]Thedatathrough
September2010(quarters4,5,and6)wasmadepublicinJanuary2012.[204]
Followupsbyothers
Periodically,theKeplerteamreleasesalistofcandidates(KeplerObjectsofInterest,orKOIs)tothe
public.Usingthisinformation,ateamofastronomerscollectedradialvelocitydatausingtheSOPHIE
chellespectrographtoconfirmtheexistenceofthecandidateKOI428bin2010,laternamedKepler
40b.[205]In2011,thesameteamconfirmedcandidateKOI423b,laternamedKepler39b.[206]
Citizenscientistparticipation
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SinceDecember2010,KeplermissiondatahasbeenusedfortheZooniverseproject"Planethunters.org",
whichallowsvolunteerstolookfortransiteventsinthelightcurvesofKeplerimagestoidentifyplanets
thatcomputeralgorithmsmightmiss.[207]ByJune2011,usershadfoundsixtyninepotentialcandidates
thatwerepreviouslyunrecognizedbytheKeplermissionteam.[208]Theteamhasplanstopubliclycredit
amateurswhospotsuchplanets.
InJanuary2012,theBritishBroadcastingCorporation(BBC)programStargazingLiveairedapublic
appealforvolunteerstoanalysePlanethunters.orgdataforpotentialnewexoplanets.Thisledtwoamateur
astronomersoneinPeterborough,EnglandtodiscoveranewNeptunesizedexoplanet,tobenamed
ThreapletonHolmesB.[209]Onehundredthousandothervolunteersarealsoengagedinthesearchbylate
January,analyzingoveronemillionKeplerimagesbyearly2012.[210]
Confirmedexoplanets
Mainarticle:Listofexoplanetsdiscoveredusing
theKeplerspacecraft
Seealso:ListofexoplanetaryhoststarsandListof
exoplanets
Inadditiontodiscoveringhundredsofexoplanet
candidates,theKeplerspacecrafthasalsoreported
twentysixexoplanetsinelevensystemsthathavenot
yetbeenaddedtotheExtrasolarPlanetDatabase.[211]
ExoplanetsdiscoveredusingKepler
'
sdata,but
confirmedbyoutsideresearchers,includeKOI
423b,[206]KOI428b,[205]KOI196b,[212]KOI
135b,[213]KOI204b,[214]KOI254b,[215]KOI730,[216]
andKepler42(KOI961).[217]The"KOI"acronym
indicatesthatthestarisaKeplerObjectofInterest.
Confirmedsmallexoplanetsinhabitablezones
(Kepler62e,Kepler62f,Kepler186f,Kepler
296e,Kepler296f,Kepler438b,Kepler440b,
Kepler442b). [33]
BothCorot[218]andKepler[99]measuredthereflected
lightfromplanets.However,theseplanetswerealreadyknown,becausetheytransittheirstar.Kepler
'
sdata
allowedthefirstdiscoveryofplanetsbythismethod,Kepler70bandKepler70c.[219]
KeplerInputCatalog
Mainarticle:KeplerInputCatalog
TheKeplerInputCatalog(KIC)isapubliclysearchabledatabaseofroughly13.2milliontargetsusedfor
theKeplerSpectralClassificationProgramandtheKeplermission.[220][221]Thecatalogaloneisnotused
forfindingKeplertargets,becauseonlyaportionofthelistedstars(aboutonethirdofthecatalog)canbe
observedbythespacecraft.[220]
Seealso
22/32
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Kepler22b,thefirstexoplanetconfirmedbyKeplertohaveanaverageorbitaldistancewithinits
star'shabitablezone
Listofexoplanets
Listofmultiplanetarysystems
Relatedorcomparablemissionsandprojects
AutomatedPlanetFinder
COROT
Darwin
Eddington
ExoplanetArchive
Gaia
HATNetProject
HighAccuracyRadialVelocityPlanetSearcher
PlanetQuest
PLATO
SpaceInterferometryMission
SuperWASP
TerrestrialPlanetFinder
TransitingExoplanetSurveySatellite
TransAtlanticExoplanetSurvey
Notes
A. Apertureof0.95myieldsalightgatheringareaofPi(0.95/2)2=0.708m2the42CCDseachsized0.050m
0.025myieldsatotalsensorareaof0.0525m2:[4]
B. ThisdoesnotincludeKeplercandidateswithoutaKOIdesignation,suchascircumbinaryplanets,orcandidates
foundinthePlanetHuntersproject.
C. Thisprobabilityonlyhastwosignificantfigures.Thus,itisstatedas1in210,not1in212.77
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