Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
1 (1),
pp. 016-026, November, 2013.
Global Science Research Journals
Whenever you think you have an idea of how something works, you have a mental model. That is, in effect, a
layman's way of talking about having an hypothesis. The hypothesis needs to be tested for how closely it fits
reality - and reality is the data collected from an experiment. So the data is collected on the few and
compared with a few controls. Is there really a difference between the two groups? It is that sort of question
where Chi-square analysis comes in. In short, if the differences between your model and reality are small,
that is good; if huge, develop a new model! These differences are denoted as "chi-square", which equals the
sum of all the squares of the deviations divided by what was expected. A Chi-square test is one of the most
frequently used tests with a number of improper applications. Some of the general causes of the improper
applications include researchers not understanding the areas and conditions of application of the Chi-square
test. To give solutions to the above problems, this paper explored the existing literature on the main areas of
application of Chi-square, that include the test of frequencies (goodness of fit, homogeneity, independence)
and the test of population variance. The paper identifies the shortfalls in the existing literature, and fills them
by the application of appropriate illustrations and examples. To shield the loopholes in data analysis using
Chi-square test, a simplified conceptual model which can be adopted by researchers is finally developed.
INTRODUCTION
The researching process is so important to the university
that the credibility of university and its prestige is to an
extent tied to the monumental researches that are tied to
the university. This brings to fore the question of the
quality in the research process. Therefore just as quality
is important in the other stages of research process, so is
it for data analysis.
According to Onyango and Odebero (2009), data
analysis is significant in the following ways:
- Summary: helps in giving a didactic and ingenious summary of the data collected.
- Showing of relationship: After data has been
E-mail: onchirisureiman@yahoo.com
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017
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This study involves the collection and critical analysis of the existing
literature and information from various sources. The data was
collected from secondary sources. Purposive sampling was used to
gather the accessible relevant material. The study identified and
018
filled some of the existing gaps on the analysis of data by Chisquare. Some of the most relevant illustrations were used to clarify
the challenges. Finally, the researcher develops the conceptual
framework which can guide researchers in the application of the
Chi-square to test for frequencies (goodness of fit, homogeneity of
a number of frequency distributions, independence) and population
variance.
Kothari (2007), Chi-square, symbolized as , is a nonparametric test of significance appropriate when the data
is in form of frequency counts occurring in two or more
mutually exclusive categories. A Chi-square test compares proportions actually observed in a study with the
expected to establish if they are significantly different.
The Chi-square value increases as the difference
between observed and expected increase. Whether the
calculated Chi-square value is significant is determined
by comparing it with the value from table. If the calculated
value exceeds the table value, the difference between the
observed and expected frequencies is taken as significant otherwise it is considered insignificant.
Kothari (2007) notes that the following conditions
should be met before the test can be applied. Unfortunately, Kothari (2007) has not given any explanation on
the conditions.
i) Observations recorded and used are collected on a
random basis. According to Gay (1976) it is the best
single way to obtain a representative sample. In addition,
it is required by inferential statistics to permit researchers
to make inferences about populations based on behavior
of samples. If observations are not randomly collected,
then one of the major assumptions of inferential statistics
is violated and inferences are correspondingly tenuous.
ii) All the members (or items) in the sample must be
independent. This is to ensure that the occurrence of one
individual observation (event) has no effect upon the
occurrence of any other observation (event) in the sample
under consideration.
iii) No group should contain very few items(less than 10).
According to Yates (1934) the small data overestimate
the statistical significance. Yates (1934) recommends this
number as 5. Brown (2004) and Kothari (2007) concurs
that controversies surrounds the number, some statisticians take this number as 5, but 10 is regarded as better
by most statisticians.
iv) The overall number of items must be reasonably large
Onchiri
019
Sample X
Sample Y
Column totals
Category 1
A
D
A+D
Category 2
B
E
B+E
Category 3
C
F
C+F
Row Total
A+B+C
D+E+F
A+B+C+D+E+F=N
Variable 2
Category 1
Category 2
Total
Variable 1
Data type 2
B
D
B+D
Data type 1
A
C
A+C
Total
A+B
C+D
A+B+C+D=N
2/
= N. (AD-BC) /(A+C)(B+D)(A+B)(C+D)
Where N is the total frequency (grand total), AD is the
larger cross product, BC is the smaller cross product and
(A+C), (B+D), (A+B), (C+D) are the marginal totals.
According to Kothari (2007), when some of the
frequencies are less than 10, we first regroup the given
frequencies until all of them all more than 10 and then
(corrected)
= N.|AD-BC-0.5 N| /(A+C)(B+D)(A+B)(C+D)
020
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021
Pass (B)
Fail (b)
Paper 2
Paper 1
Pass(A)
10(24)
30(48)
Fail (a)
54(36)
26(12)
Group
AB
Ab
Ab
Ab
Observed
Expected
frequency (f0)
frequency (fe)
10
30
54
26
24
48
36
12
Fo-fe
(fo fe)
-14
-18
18
14
196
324
324
196
Group
A
B
C
D
Observed
Expected
frequency (f0)
frequency (fe)
882
313
287
118
900
300
300
100
Fo-fe
(fo fe)
-18
13
-13
18
324
169
169
324
Solution
The null hypothesis to be tested is there is no significant
difference between the actual and the theoretical
performances.
Since the total number of students is 120, then the
expected frequencies are: AB=[2/10]120=24; Ab=[4/10]
120= 48; aB = [3/10]120= 36 and ab=[1/10]120=12.
The information can be presented in a contingency
table (Table 3).
Therefore degrees of freedom= (c-1) (r-1) = (2-1) (2-1)
= 1 where c is the number of columns and r is the number
of rows.
2
The value of for one degree of freedom at 5% level
of significance is 3.84 (Table 4). The calculated value of
2
is higher than the table value which means that the
calculated value cannot be said to have arisen just
because of chance. This means that there is significant
difference between the actual and the theoretical performance.
Test of homogeneity
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1237
Gender
Female
Male
Science
30
80
Major
Humanities
10
120
Arts
15
45
Professional
45
155
Gender
Female
Male
Total
Science
30
80
110
Major
Humanities
10
120
130
Arts
15
45
60
Professional
45
155
200
Total
100
400
500
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023
Group
obs).
Observed
Expected
frequency (f0)
frequency (fe)
30
10
15
45
80
120
45
155
22
26
12
40
88
104
48
160
FS
FH
FA
FP
MS
MH
MA
MP
Fo-fe
8
-16
3
5
-8
16
-3
-5
(fo fe)
64
256
9
25
64
256
9
25
2.909
29.846
0.75
0.625
0.727
2.461
1.688
0.156
2
B1
B2
B3
Total
A1
35
34
7
76
A2
30
3
2
35
A3
25
3
1
29
Total
90
40
10
140
B1
B2 & B3
Total
A2&A3
A1
35
41
76
A1B2&B3=[76X50]/140=27.14;
B2&B3=[54X50]/140=19.28.
A2 & A3
45
9
54
Total
90
50
140
there is significant relationship between a students gender and his or her choice of college major.
= (Xi-X)22 = (N-1)s22
Illustration
A sample of 140 observations classified by two attributes
A and B is shown in Table 9.
2
Use the test examine whether A and B are associated
at =.05. (Master of Education 2006 Examination,
Kenyatta University, Kenya, Unpublished)
Solution
Taking the hypothesis that there is no significant
association between attributes A and B, some of the
frequencies are less than 10; we shall first regroup the
given data as shown in Table 10.
Since the frequency of 9 is still less than 10, we apply
Yates correction as follows. The expectations of the
attributes are calculated as:
A1B1=[76X90]/140=48.86; A2&A3B1 = [54X90]/140=34.71;
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1239
024
Group
A1B1
A2&A3B1
A1B2&B3
A1B2&B3
|f0-fe|-0.5|
|fo-fe|-0.5| /fe
178.49
95.84
178.49
95.65
3.65
2.76
6.58
4.96
Student
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Height(Xi)
65
68
67
76
72
78
69
81
Xi=576
Xi-7
-4
-5
4
0
6
3
9
(Xi- )
49
16
25
16
0
36
9
81
2
(Xi- ) =232
(corrected)=17.95
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025.
Df
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
.10
2.71
4.60
6.25
7.78
9.24
10.64
12.02
13.36
14.68
15.99
17.28
18.55
19.81
21.06
22.31
23.54
24.77
25.99
27.20
Level of significance
.05
.02
.01
3.84
5.41
6.64
5.99
7.82
9.21
7.82
9.84
11.34
9.49
11.67
13.28
11.07
13.39
15.09
12.59
15.03
16.81
14.07
16.62
18.48
15.51
18.17
20.09
16.92
19.68
21.67
18.31
21.16
23.21
19.68
22.62
24.72
21.03
24.05
26.22
22.36
25.47
27.69
23.68
26.87
29.14
25.00
28.26
30.58
26.30
29.63
32.00
27.59
31.00
33.41
28.87
32.35
34.80
30.14
33.69
36.19
.001
10.83
13.82
16.27
18.46
20.52
22.46
24.32
26.12
27.88
29.59
31.26
32.91
34.53
36.12
37.70
39.25
40.79
42.31
43.82
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1241
026
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
28.41
29.62
30.81
32.01
33.20
34.38
35.56
36.74
37.92
39.09
40.26
31.41
32.67
33.92
35.17
36.42
37.65
38.88
40.11
41.34
42.56
43.77
35.02
36.34
37.66
38.97
40.27
41.57
42.86
44.14
45.42
46.69
47.96
37.57
38.93
40.29
41.64
42.98
44.31
45.64
46.96
48.28
49.59
50.89
45.32
46.80
48.27
49.73
51.18
52.62
54.05
55.48
56.89
58.30
59.70
alternative formula.
2
For obtained from the data to be significant it must
be equal to or larger than the value shown in Table 13.
From Table 13 for degrees of freedom greater than 30,
the quantity 2x2-2v-1 may be used as a normal variate
with unit variance.
REFERENCES
Best JW (1977). Research in education. New Delhi, Prentice-Hall of
India Private limited.
Brown JD (2004). Yates correction factor. SHIKEN, The JALT Testing &
Evaluation SIG Newsletter 8(1):22-27).
B.ED (2011). Examination, Bugema University-Nyamira, Kenya,
Unpublished).
Fisher RA, Yates F (1974). Statistical tables for biological, agricultural
and medical research, Sixth edition, Addison Wesley Longman Ltd.
Gay LR (1976). Educational research: Competencies for analysis and
application. Ohio, Bell & Howell Company.
Ingula F, Gatimu H (1996). Essential of educational statistics. Nairobi,
East African Educational Publishers.
Kothari CR (2007). Quantitative techniques. New Delhi, UBS Publishers
LTD.