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ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
8 lectures, Michaelmas Term 2013
Prof. Clemens F Kaminski
Course outline
1.
What is Analytical Chemistry?
2.
General features of molecular spectroscopy
3.
Ultraviolet/visible spectroscopy
4.
Infrared spectroscopy
5.
Microwave spectroscopy
6.
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
7.
Methods of elemental analysis
8.
Mass spectrometry
9.
Chromatography
Text books
These lecture notes contain all you need to know about analytical chemistry for examination
purposes. You can find out more (if you want to) from almost any textbook with Physical
Chemistry or Analytical Chemistry in the title.
Examples paper: One examples paper will be issued to test understanding and aid exam
preparation.
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identification of impurities
Environmental analysis
o Monitoring and control of pollutants in streams that are to be released
to the environment (in gas, liquid or solid form)
o Measurement of pollutants in the environment (air/river/ground)
NOx, SOx, hydrocarbons in atmosphere
Organic chemicals (polychlorinated biphenyls, detergents)
Toxic heavy metals (lead, cadmium, mercury)
Analytical Chemistry is thus vital in the process industries and in research laboratories.
Qualitative analysis is the identification of elements, functional groups, or
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Analytical Chemists need to be good at careful accurate measurements, statistics and error
analysis:
samples of known concentration must often be prepared for calibration purposes
samples must not become contaminated
for environmental analysis, more than one measurement is often performed on more than
one sample to draw conclusions.
On a process plant, analytical chemistry is normally performed off-line:
a sample of product is removed and sent to the lab for testing might take hours or days
for plant control purposes, we may need to infer composition indirectly
o e.g. from T and P measurements and a model of how conversion (or separation)
varies with T and P
numerous off-line analytical techniques.
However, an increasing number of analytical techniques can now be performed on-
line:
o pH measurement.
o Ion-selective electrodes.
Modern analytical chemistry is largely based on instrumental techniques. In this lecture
course, we shall discuss:
Molecular spectroscopy techniques: first part of course
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2.1
h
absorption
spontaneous
emission
h
stimulated
emission
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2.2
lens
monochromator
e.g. prism
light source *
lens
detector
2.3
The
Transition Probability
o This depends on the precise quantum mechanical wavefunctions of the initial and
final states (beyond the level of this course).
Some transitions may have zero probability in that case, they are said to
violate selection rules.
N upper
N lower
E
= exp
kT
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When E >> kT, then only the lower level has significant population
When E << kT, then the energy levels will have the almost identical
populations
L
Incident
light
Io
Transmitted
light
2.4
Spectroscopic units
A variety of different units are commonly used in spectroscopy to represent the energy
difference between the levels. You need to be familiar with:
o J (Joules), the SI unit of energy
o (frequency, often expressed in MHz); related by E = h
o (wavelength, often expressed in nm), related by E = hc / .
o 1/ or ~ (reciprocal wavelength, or wavenumbers, often expressed in cm
1
); related by E = h c (1/).
o eV (electron volts), related by 1 eV = 1.602 x 1019 J (i.e. the charge of an
electron)
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2.5
information
may be obtained.
Microwaves
Molecular rotation
Infrared
Molecular vibration
-1
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10
-6
10
Visible
Electronic excitation
-7
10
Increasing
energy
Ultraviolet
-8
10
-9
10
-10
10
X-ray
Core-electron excitation
-ray
nuclear excitation
(Mssbauer spectroscopy)
-11
10
-12
10
-13
10
cosmic rays
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molecular orbitals
LUMO
E for transition of interest
HOMO
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(from http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/Spectrpy/UV-Vis/spectrum.htm#uv3)
Aside: due to simultaneous vibrational and rotational transitions (see Sections 3 and 4),
UV spectra normally consist of fairly broad peaks.
The absorbing groups in a molecule are called chromophores. Two isolated
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max/nm
227
22,000
275
30,000
310
77,000
225
13,000
184
203
254
60,0000
7,000
200
OH
OH
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3.1
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4.1
Infrared spectroscopy
Absorption in the infrared region is associated with transitions between vibrational energy
levels.
Diatomic molecules: ideal case
Let us consider a diatomic molecule first (such as HCl) as it contains just a single bond.
Imagine the bond behaves like a perfect spring with a force constant k
m1
m2
spring constant = k
approximation.
We can solve the Schrdinger equation exactly in this case to derive the energy levels of
the molecule
The vibrational energy levels are characterised by a quantum number v.
o E = h 0 (v + )
v = 0, 1, 2,
1 k
o 0 =
[Note that this corresponds to the vibration frequency of the
2
spring]
is the reduced
Energy
At room temperature, E
1
1
1
=
+
m1 m2
E = 9/2 h 0
v=3
E = 7/2 h 0
v=2
E = 5/2 h 0
v=1
E = 3/2 h 0
v=0
mass, given by
E
=0
E = 1/2 h 0
significantly populated.
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= 1
o This means that for a diatomic molecule we expect to see a single absorption peak
corresponding to E = h 0
o The peak tells us 0, the bond vibration frequency, from which we get information
about k and/or .
The second selection rule is that the bond has to have a permanent dipole
moment:
o Variation of the molecules dipole moment upon vibration is needed to interact
with the oscillating electric vector of the electromagnetic radiation.
o This means that diatomic molecules such as O2 and N2 wont show any absorption
in the infrared region (and so arent greenhouse gases); a molecule such as HCl
will show absorption in the infrared region.
4.2
Real bonds do not behave as ideal springs; they behave as anharmonic oscillators.
Potential Energy
-100
The simple harmonic oscillator SHO model discussed earlier provides a good
approximation to the real case at the lowest energy level when r is always close to
requilibrium.
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For real molecules, the bond will break at high energies before v .
o In practice this means that the vibrational energy levels get closer together as
quantum number v goes up.
Selection rules for real diatomic molecules:
o v = 1 (as for SHO), but v = 2, 3, are now weakly allowed as well
(transition probability is small but is now greater than zero).
o Molecule still needs to have a dipole moment for interaction with photon to occur.
Its still the case that only the v = 0 level is significantly populated at room temperature.
Spectrum will thus show an absorption band at 0, plus a weak band at ~20 and possibly
~30
Energy
E = ~ 7/2 h 0
v=2
E = ~ 5/2 h 0
v=1
E = ~ 3/2 h 0
v=0
E
=0
E = 1/2 h 0
Note that the ground state of the molecule (i.e. the state of lowest energy) doesnt have
E = 0. Two consequences of this are:
o Even at a temperature of absolute zero, bonds will still have a non-zero vibrational
energy that depends on k and :
The molecule is said to possess zero-point energy.
Atoms still move by vibrations at absolute zero; whilst seen here from the
maths, its a consequence of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
o Consider bonds involving different isotopes, e.g. compare
OH and OD bonds:
They involve the same number of electrons, and so have identical force
constants and bond lengths.
However, they have different zero-point energies because of different .
They will have different bond
the energy required to take the bond from its zero-point energy up to an
energy corresponding to the atoms being widely separated.
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4.3
Polyatomic molecules
1 = 3655 cm
Asymmetric stretch
2 = 1595 cm
O
H
Bending mode
3 = 3755 cm1
H
O
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4.4
Uses of IR spectroscopy
The frequencies of some vibrational modes are almost independent
of the
cm
3500
2500
OH
NH
CH
stretching
2000
CC
CN
stretching
1500
C=C
C=O
stretching
400
identification.
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Example IR spectrum:
(from http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/Spectrpy/InfraRed/infrared.htm#ir1)
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Example: NIR spectra of C-H stretching overtone region for water-ethanol mixtures.
(www.axsun.com)
New techniques are being devised for on-line process analysis one called Encoded
Photometric Infrared (EPIR) spectroscopy has great potential, but its too early to say
how useful it will be.
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4.5
Let us consider what happens when a laser emitting fixed frequency light is fired at a
sample.
Most photons scattered by a sample will be at the same frequency as the incident light:
o Photons interact with the sample.
o During interaction, the molecule is raised from the v = 0 vibrational level to a socalled virtual state.
o Usually the molecule then relaxes back down to the v = 0 level.
o The scattered photon thus has the same frequency as before this is termed
elastic scattering or Rayleigh scattering.
However, a very small number of photons (~1 in 107) will be scattered at a different
(usually lower) frequency than the incident light:
o This effect is called the Raman effect.
o During the photon interaction with the sample, the molecule in the virtual state
may relax back to the v =1 vibrational state.
o In this case, photons will have a scattered frequency of
vlaser 0 where 0 is the vibration frequency.
o Hence we can measure the vibrational frequency 0.
o Other transitions may also occur (e.g. from initial v = 1 level to level v = 0 or
v = 2).
The selection rule for Raman spectroscopy is different to that for infrared
vibrational spectroscopy:
o Raman bands require there to be a change in polarizability of the molecule upon
vibration; theres no need for there to be a changing dipole moment.
o As a result, bands that are inactive in IR spectroscopy are normally active in
Raman spectroscopy.
o Similarly bands that are weak in IR spectroscopy (because they dont change
dipole moment much) are usually strong in Raman spectroscopy.
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Example: IR and Raman spectrum of L-cystine illustrating the different selection rules
(www.jascofrance.fr):
Another advantage: light at the laser frequency can be focussed on to a small area of
sample easily Raman microscopy can record a vibrational spectrum on just a
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5.1
Microwave Spectroscopy
This technique is not really useful in analytical chemistry, but is covered briefly here for
completeness and because it can impact vibrational spectra.
Absorption in the microwave region is associated with transitions between rotational
energy levels.
o This is how microwave ovens work.
Pure rotational spectroscopy
We shall only consider linear molecules in this section (e.g. diatomic molecules, or CO2).
In the same way that we write down and solve the Schrdinger equation for vibrations we
can also do so for pure rotational motion.
For rigid linear molecules this gives energy levels characterised by the quantum numbers
J and MJ
o E = B J (J+1)
J = 0, 1, 2, 3,
o MJ = J, J1, J2, , J [i.e. there are 2J+1 values of MJ]
h2
o B=
where I is the moment of inertia
8 2 I
Note that I = r2 for a diatomic molecule, where is the reduced mass
Energy
E = 30B
11 levels
J=4
E = 20B
9 levels
J=3
E = 12B
7 levels
J=2
J=1
J=0
E = 6B
E = 2B
E=0
5 levels
3 levels
1 level
Selection rules:
o J = 1 [to conserve angular momentum]
o Molecule needs a permanent dipole moment (to interact with EMR)
Population of levels depends on the degeneracy (number of levels having the same
energy) and the Boltzmann factor:
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N (J )
BJ ( J + 1)
= (2 J + 1) exp
N ( J = 0)
kT
1 2kT
J max =
1
2 B
o E (J J+1) = 2B(J+1)
5.2
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Energy
v=1
vibrational
level
J=4
J=3
J=2
J=1
J=0
J=5
v=0
vibrational
level
J=4
J=3
J=2
J=1
J=0
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linewidths are
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5.3
Energy
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molecules.
The sample normally needs to be a
identification of organic
liquid.
In the same way that an electron has angular momentum (described by spin), nuclei
may also possess angular momentum and so be described as having spin.
o The nuclear spin quantum number, I, gives the total angular momentum.
2
o 1H has I = 1/2
H (0.015% natural abundance) has I = 1
12
13
o C has I = 0
C (1.1% natural abundance) has I = 1/2
17
o 16O has I = 0
O (0.04% natural abundance) has I = 5/2
The z-component of nuclear angular momentum is given by the quantum number mI,
which can take values I, I1, ..., I.
Ordinarily the mI quantum levels all have the same energy (i.e. are degenerate).
However they will split into 2I+1 different energies if a large magnetic field B0 is applied.
Transitions between these energy levels is termed nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
spectroscopy. The selection rule is mI=1.
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mI = 3/2
Example:
an I = 3/2 nucleus
Energy
E = h
mI = 1/2
E = h
4 degenerate levels
when B0 = 0
mI = 1/2
E = h
mI = 3/2
Increasing B0
We shall concentrate only on the case of nuclei having I = , the most important of which
are 1H and 13C.
o Nuclei with I = 0 will not show NMR spectra.
o Nuclei with I > tend to give broad uninformative spectral lines.
Example:
an I = 1/2 nucleus
Energy
mI = 1/2
E = (h/2) B0 (1)
No magnetic
field
mI = 1/2
Sample in strong
magnetic field B0
The separation of the two energy levels for a spin I = nucleus is given by:
E = (h/2) B0 (1)
o h = Plancks constant
o = magnetogyric ratio of the nucleus (ratio of magnetic moment to angular
momentum):
For 1H: = 26.752 x 107 rad T1 s1
For 13C: = 6.7283 x 107 rad T1 s1
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The exact separation of energy levels for a nucleus in a molecule depends slightly on its
chemical environment because of the shielding term:
o Electrons immediately surrounding the nucleus will tend to circulate in a
particular direction in the applied magnetic field.
o This circulation induces a very small magnetic field B at the nucleus which
opposes the large applied magnetic field.
o The result is that the nucleus actually experiencing a magnetic field B0 (1)
e
B0
B
There are also some other effects that cause chemical environment to give a
shielding term that we dont have time to discuss (e.g. hydrogens attached to
aromatic rings have less shielding than might be expected).
Hence nuclei in different chemical environments in the molecule will have peaks at
different frequencies in the NMR spectrum.
o Those with fewer electrons around them will have less shielding.
The peaks in NMR spectra are usually quoted using the chemical shift
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6.2
H NMR spectroscopy
o The quantum state of a 1H spin is slightly affected by the spin states of hydrogen
nuclei that arent chemically equivalent to it, provided that they are within 3 bonds
of it.
Example 1:
X
Y
Y
X
HA
HB
/ppm
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J /Hz
J /Hz
HA
HB
Analytical Chemistry: Page 33
Example 2:
HA
HB
HB
/ppm
HB
HA
Example 3:
HA
HB
HB
HB
J J J
/ppm
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HA
HB
Expert NMR spectroscopists are able to predict J values for different functional groups
and molecular conformations.
o Values are normally in the range 1-12 Hz for a 3 bond coupling.
Example: high-resolution spectrum of ethyl acetate at a medium magnetic field (1H
frequency 100 MHz)
7 Hz
100 Hz
magnetic field
7 Hz
3
1H chem ical shift
500 Hz
Timescale for 1H NMR experiment is ~1 minute, but setting up may take more time
depending on the experiment being performed.
Each chemically distinct environment gives rise to a chemical shift (fixed in ppm), which
may then split up due to J-coupling (fixed in Hz).
Peak areas give relative amounts of each H environment.
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6.3
13
C NMR spectroscopy
The first use of 13C NMR spectroscopy is to give the number of chemically inequivalent
carbon atoms in the sample.
Note that symmetry considerations may mean that this is less than the
number of carbon atoms in the molecule.
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
3 carbons
5 carbons
4 carbons
(2:2:4)
(2:2:2:1:1)
(2:2:2:2)
13
The actual C chemical shifts provide structural information. For example:
o C=O
carbonyl
160-220 ppm
o C=C
alkene/aromatic
100-150 ppm
o Saturated C
alkyl
10-50 ppm
As chemical shifts are affected by the shielding given by the surrounding electrons,
substituents have an inductive effect. For example:
o COH
50-80 ppm
(compared to 10-50 ppm without OH group)
Identification of structural groups is therefore possible:
o By comparison with chemical shift values in reference books
o By comparison with databases of 13C NMR data
o By comparison with results of NMR prediction programs
J-Coupling to other nuclear spins is possible:
o Probability of 13C of interest being bonded to another 13C nucleus is small (as the
natural abundance of 13C is only 1.1%)
o Coupling to 13C of interest to any 1H bonded to it will happen this will result in a
splitting up of each 13C peak according to how many hydrogens are directly
bonded to the carbon.
o J-coupling values in this case are ~120 Hz.
o 13C multiplets due to coupling to 1H are:
C quat.
CH
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CH2
CH 3
13
C NMR spectra take a long time to acquire if good signal-to-noise is desired (timescale
is hours per spectrum).
Its therefore common to record the spectrum using a technique called continuous
proton decoupling:
o Almost all 13C NMR spectra are recorded this way
o This eliminates the J-coupling to H nuclei, and so concentrates multiplet signal
intensities into a single peak
o The sample is irradiated with a broad bandwidth pulse whilst the 13C NMR
spectrum is recorded such that all protons rapidly cycle between their spin up and
spin down states, so that they become decoupled from 13C.
o Coupling to protons other than that of H can still take place.
o The result is a significant saving in the time it takes to record the spectrum.
However, doing the experiment in this way means that the 13C NMR
spectra dont have absolutely reliable relative intensities.
Example 13C NMR spectrum (proton decoupled): riboflavin (vitamin B2, C17H20N4O6)
(from http://riodb01.ibase.aist.go.jp/sdbs/)
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6.4
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7.1
CHN Analysis
sample (typically 1-2 mg) in oxygen unlike spectroscopic techniques, this is destructive
test.
An exact amount of sample is weighed inside a small tin capsule.
The capsule is introduced into the analysers furnace which is at 950C.
combustion of a small
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Atomic spectroscopy
Light at
(chosen for specific
element of interest)
Atomic orbitals
F
L
A
M
E
Measure absorption
h
Solution of sample
Advantages of AAS:
o Sensitivity to a wide range of elements (typically down to 1 ppm)
o High accuracy if care is taken over sample preparation and calibration.
Disadvantages of AAS:
o Some solid samples are difficult to get into solution form.
o Need a hollow cathode lamp for sharp monochromatic lines for each element.
o Different atoms require different flame temperatures to achieve reliable results
(e.g. air/acetylene 2250C; NO/acetylene 2955C).
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7.3
than ~20.
4s4p
3d
3p
3s
2p
2s
Hole created
by X-rays
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1s
8.1
Detection of ions
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For very large macromolecules such as proteins, the above methods dont work well:
o multiple fragmentation makes interpretation difficult/impossible.
o its difficult to separate species with high m/z ratios (e.g. above 5000 Da).
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8.2
[from http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/Spectrpy/MassSpec/masspec1.htm#ms1]
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Quadrupole detectors:
o The ions pass through an area with four hyperbolic magnetic poles created by a
radiofrequency field.
o Only certain ions can take a stable path through the field and be detected.
o Scanning the rf field (by increasing voltage) allows a mass spectrum to be quickly
and easily recorded, but resolution is more limited than the other methods.
8.3
Uses of MS
Low-resolution mass spectrometry gives integer masses for peaks:
o Useful for structural identification
High-resolution mass spectrometry can be very accurate:
o It can distinguish between CO, N2 and C2H4; these have exact molecular weights
of 27.9949, 28.0062 and 28.0313 mass units respectively.
o Even more useful for structural identification.
For small organic molecules, the fragmentation pattern in EI MS often provides structural
information:
o For instance a peak at M+16 may correspond to loss of NH2 suggesting an acid
amide to be present.
o Fragmentation can permit identification of compounds by comparison with
database of known mass spectra.
The different isotopes of the elements are very important in MS:
o For instance, molecules containing a single chlorine atom will give separate MS
peaks for the 35Cl and 37Cl isotopes (in a relative ratio of ~3:1)
o The natural abundance of 13C is 1.1%; MS peaks due to ions with one (or more)
13
C isotope in them will be observed, particularly for medium and large molecules.
MS is used sometimes on-line in the process industries:
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9.1
Chromatography
All the techniques discussed so far are limited in one important respect:
o They can only easily analyse pure compounds, or simple mixtures at best.
What do we do if the sample is a complicated mixture?
Chromatography is the key separation technique used by analytical chemists when
the sample is a mixture.
After calibration, chromatography can be used for structural identification and
quantitative measurement as well as simply being a separation technique.
Chromatography is also a chemical engineering unit operation for purification of highvalue chemicals, particularly in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries.
Chromatography is based on the physical separation of individual chemical components
in a sample:
o The sample is present in a mobile or carrier phase: may be gas, liquid, or even
supercritical fluid.
o The sample is separated into components due to differences in affinity for a
stationary phase.
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GC experimental configuration:
[from http://teaching.shu.ac.uk/hwb/chemistry/tutorials/chrom/gaschrm.htm]
There are a range of detectors available. Well mention the two most common.
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(a) column at 45C separate components 1-5; dont get components 6-9.
(b) column at 145C doesnt separate 1-4; does separate components 5-8.
(c) column heated a linear rate from 30-200C separates components 1-9. Theres also less band spreading
as a function of time.
From http://www.uft.uni-bremen.de/chemie/pdf/GC_Intro_Christian_Jungnickel.pdf
45C
time,min
145C
time,min
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T ramp:
30-200C
9.2
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Mixtures that dont separate when using one solvent as carrier phase may
separate easily using a solvent of different polarity.
o This technique is widely used in synthetic organic chemistry labs as a bench-scale
purification technique.
Carrier solvent
Carrier solvent
Carrier solvent
Inject
sample
3
2
1
3
Packed
column
2
1
2
1
Collect
product 1
Liquid-Liquid separations are based on the partition of the sample between two liquid
phases.
Size-Exclusion chromatography is based on the molecular size of the compounds
present.
o The stationary phase consists of solid beads containing small pores.
o Large compounds cant enter inside the beads and thus will elute first.
o Smaller compounds enter the beads and will have longer retention times.
Ion-exchange chromatography operates on the basis of selective exchange of ions
in the sample with those in the stationary phase.
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o The column consists of a polymer matrix bearing certain ionic functional groups:
e.g. MSO3H+ for the case of cation exchange (anion exchange columns
also exist).
o Molecules capable of ion-exchange will be retained at these sites :
e.g. if they contain cations or acidic hydrogens in this example.
o Molecules retained on the column can be subsequently collected by changing the
properties of the mobile phase:
e.g. by changing the pH so that the carrier liquid will displace sample
molecules attached to the column.
Affinity chromatography uses immobilized biochemicals that have a
specific affinity to the compound of interest.
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9.4
Hyphenated techniques
These are simply a combination of the techniques that weve discussed so far.
Examples include:
o GC MS
o LC MS
o LC NMR
With these techniques, separation and sample identification of complex mixtures can be
performed in a single piece of equipment.
This represents the state of the art in modern analytical chemistry.
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