TNT FYI:

Practical Contact Ultrasonics - Defining Terms and Principles

by James W. Houf*
Figures 1-3
This article is the first in an eight-part series detailing practical hands-on contact
ultrasonic testing. Most reference material on ultrasonic testing (UT) develops the
technical aspects of ultrasonics in great detail with little explanation given to the
hands-on application of contact ultrasonic testing being performed daily by Level
I and Level II personnel. This series on Practical Contact Ultrasonics includes
simple, concise information that operators can use in the performance of their
work. The information is not intended to be all-inclusive. Some specific
applications will not be found but much of what is presented can be generally
applied and may make performing ultrasonic inspections a little easier or may
assist in preventing the collection of inaccurate data. Several general definitions
are provided first, followed by definitions that follow the progress of the sound
path in a typical ultrasonic test. A synopsis of each of the topics to be presented
in the rest of the series follows this initial article.

Introduction
The following terms and definitions will be used throughout the Practical Contact
Ultrasonic series and their presentation here serves as explanation and review.
Where possible, practical examples of the terms being defined have been
included as well as the field terms (indicated by parentheses) commonly used by
UT practitioners. Explanations of basic ultrasonic principles have also been
included.
Contact UT: Contact UT is testing conducted with a handheld ultrasonic search
unit that is applied directly to the surface of the material being inspected. This
definition applies to thickness testing and both straight and angle beam
inspection.
Ultrasound: Sound that is above the range of human hearing (20 KHz) is
referred to as ultrasound. For most common contact material inspection
applications, the frequencies used are 1.0, 2.25 and 5.0 MHz. The high
frequencies of ultrasound do not travel through air as well as through liquids and
solids.
Sound beam: Ultrasonic transducers generate a stream of sound energy called
a sound beam. This sound energy, in the form of waves, spreads out as it moves
farther from the transducer, creating a beam similar to that seen when a flashlight
is used in fog. Each sound wave is initially made up of two components, an area
of compression, where the sound energy is packed closely together, and an area

of rarefaction, where the sound energy is spread farther apart. Wave

compression and rarefaction zones can be approximated by throwing a rock into
a pond. When the rock hits the water, a single set of waves travels away from the
point of impact. The wave crowns represent compression or high-energy zones.
Depressions between the wave crowns represent areas of rarefaction or low
energy.
Sound path: The path the sound beam follows as it leaves the transducer and
enters the test piece is called the sound path.
Longitudinal waves: Longitudinal waves are sound waves generated so that
particle movement within the wave is parallel to the direction of the sound beam.
Waves in the longitudinal mode travel approximately twice as fast as transverse
waves generated in the same material. Longitudinal waves are used to perform
straight beam and thickness inspections.
Transverse (shear) waves: Transverse or shear waves are sound waves
generated so that particle movement within the wave is perpendicular to the
direction of the sound beam. This wave mode travels at approximately half the
speed of longitudinal waves generated in the same material. A weak coil spring
can give a good demonstration of longitudinal and transverse wave modes.
Stretch the spring out until it is almost taut. Then, quickly shove one end slightly
towards the other and stop. The coil motion you see moving down the length of
the spring is similar to the longitudinal sound wave mode. To demonstrate
transverse motion, grasp one end of the spring and quickly move your hand
sideways and back to center. The coils move laterally or from side-to-side as the
movement travels down the length of the spring. Shear waves are used in angle
beam inspections.
Flaw detector (UT machine, or scope): A flaw detector is an electronic device
that transmits and receives tiny impulses of electrical energy through a shielded
cable to and from a transducer. Electronic signals returned to the flaw detector by
the transducer are amplified and converted to a trace on a liquid crystal display
or cathode ray tube (CRT) screen. The term scope is derivative of the word
oscilloscope, an early UT machine.
Digital thickness testers (D-meters): Digital thickness testers are miniature
versions of a flaw detector, typically using a dedicated straight beam transducer
and showing only a digital readout of the thickness of the part being tested.
Some digital thickness testers also have a miniature screen presentation that
shows a waveform like that on a full UT machine. Most D-meters have a datalogging feature that will store thousands of thickness readings that are captured
with an accuracy usually within several thousandths of an inch (0.001 in.).
Transducer (probe): A small, hand-held assembly that contains piezoelectric
crystals, damping material, wires and a connector for linking the crystal(s) to an
electric impulse generator (a thickness tester or flaw detector in this application),
and possibly a delay line (Figure 1). Dual element delay line probes are
commonly used for thickness checks on thinner materials.
Piezoelectric crystals: Crystals that produce a range of frequencies centered
around a chosen frequency when struck by an electric current
and give off an electric current when struck by sound are called piezoelectric

crystals.
Damping material: A rubber-like material behind the crystal(s) in a transducer
that quickly stops each crystal from ring-down or prolonged vibrating. This
damping effect is similar to grabbing a bell immediately after it is struck. The
purpose of damping is to keep the ring-down caused by one electrical impulse
from interfering with the sound signal returning to the crystal before the next
electrical impulse causes the crystal(s) to ring again.
Delay line: A delay line is a sound conductive material that is either placed
internally between the crystal and front of the transducer or externally as an
attachment to the front of the transducer. A delay line gives the sound beam time
to form a single wave train before reaching the part being tested (see Near and
Far Fields).
Coaxial (coax) cable: A coaxial cable is shielded electric cable that is used to
connect the scope to the transducer. UT coax cables usually have either quick
connect (BNC) or microdot connectors to attach the transducer to the scope.
Wedge (shoe): A wedge is typically formed from sound conductive plastic
material that can be cut to change the angle at which the sound beam enters the
part being tested. Commonly used wedge angles create refracted angles in the
test piece of 0 (straight beam), 45, 60 and 70 degrees. Wedges can be built into
the transducer or may be removable. Refracted angles are calculated from a
vertical line drawn through the thickness of the part being tested. Therefore, a 70
degree refracted angle enters the part 20 degrees down from the plane of the
part surface (Figure 2). It should be noted, using detachable wedges can have
several advantages. Cost is reduced because the purchase of fewer transducers
is required and detachable wedges take up less room and reduce the overall
weight of the operator's kit.
Search unit (probe): A search unit is an assembly made up of the transducer
and wedge (or external delay line), or a transducer with a built-in wedge angle.
Couplant: Any liquid or gel used to transmit ultrasound between the transducer
and shoe or probe and test part is called a couplant. Water is the simplest of all
couplants, but cellulose gel, oil and glycerin are other common couplants. For out
of position work, a thicker couplant is preferred because it won't run off vertical
surfaces as quickly as thinner couplants. [Tip for practitioners - When using
thicker couplants, a one inch paint brush is handy for spreading couplant evenly
over the scanning surface. On field jobs, to keep from losing the brush and to
prevent contamination with dirt, use a small circular magnet like those found at
electronics stores and attach it to the handle of the brush with a piece of strong
nylon string. This allows the brush to be hung on the part being inspected or on a
scaffold post. (It can also save several trips up and down a scaffold).]
Reflector (indication; signal): A reflector is anything within the test object that
causes part of the sound beam to reflect back to the probe. Sound returning from
a reflector will cause a trace to appear on the screen display. Relevant
indications can be foreign materials such as slag or gas pockets, or voids such
as cracks, hot tears, shrinkage, etc. Signals returning from geometry changes
are considered nonrelevant indications, and signals caused by changes in the
type of sound mode (mode conversion) are false indications. Reference

reflectors are holes, notches, slots, etc., of a known size that are machined or
drilled into reference blocks that can be used as baselines for the comparison of
signal sizes.
Screen presentation (display): A screen presentation is the electronic
representation of the signal generated by sound returning from a reflector and is
shown on a CRT or LCD screen on the front of the scope. The screen width can
be calibrated to represent varying sound paths and the screen height can be
adjusted so that the amplitude (height) of a signal can be compared to a
reference reflector.
Near and Far Fields: The near field is the area in the sound beam immediately
in front of the crystal. The length of the near field varies depending on the
frequency and cross-sectional area of the crystal surface. The near field effect
(Figure 3) occurs because sound is generated from multiple points on the crystal
when hit by each electric impulse. As the wave from each piece of crystal travels
down the sound path, they eventually merge to form one unified wavetrain called
the far field that can be used for inspection. Before individual waves merge,
compression and rarefaction areas can overlap, causing null zones or areas that
cancel each other out and areas where the sound energy is multiplied. Because
of this effect, inspections done in the near field cannot be trusted and are usually
prohibited by most codes and specifications. Near and far fields can be
demonstrated by throwing several pebbles in a pond at the same time. Each
pebble creates its own set of waves immediately around each point of impact,
overlapping with the waves formed by the other pebbles. However, as the waves
travel outward they eventually merge to form a single wave train (see Sound
beam). The area in which the waves travel before they merge represents the
near field and the area after that represents the far field.
By applying the principles mentioned above and using combinations of the
equipment described, an operator can perform accurate ultrasonic inspections.
The next article will discuss straight beam inspections, flaw detector screen setups and basic straight beam calibrations.

Synopsis of Topics for Practical Contact Ultrasonics Series

Article 2: Straight Beam Inspection is a discussion of the three most commonly
used types of straight beam inspection equipment (digital thickness testers,
digital thickness testers with wave displays, and straight beam inspection using a
flaw detector). General calibration of these instruments and some conditions that
affect readings will also be discussed.
Article 3: Basics of Angle Beam Inspection presents fundamentals of angle
beam inspection, points to consider when selecting the equipment and setting up
screen displays.
Article 4: IIW-based Angle Beam Calibration focuses on angle-beam calibration
using IIW-based calibration blocks (basic equipment set-up used for angle beam
inspections, why system calibration is required and commonly used basic

calibration techniques using IIW, DSC and other IIW-based blocks). Importance
of a proper setup for screen presentation, common errors and their prevention
and calibration "do's and don'ts" will also be covered.
Article 5: ASME-type Angle Beam Calibration covers angle-beam calibration
using ASME-type basic calibration blocks using side-drilled holes and setting up
distance amplitude correction (DAC) curves.
Article 6: Angle Beam Scan Patterns and Test Techniques covers basic scan
patterns used with angle beam inspection and discusses common test
techniques and false indications that can occur during angle beam inspections.
Article 7: Defect Characterization and False Indications relates common defects
found while doing angle beam UT inspections to their screen presentations and
transducer positions. Common false indications and how to determine them will
also be covered.
Article 8: Equipment Maintenance covers general equipment maintenance,
wedge angle verification, correcting wedge discrepancies and general cable
maintenance. How to tell when maintenance is required and annual flaw detector
calibration including vertical linearity checks is also included.?

Practical Contact Ultrasonic - Defining Terms and Principles

Figure 1. Schematic of transducer assembly.

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Figure 2. Diagram of probe or search unit showing

transducer with 70 degree wedge angle attached and
refracted sound beam entering test piece 20 degrees down
from plane of part surface.

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Figure 3. Piezoelectric crystals convert electronic impulse

to sound energy that is emitted as waves. Discrete waves
immediately in front of each sound initiation point form the
near field. Individual wave trains converge to form unified
wave train called far field.

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