LECTURE 18

IMMUNE SYSTEM Ali Hussein

The immune system’s function is to protect the body against infection by bacteria, aid in wound
healing and retardation of tumour development. The immune system is able to distinguish the ‘self’ cells
of its own body and the ‘non-self’ cells that need to be expelled and neutralised.
PHYSICAL BARRIERS, such as skin, mucous membranes and cilia, and CHEMICAL BARRIERS,
such as mucous and acidic properties of the stomach and skin, are vital in reducing the number of
parasites the immune system needs to deal with.
LYSOSYME, found in tears and saliva, cause lysis of some bacteria.
COMPLEMENT, a group of plasma proteins produced in liver, produces
bioactive molecules that also result in the lysis of bacteria. Bioactive
molecules also cause the opsonisation (smothering with antibodies) of
bacteria and the attraction of phagocytes to the foreign material.
The Immune System has two forms of response:

An IMMEDIATE RESPONSE mainly involves cells of phagocytic

function that contain lysosomal and microbiocidal proteins, which destroy
the material they have engulfed. After phagocytosing the foreign material,
Macrophages produce new lysosomes and continue to engulf and destroy
more material, while NEUTROPHILS die soon after disposing of their
target. Therefore, Neutrophils are constantly replaced, explaining their very
high concentration in the blood.
MACROPHAGES, once having already engulfed the foreign material and becoming activated, secrete
cytokines, which control lymphocyte proliferation and differentiation. Activated Macrophages also
affect lymphocytes by processing and presenting antigens in a form that can be recognised and
responded to by lymphocytes. Therefore, Macrophages have a key role in stimulating the adaptive
response of the immune system. Macrophages are either fixed in a tissue or wander, but in certain
locations they have specific names, such as Kupffer Cells in the liver, Osteoclasts in the bone, Microglia
in the brain and Mesangial Cells in the Kidney.
NATURAL KILLER CELLS attach to viruses, transplanted cells and infected cells, and destroy them
by causing apoptotic death. APOPTOTIC Death is, in essence, the natural killer cell making the
unwanted cell kill itself. Natural Killer Cells do this by releasing their granules to form pores in the
target cell membrane.
EOSINOPHILS contain granules with cyotoxic proteins that attach to and destroy parasites that are
too large to be phagocytosed by destroying their cell membrane.

An ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY follows the immediate response and is very slow, although highly
flexible in its ability to respond to a vast range of different organisms. This response is either cellular or
humeral. The immune response deals with ANTIGENS, substances which the immune system
recognises as foreign. This leads to the production of
ANTIBODIES, which are glycoproteins belonging to
the immunoglobulin family that interact with the
specific antigen. Due to the antibodies specificity, there
are various different structures, such as IgG, IgM, IgA,
IgD and IgE..
The adaptive immunity response mainly involves cells
able to recognise these foreign antigens and
neutralise/destroy it. These cells are:
 LYMPHOCYTES, which make up 20-30% of the circulating leukocytes, are divided into T-
Lymphocytes and B-Lymphocytes. Although histologically they cannot be distinguished, they differ in
their life history, surface receptors and behaviour. In regards to their life history, they both originate
from the bone marrow, but proliferate in different regions of the human body. T-lymphocytes are
dominant in the thymus, where they proliferate, while B-
lymphocytes are more dominant in the Bone Marrow where
they mature upon being produced. In regards to their surface
receptors, T-lymphocytes recognise linear sequences of amino
acids, while B-Lymphocytes recognise spaced-out amino acid
arrangements.
T-Lymphocytes direct and recruit other cells of the immune
system, as well as directly attacking diseased cells by secreting
cytokines. There are four subsets of T-cells: HELPER T-
CELLS, which help other lymphocytes perform their effecter
function and induce B cells to produce antibodies;
CYTOTOXIC T-CELLS, which kill target cells; T-
SUPPRESSOR CELLS, which inhibit the response of the
Helper T-Cells and therefore regulate immune response; and
MEMORY T-CELLS, which develop from activator T-Cells
to provide a rapid response if the antigen is encountered
again.
B-Lymphocytes are covered in immunoglobulins/antibodies
and once these antibodies recognise an antigen, it undergoes
proliferation into plasma cells.
PLASMA CELLS are responsible for the production of
antibodies that are to be secreted into the intercellular space.
Due to their secretory function, Plasma cells are recognisable due to their abundant Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum.
ANTIGEN PRESENTING CELLS are important in the activation of lymphocytes, and are present in
the skin, lymph nodes, thymus and dendritic cells. When a bacteria or another antigen enters a tissue, it
is taken up by phagocytosis by an Antigen Presenting Cell. The cell fuses a lysosome, which contains
major histocompatability complex molecules, which break the antigen into smaller antigenic peptides.
These are then transporter and fused onto the cell membrane where it comes into contact with T-helper
cells. Once the T-cell’s bound, the immune response will proceed.

Lymphoid Tissue is a type of connective tissue with a rich supply of lymphocytes,

supported by densely or loosely reticular fibres. There are many examples of
Lymphoid Tissue:
The THYMUS is a flattened lymphoid organ consisting located just below the
neck, in a location just above the ‘upper mediastinum’ and below the lower neck.
The thymus is more active in childhood and gradually decreases in
size after puberty. The thymus is unique compared to other lymphoid
tissue as it has a highly cellular cortex, packed with immature cells
that move towards a less cellular medulla as they mature. In other
words, the outer cortex of the thymus is full of immature T-
lymphocytes that gradually move towards the medulla and mature.
Those that do not mature, die through apoptosis and are removed by
macrophages. The medulla, formed from keratinised epithelium,
contains HASSALL’S CORPUSCLES, whose function is unclear.
The LYMPH NODES are small organs found in groups in sites
where vessels drain an anatomic region. Lymph nodes have a
fibrocollagenous capsule through which trabeculae extend into
the node to form a supportive network. Afferent vessels
penetrate the surface of the gland and drain into the node and
to the hilum where the efferent vessels transport the lymph
into the collecting vessels. Basically lymph nodes are regions
in which phagocytic cells act as non-specific filters against
microorganisms and prevent them reaching circulation. Lymph
nodes are also regions where lymphocytes can interact with
new antigens and antigen presenting cells, and further ease the
proliferation of activation cells. The medulla of the lymph
node contains plasma cells and macrophages, while the
follicles contain B cells and the paracortex contain T cells.
The MUCOSA ASSOCIATED LYMPHOID TISSUE (MALT)
are groups of immune cells located in the mucosa of many
different tissues to protect it against pathogens. They can be
organised into follicles, similar to Peyer’s patches, or
scattered. Pinocytotic M-CELLS capture and transport
antigens from the intestinal lumen to the connective tissue
where B-Lymphocytes and Antigen Presenting Cells are
present to destroy it. Basically, the M cells transport any
foreign material it detects from the inside of the lumen into the
submucosa for it to be easily dealt with.
The TONSILS form part of Waldeyer’s ring in the
pharynx and contain numerous lymphoid follicles with
germinal centres.
The SPLEEN is an organ found just behind the
stomach, involved in the destruction of aged red blood
cells and the filtering of blood for blood born bacterial
antigens. The blood enters the spleen via the trabecula
artery and is filtered, surveyed for antigens, pathogens,
and aged erythrocytes are removed and the iron in the
haemoglobin recycled. The spleen consists of red pulp,
white pulp, a connective tissue framework and a rich
bloody supply.