Manufacture of cement

The raw material required for the manufacture of Portland cement are
(a) Calcarious materials such as limestone and chalk
(b)Silicious and aluminicous materials such as clay and shale
There are two processes for the manufacture of cement
(a) wet process
(b)Dry process
(A)

Wet process:

(1)The limestone is first crushed into smaller fragments and then taken
into ball or tube mill where it is mixed with clay or shale as the case
may be
(2)The mixture is then mixed with fine consistency of cement with
addition of water, the slurry is a liquid of creamy consistency with
water content of about 35 to 50%.
(3)The slurry is pumped to slurry tank or basin
where it is kept in an
agitated condition, the composition of slurry is tested to give the
required composition.
(4)The slurry is then taken into the kiln where the temperature is about
1500 C, about 20% to 30 % of the materials become liquid and lime,
silica and alumina recombine. The mass then fuses into balls, 3 to 25
mm(1/8 to 1 in) in diameter, known as clinker. The clinker is then
cooled.
(5)The cooled clinker is then ground in the ball mill with the addition of 3
to 5 % gypsum in order to prevent the flash setting of cement.
(6)The particles crushed to the required finness are separated by the
current of air and taken to storage silo from where it is packed.
(B)
Dry process:
(1)In dry process and semi-dry process the raw material are crushed dry
and fed into correct proportions into grinding mills where they are dries
and reduces to fine powder.
(2)The dry powder called the raw meal is then further blended and
corrected for right composition and then mixed by mean of
compressed air.
(3)The aerated powder tends to behave like liquid and in about a one
hour of aeration a uniform mixture is obtained.
(4)The mixture is then taken to kiln where rest of the process is same as
that of wet process. The mixture is heated at 1500 C and clinkers are
formed.
(5)The cooled clinker is then ground in the ball mill with the addition of 3
to 5 % gypsum in order to prevent the flash setting of cement.
(6)The particles crushed to the required finness are separated by the
current of air and taken to storage silo from where it is packed.
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For many years the wet process was remained popular because of
possibity of more accurate control in mixing of raw material. The
technique of intimate mixing of raw materials in powder form was not
available then. Later, the dry process gain momentum with the modern
development of technique of dry mixing of powder materials using
compressed air. Dry process is quite economical and the consumption
of coal in this method is 100 kg/ ton of cement, while it is about 350
kg/ ton in wet process.

Tests conducted on cement

Standard Consistency Test:
The standard consistency of a cement paste is defined as that
consistency which will permit a Vicat plunger having 10 mm diameter and 50
mm length to penetrate to a depth of 33-35 mm from the top of the mould.
USE:
Used to find out the percentage of water required to produce a
cement paste of standard consistency. This is also called normal consistency
(CPNC). Cement paste of standard consistency is need for determination of
initial setting time and final setting time.
PROCEDURE:
For first trial, take about 500gms of cement & water of 24% by weight of
cement.
Fill it in Vicats mould within 3-5min.
After filling, shake the mould to expel air.
A standard plunger, 10 mm diameter, 50 mm long is attached and brought
down to touch the surface of the paste and quickly released.
Note the reading according to depth of penetration of the plunger.
Conduct trials continuously by taking different water cement ratios till the
plunger penetrates for a depth of 33-35mm from top.
This particular percentage is known as percentage of water required to
produce cement paste of standard consistency.
This is usually denoted as P.

Setting Time Test:

An arbitraty division has been made for the setting time of cement.
Initial setting time & Final setting time.

Scope & Significance:

The knowledge of the setting time of the cement is always helpful in

deciding the time duration to mix, transport, place and compact the concrete
effectively.
We always prefer a larger initial setting time so that we can mix, transport
and place the concrete easily. According to ASTM (C150-84 )the initial setting
time shall not be less than 60 min.
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A smaller value of the final setting time is always preferred in order to avoid
large expenditures on the formwork. According to most of the specifications, the final
setting time shall not be greater than 10hrs.
INITIAL SETTING TIME
The time elapsed between the moment that the water is added to the
cement, to the time that the paste starts losing its plasticity.
The time elapsed between the initial contact of cement and water and
the time when a 1mm2 cross-section needle gives a reading between 4-7mm
from the bottom in a standard Vicat apparatus is known as initial setting time
of that particular cement paste.
Normally a minimum of 60 min has maintained for mixing & handling
operations.
It should not be less than 60 min.
FINAL SETTING TIME
The time elapsed between the moment the water is added to the cement,
and the time when the paste has completely lost its plasticity and has
attained sufficient firmness to resist certain definite pressure.
It is the time elapsed between the initial contact of cement and water
and the time when the smaller needle (1mm2 cross-section and 0.5mm
deep) completely penetrates into the paste and the outer metal attachment
of 5mm diameter does not leave an impression on the cement paste.
It should not exceed 10hours.
So that it is avoided from least vulnerable to damages from external
activities.
Apparatus:
VICAT apparatus
Needle of 1mm2 cross-section and 50mm length (for initial setting
time)
Plunger with 1mm smaller needle and 5mm outer diameter (for final
setting time)
Flat trowel
Balance for determining masses
Spatula
Graduated cylinder

Test Specifications:
Needle Sizes
1- For Initial Setting Time
1mm x 1mm cross-section
50mm length
2- For Final Setting Time
1mm2 cross-section and 1mm deep inner needle
5mm diameter outer metal attachment
Mixing Water
Portable water is satisfactory for the routine tests.
Temperature & Humidity
The temperature of the air in the vicinity should be between 233 C. The
temperature of the mixing water should be 232 C. The relative humidity of
the laboratory should not be less than 50%.
Amount of cement
Amount of cement required for the test according to various specifications
are mentioned below.
BS = 500gm , ASTM = 650gm
Procedure:
Prepare a cement paste of standard consistency and put it in the ring of the
Vicat apparatus within the allowable time of 41/4 min. Clear and level any
extra paste by means of a trowel.
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1-

Initial Setting Time

Determine the penetration of the 1-mm needle at the start. If a
penetration reading of 4-7mm is obtained then note down the time as the
initial setting time otherwise keep checking the penetration reading after
every 10min thereafter until a penetration reading of 4-7 mm is obtained
which will be the initial setting time of the cement.
Make each penetration test at least 5 mm away from any previous
penetration and at least 10 mm away from the inner side of the mold.
2-

Final Setting Time

Now fix the final setting time plunger in which the smaller needle has
the diameter of 1mm and the diameter of the outer needle is 5mm. Drop the
rod of the Vicat apparatus and note down the time when the smaller 0.5 mm
diameter needle completely penetrates into the paste and the outer needle
leaves no impression on the cement surface.

Workability of concrete
Workability can be defined as the property of fresh concrete which is
indicated by the amount of useful internal work required to fully compact the
concrete without bleeding or segregation in the finished product. Concrete is
said to be workable when it is easily placed and compacted homogeneously
i.e. without bleeding or Segregation . Unworkable concrete needs more work
or effort to be compacted in place, also honeycombs &/or pockets may also
be visible in finished concrete. Workability is one of the physical parameters
of concrete which affects the strength and durability as well as the cost of
labor and appearance of the finished product.
Factors affecting workability:
Water content in the concrete mix
Amount of cement & its Properties
Aggregate Grading (Size Distribution)
Nature of Aggregate Particles (Shape, Surface Texture, Porosity etc.)
Temperature of the concrete mix
Humidity of the environment.
How To improve the workability of concrete :
(a) Increase water/cement ratio
(b)increase size of aggregate
(c) use well-rounded and smooth aggregate instead of irregular shape
(d)increase the mixing time
(e) use non-porous and saturated aggregate with addition of air-entraining
mixtures.
For determination of workability on-site slump test is performed.
Effect Of Time And Temperature On Workability:
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Effect of time
Workability has inverse relation with time, freshly mixed concrete stiffen
with time, but this should not be confused with the setting of cement. The
loss of workability with time occur due to the following reasons:
some of mixing water is absorbed by the aggregate
some of mixing water is lost due to evaporation (particularly if the
concrete is exposed to the sun or wind)
some of water is removed by the initial chemical reactions
The stiffening of concrete is effectively measured by a loss of workability
with time which is known as slump loss. The slump loss varies with the
richness of the mix and the type of cement.
As we are interested in the workability at the time of placing i.e some
time after mixing, and there is change in workability with time, so it is
preferable to delay the appropriate test until say 15 min after mixing.

Effect of surrounding temperature

Surrounding temperature has also inverse relation with workability ie
workability reduces at high temperature of surrounding and slump loss
increases. This is because of the evaporation of water from concrete at high
temperature.

Slump Test

Definition:
A slump test is a method used to determine the workability of
concrete. The consistency, or stiffness, indicates how much water has been
used in the mix. The stiffness of the concrete mix should be matched to the
requirements for the finished product quality Slump is a measurement of
concretes workability, or fluidity. Its an indirect measurement of concrete
consistency or stiffness. Principle The slump test result is a measure of the
behavior of a compacted inverted cone of concrete under the action of
gravity. It measures the consistency or the wetness of concrete.
Slump Test Apparatus:
Slump cone 300 mm (12 in) of height. The base is 200 mm (8in) in diameter
and it has a smaller opening at the top of 100 mm
Scale for measurement,
Temping rod(steel) 15mm diameter, 60cm length.
Procedure:
(a) The base is placed on a smooth surface and the container is filled with
concrete in three layers, whose workability is to be tested.
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(b)Each layer is temped 25 times with a standard 16 mm (5/8 in)

diameter steel rod, rounded at the end.
(c) When the mold is completely filled with concrete, the top surface is
struck off (leveled with mold top opening) by means of screening and
rolling motion of the temping rod.
(d)The mold must be firmly held against its base during the entire
operation so that it could not move due to the pouring of concrete and
this can be done by means of handles or foot rests brazed to the
mold.
(e) Immediately after filling is completed and the concrete is leveled, the
cone is slowly and carefully lifted vertically, an unsupported concrete
will now slump.
(f) The decrease in the height of the center of the slumped concrete is
called slump.
(g)The slump is measured by placing the cone just besides the slump
concrete and the temping rod is placed over the cone so that it should
also come over the area of slumped concrete.
(h)The decrease in height of concrete to that of mould is noted with scale.

Precautions:

(a) In order to reduce the influence on slump of the variation in the surface
friction, the inside of the mold and its base should be moistened at the
beginning of every test.
(b) prior to lifting of the mold the area immediately around the base of the
cone should be cleaned from concrete which may have dropped
accidentally.
Types Of Slump: The slumped concrete takes various shapes, and
according to the profile of slumped concrete, the slump is termed as;
(I)

Collapse Slump

(II) Shear Slump (III) True Slump.

Collapse Slump: In a collapse slump the concrete collapses completely.

A collapse slump will generally mean that the mix is too wet or that it is a
high workability mix, for which slump test is not appropriate.
Shear Slump: In a shear slump the top portion of the concrete shears off
and slips sideways. OR If one-half of the cone slides down an inclined
plane, the slump is said to be a shear slump. If a shear or collapse slump
is achieved, a fresh sample should be taken and the test is repeated . If
the shear slump persists, as may the case with harsh mixes, this is an
indication of lack of cohesion of the mix.
True Slump: In a true slump the concrete simply subsides, keeping more
or less to shape This is the only slump which is used in various tests. In a
lean mix with a tendency to harshness, a true slump can easily change to
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the shear slump type or even to collapse, and widely different values of
slump can be obtained in different samples from the same mix; thus, the
slump test is unreliable for lean mixes.

Compacting Factor Test

These tests were developed in the UK by Glanville ( 1947 ) and it is
measure the degree of compaction For the standard amount of work and
thus offer a direct and reasonably reliable assessment of the workability
Of concrete . the test require measurement of the weight of the partially
and fully compacted concrete and the ratio the partially compacted
weight to the fully compacted weight, which is always less than one, is
known as compacted factor . For the normal range of concrete the
compacting factor lies between 0.8 -0.92.
Apparatus:
compaction factor test apparatus
Trowel and hand scoop (15.2cm long)
Rod of steel (16mm dia, 61 cm long rounded at one end)
Balance
Compaction factor test apparatus consist of two hoppers, each in the
shape of frustrum of cone, and one cylinder, the three being above one
another. The hoppers have hinged doors at the bottom.

Procedure:
(1)Ensure the apparatus and associated equipment are clean before test
and free from hardened concrete and superfluous water.
(2)Weigh the bottom cylinder to nearest 10gm , put it back on the stand
and cover it up with a pair of floats.
(3)Gently fill the upper hopper with the sampled concrete to the level of
the rim with use of a scoop.
(4)Immediately open the trap door of the upper hopper and allow the
sampled concrete to fall into the middle hopper.
(5)Remove the floats on top of the bottom cylinder and open the trap
door of the middle hopper allowing the sampled concrete to fall into
the bottom cylinder.
(6)Remove the surplus concrete above the top of the bottom cylinder by
holding a float in each hand and move towards each other to cut off
the concrete across the top of cylinder.
(7)Test Wipe clean the outside of cylinder of concrete and weigh to
nearest 10gm.
(8) Subtract the weight of empty cylinder from the weight of cylinder plus
concrete to obtain the weight of partially compacted concrete.
(9)Remove the concrete from the cylinder and refill with sampled
concrete in layers.
(10) Compact each layer thoroughly with the standard Compacting Bar to
achieve full
compaction.
(11) Float off the surplus concrete to top of cylinder and wipe it clean.
(12) Weigh the cylinder to nearest 10gm and subtract the weight of
empty cylinder from the weight of cylinder plus concrete to obtain the
weight of fully compacted concrete.
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