Contemporary Educational Psychology 27, 392414 (2002)

doi:10.1006/ceps.2001.1102

Exploratory Study of Hong Kong Teacher Education

Students Epistemological Beliefs: Cultural Perspectives
and Implications on Beliefs Research
Kwok-wai Chan
Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong, China

and
Robert G Elliott
Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia

This paper reports a study of epistemological beliefs of Hong Kong teacher education students in which such four belief dimensions have been identified. The result
is similar to that found by Schommer with North American university students in
that the number of dimensions is the same but the nature of the dimensions is different. The paper hypothesizes that these differences can be accounted for in terms of
differences in cultural context. In particular, the difference in dimensions concerned
with authorityexpert knowledge and effort and learning reported in this study might
be explained by value differences between Western (North American) and nonWestern (Hong Kong Chinese) culture. From a methodological perspective, the interview data also imply difficulties in measuring knowledge beliefs and one finding
from the study is that in-depth interviews to complement quantitative data are necessary for trustworthy study of epistemological beliefs. 2002 Elsevier Science (USA)
Key Words: epistemological beliefs; Hong Kong teacher education students; beliefs dimensions; cultural context.

RESEARCH IN EPISTEMOLOGICAL BELIEFS

The important role of beliefs on teaching and learning has been highlighted
by many researchers (Calderhead, 1996; Cater, 1990; Clark & Peterson,
1986; Richardson, 1996). In particular, the viewpoints and beliefs of teachers
in the nature of knowledge and knowing (epistemological beliefs) are likely
to affect the way they organize and transmit information in the classroom
(Young, 1981). Although there has been an increased interest in the study of

Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr. Kwok-wai Chan, Department of Educational Psychology, Counselling and Learning Needs, School of Foundations in Education,
Hong Kong Institute of Education, 10 Lo Ping Road, Tai Po, New Territories, Hong Kong,
China. E-mail: kwchan@ied.edu.hk. Fax: (852)29487794.
392
0361-476X/02 $35.00

2002 Elsevier Science (USA)

All rights reserved.

EXPLORATORY STUDY OF HONG KONG TEACHER EDUCATION

393

teachers beliefs in the past decade (Fang, 1996), research on epistemological

beliefs is still not plentiful. Studies of students epistemological beliefs in
general can be traced back to early work by Perry (1968) who considered
epistemological beliefs from a developmental perspective. Perry was followed by others such as Ryan (1984), who made use of Perrys scale to
examine the relation between text comprehension and individual differences
in epistemological standards. Parallel to this, Kitchener (1986) started to
develop a reflective judgment model to conduct research in this area. Results indicated that sophistication in reflective judgment increases with age
and education (Kitchener & King, 1981, 1990) and that changes in reflective
judgment follow a fixed sequence (King, Kitchener, Davison, Parker, &
Wood, 1983; Kitchener, King, Wood, & Davison, 1989). By the 1990s, a
small group of researchers including Schommer (1989, 1990, 1993a, 1993b,
1994a, 1994b, 1998), Schommer, Crouse, and Rhodes (1992), Schommer
and Walker (1995), Schommer, Calvert, Gariglietti, and Reja (1997), Jehng,
Johnson, and Anderson (1993), Qian and Alvermann (1995), and Kardash
and Scholes (1996) has been researching epistemological beliefs. This research has sought to identify the underlying dimensions of epistemological
beliefs and the relation between these dimensions and various learning attributes such as reading comprehension and learning-helplessness. Among
these Schommer (1989, 1990) was considered a pioneer in the study of epistemological beliefs dimensions (see review by Hofer & Pintrich, 1997). Studies conducted by Jehng et al. (1993), Qian (1995), Qian and Alvermann
(1995), and others were mostly based on the assumptions and conceptual
framework hypothesized by Schommer (1990). In this framework, epistemological beliefs were reconceived as a system of more or less independent
dimensions. By system, she means that there is more than one belief to
consider. By more or less independent, she means that individuals may
be sophisticated in some beliefs but not necessarily sophisticated in others.
An implication of such a framework is that epistemological beliefs can be
studied individually or in various combinations.
In general terms, epistemological belief may be regarded as one particular
type of belief within a persons belief system. Epistemological beliefs are
fundamental assumptions about the nature of knowledge and learning, involving knowledge about the limits of knowing, the certainty of knowing,
and the criterion of knowing. That is, they refer to the individuals beliefs
about the source, certainty, and organization of knowledge, as well as the
control and speed of learning (Schommer, 1990, 1994a, 1994b). Since such
beliefs undoubtedly influence how individuals understand the nature of intellectual tasks and decide what kinds of strategies are appropriate for dealing
with complex and ill-structured situations, it is likely that epistemological
beliefs are related to metacognition, i.e., study skills and learning strategies.

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CHAN AND ELLIOTT

The studies of Schommer (1989, 1990) and Qian and Alvermann (1995)
have demonstrated that epistemological beliefs are related to meta-cognitive
processes such as reading comprehension, active inquiry, and integration of
learning materials. This implies that epistemological beliefs have a role to
play in class teaching as classroom teaching is considered an ill-defined situation, with various possibilities for unpredictable change. However, how
teachers epistemological beliefs are related to, and interact with, their beliefs
about teaching and learning is not clearly understood and need to be explored
in a range of research studies.
EPISTEMOLOGICAL BELIEFS AND CULTURE

An analysis of existing studies shows that the conceptual framework and

instruments used in epistemological research were developed mainly in
North America. The findings of the research (such as the number and nature
of epistemological beliefs dimensions and the relation of epistemological
beliefs to meta-cognitive activities) are thus contextually related to the North
American context. A few studies of epistemological beliefs in other cultures,
for example, Chile (Arredondo & Rucinski, 1996), Korea (Lee, 1995), and
Japan (Mori, 1997), have been conducted and the results show some differences from the studies reported by Schommer (1990). The study by
Arredondo and Rucinski (1996) suggested that Schommers factor structures
might be somewhat less stable among Chilean educators than she found in
America. Pai (1990) has speculated that epistemological beliefs may be affected by family influences, especially among Hispanic Americansthis
may be so particularly on the items concerning the nature of learning. In
Lees (1995) study of Korean graduate students the majority of Korean graduate students tended to believe in the dominant role of epistemic authorities,
such as textbooks and academics in senior positions, in their learning. In
Schommers (1989, 1990) study of North American college and university
students, however, she was not able to empirically determine the Omniscient
Authority factor or dimension as proposed in her conceptual framework (see
Table 1).
In addition, Lees (1995) study showed that the Korean graduate students
demonstrated more simplistic views about the nature of learning than most
of their American counterparts. They also tended to believe that knowledge is
certain. Also, many Korean graduate students placed more value on students
innate ability to learn than American students did. Mori (1997), in an exploratory factor analytical study of epistemological beliefs of learners of Japanese, employing Schommers 63-item questionnaire, identified four different
factors accounting for 13% variance. The four factors identified were concerned with beliefs in Quick Learning, Effort is a Waste, Certain Knowledge,
and Truth. These four factors differ from those reported by Schommer

EXPLORATORY STUDY OF HONG KONG TEACHER EDUCATION

395

TABLE 1
Schommers (1990) Hypothesized Epistemological Dimensions a
1. Source of knowledge: From knowledge is handed down by omniscient authority to
knowledge is reasoned out through objective and subjective means. (Omniscient Authority)
2. Certainty of knowledge: From knowledge is absolute to knowledge is constantly evolving. (Certain Knowledge)
3. Organization of knowledge: From knowledge is compartmentalized to knowledge is
highly integrated and interwoven. (Simple Knowledge)
4. Control of learning: From ability to learn is genetically predetermined to ability to
learn is acquired through experience. (Fixed Ability)
5. Speed of learning: From learning is quick or not-at-all to learning is a gradual process.
(Quick Learning)
a
Schommer has recently refined and elaborated on her conceptualization of epistemological
belief (Schommer, 1994a). She suggests that personal epistemological dimensions may be
pictured as frequency distributions rather than as a single point along a continuum in order
to capture the complexity of beliefs. Research is underway to test this refined conceptualization
of epistemological beliefs.

(1990). This difference was possibly due to the fact that Schommer used
prior subsets of belief dimensions as original variables while Mori used individual items as original variable.
All these results (Arredondo & Rucinski, 1996; Lee, 1995; Mori, 1997)
cast doubt on the general applicability of Schommers epistemological questionnaire for use with Chilean teachers, Korean graduate students, and Japanese learners; perhaps due to a cultural bias. It is not unreasonable to also
doubt the applicability of the questionnaire in a Chinese cultural context such
as Hong Kong. Hong Kong is unique in having been exposed to both Chinese
and Western cultural influence. Research associated with other psychological
constructs, such as self-concept and study approaches, has also illustrated
the influences of cultural values in different contexts, e.g., individualism in
Western culture and collectivism in Asian or Chinese culture (Bond, 1996).
Therefore, the first step in the study of epistemological beliefs in cultures
other than North America (in this case, Hong Kong Chinese culture) should
involve a validation of Schommers epistemological questionnaire. If differences between North American results and the other context are found, explanations in terms of cultural differences can be explored.
OBJECTIVES

The research reported in this paper explores the epistemological beliefs

held by Hong Kong teacher education students. Specifically, the following
questions are addressed.

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CHAN AND ELLIOTT

1. What are the epistemological beliefs held by Hong Kong teacher

education students?
2. Is there any significant difference in epistemological beliefs of the
teacher education students in terms of age, electives studied, and courses?
3. How do these results compare with findings from studies involving
North America university or college students?
4. How can identified differences be accounted for?
The study is significant in that it helps to clean up the mess associated
with research into teachers beliefs (Pajares, 1992). The research addresses
some of the theoretical and methodological issues for research on epistemological beliefs raised by Hofer and Pintrich (1997). These authors identify
nine such issues. They include the general definition of the construct, conceptual clarity about the elements or dimensions that constitute individual epistemological theories or beliefs, the possible relationship of epistemological
beliefs with other aspects of cognitive development, such as age, and education.
METHOD
The study adopts a mixed method approach (Greene, Caracelli, & Graham, 1989) in which
a quantitative study was complemented by qualitative data gained from interviews. For the
quantitative study, 385 teacher education students of the Hong Kong Institute of Education
were asked to complete a questionnaire based around Schommers 63-item epistemological
beliefs questionnaire. The questionnaire used in this study consisted of two parts. The first
part sought demographic data of the participants while the second part elicited responses to
questions designed to tap the epistemological beliefs of participants using a Likert five-point
scale. Details of developing the questionnaire are reported elsewhere (Chan & Elliott, 1998)
and briefly noted below. For the qualitative study, 23 students from the quantitative study
were invited to attend interviews on a voluntary basis. The interviews enabled the authors to
acquire a fuller understanding of the students beliefs about the nature, source of knowledge,
and knowing or learning.
The participants in the quantitative study were drawn from the Certificate in Education (CE)
course. There are two streams in this course, an English and a Chinese stream. The age of
the students ranged from 20 to 40. Many of them were around 21 and 22 and only very few
were below 20 or above 30. Of those who indicated their gender, 115 were male and 263 were
female students (in the ratio of 30 to 70%, respectively). This proportion was approximately the
same as that of male to female (about 1 : 2.8) in the Institute. The CE course is a 2-year fulltime subdegree course designed to educate nongraduate teachers for primary (Primary 1 to
6) and junior secondary (Secondary 1 to 3) school teaching. Students admitted to the 2-year
full-time CE course have to possess at least two Advanced Level (A level) subject passes,
the normal entrance requirement to universities in Hong Kong. Therefore, the students of
CE courses are roughly equivalent to university undergraduates and were comparable to the
university or college students used in research by Schommer (1990) and Jehng et al. (1993).
The English and Chinese streams of the CE course basically are the same, in terms of admission
requirement and curriculum. Differences exist with respect to the lecturers or instructors and
the medium of instruction. Some native English speakers are employed as lecturers for the
English course and these students are expected to teach in English during their teaching practice.

EXPLORATORY STUDY OF HONG KONG TEACHER EDUCATION

397

MATERIALS

Quantitative Study
The instrument for this study was adapted from Schommers 63-item epistemological beliefs
questionnaire through iterative processes of factor analysis, item identification, and modification.
Initially, it was intended that Schommers (1990) 63-item questionnaire would be used for
the study because she reported consistent findings with her American samples (Schommer,
1990, 1993a, 1993b). However, as Marsh (1981) has emphasized, there are dangers in assuming that instruments developed in one setting can be used effectively in new settings without
first testing their applicability (Marsh, Hau, Chung, & Siu, 1998). To reduce misunderstanding
due to language, Schommers questionnaire was translated into Chinese by the first author.
Comments were sought from two educational psychology lecturers in the Hong Kong Institute
of Education to check whether the Chinese version was appropriate and matched the English
version in meaning. Using such feedback, the items were revised to make them readily understood and convey the same meaning as the original version.
Thus, Schommers 63-item questionnaire, in both English and Chinese, constituted the first
version of the epistemological beliefs questionnaire used in this study. The questionnaire was
then administered and Schommers 12 hypotheticalconceptual subscales were used as variables for principal axis factor analysis, followed by varimax and oblimin rotation. This was
the same analytical procedure adopted by Schommer in her analysis. The oblimin rotation
produced no clearer factor pattern structure than the varimax (orthogonal) rotation (see Tables
2 and 3). With an eigenvalue of 1 as the cut-off and a scree plot test, three factors (cumulative
percentage of the variance, 46.5%) were extracted instead of the five proposed in Schommers
theoretical framework. A fourth factor with an eigenvalue of .98, similar to one reported in
Schommers studies (1993a, 1993b), was also noted. In both cases, subscales for Cant learn
how to learn, Success is unrelated to hard work, and Learn first time loaded on Factor
1 with loading values greater than .4. Subscales for Ability to learn is innate and Avoid
ambiguities loaded together. Similarly, subscales Dont criticize authority and Knowledge is certain loaded on the same factor with high loading values. Loading values greater
than .4 are in bold type and italicized in Tables 2 and 3. Thus, Schommers factor structure

TABLE 2
Loading for Three Factors with Eigenvalues Greater Than 1.00 as Cut-off (PAF: Varimax
Rotated Factor Matrix) in Descending Order
Schommers 12 conceptual subscales

Factor 1

Cant learn how to learn

Success is unrelated to hard work
Learn first time
Avoid integration
Concentrated effort is a waste of time
Dont criticize authority
Knowledge is certain
Learning is quick
Ability to learn is innate
Avoid ambiguities
Seek single answers
Depend on authority

.69
.61
.41
.35
.32
.11
.09
.23
.16
.01
.29
.02

Factor 2
.21
.10
.12
.26
.02
.80
.43
.40
.09
.06
.19
.23

Factor 3
.36
.03
.17
.13
.01
.08
.09
.23
.61
.48
.35
.31

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CHAN AND ELLIOTT

TABLE 3
Loading for Three Factors with Eigenvalues Greater than 1.00 as Cut-off (PAF: Oblimin
Rotated Factor Matrix) in Descending Order
Schommers 12 conceptual subscales

Factor 1

Factor 2

Factor 3

Cant learn how to learn

Success is unrelated to hard work
Learn first time
Seek single answers
Concentrated effort is a waste of time
Avoid integration
Ability to learn is innate
Avoid ambiguities
Depend on authority
Dont criticize authority
Knowledge is certain
Learning is quick

.69
.61
.41
.33
.32
.32
.15

.18

.40

.17
.31

.63
.49
.27
.11

.16

.19

.21

.20
.86
.44
.37

was not replicated in the Hong Kong sample when her 12 conceptual subscales were used as
the basis of analysis. An interitem reliability check of the 12 conceptual subscales yielded
low to moderate Cronbach alpha values, ranging from .1 to .58. These data cast doubt on the
reliability and validity of the scale and also on the general applicability of Schommers 63-item
questionnaire across cultural groups (in this case, the Hong Kong (Chinese) teacher education
students).
Given this doubt, the original responses to the 63 items (i.e., not using the collapsed 12
subscales) were factorized to see if they loaded on the 12 subscales as hypothesized by Schommer. The 63 items did not load on Schommers hypothesized 12 subscales and hence the
authors decided to abandon Schommers 12 conceptual subscales and develop a specific instrument suitable for use in this study based on an adaptation and modification of the 63-item
questionnaire.

Development of Epistemological Beliefs Instrument

Based on the suggested procedures of Burnett and Dart (1997), Comrey and Lee (1992),
Fanshawe and Burnett (1991), and Stevens (1996), those items which loaded on the factors
in the above study were identified as a starting point. It is interesting to note at this point
that three items loading onto a factor representing Omniscient Authority were identifiedan
important contrast to findings by Schommer. Further items were written and included in a
newly developed questionnaire, with the intention to improve the alpha values of the subscales.
The target number of items for a fully developed new scale was around 30 to 40 to cover the
dimensions as well as avoid a lengthy questionnaire, which might cause the respondents to
lose motivation for completion.
To prepare these extra items for the revised instrument, several principles were considered.
First, the items should be evenly distributed within the subscales. The distribution of items
in the subscales also followed the suggestion given by Burnett and Dart (1997) that each
subscale should contain at least four to five items of high loading value. Second, the item
statements should be simple and short, to make them clear and meaningful. Third, the items
should carry appropriate face validity, that is, be able to tag the intended construct with no
ambiguities. Where possible, the item statements should be constructed in such a way that
they measure directly the construct and dimension. Some negative items should be included

EXPLORATORY STUDY OF HONG KONG TEACHER EDUCATION

399

to check the response from items tapping the same dimension but written in an opposite manner; for example, I believe in what the experts say versus Often, even advice from experts
should be questioned.
The additional items were obtained from a number of sources. The first source consisted
of a literature review of related studies. The second source was the actual identified 20 items
themselves, to identify how these items could be rephrased or changed to produce new ones.
The third source was Schommers 63 items. These latter items were modified through rewording to render them more effective in tapping the dimension. To ensure high validity, two
Chinese lecturers teaching educational psychology were also invited to comment on the clarity
of the scale in terms of the language and meaning, as well as whether the items were measuring
the constructs that were intended.
A total number of 45 items were written in the revised questionnaire. Six students were
invited to attempt the questionnaire and expressed their viewpoints as to whether the items
were clear and made sense to them. Accordingly, items were revised and reworded and eventually a questionnaire of 45 items was prepared using a Likert five-point scale. This was administered to 385 teacher education students and the data were factor analyzed, using principal axis
factoring followed by oblimin rotation.
The process resulted in a scale of 30 items and this was subject to confirmatory factor
analysis with LISREL8 (Byrne, 1989; Joreskog & Sorbom, 1993; Schumacker & Lomax,
1996) indicating a good fit model (GFI .93, AGFI .90, RMSEA .058). The 30 items
loaded on four factors, constituting four subscales with Cronbach alpha values ranging from
.60 to .70. Thus, the data indicate this questionnaire was more reliable than the Schommers
instrument and that reported by Jehng et al. (1993).

Qualitative Study
Questions and schedules for interviews were developed to collect qualitative data to support
and clarify the information extracted from the questionnaire. Respondents were interviewed
after they completed the questionnaire. A brief introduction of the interview was given to
ensure the interviewees understood the purpose of the activity and the questions to be asked.
Field notes were taken and each interviewee was invited to provide a written commentary on
the questions. The written messages were checked against the field notes to maintain authenticity and reliability.
The interview focused on the source and nature of knowledge and the essential process of
acquiring knowledge. Semistructured questions were used to allow the interviewees to provide
a free and open response. Very often, they were asked to explain why they held such a belief
and to elaborate what they said with examples. These strategies were used to clarify any
confusion and misunderstanding of the answers. The following examples illustrate the questions asked.
Source of Inquiry
Source of Knowledge

Nature of Knowledge

Questions
Do you believe, without doubt, the knowledge taught by the teacher? Why?
Do you agree that the content of textbooks
is in general correct and highly believable?
Why do you have such a belief? Do you
think textbooks are written by authorities/
experts?
Do you believe that knowledge is definitely
unchanged or changes with time? What
causes you to have such a belief? Is there
any evidence to support your belief?

400
Elements in acquiring knowledge

CHAN AND ELLIOTT

Which of the following are the deciding factors in obtaining knowledge? inborn/innate
ability, effort, understanding, learning method
and strategy.
Based on a rank order of importance, which
is the most important one? List the rank order of other factors.

DATA ANALYSIS

Quantitative Study
MANOVA was applied to investigate the relationship between epistemological beliefs and
gender, age, electives studied, and course type (English or Chinese). A confidence level of
.01 level was adopted to reduce Type I error. For the analysis of age, the sample was divided
into four groups in an interval of 5 years of age. The electives studied were divided into five
groups according to the subject classification adopted by the Hong Kong Institute of Education:
(1) Business and technology, (2) cultural subjects, (3) language subjects, (4) mathematics and
science, and (5) social subjects.

Qualitative Study
Content analysis was applied to the qualitative data obtained from interviews. Responses
associated with the three areas of inquiry viz. source of knowledge, nature of knowledge, and
elements of acquiring knowledge were categorized, grouped, and tallied.

RESULTS

Dimensions of Epistemological Beliefs

The factor analysis of the questionnaire responses resulted in 30 items
(loading value greater than .3) which loaded on four factors (see Table 4).
Based on the nature of the loaded items, these four factors were labeled
Fixed/Innate Ability, Authority/Expert Knowledge, Certainty Knowledge,
and Learning Effort/Process.
The four factors represent four epistemological belief dimensions held by
Hong Kong teacher education students and constitute four subscales. Using
subscale values, each student can be represented on each of the four dimensions. For a given dimension student can be placed on a continuum ranging
from a nave view at one polarity to a sophisticated view at the other.
In these four dimensions students vary along a continuum with polarities.
For example, students beliefs about Fixed/Innate Ability can be represented
on a scale where ones ability is inborn and fixed at one end (higher end) and
ones ability is not innate and changeable at the other (lower end). Authority/
Expert Knowledge ranges from students believing that the source of knowledge is handed down by experts and authority at one end (higher end) to
knowledge being derived from ones experience and judgment at the other
(lower end). Certainty Knowledge relates to the nature of knowledge. This
dimension ranges from a belief that knowledge is certain, unambiguous, and

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EXPLORATORY STUDY OF HONG KONG TEACHER EDUCATION

TABLE 4
Extraction of Four Factors from the Epistemological Beliefs Questionnaire Using
Exploratory Factor Analysis (Pattern Matrix: Oblimin Rotation with Eigenvalue
Greater than 1.00 as Cut-off )
Question item
A40 There isnt much you can do to make
yourself smarter as your ability is fixed
at birth
A31 Our abilities to learn are fixed at birth
A15 Ones innate ability limits what one
can learn
A10 Some people are born good learners,
others are just stuck with limited ability
A30 Some children are born incapable of
learning well in certain subjects
A5 The ability to learn is innate/inborn
A25 Students who begin school with average ability remain average throughout school
A20 The really smart students dont have
to work hard to do well in school
A21 People who challenge authoritys
knowledge are over-confident
A6 You can believe most things you read
in textbooks written by famous scholars
as they are usually subject experts
A32 Nothing is certain and absolute
A13 If people cant understand something
right away, they should keep on trying
A29 Knowing how to learn is more important than the acquired facts
A28 One learns little if one does not work
hard
A42 Understanding course materials and
thinking process are more important than
acquiring knowledge/facts
A9 Everyone needs to learn how to learn
A24 People will learn better if they focus
more on the process of understanding
rather than the facts to be acquired
A8 Learning something really well takes a
long time or much effort
A23 How much you get from your learning
depends mostly on your effort
A3 Getting ahead takes a lot of work
A34 If one tires hard enough, then one will
understand the course material
A19 Wisdom is not knowing the answers,
but knowing how to find the answers

Factor 1

Factor 2

Factor 3

Factor 4

.55

.10

.11

.03

.54
.48

.15
.08

.18
.02

.01
.08

.47

.01

.15

.11

.46

.05

.12

.13

.44
.44

.09
.08

.14
.17

.06
.01

.42

.08

.13

.06

.21

.08

.18

.14

.16

.11

.12

.15

.10
.06

.05
.54

.04
.03

.01
.02

.02

.48

.05

.13

.06

.41

.01

.06

.02

.40

.02

.12

.02
.03

.38
.35

.07
.05

.06
.05

.04

.33

.07

.08

.09

.33

.03

.13

.00
.09

.33
.32

.17
.01

.05
.25

.10

.32

.17

.01

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CHAN AND ELLIOTT

TABLE 4Continued
Question item
A37 Most problems have one best solution
no matter how difficult they are a
A14 If people find the time to re-read a
textbook chapter, they will learn new
things the second time
A4 The most successful learners have discovered how to learn
A1 Sometimes, I dont believe the facts in
textbooks written by authorities
A11 Even advice from experts should often
be questioned
A16 I often wonder how much experts
really know
A7 Knowledge is tentative and uncertain,
because it is always changinga
A38 I am very aware that teachers/lecturers
know a lot more than I do and so I agree
with what they say is important rather
than rely on my own judgment
A45 I still believe in what the experts say
even though it differs from what I know
A26 I have no doubts in whatever the
experts say
A17 Scientists will ultimately get to the
truth if they keep searching for it
A2 If scientists try hard enough, they can
find the truth to almost anything
A18 Any one can figure out difficult concepts if one works hard enough
A12 I believe there should exist a teaching
method applicable to all learning situations
A22 Scientific knowledge is certain and
does not change
A27 There is a definite answer to every problem

Factor 1

Factor 2

Factor 3

Factor 4

.14

.30

.11

.15

.00

.29

.00

.02

.12

.22

.02

.17

.08

.04

.51

.09

.01

.23

.49

.02

.04

.07

.39

.05

.12

.01

.38

.13

.29

.07

.33

.12

.14

.13

.31

.16

.21

.11

.30

.26

.15

.01

.14

.72

.01

.02

.09

.56

.10

.21

.05

.43

.10

.07

.03

.40

.18

.09

.19

.35

.25

.13

.12

.28

Note. Factor 1: Innate/fixed ability, .69. Factor 2: Learning effort/process, .66.

Factor 3: Authority/expert knowledge, .60. Factor 4: Certainty knowledge, .60.
a
Item A7 appeared to be odd-man out and was removed from the group items in finalizing
the subscale Authority/Expert Knowledge and to improve interitem reliability. The same also
happened to item A37, which was removed in finalizing the subscale Learning Effort/Process.

EXPLORATORY STUDY OF HONG KONG TEACHER EDUCATION

403

unchanged (upper end) to a belief that knowledge is tentative and ever changing (lower end). Learning Effort/Process can be represented by the belief
that knowledge acquisition requires effort and that learning processes are
more important than the acquired facts at one end (upper end) and that learning needs little effort and acquired facts are more important at the other
(lower end).
Mean subscale scores across the sample were used to develop a profile
of beliefs in the sample for each of the four dimensions. For the dimension
or subscale Innate/Fixed Ability, the mean score was 2.82 (SD .49). The
result suggests that many of the students are uncertain in their beliefs about
whether ability is innate or fixed. This is also evidenced by the modal value
of 3. It is also interesting to note that more students tend to believe that
learning ability is changeable (56.4%) than those who believe ability is innate
and fixed (31.4%). Thus, while only a very small number of students appear
to hold beliefs corresponding to the extremes of the scale, students are mildly
dispersed toward the lower end. That is, Hong Kong teacher education students tended to disagree that learning ability is innate. Instead, there is a
tendency for the students to believe that learning ability is acquired and
changeable. Also, there is a fairly large range of beliefs represented by the
respondents responses, from a maximum of 4.38 to a minimum of 1.13. In
other words, while some student teachers tended to believe in innate or fixed
ability, more student teachers tended to disagree.
For the dimension or subscale of Learning Effort/Process, the mean score
is 3.92 (SD .35) which is close to 4 on the five-point scale. The position
of the mean subscale score at the higher end of the five-point scale implies
that teacher education students tended to believe that knowledge is created
through learning effort and process. A mode of 4.00 might be taken as additional support for this interpretation.
As for the dimension or subscale Authority/Expert Knowledge, the mean
score was 2.62 (SD .47). This suggests that there is a tendency among
the students to believe that knowledge is created from personal experience
rather than being handed down from authority figures. A large proportion
of students (74.5%) disagreed with the items representing Authority/Expert
Knowledge, casting doubt on the belief that knowledge comes from authority
figures or experts.
The situation is similar to that for the dimension or subscale Certainty
Knowledge in that the mean score was also 2.62 (SD .56), positioned at the
lower end of the five-point scale. Using the same principle of interpretation
articulated above, it may be inferred that while a number of the teacher education students were uncertain about whether knowledge is fixed and certain,
they tended to believe that knowledge is tentative and ever changing.
On the whole, the students under study appeared to believe that learning
is a process requiring effort, understanding, and judgment, the result of which

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is knowledge construction. Such knowledge is not derived entirely from authority figures or limited by innate abilities. Further, they tend to believe
that knowledge is tentative and changing instead of being permanent. Such
conclusions can be inferred from the relative position of the mean scores of
the four dimensions or subscales identified in the questionnaire. Interview
data from the 23 students about the source and nature of knowledge and
processes in knowledge acquisition provided similar findings to the quantitative data. The data, however, provided a greater depth of understanding of
these issues. One point of note here is that some of the interviewees responses were, at times, inconsistent and occasionally contradictory. Such
inconsistency might account for lower reliability and Cronbach alpha values
reported in some of the subscales, especially that related to Certainty Knowledge.
Referring to the source of knowledge, the majority of the students interviewed (over 62%) did not completely believe in what their teachers taught.
They reported that teachers do not know everything and are likely to make
mistakes. In some students minds, teachers were not to be regarded as authority figures of knowledge. Students also cast doubt on the content of textbooks as they indicated that mistakes could be found in such texts.
Nevertheless, some students unfailingly believed in textbooks because
they considered the content edited and proofread. In addition, if the textbooks
were written by authorities and experts, they argued such books were of high
credibility. However, many students still insisted on the need for thinking
about and reflecting on the content of textbookswhether written by authorities and experts or not. This implies that the students did not rely entirely
on authorities and experts as the source of knowledge. Instead, they pointed
out the importance of individual judgment through thinking and analysis.
When questioned about how knowledge was acquired, many interviewees
pointed to learner processes of thinking, questioning, and analyzing, apart
from processes of transmission by the teacher. In other words, the students
reported that they obtained their knowledge not simply through transmission
by the teacher, but also through personal reading, thinking, and analysis.
Many were not mere passive recipients of knowledge and do not rely entirely
on teacher, textbooks, and authorities and experts as the source of knowledge. Of all the interviewees, only a few of them (about 19%) believed in
the word of authority and experts even when they considered such experts
to be more knowledgeable than themselves. The overall pattern seems to be
one of depending on their own thinking and analysis of what was provided
by teachers, textbooks, and authorities. This conclusion supported the findings from the questionnaire where the mean score of the dimension (subscale) Authority/Expert Knowledge was below 3 (the midpoint of the scale).
Some interviewees indicated a higher level of credibility toward textbook

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405

content written by authorities and experts, but they also indicated the need
for thinking about and analyzing such content.
With respect to the nature of knowledge, the majority of interviewees
(about 73%) considered knowledge to be tentative and changing with time.
A typical comment was that scientific and technological knowledge
changes with time as new discoveries are made. Other interviewees, however, were not so certain. They considered some knowledge as permanent
and other knowledge tentative. For example, the sun rises from the east
could be regarded as permanent while knowledge about information technology is tentative and changes with time. While some interviewees considered truth to be everlasting and absolute, there were queries raised about
What is truth? and whether truth is everlasting and permanent.
Over 72% of interviewees believed that nothing is absolute. Some claimed
that knowledge consists of two types (a) absolute, unchanged and (b) tentative. Others thought knowledge to be partly permanent and partly tentative,
depending on the situation and the type of knowledge. These mixed viewpoints reflect the difficulty students had in considering the permanent or tentative nature of knowledge and points to the difficulty of attempting to investigate beliefs through the use of scales exclusively. This may also account
for some of the inconsistent or contradictory responses noted in the responses
to the epistemological belief questionnaire concerning the permanent and
tentative nature of knowledge.
As to whether knowledge is simple or complex, varied responses were
again noted. A total of 41% of the interviewees considered knowledge to be
complex, 35% thought it was simple, and 24% considered knowledge to
be both complex and simple. This also explains the difficulty of tapping
the simple versus complex and tentative versus permanent dimensions of
knowledge through a questionnaire survey. While some students considered
knowledge to consist of isolated facts, many believed that the process of
integration, organization, and understanding is essential in creating knowledge. Inevitably, these mixed and contradictory beliefs reduce the internal
consistency or reliability of the subscales in measuring the certain and complex nature of knowledge.
As for the elements involved in acquiring knowledge, interviewees were
asked to list the essential factors or components in rank order. Some considered personal processes to be the most important element. Others took inborn
ability to be the most important and there were those who considered effort
to be the most significant. A few thought that a learning strategy was the
most important element while only one thought that all these factors were
important. Of the varied responses given, most tended to believe that effort
or hard work was the most important (consistent with the traditional beliefs
of Chinese culture), and fewer believed that ability was fixed at birth and

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could not change. Students tended to believe that ability could be changed,
learning and effort being the most frequent process of change. Friends,
schools, education, and nurture were also thought to be factors innate ability
could change.
Thus, over 86% of the students in the interview believed that learning
how to learn was very important. Some admitted that their beliefs about
whether ability is innate influences their attitude and method of learning. A
large proportion of students believed in the changing nature of ability and
the importance of learning effort and process. This result might explain the
relatively higher reliability coefficient (Cronbach alpha) for the subscale
dimension Innate/Fixed Ability and Learning Effort/Process in the
questionnaire.
In summary, factor analysis identified four epistemological belief dimensions held by Hong Kong teacher education students. The mean subscale
scores across the sample provide a profile of beliefs in the sample for each
of the four dimensions. Interview data indicate the complexity of some of
the belief dimensions, in particular, the permanent versus tentative nature of
knowledge, and accounts for some of the inconsistent questionnaire responses. Thus complementary usage of interview data would help the questionnaire survey resolve the problem of better understanding the nature of
epistemological beliefs.
As for the relationship of epistemological beliefs and demographic variables such as age, gender, electives, and courses, they were obtained by subjecting the questionnaire responses to MANOVA analysis, and the results
are shown in the next section.
Epistemological Beliefs, Age, Gender, Electives, and Courses
The MANOVA analysis indicated no significant difference in epistemological beliefs held by the Hong Kong teacher education students in terms
of their age (Wilks .962, F(12, 955) 1.18, p .01), gender (Wilks
.988, F(4, 372) 1.08, p .01), and the electives studied (Wilks .932,
F(16, 1115) 1.64, p .01 for electives 1 and Wilks .970, F(16, 1115)
.70, p .01 for electives 2). However, there were significant differences in
the beliefs held by students of the English and the Chinese courses (Wilks
.955, F(4, 378) 4.43, **p .01) (see Table 5). Univariate F-tests indicated significant statistical differences lie in the dimensions of Innate/Fixed
Ability (F 10.51; Sig. of F, .001**) and Authority/Expert Authority (F
7.68, Sig. of F, .006**) (see Tables 6 and 7).
It appeared that more students in the Chinese course (than in the English
course) disagreed with the items that ability is innate. This is reflected in
the mean of the Innate/Fixed Ability subscale scores (Chinese course 2.77
versus English course 2.91). A similar result was found with the dimension
Authority/Expert Knowledge. It seems that more students in the Chinese

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EXPLORATORY STUDY OF HONG KONG TEACHER EDUCATION

TABLE 5
Univariate F-tests Study of the Four Epistemological Beliefs Dimensions/Subscales
across the Chinese and English Course
Variable

Hypo.
SS

Error
SS

Hypo
MS

Error
MS

Sig. of
F

Innate/Fixed Ability
Learning Effort/Process
Authority/Expert Knowledge
Certainty Knowledge

7.32
4.01
4.96
0.16

265.12
255.55
245.93
258.85

7.32
4.01
4.96
0.16

0.69
0.67
0.65
0.68

10.51
5.97
7.68
0.23

0.001**
0.015*
0.006**
0.631

* p .05.
** p .01.
TABLE 6
Statistical Description of the Epistemological Beliefs Dimension: Innate/Fixed Ability
across the Chinese and English Courses of Hong Kong Teacher Education Students
Chinese course (N 246)
Mean
Std. dev.
Kurtosis
Skewness
Range
Maximum

2.77
0.51
0.03
0.05
2.88
4.00

S.E. mean
Variance
S.E. kurt
S.E. skew
Minimum

English course (N 139)

0.03
0.26
0.31
0.16
1.13

Mean
Std. dev.
Kurtosis
Skewness
Range
Maximum

2.91
0.44
0.53
0.17
2.75
4.38

S.E. mean
Variance
S.E. kurt
S.E. skew
Minimum

0.04
0.19
0.41
0.21
1.63

TABLE 7
Statistical Description of the Epistemological Beliefs Dimension: Authority/Expert
Knowledge across the Chinese and English Course of Hong Kong
Teacher Education Students
Chinese course (N 246)
Mean
Std. dev.
Kurtosis
Skewness
Range
Maximum

2.57
0.47
0.06
0.05
2.83
3.83

S.E. mean
Variance
S.E. kurt
S.E. skew
Minimum

English course (N 138)

0.03
0.22
0.31
0.16
1.00

Mean
Std. dev.
Kurtosis
Skewness
Range
Maximum

2.71
0.47
1.85
0.86
3.00
4.67

S.E. mean
Variance
S.E. kurt
S.E. skew
Minimum

0.04
0.22
0.41
0.21
1.67

course than in the English course disagreed with the belief items. This conclusion is supported by the minimum, maximum, and mean values of the
two groups. Students of the Chinese course, to a somewhat greater extent
than those of the English course, seemed to believe that knowledge is constructed from ones personal experience and judgment. A two-tail significance t-test for Innate/Fixed Ability and Authority/Expert Knowledge indicated a significant difference between the two student groups (p .01).

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CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION

Concerning epistemological beliefs, the use of Schommers 63-item epistemological beliefs questionnaire is problematic in the Hong Kong context.
However, the identification of four epistemological belief dimensions in this
study tends to support Schommers hypothetical framework of a multidimensional system of more or less independent epistemological beliefs. However,
the specific dimensions found by Schommer have not been able to be entirely
replicated in this study.
The four extracted factors in this study represent four epistemological belief dimensions held by Hong Kong teacher education students. The dimensions were labeled as Innate/Fixed Ability, Authority/Expert Knowledge,
Certainty Knowledge, and Learning Effort/Process. These dimensions are
similar in number but different in nature to those reported by Schommer. In
general it may be concluded that care needs to be exercised in applying
Schommers questionnaire in another cultural contexts.
The conclusions that Hong Kong teacher education students tend to believe in knowledge acquisition through effort and process and that ability is
changeable and malleable through effort need to be interpreted in terms of
the traditional Chinese Confucian-heritage culture. In such a culture much
value is placed on diligence, working hard, and effort. Effort is seen to be
very important for vertical mobility and acquired status in traditional Chinese
societies. These points are supported by many attribution studies on Chinese
students. Chinese people are keen about self-improvement rather than outperforming others, and they attribute their performance more to effort than to
ability. Related to this, Chinese teachers, parents, and students believe ability
to be modified by effort (Chen, Lee, & Stevenson, 1996; Hau & Salili, 1996).
Students are also aware of the advantages gained through appropriate study
approaches and processes, coupled with effort. This may explain why the
teacher education students in this study regard the learning process and effort
as significant. The close association of the two elements, learning effort and
process, might again have its origins in a strong Chinese belief in the power
of hard work. Chinese parents strongly emphasize to their children that if
one works hard, one will slowly build up ones interest and study skills
(Hau & Salili, 1996). However, these Hong Kong teacher education students
tended not to believe in Authority/Expert Knowledge and Certainty Knowledge. This may appear strange to Westerners if they consider Chinese students to abide authority and to be unquestioningly obedient, relying on
rote methods of learning, involving memorization and surface approaches
to learning (Watkins & Biggs, 1996). The difference between expectation
and empirical results may be possibly accounted for by the fact that the
Confucianism-heritage culture in Hong Kong has been weakened by Western
thoughts, philosophy, and experiences encountered by the students. Hong

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409

Kong is a unique context, under the British rule for a long time and being
simultaneously exposed to both Chinese and Western cultures. It is a common belief that contemporary children in Hong Kong resent strict and authoritarian parenting and seek independence and freedom from parental control.
The persistence of a traditional Chinese culture and philosophy against the
interacting Western philosophy and thought might account for the relatively
large range (minimum 1.00, maximum 4.67) of beliefs related to Authority/
Expert Knowledge in this study.
The finding that Hong Kong teacher education students tended not to believe in Certainty Knowledge was in line with previous studies conducted
by other researchers such as Perry (1968), Ryan (1984), and Schommer
(1990, 1993a, 1993b). Younger students usually hold nave beliefs about the
nature of knowledge, believing that knowledge is certain and unambiguous.
As they grow older, they start to adopt a more sophisticated viewpoint about
knowledge and believe knowledge is changing and tentative. Some students
in this study were probably in a transitional stage of development of epistemological beliefs while others had already passed through the nave stage.
Instead of strongly believing in the certainty and unchangeable nature of
knowledge these latter students may be aware of the tentative nature and
uncertainty of what they had learned. No significant statistical relationship
between age, gender, or fields of study and epistemological beliefs were
found in the MANOVA study. There was a significant statistical difference in epistemological beliefs held by students in the Chinese and English
courses. The students in the Chinese course tended to disagree more with
the belief in Innate/Fixed Ability and Authority/Expert Knowledge than students in the English course. Again, this is a somewhat unexpected result if
one attempts to interpret the findings simply based on the traditional Chinese
culture. Perhaps it was due to different entering beliefs of the students or
different exposure and types of interaction in the two courses. Students in the
English course were frequently taught by expatriate lecturers from Western
countries and usually students who entered the English course had better
results in the public examination. Consequently, students in the English
course might believe more in Innate/Fixed Ability while students in the Chinese course might believe more in learning effort. Also, English had been
considered an essential language in Hong Kong and an important condition
for social mobility in the past. Subsequently, students might consider the
expatriate lecturers from the Western countries to be more authoritative figures and an important source of knowledge.
Before considering pedagogical implications and future research possibilities flowing from this study, it is important to reflect on the specific outcomes. While this study may be seen as successful in deriving a global picture of beliefs, doubt remains that the understandings are at a surface level.
Using a quantitative approach, the multidimensional system of epistemologi-

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cal beliefs as hypothesized by Schommer (1990) has been confirmed in the

Hong Kong context. The number of dimensions existing within the belief
system and the relatively independent nature of the beliefs are still controversial and subject to further clarification. This finding illustrates well the complexity of beliefs and belief systems and also illustrates the difficulty of fully
understanding such beliefs by using a quantitative approach alone. It appears
that in-depth interview studies to complement the quantitative data provide
better understandings. An important outcome of the study is that new knowledge about the belief dimensions has been generated. Such knowledge is
significant given that literature on epistemological beliefs is limited and developing.
IMPLICATIONS

The fact that findings of North American students (e.g., Schommer, 1990)
have not been replicated in this study implies that culture is an important
variable in the study of epistemological beliefs. Caution must be exercised
if applying epistemological hypotheses and instruments which were developed in different contexts. Modification of these seems necessary before considering their relevance in a different context. As well, educational environments and academic practices, irrespective of students gender and fields of
study, seem to be influential factors in shaping and developing ones epistemological beliefs. While epistemological beliefs may be related to metacognitive activities, it is also likely that they bear some relation to the cognitive processes of learning how to teach. Teacher educators, therefore, can
help their students to clarify their personal theories about teaching and learning through discussion and analysis about what they believe concerning
knowledge acquisition. That is, epistemological beliefs may have a significant role to play in learning to teach. Insofar as selecting students to become
teachers, teacher education institutions can explore applicants epistemological beliefs in the admission processes. The fact that students recognize that
ability is changeable through effort points to the significance of reflective
thinking in learning to teach. Through such a process, teacher education students may be motivated to take a more positive attitude and an appropriate
study approach toward their learning and teaching practice in schools.
With respect to beliefs research, the epistemological beliefs instrument
developed in this study is a further refinement of prior instruments. Although
the psychometric properties of the developed epistemological beliefs questionnaire have been found satisfactory for this study, the instrument should
be considered as a base for future development and research.
Similar studies of epistemological beliefs with samples from a range of
countries would assist in clarifying the significance of cultural determinants.
As an extension of this research, the interaction effect of particular variables, such as age, gender, and fields of study on epistemological beliefs,

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411

may be investigated with much larger samples. Moreover, longitudinal and

cross-sectional studies of teacher education students epistemological beliefs
would provide an interesting area of inquiry to address questions of stability
and the significance of particular variables at different times. Comparative
studies of preservice and in-service student teachers in different courses (e.g.,
primary versus secondary level) would also provide an understanding of the
influence of entry characteristics, maturity and teaching experiences, and the
impact of teacher education experiences and program effect on beliefs
changes.
Epistemological beliefs are linked to many meta-cognitive strategies. Thus
it would be important to study the relationships between epistemological beliefs and personal or implicit theories about teaching and learning.
Through such studies, better understandings of teacher education students
beliefs about teaching and learning, choices of study approaches and the
influence of their epistemological beliefs on their implicit and personal theories, and learning approaches could result. In turn, the findings would enable
teacher educators to provide better guidance about learning to teach and
study approaches and strategies.
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