THE SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

DEFINITION research is a formal ,systematic,intensive processe used in the investigation of

a problem . In the educational realm, it may be carried on by an individual ,team or
organization it may be conducted in a class,school,or community.Research is not limited to a
laboratory setting.
THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO RESEARCH
Generally ,the quest for truth takes a person to one of five major sources of evidence
tradition ; learned authority ,personal experience
logicalreasoning ;scientific investigation
a review of the history of the development of research technology will reveal that theses
sources are listed here chronologically .Because the last two sources offer will be limited to
scientific inquirry
the scientific method involves a double movement of though the investigator directs his
attention from the partially known and oftentimes confused information learned from
observation previous investigations reflective thinking and so on toward a meaningful whole
or generalization secondly he moves back from this suggested whole or generalization to the
particular parts in order to connect these with one another in a meaningful pattern the first of
these movements is INDUCTIVE the second DEDUCTIVE .The process of thinking is
considired complete when the investigator moves to and from a meaning with appropriates
interaction of his REASONING PROCESS occurring between recollected consederation and
far -reaching general meanings
On the one hand induction is a movement toward the discovery of some principle while on the
other hand deduction is a movement toward the testing of this principle for exemple
confirming,accepting,modifying insofar as the investigator is able to interpret isolated details
and see them in the light of organizing principle he will find valid relationships
TYPES OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
we have three main types of research according to the aim
research that aims to discover the truth this research is used in general to treat social political
economic problems however here we may not find solutions only if we discover the reality of
problems and situations
Research that gives critical explanations in this type the researcher tries to arrive at a results s
relying on logic and the gathered data
The complete research includes both types
AIMES OF RESEARCH
the chief purposes for conducting research are
to determine the status of phenomena past and present
to ascertain the nature composition and processes that characterize selected phenomena to
trace growth developmental history change and status of certain phenomena
to study the cause and effect relationships among and between certain phenomena
NOTE
althrough man has not yet devised any perfect method of finding solutions to problems
deemed worthy of investigation progress has been made there has been a gradual transition
from seeking knowledge based purely on custom tradition authority and personal experience
to appealing for evidence based on reasoning and scientific inquirry

CHARACERISTICS OF THE RESEARCHER

patience knowledge and culture including reading open mind mastery of the used language
mastery of other languages
scientific doubt
scientific spirit the researcher has to be just respecting others' views fair and honest working
hard and helping people and doing things for nation and country objective avoiding
subjectivity and bias
able to organize ;avoid controversy
be brave especially in confessing mistakes
Today we wanna creat a page where enlish LMD studenst can
communicate
and to benefit from exchanging information about their studies and the
Difficulties they
Might Encounter
and first of all I would like to give few courses in the Techniques of the
Written Expression

ESSAY WRITING
The parts of the essay are much like the parts of a paragraph. The
essay starts with an introductory paragraph containing a thesis
statement which in turn tells the reader what the essay is about, just as
the topic sentence tells the reader what the paragraph is about. The
body of the essay is made up of paragraphs that support the thesis
statement, and the concluding paragraph that completes the essay.
1.Composing a Thesis Statement
1.1. What is a Thesis Statement ?
A thesis statement is a sentence which summarizes the main point or
points (ideas) of a an essay and clearly expresses what the writer is
going to say about his/her topic. In other words, it is merely a
statement of the points the essay makes about a specific topic. Hence,
the thesis statement identifies the topic which will be discussed abd the
purpose of the essay. The thesis statement is usually the last sentence
of the introductory paragraph.
It covers exactly the topic the writer wants to talk about, no more and
no less.
It lets the readers know what to expect.
It helps the writer better organise and develop the ******* of his/her
paper. That is, it is the road map to the argument the writer will
subsequently develop in his essay.
1.2.Characteristics of a Good Thesis Statement
Examples of good thesis statements :

- Every mother has the rioght to work, and the decision should be one
that a mother makes on her own, but first she should carefully consider
the many problems that she might encounter.
- Violence has various aspects and varied causes resulting in serious
effects.
A good thesis statement has the following characteristics :
a. A thesis statement must be a declarative statement, not an
interrogative one.
Examples : - What are the many problems a working mother might
encounter ?
This is a weak thesis statement ; it is a question
-What are the aspects, the causes, and the effects of violence ?
b. Thesis statements must make a claim or argument ; they are not
statements of facts. In other words, the point you make in your essay
should not be obvious ; if most of your readers are likely to believe your
thesis without even reading your essay, you probably do not need to
write an essay to support that thesis.
Examples : Violence is a dangerous phenomenon. This is essentially an
indisputable point and therefore, not a good thesis statement.
c. A good thesis statement is specific, precise, and limited. Probably the
most common problem with trail thesis statements is that they are too
broad, that they claim too much. In a good essay, you will say more
about less, not less about more.
Examples : A mother should consider the many problems that she
might encounter. This thesis statement is too broad since the writer is
going to write about the problems of a mother in general.
Black artists have contributed a lot to the American culture. [ Black
artists , culture , and a lot cover more ground than what can be
dealt with in one short essay ]
Better : Scott Joplin was a major influence in the development of the
uniquely American music called ragtime. [specifically defined and
narrow]
d. A thesis statement is not an announcement of the topic. In other
words, avoid using phrases such as the purpose of this paper is ....
or In this paper, I will attempt to ....
e. Do not clutter your thesis with expressions such as in my opinion,
I believe, and in this essay Ill agrue that ... These unnecessary
phrases weaken your thesis statemnt because they often make you
sound timid or uncertain. This is your essay ; therefore, the opinions
expressed are obviously yours. Be forceful ; speak directly with
conviction.
f. A thesis statement is not a title. Remember that a thesis statement
will always be a complete sentence ; there is no other way to make a
statement.
Examples : Problems encountering a working mother.
Aspects, causes, and effects of violence.

WRITING ESSAY INTRODUCTIONS

To write an introduction for an essay, follow these steps :
1. Introduce the topic in general.
2. Narrow the topic down to focus more on the question.
3. Restate the question in your own words and in statement form.
4. Write the thesis statement.
Examples : Question
Living in an apartment instead of the university dormitory has
advantages and disadvantages. Discuss some of the advantages and
disadvantages of the apartment living, and then defend your
preference.
Introduction
When a student decides to enter a university away from home, he or
she must also consider living accommodations. Although most
universities offer student dormitories, students frequently opt to live in
an apartment. While there are manyadvantages to apartment living,
there are also many disadvantages. Before a student decides to live in
an apartment, all the aspacts of that kind of accommodation should be
reviewed.
Analysis
1. The first sentence introduces the general topic of the university
living accommodations.
When a student decides to enter a university away from home, he or
she must also consider living accommodations.
2. The second sentence narrows the topic down to apartment living.
Although most universities offer student dormitories, students
frequently opt to live in an apartment.
3. The third sentence sentence restates the specific question.
While there are many advantages to apartment living, there are also
many disadvantages.
4. The fourth sentence is the thesis statement.
Before a student decides to live in an apartment, all the aspacts of that
kind of accommodation should be reviewed.
Things to remember when writing an introduction for an essay :
1. Make sure you have an introduction.
Sometimes writers start the essay with te first developmental
paragraph. However, you need at least a brief introduction so that your
readers will know what you are writing about.
2. Keep you intriductory paragraph simple.
A good introduction strengthens your essay. However it is better to use
your time writing the developmental paragraphs than spending too
much time on the introductory paragraph.
3. Check that your introductory paragraph is aimed toward answering

the question.
Your thesis statement tells your reader what you are going to write
about, and your developmental paragraphs give support to your thesis
statement. If you support a thesis that is not aimed toward the
question, you may not get credit for your essay.

WRITING THE BODY OF AN ESSAY

The body is the heart of an essay. It is where writers provide support for
the thesis statement and the bulk of their information. The body of an
essay should consist of at least two developmental paragraphs, and
each developmental paragraph should have a topic sentence that
supports the idea mentioned in the thesis statement. All the ideas in
each paragraph should support their topic sentence.
Study the following sample of composing the body of an essay, but
before doing that you need to read the question and the introdcution.
Question
Some people believe that a mother should not work. Others argue
against this. Consider the probels that a working mother faces. Do you
believe a mother should work ?
Introduction
Nowadays it is very common for women to work outside the home.
Whether a mother should stay at home or join the worforce in debated
by many people. Some argue that the familly, especially children, may
be neglected. However, many mothers need to work because of
economic reasons. Actually every mother has the right to work, and the
decision should be one that a woman makes on her own, but first she
should consider the many problems that she might encounter.
Body
The major poblems a mother faces concern her children. She must
either find a reliable person who will be loving toward the children or a

good day-care centre that the children can attend. If a child gets sick,
the mother must make special arrangements for the child to be cared
for at home, or she must stay from work herself. While at work, the
mother may worry about her children. For instance, she may wonder if
they are safe, if they are learning the values she wants them to have,
and if her absence hurts them emotionally. She may also regret not
being able to take them to after school activities or participate in
familly activities with them.
Even though a mother is frequently forced into working for economic
reasosn, she soon discovers that there are added expenses. The biggest
expense is child care. Another expense is transportation which includes
not only going to work but also getting her children to school or day
care. This may include purcahsing or maintaining a car. Yet another
expense is clothing, such as a uniform or business suits to maintain a
professional appearance.
Analysis
The first developmental paragraph supports the idea of problems that
was identified in the thesis statement. The topic sentence states the
idea of problems concerning children. All the sentences in this
paragraph describes either a problem concerning children or a detail
explaining a problem concerning children.
The second developmental paragraph in this essay also supports the
idea of problems that was identified in the thesis statement. The topic
sentence states the idea of the problem of added expenses. All the
sentence in the paragraph describes either an added expense or a
detail explaining the added expense.
The Five-Paragraph Essay
A classic format for compositions is the five-paragraph essar, of course,
but it is a useful model for you to keep in mind, especially as you begin
to develop your composition skill. In the following section, we shall try
to describe the body of a five-paragraph essay.
Body---First developmental paragraph
The first paragraph of the body should contain the strongest argument,
most significant example, cleverest illustration, or an obvious beginning
point.
Body---Second developmental paragraph
The second paragraph of the body should contain the second strongest
argument, second most significant example, second cleverest
illustration, or an obvious follow up to the first paragraph in the body.
Body---Third developmental paragraph
The third paragraph of the body should contain the weakest argument,
weakest example, weakest illustration, or an obvious followup to the
second paragraph in the body.

WRITING ESSAY CONCLUSIONS

So far you have practised writing the introduction and the body of an
essay. To end the essay, you need to write a concluding paragraph.
For the essay question, your concluding paragraph will :
1. Restate the thesis statement.
2. Restate the topic sentences from the developmental paragraphs, i.e,
give a summary of the main points from the body ogf the paper.
3. State your opinion, preference, or make a prediction.
4. Conclude with a statement that sums up the essay. The final
statement gives the reader signals that the discussion has come to an
end.
Read the following conclusions.
1)
In conclusion, living in an apartement has both advantages and
disadvantages. One advantage is having independence and all that this
freedomentails. Its disadvantages include possible isolation, extra
expenses, and responsibilities. For a new student at university, the
advantages of dormitory living outweigh those of apartment living ;
therefore, I would prefer living in campus to living in an apartment.
2)
After a mother takes into account all of the above problems and
perhpas other probelms unique to her situation, she must decide if a
job outside the home is worth it. I believe that even though she faces
major obstacles, these obstacles are not insurmountable. Many mothers
do work and manage a familly very successfully. In conclusion, it is a
womans right to make the coice, and only the woman herself should
decide this matter.
Things to remember when writing a conclusion for an essay :
1. Make sure you have a conclusion.
Sometimes writers do not complete the essay with a concluding
paragraph ; however, it is important to have a conclusion. Without one,
it may be difficult for the reader to know whether you have completed
your essay or run out of time.
2. Keep your concluding paragraph simple.
A good conclusion strengthens your essay ; however, it is better to use
your time writing the developmental paragraphs than spending too
much time on the concluding paragraph.
3. Check that your concluding paragraph completes the essay.
Your concluding statement tells your readers that you complete the
essay. Be careful not to include a new idea to your conclusion, which

could make your readers think you are going to be discussing

something else.

ANALYSING ESSAYS
Keep this list in mind as you write your essay.
1. Is there an introductory paragraph ?
2. Does the introductory paragraph restate the question ?
3. Does the introductory paragraph have a thesis statement ?
4. Does each paragraph have a clear topic sentence ?
5. Do the topic sentence of the developmental paragraphs support the
thesis statement ?
6. Do the ideas in each developmental paragraph support its topic
sentence ?
7. Are the details (examples,facts,descriptions,personal experiences)
clear ?
8. Is there a concluding paragraph ?
9. Does the concluding paragraph give the impression that the essay is
complete ?
10. Does the essay answer all the parts of the question ?
11. Have the grammar and spelling been corrected ? (Incorrect
grammar, spelling, punctuation, and word usage count against you if
the errors lead to a lack of clarity. Your essay will be cleared if you
correct as many of these errors as you can find in the limited time that
you have.)
Practise analising essays by reading the following student-written essay

and answering yes or no to each of the eleven questions in the

preceding checklist.
Question
Both large and small cars have their advantages and disadvantages.
Write about some these advantages and disadvantages. State which
type of car you prefer and why.
Both large and small cars have their advantages and disadvantages.
First, large cars have many advanatages. For example, many people
can be carried inside the car. Also, large cars are stronger in bad
accidents, and they are very good for big families. About the
disadvantages. Large cars can not get through small streets, and they
use a lot of gas to start and run.
Second, small cars also have advantages and disadvantages. About the
advantages. You can drive the small car any place. Small car uses less
gas and many people call them economical. The last advantage is that
the small car is good for a small familly like a father, a mother and one
child. About the disadvantages of small cars. The small car is not strong
if someone has a bad accident. Moreover, small car can not go very fast
because of their siz.
For all this i like small cars.
Analysis :
1. No, the introductory paragraph is incomplete.
2. No, the restate problem should be in different words, not in the same
words as the question.
3. Yes, there is a thesis statement that gives the controlling ideas as
advantages and disadvantages of small and large cars.
4. Yes, in the topic sentence of the first developmental paragraph, the
topic is large cars and the controlling idea is advantages. However, the
topic sentence of the second developmental paragraph is weak because
it has two controlling idea advantages and disadvantages of small cars.
5. Yes, the topic sentence of the developmental paragraphs support the
thesis statement.
6. No, the first developmental paragraph discusses both advantages
and disadvantages. This does not support the topic sentence of the
paragraph. The second developmental paragraph really supports the
topic sentence ; however, this latter should tackle only one controlling
idea.
7. Yes, however more details could be added.
8. No, the concluding paragraph is incomplete. The topic and controlling
ideas are not restated ; it is not clear what for this refers to or why the
student has this preference.
9. No, a concluding statement should sum up the essay.
10. No, the reasosns the writer likes small cars are not included.
11. No, there are some grammatical mistakes which may cause
confusion
well here are some Sources that might help
http://www.4shared.com/file/17WNnZuU/Second_Year.html An Overview
about the Subjects

http://www.4shared.com/file/uqKpxS-a/LIT.html Some Literature Courses

http://www.4shared.com/file/NnZL2tK4/TEE.html Written Expression
Courses
http://www.4shared.com/file/048GhJYS/METHO.html Methodology
Courses

Lesson fiveSubstitutionI . D e fi n i t i o n
In grammar, the term Substitution refers to the words we use (such as
so, one, do, did, yes,no...) to indicate that something has been left out
and identify what type of data it is. Of course, the use of such words
obeys the rules of the language they occur in.The clearest and simplest
examples of substitution in the English language are the words
Yes
and
No
. Both can substitute long sentences or sequences of sentences, as we
can see in thefollowing examples:-A): Have you ever thought of trying
to get a job abroad?B):No.([I have never thought of trying to get a job
abroad.])In the first example, the short grammatical word (
no
) replaces all the sentence (
I have neverthought of trying to get a job abroad)
-A) Has your father signed your permission for the excursion?B) Yes.([He
has signed the permission for the excursion.])In the second example,
the short grammatical word (
yes)
refers to the whole sentence (
He hassigned the permission for the excursion)
I I . Pa t t e rn s o f u s e
Lets study how we can use substitution:
1)Replacing adverbials of place and time
In the English language, we often find in the sentences expressions of
place and time. Toavoid repetition we use words like
here
,
there
, and
over there
to replace details of place ,andwords such as
then
, and
at that time
to substitute details of time. Things can become clearer with the
examples below:She invited me to her house, but I wouldnt go
there
.In this example,
there

replaces
to her house
A lot of rich people have already visited tropical islands, but many poor
peoplehave never been
there
.In this example,
there
refers to tropical
island
.She invited me last night, but I just couldnt spare the time
then
.In this sentence,
then
replaces
last
night
.
2 )Replacing longer stretches of text
In substitution, we use the terms this and that to refer to ideas or
information which areexpressed over several clauses or which cant be
precisely related to a specific part of thesentence. Lets explain this pint
with the following example:Weve had a few unexpected problems.
That
/this
is why Ive called another meeting.
Remark1
-We use
this
and that to point to or indicate real objects:
This
refers to what is near to us, as in the following example:This is where I
live
That
is used to refer to what is far from us, as in the sentence:That is where
father died.-We use
this
to precise new, key information like in:56

This
is really what I wanted to say.-We use
this
to show sympathy and ownership towards something
This
is my own opinion.-We use that to disassociate ourselves from
something in particular:
That
s rubbish.
2 ) Replacing predicates
Before we start talking about the manner we use substitution to replace
a predicate, letsfirst say what the predicate is. It is everything that
follows the subject. In order to replace the predicate, we use auxiliary
verbs, modal verbs, combinations of auxiliary verbs and forms of the
verb be. Here are some examples:Shed like to take a few days off work
but just
cant. (modal can)

Have you got money? No, I h

avent
.(
auxiliary have
)Have you been drinking? No, I
havent been
.(
combination of
auxiliaries
).
Remark2
If the predicate contains a verb in the present simple tense or in the
past simpletense, we use the auxiliaries do, does, or did. Here are some
examples:Sue didnt notice something unusual but everyone
did. (
notice something unusual)
3 )Replacing infinitive clauses ,that noun clauses and noun clauses derived
fromquestions
-We use
to
and
not to
to replace infinitive clauses as in:I invited them to come but they didnt
want
to
. [come]-We use
so
or
not to
to replace that noun clauses after
think
and
hope
as in the example:A: Is she coming round?B: I think
so
/ I dont think
so
/ I hope (I think/ hope[that she isnt coming round])-We use the question
word to replace noun clauses derived from questions as in:They said
theyd ring but Ive no idea
when.
[theyll ring]
3 )Using pronouns and possessive adjectives to replace nouns and noun phrases
-We use subject pronouns (I, you, he , she, it, we, they), object
pronouns(me, you, him, her, it,us, them, one, ones), possessive
adjectives (my, your, his, her, its, our, their) and possessive pronouns
(mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs) to avoid repetition of clear

information.Here are some examples in a short passage:The Peter and

Jane said
they
were leaving the town. [Peter and Jane]The dog swallowed
its
food. [of the dog]Dont put on the red dress but the blue
one. [
dress
]Remark3
We also use demonstratives (this, that, theses, those) and quantifiers (a
few, a little,much, many, a lot, any) in substitution.He offered me some
cake, but I didnt want
any
. [cake]Hes got a few books, but Ive got
a lot. [
of books]
4 ) Expressing similarity, agreement, and disagreement
-We use
so
to express similarity with affirmative statements as in:A): My brother
can stand on his head.B):
So
can the Prime Minister. [Stand on his head]-We use
neither
or
nor
followed by an auxiliary or a form of be to express similarity
withnegative statements as in:A): Im not staying in.B):
Neither
/
nor
am I. [Staying in]57

Remark3
When we express similarity with something stated in the past simple or
the simple present we use do, does or did. As in:A): I like ABBA.B):
So
does
Liza. [she likes Abba]A): I ate an apple.B):
So
did
I. [ate an apple]
5 ) Comparative structures
In general, we leave out information in comparative structures.Paris is
big but London is bigger [than Paris]We also use pronouns to avoid
repetition of action.I can run faster than
them.
III.Practice
Exercise
1
What do the underlined words substitute?
The old man said
he
was going to take
his
cat to the vet and ask
her
if
she
could look after
him
while
he
was in hospital, but then
he
asked
me
if

you
could possibly look after
it
with
yours
.
Exercise
2
In the following extracts, examples of substitution have been singled
out. Ineach case explain and specify what information is implied
This extract is from an article written by a film critic:Heres a useful rule
of thumb: never trust those (1) usually comedians, entertainers and
thelike- who say, I love people. And heres another (2): never trust
film critics who say: Ilove movies....What keeps a film critic going and
enjoying his job is optimism. Each film, you ferventlyhope, will be the
one (3) that makes up all the dross you saw last week.
Exercise
3
The following is part of a text from an elementary coursebook, where it
isused as a source of examples of future tenses and prepositions of
time. It includesseveral examples of substitution.
(Jane and Bill are talking on Monday April 19
th
, at nine oclock in the morning)Jane:Is everything all right?Bill:Yes,
Ithink so. I m picking up the visas on Wednesday morning and the
tickets in theafternoon, and Im getting the travellers cheques from the
bank tomorrow.Jane:Oh, good. Dont forget that the children are going
to stay with Mother on the 22
nd
-youre driving them.Bill:Oh, yes how long for?Jane:Just for two days.
Back on Friday night.Bill: That isnt long.Jane:Darling- you know its
Johns birthday on the 24
th
.Bill: So it is. We must have him fhome for his birthday. What are we
giving him?Jane:A bike.Bill: Oh yes, thats right. When are you going to
do the packing?Jane:At the weekend, at the last possible moment.
Youre going to help Ihope58

Bill: Oh yes. Yes, of course.-Identify the following features1) Identify a

substitution of a that noun clause.2) What pronouns are used to
substitute John and the children?3) The word
that
occurs twice in the text. What does it stand for in each case?

59
Bibliography
1)Carter ,R ., Hugue , R .,& Mc Carthy , M .,(2006) Exploring
Grammar in Context.Cambridge, Uk:Cambridge University Press.2)Coe
, N .,Harrison , M .,&Paterson ,K .,(2007) Oxford Practice
Grammar .Oxford, UK :Oxford University Press.3)Nettle, M .,Hopkins ,
D .,(2003) Developing Grammar in Context .Cambridge,
UK:Cambridge University Press.4)Parrott, M., (2007) Grammar for
English language Teaching. Cambridge, UK / Cambridge University
Press .5)http://a4es/.org/q/h/9901/tmreported1.html 6)http://www.englishpage.com/verbpage/types.html 7)htt
p://www.englishpage .com/prepositions/phrasaldictionary.html 8)Htpp:en
.wikipedia.org/wiki/ellipsis9)Htpp:en.wikipedia.org/wiki/substitutio
n60

61