Stratigraphic Relationships and Distribution of Source Rocks in The Greater Rocky Mountain Region

Hydrocarbon Source Rocks of the Greater Rocky Mountain Region, 1984
STRATIGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS AND DISTRIBUTION

OF SOURCE ROCKS IN THE
GREATER ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION
FRED F. MEISSNER'
JANE WOODWARD'
J.L. CLAYTON3
ABSTRACT
The occurrence of oil and gas accumulations is widespread throughout many areas of the Rocky Mountain region;
however, the position of established producing zones within the total stratigraphic section and in given basins is
somewhat erratic. Modern concepts of petroleum geology indicate that the overall distribution of hydrocarbons and
their specific species (e.g., oil, wet gaslcondensate or dry gas) within an area or stratigraphic unit is ultimately controlled by their relation to the source rocks from which they were derived. The purpose of this paper is fo aftempt a
preliminary synthesis of information concerning this relation.
Placement of source rocks within a regional depositional framework indicates that they are generally associated
with specific depositional environments contained in recognizable cycles of transgression and regression. When
placed in a framework of cyclic depositional sequences, the source rocks can be easily related to the geometry of the
associated reSeN0ir.S that they charge and to the seals that restrict hydrocarbon migration and control accumulation.
Sequences which contain all of the elements involved in the process of hydrocarbon generation from source rock to
consequent migration and accumulation constitute what may be termed naturalgeologic hydrocarbon machines.
A series of maps have been prepared that show distributions of source rocks within major depositional sequences
that have acted as effectivehydrocarbon machines.
INTRODUCTION
The occurrence of oil and gas accumulations is
widespread throughout many areas of the Rocky Mountains.
However some areas appear to have a wider and richer distribution of hydrocarbons throughout a broader stratigraphic
column, and other areas appear to be barren, even where drilling density is relatively high and known traps and reservoirs
have been tested. Regionally, production has been estab
lished from reservoirs ranging from Cambrian to Tertiary in
age. Accumulations characterizing some stratigraphic intervals appear to be primarily gas prone (i.e., the uppermost
Cretaceous) others are oil prone (i.e. the Permo-Pennsylvanian) and still others appear to vary from oil-to-gas prone from
one area or basin to another. Modern concepts of petroleum
geology would seem to indicate that the overall distribution of
hydrocarbons and their specific species (e.g.,: oil, wet gas/
condensate and dry gas) within an area or stratigraphic section is ultimately controlled by their relation to the source
rocks from which they were derived. A significant body of
data.documenting the existence of source rocks in the stratigraphic column present within the Rocky Mountain region
has been gathered in recent years. Some of this data has
been made available in a variety of publications, including the
papers published in this volume. It is the purpose of this
paper to attempt a preliminary synthesis of this material and
place it in a regional geologic context. In order to accomplish
1
Bird Oil Gorp., 717 Seventeenth Street, Denver, Colorado 80202.
ZARCO Exploration Co., P.O. Box 5540, Denver, Colorado 80217.

3U.S.
/I
Geological Survey, Box 25046, DFC, Denver, Colorado 80225.
We gratefully acknowledge drafting done by Stratigraphics, Inc. provided by

ARC0 Exploration. Dorothy Malone, Kathy Andersen, Linda Duvall, and
Arlene Gminski typed the manuscript. The input of Bob Agatston, LOU B ~ R
and Don Tait significantly enhancedthis paper.
this goal, a highly simplified conceptual geologic framework

will be developed wherein factors affecting source rock deposition will be related to those of reservoirs and seals. Use of
this conceptual framework will allow the prediction of generationlmigrationlaccumulat ion cells or hydrocarbon machines
operative in certain portions of the stratigraphic section. This
predictive ability, when used in conjunction with regional source
rock distribution maps, will explain the distribution of hydrocarbon accumulations already found and lead to the further delineation of prospective areas.
In order to present the most comprehensive consideration
of factors affecting source rock deposition and distribution in
a short amount of text, discussion will be brief, with emphasis on diagrams and maps. Although ideas and data pre
sented by many workers have been incorporated in the text,
only the more significant references will be cited directly;
however, all basic references used listed by general subject
at the end of the paper.
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
Certain critical factors affect the presence and distribution
of oil and gas. A scheme for assessing these factors is
shown in the flow chart of Figure 1. The starting point of the
diagram concerns the existence of a source rock from which
the hydrocarbons originate, the factors controlling its deposition and composition, and the types of hydrocarbons it may
generate under conditions of thermal maturity. The following
parts of the diagram concern the controls that time, stratigraphy, structure, and fluid dynamics exert on the processes
of hydrocarbon migration and accumulation.
All of the factors which affect the processes of hydrocarbon generation, migration, and accumulation constitute
elements of a total system which may be described as a
machine* These elements are placed in their interdependent
~
cause-and-effect context in the schematic diagram of Figure
ROCKY MOUNTAIN ASSOCIATION OF GEOLOGISTS
2009 Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists
FRED.F. MEISSNER, JANE WOODWARD AND J.L. CLAYTON
2. The illustration of a plumbing system involving a typical
hydrocarbon machine depicts the movement of fluids outward from their site of generation within an area of thermal
maturity to carrierlreservoir beds in which they migrate and
to sites of accumulation in traps. Expulsion of generated
fluids is primarily vertical from the area of generation into
overlying or underlying carrierlreservoir beds. High fluid
pressures often found associated with active generation may
instigate fracturing and accomplish the transfer of hydrocarbons across thick intervals of seemingly non-permeable rocks
until a reservoirlcarrier is reached. Migration within a
carrierlreservoir bed is envisaged to be lateral and updip
beneath a confining top seal until a site of entrapment is
reached. Although the exact mechanism of hydrocarbon migration between source and trap is somewhat controversial,
the general consensus is that most hydrocarbons migrate as
a continuous fluid phase in much the same manner as they
move from a reservoir into a well bore. Migration within the
carrier reservoir system envisaged is controlled by so-called
buoyant forces which, because of the low density of hydrocarbons compared to that of groundwater filling the pores of
subsurface rocks, cause upward or upward-and-lateral components of movement within the constraints of a top seal barrier to migration. The presence of significant hydrodynamic
activity may alter this simplistic concept. The schematic
plumbing system described has validity when it is placed in
the context of a geologic system involving real and mappable
rock units.
FACTORS CONTROLLING SOURCE ROCK DEPOSITION

When compared with other types of sedimentary rocks,
hydrocarbon source rocks are characterized by an unusual
concentration of hydrogen- and carbon-rich organic matter
derived from living organisms. The environment in which
these rocks are deposited requires conditions summarized in
Table 1. A paradox established in these requirements is the
fact that organic productivity is generally related to high
energy oxygenated environments, while the undiluted preservation of organic matter occurs in low energy anoxic environments. Resolution of this paradox is accomplished by removing the site of organic productivity from that of depositional
preservation, although distances required for the separation
may be small. A situation involving the generation and depositional preservation of sapropelic organic matter in the
aquatic environment is shown in Figure 3. In this case,
separation between the area of organic production and its
depositional preservation is accomplished by the stratification of water layers. Such stratification is attributed to density
contrasts between waters of strongly different temperature
andlor dissolved material content. In some cases, the water
layer discontinuity required for preservation may occur at the
depositional surface itself. High productivity takes place in
oxygen-rich relatively highenergy, nutrient-loaded shallow
water penetrated by sunlight, whereas deposition of organicrich ooze takes place when the living organisms die and sink
through a layer of relatively stagnant anoxic water. Anoxic
conditions may be created in part by incipient destruction of
the organic matter by consuming organisms that remove oxygen and release hydrogen sulfide that poisons the system
and prevents further destruction. Preservation of anoxic conditions is favored by conditions of stagnant bottomwater.
Specific environments and depositional settings favorable
for organic production and depositional preservation of organic matter are shown schematically in the series of diagrams contained in Figure 4. Diagrams A through D are con-
CONTROLS ON
HYDROCARBON ACCUMULATION
organic richness
oil or gas prone
governed b y depo-e nvi ronmen t
and maturation history
The Timing of
tt
Source Rock Maturation 8 Generation of

Hydrocarbons (Time/Temperature Dependent)
Stratigraphy
@ permeability (primary or secondary)
con tin ui t y
diagene sis
lithology
Structure
erosion
tilt
folding
faulting
f rae t uring
intrusion
Hydrodynamics
flow paths
over/ under pressure
Expulsion Rate
Migration Paths (Length, Direction)
Reservoir (Quality. Size, Distribution. Type)
Seals-Trap-AeEUmUl;eti0n (Type, Size .Dis tribution)
Figure 1. Scheme for assessing factors controlling hydrocarbon

generation, migration, accumulation and prospect evaluation.
STRATIGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS AND DISTRIBUTION OF SOURCE ROCKS IN THE GREATER ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION 3
SAPROPELIC DEPOSITION
-/.* 7.
!*
-+.
Sunlight
Highofproductivity
simple
plants 8. animals
- - - - - A _ - -
Water layer#
-may b e
high energy
Low 0 2
+
Rain of
W a t e r l a y e r +2
H ~ S .+ f 4 organic m a t t e r
-low energy
no consumers.).
from above
-- - - - - - _ - -Layer
of
/ 1/ 1 / / / 1 / /
organic o o z e
- --
Strata-b ound
regional carrier
reservoir beds
: Expulsion
f+
Migration
Figure 2. Diagramatic model of a hydrocarbon machine showing

geometric arrangement of essential elements and fluid
migration patterns characterizing the internal plumbing system. The function of such a machine is to turn
organic matter in a source rock (raw material) into a hydrocarbon accumulation(finished product).
cerned primarily with water-generated sapropelic matter that

produces oil-prone kerogen types; diagrams E and F are concerned with terrestrially-generated humic matter that produces gas-prone kerogen. In low energy transgressions over a
flat erosional surface containing a mature soil profile (Figure
4A), organic productivity is triggered by the availability of
nutrients supplied by the soil, and preservation at the underlying sedimentary surface is accomplished within a stagnant
zone of bottom-water characterized by low energy and a lack
of non-organic sediment influx. Preservation of organic matter raining downward from areas of production at shallow
water depths is also facilitated in areas where the layer of
minimum dissolved oxygen content, common in many
oceans and large lakes, intersects the depositional surface
(Figure 48). Organic matter production and preservation are
commonly found in areas of coastal upwelling (Figure 4C),
where offshore or longshore winds blow away surface water
and allow the rise of deep nutrient-laden waters to the
shallow euphotic zone where they trigger the accelerated
growth of organisms. When the organisms die and fall to the
sediment surface, incipient destruction by aerobic scavengers removes oxygen from the water and stops further d e
struction. Many silled basins (Figure 4D) are characterized by
stagnant anoxic bottom water below the elevation of the sill.
The remains of organisms created in the shallow nutrientladen waters of the euphotic zone above the sill sink to the
underlying zone of anoxia and are preserved at the depositional surface. In contrast to sapropelic organic matter that is
generated in the aqueous marine or lacustrine environment,
humic matter is principally generated in terrestrial environments associated with coastal and alluvial plain swamps or
bogs (Figures 4E and F). Preservation of humic organic mate
rial derived from plants is accomplished in local zones of
aqueous anoxia below shallow groundwater tables or in
shallow bodies of fresh or marine swamp, lagoon or lake
water. Incipient bacterial degradation of the primary lignins
Figure 3.
Conditions for generation and presewation of sapropelic

organic matter in the aquatic environment.
and tannins contained in the primary vegetal matter, accompanied by depletion of oxygen, creates highly toxic and anoxic conditions favorable for organic preservation. The remnant
organic matter deposited in this environment may be locally
concentrated in such an undiluted state that it is eventually
turned into coal beds, or it may be transported considerable
distances by moving waters to mix with sapropelic kerogens
and be deposited in a typical marinellacustrine aquatic
environment.
TABLE 1. REQUIREMENTS FOR SOURCE-ROCK DEPOSITION
A. High organic productivity

1. Sunlight (essential for photosynthesis; the euphotic zone)
2. Nutrients (02, P, K, CO2: fertilizers)
3. Absence of poisons (H2S)
B. Low destruction rate of organic material
1. Absence of 02, biologic consumers
C. Lack of organic matter dilution by other rock constituents
(i.e., shale, sandstone, etc.)
POSITION OF ROCKS CONTROLLING HYDROCARBON

DISTRIBUTION WITHIN DEPOSITIONAL SEQUENCES
The deposition of hydrocarbon source rock units is not independent of rock units of differing lithology deposited in
overlying, underlying or lateral positions. The vertical and
lateral appearance and disappearance of source rocks (as
well as those of carrierlreservoir and migrational-barrierkrapseal lithologies) appear to reflect an orderly progression of
depositional environments that change in response to varying
sedimentation energy levels produced by basin subsidence,
uplift or infill. The simplest genetic framework into which
these lithologiclenvironmental changes may be fitted is that
represented by cycles of transgressiveregressive (or deepening-shallowing water) sedimentation. These cycles are called
cyclothems or depositional sequences (deposequences). In
cross section, they are commonly represented by unconformity-bounded, wedgeshaped bodies of sediment that thin from
maximum thickness in depositional basin centers toward
edges of nondeposition on the flanks of bordering uplifts or
platforms. Sedimentary cyclicity may be produced by 1) r e
gional or global tectonic activity, 2) climatic change (including
glaciation), or 3) shifting of depocenters (i.e., delta shifting).
Specific mechanisms related to these processes include 1)
subsidenceluplift, 2) eustatic water level change and 3)
compaction.
ROCKY MOUNJAAIN ASSOClAJlON OF GEOLOGAISTS
FRED F. MEISSNER, JANE WOODWARD AND J.L. CLAYTON
Two distinct classes of depositional sequences may be

recognized: 1) marine or lacustrine cycles of transgressive
regressive sedimentation related to oceanllake expansion
followed by contraction and 2) terrestrial cycles of regressivetransgressive sedimentation related to contraction and expansion of adjacent oceans or lakes. The complementary and
sequential nature of these two classes is shown schematically in Figure 5. Potential positions of source rock units
depicted in these sequences (Figure 5A) are related to depositional settings previously illustrated in Figure 4. Common
positions of carrierlreservoir and migrational-barrierltrapseal
units are also shown (Figure 5B). These positions are highly
idealized, and numerous exceptions may occur.
Typical marine depositional sequences may be either s y m
metrical or asymmetrical in cross section (Figure 6). They may
also be internally either simple or compound. The presence
and distribution of specific lithologies and grain sizes within
a sequence appear to reflect changes in depositional environments and energy levels. The overall internal pattern is, there
fore, somewhat predictable.
DEPOSITIONAL SEQUENCES
AS HYDROCARBON MACHINES
An ideal depositional sequence containing an internal

distribution of source rock, carrierlreservoir, and seal units
representing a particular combination of the possibilities is
schematically shown in Figure 7. When such a sequence
reaches a condition of thermal maturity, the source rocks will
generate hydrocarbons that will subsequently be expelled to
overlying andlor underlying carrierlreservoir units. The hydrocarbons will migrate laterally updip beneath overlying migration barrier units until they either reach a site of entrapment
or leak to a carrierlreservoir in an overlying depositional sequence. The aspect of leakage from one sequence to another
may be particularly significant in some areas. The situation
depicted constitutes a generationlmigrationlaccumulation
cell or hydrocarbon machine similar to that shown in the
plumbing diagram of Figure 2; however, the machine is now
placed in the geologic context of a genetic stratigraphic unit
represented by a depositional sequence. The sequence
shown is somewhat idealized and generalized. Not all s e
quences contain the stratigraphic elements to make them hydrocarbon machines, nor do they all contain lithologies in the
distributional context described. Further, the basinward migrational system depicted within the carrierlreservoir in the
upper, regressive portion of the depositional wedge is some
what unrealistic. Differential subsidence in the basinward
direction would normally reverse the dip and migration direction from that shown. Either source rocks, reservoirs or seals
may be absent in some sequences. Many of these sequences
will be barren of hydrocarbons, and some may contain hydrocarbons leaked from other sequences which lack effective
confining seals.
Certain types of depositional sequences contain internal
sedimentary discontinuities that may lead to the formation of
hydrocarbon-charged stratigraphic traps. Such a situation is
depicted in Figure 8. In this case, minor cyclicity within the
overall deposequence, coupled with the attitude of regional
dip produced by differential subsidence, has resulted in the
creation of effective migration paths and stratigraphic traps.
Certain types of internally-generated structural deformation
present within some depositional sequences may also lead to
the formation of hydrocarbon traps. A series of cases showing structural configuration in conjunction with the distribution of critical source rock, reservoir and seal lithologies are
illustrated in Figure 9. The deposequences depicted are produced as a single sedimentary cycle representing the sub
sidence and infill of an entire basinal depression. Growth
fault structures induced by the sedimentary loading of a
rapidlydeposited thick deltaic package are depicted in Figure
9A. Delta-front sand reservoirs associated with anticlinal and
fault traps produced by such faulting may be charged from an
underlying mature source rock. Figure 9B shows diapiric salt
structures within a deposequence. These structures result
from the movement of salt layers deposited in a highly r e
stricted environment present in the early formation of some
basins. This restricted environment may also be associated
with silled-basin anoxic conditions conducive to the deposition of associated source rocks. If mature, these source rocks
may generate hydrocarbons that charge structural traps created by the salt diapirs. Figure 9C shows a depositional s e
quence developed within a rift basin. This type of basin is
characterized by the formation of block fault structures formed during an early extensional spreading phase. Gas generated from mature humic source rocks deposited at the base
of the sequence, or oil generated from sapropelic source
rocks deposited during an early marinellacustrine silled
anoxic phase, may migrate to reservoirs and traps associated
with the indigenous block fault structures. Figure 9D shows
the formation of thrust fault structures along the active
margin of a foreland basin being infilled by a depositional sequence. The thrusting may bury underlying source rocks to
depths where generation maturity is achieved, and resulting
vertical migration paths may charge reservoirs in overlying
thrust fault traps.
In addition to internal structural configurations induced
within stratigraphic sequences during their actual deposition,
a wide variety of structural styles may be superimposed on
existing sequences as a result of subsequent structural/
depositional events. These later-formed, superimposed structures may form hydrocarbon trap configurations within older
underlying sequences.
DEPOSEQUENCE SCHEME IN THE
ROCKY MOUNTAIN AREA
Dimensions characterizing transgressiveregressive cyclic
depositional sequences that constitute typical hydrocarbon
machines are extremely variable. Sizes range from those
characteristic of thin cyclothemic units representing brief
geologic time intervals contained as members within larger
formation or groupsize units, to those characterizing the infill
of large continental interior basins or borderland areas,
represented by whole periods of time. The larger-scale s e
quences recognized around the margins of North America are
represented by major cycles of transgressive-regressive sedimentation that originate from surrounding oceanic areas and
extend as unconformity-bounded sediment wedges onto the
craton (Figure 10). These mega-sequences are often associated with major periods of plate margin orogeny surrounding
the continent and affecting its interior (Figure 11). Sloss
(1%3), Wheeler (1963) and others have formally recognized a
number of sequences related to this depositionalAectonic
setting. The authors have utilized the concepts presented by
these workers in constructing the correlation cross-section
chart illustrated in Figure 12. Major deposequences shown
utilize several of those recognized and named by Sloss or
Wheeler, and also include others interjected by the authors.
Sequences recognized by Sloss include the Sauk and Zuni;
those of Wheeler include the Creek, Tutelo, Piankasha and
Tamaroa; those informally used in this paper include the
D
LOW ENERGY TRANSGRESSIONS
SILLED BASINS
(MARINE OR LACUSTRINE)
Broad-f1a.t m a t u r e
topographic surface
Deep m a t u r e s o i l p r o f i l e
wimany nutrients
High p r o d u c t i v i t y layer-:..:.:.
s t a g na n t Ia y e r /--\
organic m a t t e r
ooze
layer
COASTAL SWAMP
INTERSECTION OF OCEAN/LAKE
0 2 -MINIMUM ZONE WITH
SEDIMENTARY SURFACE
Reg re s s i Ve
Prograda tion
*
-
Coastal f o r e s t
b y aerobic conditions
F
ALLUVIAL PLAIN
AREAS OF UPWELLING
O f f s h o r e o r p a r a l l e l wind
Blows surface water away
and 8. l o w e r s sea l e v e l
+I
High non-organic
Tern pera te-t ropical climate
sedimentation r a t e
N u t r i e n t s supplied b y
8 oxidizing conditions
periodic river flooding
abundant vegetal g r o w t h
'Dead organic m a t t e r m a t t e r f a l l s '
t o ocean f l o o r . P a r t i a l b a c t e r i a l
degradation consumes 0 2 c r e a t i n g
l o c a l anoxia p r e v e n t i n g f u r t h e r d e s t r u c t i o n .
Figure 4.
Conceptual environments and depositional settings for

producing and preserving organic matter. Diagrams A
through D depict situations concerned mainly with
sapropelic material; however, such material may also be
mixed and deposited with extraneously introduced term
restrial humic material derived from adjacent land areas.
Diagrams E and F depict situations concerned with humic
material.
COMMON POSITIONS
OFSOURCEROCKS
IN TRANSGRESSIVEREGRESSIVE SEQUENCES
COMMON POSITIONS
OF RESERVOIR AND SEAL
ROCKS IN TRANSGRESSIVEREGRESSIVE SEQUENCES
T-,
rrestrial
quence
[3 RESERVOIRS
c c c c c c c HUMIC SOURCE ROCKS (TYPE 111)
G -Basal high-energy shallow marine transgression

sandstone, carbonate grains t one
A-Ba sal I o w -energy transgression
H -Shallow rnarine/transitional sandstone,
-\\\\\\\\\\\\
SAPROPELIC SOURCE ROCKS (TYPE 1/11)
carbonate grainstone, reefs
B - 0 2 minimum against depositional surface
C-Zone of upwelling
I -Deep water turbidites
D-Silled anoxic basin
J -Channel sandstones
E-Coastal coal swamp
K -Alluvial fan sandstone and conglomerates
F-Deltallower alluvial plain coastal swamp
SEALS :.Eva Pori te s , shales, carbonate mud s t one s
- M a y be only partially efficient

_.
Figure 5. Common piisitions of important lithologihs In transgressive-regressivedepositionalsequences. Diagram A

Positions of
source rocks; depositional environments are keyed to those shown in Figure 4. Diagram B
Positions of earrier/resenroir and
migration/trapseal rocks.
Assiniboine, Commanche, Mescalero, Blackfeet, Ute and

Piute. The sequences recognized by the authors are named
after the manner of Wheeler for Indian tribes associated with
the Rocky Mountain area where the unit is notably developed,
The designation and application of these names to rock units
is highly qualified. The intent is not to raise new, and perhaps
controversial terminology, it is rather a preliminary attempt to
relate major rock sequences in the Rocky Mountain stratigraphic section to significant regional tectonic events which
appear to control their internal character and distribution in a
systematic fashion. The limits and goals of this text do not
permit rigorousdefense or further justification.
The names of significant hydrocarbon-productive reservoir
and recognized source rock units present within the desig
nated major deposequences found in the Rocky Mountain
area are also shown in Figure 12. The relative position and interrelation between many of the reservoirs and source rocks
within individual sequences is such, that where the source
rocks are mature and have generated hydrocarbons, the s e
quences constitute ideal hydrocarbon machines of the type
conceptually described in the preceeding text, It should be

noted, however, that many of the major deposequences also
contain one or more minor subcycles that also qualify as
hydrocarbon machines. In fact, minor cyclicity within the type
of major deposequences catagorized in Figure 12 is the common case rather than the exception. Further, migrational
leakage from one sequence to either underlying or overlying
sequences is common.
ROCKY MOUNTAIN SOURCE ROCKS WITHIN
DEPOSEQUENCESAND HYDROCARBON MACHINES
The framework of major deposequences developed in the
preceeding section has been used in preparing a series of
maps showing the areal distribution of major identified
source rock units within the Rocky Mountain area (Figures 13
through 24). These maps are keyed to discussions of their relationship to hydrocarbon machines and oil and gas occurrences assigned to the sequences in which they occur. Maps
presented are necessarily generalized, as the true areal extent
of many of the source rocks is unknown. Many other unidenROCKYMOUNTAlNASSOClAlION OF GEOLOGISTS
i
I
A.
B.
S I MPLE SYMMETRIC SEQUENCE
COMPOUND SEQUENCE
TI.ansyrcssion -_
be absent in many
I transgressions
Maximum
Datum: Maximum transgression time line
SYMBOL
ENVIRONMENT
ENERGY
Deeper Marine
0
69
Fine*
LITHOLOGY
Carbonate
mud stone,
shales
Shallow marine
a transitional
Carbonat e
~ i g h c o a r s e grainstone,
sand stone
Terrestrial
Carbonate
-sabka. tidal flat, Low
Fine
mudstone.
in terc hannel
shale
-channel,
alluvial fan
Figure 6.
Low*
GRAIN
SIZE
Datum: Top main regressive disconformity
T,
Major T r a n s g r e s s i o n
Tm
Minor T r a n s g r e s s i o n
RM
Major Regressior;
High
Coarse SandstQne,
conglomerate
High energy, coarse-grained
turbidites n o t included
Typical marine depositional sequences. Vertical dimension in figures may be either time (age) or thickness. Horizontal dimension
is distance.
(DEPTHTTHICKNESS DATUM)
HINGELINE
p
-
Seal L i t h o l o g y
xx x x
0000
-----)
Mature Source Rock
Migration Paths
Primary reservoir porosity

Secondary r e s e r v o i r p o r o s i t y
Migration p a t h
Figure 7.
0
.....
:......
Accumulation
Figure 8.
A compound depositional containing mature source rocks

and stratigraphic traps. Illustration depicts hydrocarbon
migration and accumulation patterns resulting from re.
gional basinward tilt introduced by differential subsidence
related to deposition of an overlying sequence.
The ideal depositional sequence as a generationlrnigra.

tion/accumulation cell or hydrocarbon machine.
A
SEQUENCES WITH
GROWTH FAULT STRUCTURE
I
Continental
SEQUENCES WITH FORELAND

BASIN COMPRESSIVE STRUCTURES
Back
Ar L
EARLY-STAGE FORELAND BASIN
Craton
MID-STAGE FORELAND BASIN
B
SEQUENCES WITH
DlAPlRlC STRUCTURE
Migrating
Migrating foredeep
t hrus t -f old
upl i f t complex
LATE-STAGE FILLED-IN FORELAND BASIN
c
RIFT FILL
SEQUENCES & STRUCTURES
STAGE 1
Emergent
<=
-\,--,
migrating back -arc

uplift
<;O,<;'\$\m
I
Basement
EXPLANATION
SYMBOL
ENVIRONMENT ENERGY
_.
Deeper Marine
Low
Shallow
8 transitional
marine
High
T erres t ri al
-Sabka, t i dal f l a t , L o w
i nt erc hannel
Deep w a t e r
-Channel ,
Alluvial f an
High
GRAIN
SIZE LITHOLOGY
Fine
Carbonate
muds tone,
shale
C oars e
Fine
grain s t o n e ,
sandstone
Carbonate
mudstone,
shale
C oars e
Sandstone,
conglomerate
High energy , coarse-grained
t u r b i d i t e s n o t included
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
Sapropelic s o u r c e r o c k s (aqua tic)
=cc
Humic s ourc e r o c k s (t erres t ri al)
Figure 9.
Conceptual1 depositional sequences characteristic of

infill sections in certain types of basins. Internal strue.
tural configurations present within the sequences
create traps for the accumulation of hydrocarbons gem
erated from source rocks indigenous to the infill section.
ROCKY MOUNTAlN ASSOCIATlON OF GEOLOGISTS
tified source rocks may be present that are not considered in
the maps; however, their possible presence will be discussed
in the text. The maps also show the distributions of probable
source rocks in the adjoining areas of the Permian and Anadarko basins. These distributions are added to clarify broad
regional patterns, but detailed discussion of these source
rocks (including documentation of their geochemical characteristics) is not included in the accompanying text.
Sauk Sequence (Upper Precambrian-LowerOrdovician)
Analysis and documentation of source rock facies within
the Sauk sequence is limited. A major constraint is the
limited number of Precambrian-Cambrian well penetrations.
Also, the Sauk sequence, as the basal sequence of many
thick sections, is deeply buried in large areas of the Rocky
Mountain region to the point that any possible source rock
facies would have experienced severe thermal alterations and
is therefore difficult to identify as once having been an effective source on the basis of remnant organic carbon contents.
The Sauk sequence does include at least two significant
reservoir rocks: the Deadwood in the Williston basin and the
Flathead in the Red Desert part of the Green River and Bighorn
basins. Newporte field in the Williston basin is thought by some
geologiststo be an astrobleme impact feature. Oil is reservoired
in the Deadwood (and overlying Winnipeg) at this field. There
is evidence that this oil, which is characterized by high paraffin
content and high pour point, is unique and has possibly been
generated by a local Deadwood source rock. The Flathead reservoirs contain oil characteristic of those sourced from the
Phosphoria in the Big Horn and Red Desert basins.
Desborough and others (1984) present geochemical analyses from the Sauk deposequence in Gila County, Arizona.
Outcrop samples of black mudstones from the Apache Group
indicate a potential for hydrocarbon generation. Facies and
geochemical analysis indicate possible local source rock
facies within the Sauk in Arizona, in the Williston basin, and
in central Nevada, where a possible predecessor to the VininiWoodruff sequence, the Preble Formation, may have been d e
posited at an oxygen minimum zone at the Sauk shelf edge.
The Creek Deposequence(Middle Ordovician)
Source rocks within the Creek deposequence of the Rocky
Mountain area are found in the Williston basin and the Great
Basin (Figure 13).
The Creek deposequence in the Williston basin contains:
1) oil-generating sourcerocks in the basal-transgressive
Winnipeg Shale and possibly in the upper part of the deepwater facies of the upper-middle Red River Formation, 2)
reservoirs in the high-energy portion of the upper Red River,
and 3) anhydrite seals overlying some of the Red River reservoirs in the central portion of the basin. The geometry of
critical lithologies found in this sequence is characteristic of
a classic deposequence hydrocarbon machine. Where the
top seal anhydrite section is absent, upward leakage into the
overlying Tutelo sequence (Silurian) has occurred. Oils
originating from the Winnipeg/Red River source are unique
and their occurrence is limited to the so-called Red RiverWinnipeg System or generation-migration-accumulation
cell (Dow, 1974). About 600 million barrels of oil generated
from a Winnipeg Shale source has charged this system according to Dow.
The WinniDea Shale is about 100 thick in eastern Montana
where Winnikgsourced accumulations represented by
Dows Type I production occur in the greatest concentration
(Dow, 1974). The shale is generally quite lean in organic car-
.,/
,-
SHIELD AREA
Generally emergent
thin-absent sediment 8
STABLE SHELF
Periodica IIy inundated
Thin sediments
numerous unconformities
simple structure
.......
......
...,...........
......
//
,
,
GEOSYNCLINES & OROGENIC BELTS

Thick sediments
Locally-regionally drastic structuro
OCEAN AREAS
-1
Transgression
Rt-
Regression
Figure 10. Generalized scheme of transgressive-regressive sedimentation in North America. The west-east line of section
shown on the map is illustratedon the right side of F i g
ure 12.
bon, ranging from 0.05 -.74 weight percent and averaging 0.42
weight percent (Williams, 1974); however, the low organic
richness is partially attributable to the thermal maturity of the
Winnipeg and the partial loss of carbon contained in
hydrocarbons that have been generated and expelled.
The Creek sequence of the Great Basin contains a section
of black siliceous shale and bedded chert in the Vinini Formation (Minnick, 1975, McKee, 1975). These rocks accumulated
as organic rich graptolitic mud and radiolarian ooze at the intersection of an oceanic oxygen-minimum layer with the continental shelf-slope, where possible conditions of uwelling
may also have been present. This depositional setting is
believed to be similar to that depicted in Figures 48 and 4C.
10
The Vinini commonly occurs with the similar, but stratigraphically younger, WoodruffSlaven shalechert facies of the
Piankasha sequence. These shales have been displaced up to
62 mi (100 km) along the Roberts Mountain thrust during the
Antler orogeny. The Vinini, along with other Paleozoic source
rocks in the Great Basin, is believed to have become mature
in large areas during Late Paleozoic-Mesozoic time and to
have generated hydrocarbons which migrated to Paleozoic
reservoirs in structural and stratigraphic traps. Most of these
accumulations have either been destroyed or remigrated during the Tertiary Basin-and-Range tectonic event. Those areas
having remaining source rock potential may also have generated hydrocarbons during the later Basin-and-Range orogeny
as a result of late Tertiary burial and heating.
Kerogen rich mudstones and cherts of the Vinini are as
much as 150 feet (50 m) thick in some areas. Surface samples
yield 9.6 to 30 gallton (40-125 literslmetric ton) upon
pyrolysis. Total organic carbon ranges up to 1.25 weight
percent.
Tutelo Sequence (Upper Ordovician-Silurian)
The Tutelo deposequence does not include any source
rock facies that have been documented by geochemical analysis. Hydrocarbons associated with this carbonate depose
quence in the Williston basin (Dow, 1974; Williams, 1974) are
attributed to leakage, where the underlying Creek depose
quence seal has been eroded and charged reservoirs in the
overlying strata. Relatively small quantities of leaked Creek
hydrocarbons (Dows Type I oil) are trapped in the lnterlake
and Stony Mountain formations of the Tutelo sequence (i.e.
Pennel and Cabin Creek fields).
Published geochemical analyses of Tutelo carbonates and
carbonaceous shales indicate limited source rock potential.
Although there is little evidence to support the presence of a
major source rock facies within this sequence, future penetrations and geochemical data may indicate the presence of
some localized and currently unrecognized source rock facies.
Piankasha Sequence
(Uppermost.Silurian.lower Uppr Devonian)
The Piankasha is a marine carbonate deposequence that
.__
contains -potential source rocks- in three stratigraphic
positions.
The Aneth, basal Temple Butte, and basal Jerome Formations of the San Juan, Paradox, and Black Mesa basins (Figure 14) represent a basal transgressive phase of the Piankasha deposequence. This potential source rock facies is
characterized by laminated dark, fetid, argillaceous dolomite
with interbedded dark-gray to black resinous, carbonaceous
shale, and is believed to have been deposited under conditions similar to those shown in Figure 3A. The maximum
thickness penetrated in the subsurface is 170 ft (52 m). No
geochemical analysis of this facies is available in the
literature; however, the fetid odor and organic rich a p
pearance are frequently noted. The Aneth Formation is considered a possible source for oil found in the immediately
overlying McCracken sandstone member of the Elbert Forrnation, and the geometry of source and reservoir lithologies in
this situation is strongly indicative of an indigenous depose
quence oil machine. The McCracken member produces at
Walker Creek field in Arizona, at Akah Nez field in New Mexico, and at Lisbon field in Utah. One well at Walker Creek produced 764 barrels of oil directly from the Aneth. The overlying
carbonates of the middle and upper Elbert Formation provide
a seal.
MODEL + 1
Ocean
Miogeosyncline
Craton
n
Stable
shelf
MODEL + 2
Ocean
R-
Island a r e
mountain
range
C raf n
Foredeep S t a b l e
Shield
basin
shelf
R c -
Figure 11. Types of geosynclinal and/or orogenic belts marginal

to the craton. Sections shown may be related to the a p
propriate areas shown in Figure 10.
The Woodruff-Slaven mudstonechert sequence of the

Great Basin represents continuation of the Vinini (Creek
deposequence) facies and reflects continuous anoxic conditions against the shelf edge. Desborough and others (1979)
designated the Gebellini facies of the Woodruff Formation in
the South Fish Creek Range of Nevada as a low-grade oil
shale yielding as much as 12 gallonslshort ton of oil during
laboratory pyrolysis. This facies is as much as 196 ft (60 m)
thick. Organic carbon is as high as 11.5 weight percent.
Shallow core and outcrop samples are thermally immature
but contain early-phase hydrocarbons released during diagenesis.
The WoodruffSlaven source rock facies like the Vinini Formation of the Creek sequence and other Paleozoic source
rocks in the Great Basin may have reached maturity in some
areas during late Paleozoicearly Mesozoic time, Hydrocarbons were generated and then migrated into Paleozoic reservoirs in contemporaneous stratigraphic and structural traps,
most of which were later destroyed or remigrated during the
Tertiary Basin-and-Range event. Remaining generation potential may have been activated in local basins as a consequence of Basin-and-Rangeageheating and burial.
The lower Pilot source rock facies was deposited in a rapidly subsiding basin on a broad carbonate platform in late Devonian time. This potential source rock facies intertongues
with debris flow deposits, turbidites and shallow-water
limestones. The calcareous shales and mudstones range
from 0.53.0 percent organic carbon, with hydrocarbon contents ranging from 1G)-500 ppm. Portions of the lower Pilot
basin may have become mature in Late Paleozoic-Mesozoic
time, and hydrocarbons generated may have migrated updip
within the Pilot to stratigraphic traps formed where the Pilot
interfingers with turbidite, flysch, and shallow marine carbonate deposits. The Pilot source rock facies has yet to be
related to any oil production or shows in the Great Basin. The
Chainman (TamaroalAssiniboine) and possibly the Vinini
(Creek) are considered the only proven Paleozoic source rocks
associated with hydrocarbonproduction.
Additional possible source rock facies within the Piankasha sequence may be represented by cyclic dark shales
ROCKY MOUNTAINASSOCIAT~ON OF GEOLOGISTS
1;
c?
RELATION OF DEPOSITIONAL SEQUENCES TO ROCKY MOUNTAIN

OIL & GAS OCCURRENCE
OF CYCLIC SEDIMENTATION
IN NORTH AMERICA
MODIFIED FROM CONCEPTS OF
SCHEME
SLOSS (1963) & WHEELER (1963)
1I\
I)
I!/I
I'
II
j3l
I1
;I
I
It
X-SECTION
Figure 12. Stratigraphic chart keyed to major depositional sequences and the Occurrence of reservoirs and source rocks in the Rocky Mountain region. Stratigraphic cross section at right side of diagram crosses the core of the North American craton along the line
shown in Figure 10. Stratigraphic sequences defined by approximate age on this chart are used as the basis for maps and cross
sections shown in subsequentfigures and discussions in the text.
within the Souris River Formation in the Williston basin.

These shales have not been conclusively documented by
analysis to be actual source rocks; however, the presence of
these shales provides a possible explanation for oil found in
reservoirs of the overlying Duperow Formation.
Tarnaroa Sequence (Upper Devonian-MiddleMississippian)

There are two widespread sapropelic source rock facies
within the Tamaroa sequence. The oldest of the two facies is
part of a continent-wide anoxic event that took place from
Late Famennian through Kinderhookian time. This event corresponded with a basal transgression over a widespread unconformity near the top of the Devonian under conditions
similar to those shown in Figure 3A. It produced a belt of
highly organic-rich sapropelic source rocks in a halo surrounding the North American craton extending from the Cor-
dilleran to the Appalachian geosynclines. In some cases,

source rock facies appear to have developed in shallow depressions or residual silled basins found near the unconformity at the top of the Devonian. The Woodford-Percha-LeathamSappington-Exshaw-CottonwoodCanyon-Bakkensource rocks
facies of the western Cordilleran and southern craton-margin
geosynclines (Figure 15)is correlative with the Antrim-SunburyNews Albany-Chattanooga and equivalent source rock facies
of the Appalachian geosyncline.
The Osage-Meramec starved basin of the present-day
Great Basin area provided the environment for deposition of
the younger Tamaroa source rock facies (Figure 15) under
conditions similar to those depicted in Figures 4C, 4D, and
9D.This source rock facies is described in detail by Sandberg
and Gutschick (1984).The starved basin persisted throughout
Mississippian time, but the regression separating Tamaroa
12

I/
SOURCE ROCKS IN THE CREEK SEQUENCE

(ORDOVICIAN)
Figure 13. Schematic distributionof source rocks in the Creek sequence (Middle Ordovician).
and Assiniboine deposequences briefly interrupted starved

basin deposition in the adjacent shelf area.
The Bakken Formation of the Williston basin and its
associated rock units within the Tamaroa deposequence
represent an ideal transgressive-regressive cycle of sedimentation containing all of the indigenous components of a classic hydrocarbon machine: 1) mature source rocks, 2) carrierreservoirs and 3) seals with control migration and hydrocarbon entrapment (see Figures 7 and 8). As shown in Figure 16,
the Bakken at the base of the sequence represents a low
energy transgression uncomformably overlying a confirming
seal facies at the top of the preceding deposequence. The
Bakken was deposited under a situation similar to that depicted in Figure 4A. The upper and lower shale members of
the Bakken are characterized by the following source rock
properties:
Organic Carbon: 0.9 - 16.25 percent, avg. 7.6 percent

Extractable C15+ hydrocarbons carbons; 10 - 3961 ppm,
avg. 2000 ppm
Pyrolysis yield; 2 45 gallT, avg. 2 gallT
The Lodgepole Formation overlying the Bakken represents a

deepwater, low-energy, maximumtransgression phase of the
sequence. The overlying Mission Canyon Formation represents a shallow-water, high-energy regressive phase and contains the principal carrier-reservoir units. Evaporite beds in the
Charles Formation represent a final regressive transitional
marineto-continental sabka depositional environment at the
top of the sequence, These evaporites consitute the confining
top seal-barrier to vertical and lateral migration in the underlying Mission Canyon carrier-reservoir facies, except where
they have been removed by erosion near the limiting edge of
SOURCE ROCKS IN THE PIANKASHA DEPOSEQUENCE

(DEVONIAN EXCEPT UPPERMOST)
Figure 14. Schematic distribution of source rocks in the Piankasha sequence (Uppermost Silurian-upper Devonian).
the depositional sequence. Bakken source rocks are mature
below depths of approximately 7000 feet (2135 m) on the
eastern flank of the Williston basin. The area of source-rock
maturity is associated with the presence of abnormally high
fluid pressure that is believed to be caused by currently-active
high generation rates. The high fluid pressures are further
believed to have initiated vertical tensile fractures through
which oil was expelled through the Lodgepole Formation and
into the Mission Canyon carrier-reservoir system. Vertical
migration upward through matrix porosity and permeability in
the Mission Canyon is believed to continue until evaporites or
dense dolomites in the Charles are encountered. At this point,
lateral updip migration perpendicular to structural strike is expected until a trap or lateral barrier is encountered. Lateral
barriers in the Mission Canyon have formed a series of productive stratigraphic traps on the eastern flank of the Williston basin where porous and permeable beds within small-
scale transgressive-regressive cycles (see Figure 8) in the

Mission Canyon are replaced by impermeable rocks of the
Charles facies. Migrational leakage to stratigraphic traps in
the overlying Triassic has occurred where the Charles seal
has been breached by unconformities at the top of the
Tamaroa sequence.
Phosphatic, organic-rich mudstones, siltstones and shales
of the Delle Phosphatic Member of the Woodman Formation
and equivalents (as named in Sandberg and Gutschick, 1984)
were deposited during mid-Mississippian time in the Deseret
starved basin and on the adjacent lower foreslope of the
Antler foreland trough. This starved basin facies is highly
phosphatic, implying the influence of active upwelling that
enabled deposition of this sapropelic source rock facies.
Organic carbon values characterizing this facies range from
0.25-7.95 percent and average about 3 percent organic carbon,
making it an excellent potential source rock.
ROCKY MOUNTAIN ASSOCIATION OF GEOLOGlSTS
14
Figure 15. Schematic distributionof source rocks in the Tamerroe sequence (Upper Devonian
The Chainman Shale has been identified (Poole and

Claypool, 1984) as a major petroleum source rock in the Great
Basin. Oil-source rock correlations suggest that the starved
basin source rock facies correlates to the Chainman oils
found in Railroad Valley and Pine Valley. The younger Assinboine sequence contains Chainman shales equivalent to the
Manning Canyon-Doughnut-Heath sequence which do not
correlate to the oils found to date in the subsurface of the
Great Basin.
Hydrocarbons are believed to have been mobilized from
basal Chainman source rock facies during two major episodes of generation (Meissner, 1978; Poole and others, 1979).
The first episode probably began in late Paleozoic or Mesozoic time in response to late Paleozoic or Mesozoic burial,
perhaps associated with loading produced by Sevier-age
thrusting. Hydrocarbons resulting from this generation cycle
may have accumulated in a temporary structural or stratigraphic trap present at this time. The second episode of
generation was produced as a result of burial in local Basin-
- Middle Mississippian).
and-Range-age basins. Hydrocarbons produced in this stage

of generation, or even from an earlier stage of generation and
accumulation, may have migrated to structurallstratigraphical traps produced during Basin-and-Range deformation. Oil
produced from several fields in Railroad Valley, and perhaps
from the Blackburn Unit field in Pine Valley, is believed to
have come from a Chainman source.
Assiniboine Sequence (Upper Mississippian)
The Heath-Manning Canyon-Doughnut-Upper Chainman
source rock facies shown in Figure 17 is related to a variety of
environments conducive to the generation and preservation
of organic matter. The upper Chainman was deposited under
conditions similar to those for the lower Chainman (silled
basin). Doughnut and Manning Canyon source rocks are believed to have been deposited at oceanic oxygen-minimum intersections of the Mississippian shelf slope or in isolated
lagoonal (?) silled basins or troughs present on the Mississip
RLXKYMOUNJAlNASSOClATlON OF GEOLOGISTS
1
1
I(
CHARLES FACIES-SEAL
-S halio w water ,
high energy carbonates
-Non-seal when
by generation
overpressure
-Deeper water,
low energy limestone
Oil Accumulation
HC Migration Paths
BAKKEN FM.
-SOURCE ROCK
(where mature)
Vertical Fractures
-Shallow-Deeper water,
basal transgressive
&TpqfJ
Y
Hydrocarbon Generation
Ove r-Pressure Cell
Kkiogen
TAMAROA SEQUENCE
(LOWER M I S S I S S I P P I A N : M A D I S O N / B A K K E N )
OIL MACHINE, E A S T FLANK WILLISTON BASIN
Figure 16. Schematic west-eastcross section, Tamaroa sequence, east flank Williston basin, North Dakota, showing generation/migration/
accumulationpattern in 8 classic deposequenceoil machine.
I/
II
tj
I/
/I
pian shelf. Source rocks in the Heath may have been deposits
of local anoxic silling or as units associated with basal cyclothemic transgressionswithin a shelf trough.
The Heath, the uppermost member of the Big Snowy
Group, was deposited in an east-west trending silled estuarine trough. It consists of dark-grey to black petroliferous
marine limestone and shale interbedded with sandstones and
red to green shales and represents the deepest submergence
of the central Montana trough. It is characterized by small,
cyclotttemic units similar to those found in the overlying
Commanche sequence. This compound cyclicity in the overall sequence is thought to reflect upper Mississippian glacial
advances and retreats in the southern hemisphere. Subse
quent withdrawal of the Mississippian sea resulted in regional erosion of the Big Snowy strata between Mississippian and
Pennsylvanian time. The Heath of Montana and North Dakota
is a source for oil found in the Tyler-Heath (Assiniboine
Commanche) hydrocarbon machine. Cyclothems consisting

of interbedded black bituminous Heath and Tyler sourcerock
shales, channel sandstone reservoirs, tight sandstone, and
carbonate rock seals provide the basic elements for a series
of indigenous hydrocarbon generationlmigrationlaccumulation cells. The Heath is immature to marginally mature with
the exception of a few deeply buried areas in the central Montana trough (Cole and Daniel, 1984). In the deepest part of the
Williston basin this hydrocarbon machine has reached sufficient maturity for significant hydrocarbon generation. According to Dow (1974) about 300 million barrels of oil have been
generated by the Heath-Tylersystem in this area.
Analyses of the Heath in the Williston basin (Williams,
1974) and central Montana trough (Swetland and others, 1978)
show organic carbon contents in the range of 0.67-9 percent
and average extractable heavy hydrocarbons of 1650 ppm. In
southwestern Montana, the Big Snowy Group shales also
SOURCE ROCKS IN THE ASSINBOINE SEQUENCE

(UPPER MISSISSIPPIAN)
Figure 17. Schematic distribution of source rocks in the Assiniboine sequence (Upper Mississippian).
have sufficient organic content (average organic carbon 1.7

percent) to be considered probable source rocks. Oil associated with the Tyler and Heath formation is of a peculiar
waxy, high pour-point character. This fact indicates a possible affinity to Type I sapropelic algal kerogen that may be
present in the source rocks.
Organic shales equivalent to the Big Snowy shales extend
south into Wyoming, Idaho, and Utah, where they are repre
sented by the Chesterian prodelta-basin Chainman-Manning
Canyon shales.. These rocks were deposited simultaneously
with the Doughnut Formation which represents lagoonalestaurine deposition in the shallow Doughnuttrough.
Analyses of Manning Canyon and equivalent shales from
southeastern Idaho and northcentral Utah show an average
organic carbon content of 1.2 percent. Doughnut shales from
northeastern Utah and northwestern Colorado have an average organic carbon values of 2.5 percent. Many of these
samples show a high humic content and appear to have had

high thermal histories (Swetland and others, 1978). One well
in Carbon County, Utah produced gas directly from the
Doughnut.
The Manning Canyon and equivalent shales have yet to be
attributed to any significnt production in the central Rocky
Mountain region. Oquirrh basin (Permo-Pennsylvanian) burial
histories and loading by Sevier-Laramide thrust plate provide
ample opportunity for activation of this hydrocarbon cell. Britt
and Howard (1982) have suggested Late Permian as the time
of oil expulsion and migration from the Manning CanyonChainman shales along the Utah hinge line. Stages of generation may also have been reached during Mesozoic burial and
loading beneath Sevier-age thrust plates, or even during burial
in local Basin-and-Rangeage basins. Reservoirs may be associated with stratigraphic traps provided by isolated interfingering sandstones within the shale or by porous carbonate
SOURCE R O C K S I N T H E COMANCHE SEQUENCE

(PENNJ
----
Figure 18. Schematic distribution of source rocks in the Comanche sequence (Pennsylvanian).
bank deposits of the underlying Madison Group dolomites

and Great Blue limestones. Structural or combination structural-stratigraphic traps may have been formed and charged
during any of the periods of deformation coinciding with
episodes of generation and/or remigration.
Comanche Sequence (Pennsylvanian)
Black shales of Pennsylvanian age occur in 1) the Powder
River basin of Wyoming and adjacent areas of South Dakota,
the northern Denver basin of Nebraska, eastern Colorado and
western Kansas, 2) the Eagle basin (?) of central Colorado, 3)
the Paradox basin, and 4) possibly in the Great Basin area of
central Nevada (Figure 18). Rocks in this depositional s e
quence generally occur as an integral part of minor cyclic sequences present in the overall deposequence.
Following a period of erosion on underlying Mississippian
rocks, slight subsidence occurred in the present eastern
Rocky Mountain and Great Plains region and a marine advance emanated from southeastern Kansas into the adjacent
areas of Nebraska, eastern Colorado and adjacent Wyoming.
This transgression is marked 'by a coarse detrital unit generally present at the base of the Pennsylvanian. Sea level fluctuations, possibly produced by cyclic glaciation in the southern
hemisphere, resulted in repetitive transgression-regression
over the broad, low-relief Mississippian erosion surface of the
eastern Rocky Mountain and adjacent Great Plains areas (i.e.,
Colorado, Neb., Wyo.,) and continued throughout the Middle
and Upper Pennsylvanian. During the DesMoines, low-lying
areas of the shelf became depleted in oxygen as evidenced
by the deposition of black organic-rich shales containing as
much as 20 percent organic carbon, representing mainly Type
I I kerogen. This oxygen-depletion was caused by consumption of available oxygen by organic matter decay and required
some combination of high influx of organic matter and limiROCKY MOUNTAlNASSOClATlON OF GEOLOGISTS
18
FRED F. MEISSNER, JANE WOODVYARD AND J.L, CLAYTON
ted circulation of bottom waters. Heckel (1977, 1980) presented a model for cyclothemic deposition wherein black shales
occur when water depths are sufficient to create a thermocline that prevents vertical circulation (oxygen replenishment)
of bottom waters.
In the Powder River basin, northern parts of the Denver
basjp, and adjacent areas, these black shales were deposited
ip cyclothemic association with eolian, alluvial and shallow
mnaripe sandstones (Leo sands of the middle Minnelusa Formation). In the northern Powder River basin, the cyclic shales
section of the middle Minnelusa is overlain by a section containing a similar series of bedded sandstones (Converse
sands of the Upper Minnelusa). The association of sandstones and organic black shales provide the reservoir and
source elements of a hydrocarbon machine in these areas.
Where mature, the source rocks have generated and expelled
oil into the sandstones. It has subsequently migrated within
these carrierlreservoir beds and accumulated in a series of
stratigraphic and structural traps.
In parts of the eastern and southern Denver basin, the
cyclic black source-rock shales occur as parts of Middle
Pennsylvanian (DesMoines) carbonate cyclothems. Although
significant production has not yet been established in this
area, the elements of a hydrocarbon machine are present.
Reservoirs may be present within some of the carbonates,
and both structural and stratigraphic traps may exist.
The Paradox basin represents a slightly different situation
from the broad Mississippian erosional surface of the eastern
Rocky Mountain region. The Paradox basin was a restricted
basin, and the facies pattern developed during Pensylvanian
time may have depended upon water influx over a silled outlet
connecting the basin to the Pennsylvanian sea in a manner
similar to that shown in Figure 4D. Changes in sea level produced by glaciation in the southern hemisphere are believed
to be the cause for minor cyclicity developed in the section.
During periods of higher sea level, water depth in the basin
was sufficient and salinity was low enough to allow accumulation of organic-matter under low-oxygen conditions that
resulted in deposition of an organic-rich black shale fakes.
Periodic lowering of sea level caused salinities to increase,
resulting in precipitation of dolomite and limestone facies in
- the basin interior. -Carbonate deposition was succeeded by
halite and other evaporite facies as water level decreased further. Near the outlet, i.e., along the seaward shelf, algal
growth was fostered by the supply of warm, nutrient-rich
water, and produced a complex of algal limestone mounds
during these periods of low water. Return of higher sea level
caused some dissolution of the basinward halite facies owing
to contact with undersaturated seawater, and termination of
the shelf algal growth. As a result, disconformities between
depositional cycles are common, and each is followed by the
deposition of another black shale marking the beginning of a
new cycle. These organic-rich black shales are often called
the Prshales and serve as important correlation markers in
the Paradox section. The juxtaposition of these basal-transgressive or deepening-water PI shale units and shelf carbonate reservoir facies is of obvious importance for the
generation and trapping of petroleum hydrocarbons. The Hermosa Formation contains numerous such hydrocarbonmachine cycles, several of which produce oil. The two most
important producing zones are the lsmay and Desert Creek.
Recent analysis of the Paradox shales is presented by Hite
and others (1984).
The general dark appearance and stratigraphic position of
the Eagle and Belden formations of central Colorado and certain portions of the lower Ely Limestone of central Nevada
may reflect a substantial organic content; however, there are
no analytical data presently available that confirm actual
source rock properties, and they are not presently associated
with established areas of related hydrocarbon production.
Mescalero Sequence (PermeTriassic)

Rocks of the Mescalero sequence may be divided into two
parts: a lower section of Permian age and an upper section of
Triassic age. Throughout most of the central and eastern
Rocky Mountain area, the sequence is represented by continental redbeds containing subordinate sandstones and salts
and a few thin limestones representing minor cyclic marine
incursions. Significant incursions of marine carbonate are
present in both Permian and Triassic parts of the sequence in
a zone bordering the shelf area of the Paleozoic Cordilleran
geosyncline in western Wyoming, central Utah, and adjacent
areas.
Source rocks of Permian age are present in the Phosphoria
and laterally-eastward equivalent Park City Formations in the
area shown in Figure 19. These source rocks form an essential element of a highly productive hydrocarbon machine.
They were deposited in an area of upwelling associated with
high organic productivity and subsequent depositional preservation. Rocks with high organic carbon (30 percent maximum, 10 percent average) representing sapropelic-type oilgeneration-prone kerogen were deposited in deeper-water
westward of the shallower-water Park City carbonate shelf
edge and in two transgressive-regressive tongues (Meade
Peak and Retort) extending eastward into the Park City Formation (see cross sections of Maughn, 1984). These tongues
form minor cycles in the overall transgressive-regressive Permian Phosphoria-ParkCity deposequence.
Hydrocarbons were generated from Phosphoria source
rocks in response to time and temperature factors associated
with burial beneath a thick sequence of Triassic, Jurassic,
Cretaceous, and Tertiary strata. Generation history has been
progressive, commencing with the expulsion of oil in Jurassic
time within the area of southeastern Idaho and northern Utah,
just west of the Wyoming border. As time progressed through
the Lower and Upper Cretaceous,.the area of oil generation
moved eastward toward the depositional limits of the Meade
Peak and Retort source-rock tongues, and early sites of Jurassic oil generation became more mature, passing through
wet gadcondensate, dry gas and overmature stages of
hydrocabon generation. Maturity patterns developed in the
overthrust belt were strongly influenced by thrust-plate uplift
and burial. Late-stage hydrocarbon generation took place in
Laramide basins following additional amounts of Tertiary
burial.
Hydrocarbons generated in mature Phosphoria source
rocks were expelled to adjacent carrierlreservoir zones within
Park City carbonate rocks, and also into the underlying Tensleep Sandstone. Migration paths in the overthrust belt were
predominantly upward and lateral, and may have charged a
series of both older and younger reservoirs in closed anticlinal trap accumulations found in the area. Migration paths
east of the overthrust belt were primarily eastward in r e
sponse to lateral updip structural attitudes produced by eastward thinning of the overlying Triassic through Upper Cretaceous section. A large part of the hydrocarbon charge produced by both Mesozoic-andTertialy-age generation migrated
in Park City carrier/reservoirs and accumulated in stratigraphROCKY MOUNTAIN ASSOCIATION OF GEOLOGISTS
SOURCE ROCKS IN THE MESCALERO SEQUENCE

(PERMO-TRIASSIC)
Figure 19. Schematic distribution of source rocks in the Mescalero sequence (Permo-Triassic). Area of Phosphoria includes Meade Peak
and Retort tongues extendinginto Park City shelf facies.
ic traps formed by the eastward transition of Park City carbonate reservoirs into red-bed facies of the time-equivalent
Goose Egg Formation. Hydrocarbons generated in the Mesozoic and expelled into the Tensleep may have migrated as far
eastward as the Powder River basin and accumulated in a
series of stratigraphic traps along the general path of move
ment. Hydrocarbons in many of these traps may have been
remobilized during the Laramide orogeny and migrated along
with hydrocarbons generated in the Tertiary toward sites of
accumulation in Laramideageanticlinal traps.
Source rock units have not been identified in the Triassic
portion of the Mescalero sequence, although it is possible
that they may exist. Some geologists have related prolific wet
gaslcondensate production in the Upper Triassic(?)/Lower
Jurassic Nugget Sandstone in the overthrust belt to a possible source in the underlying dark-colored carbonate and
shales of the Thaynes Formation.
Parts of the Thaynes and Moenkopi formations are considered to represent a shelf slope or basal-transgressive
depositional environment that would be conducive to possible source rock deposition. There are numerous shows and
seeps associated with both formations in central Utah; however, available analyses providing positive evidence of source
rock character for this facies is lacking.
A possible lower Triassic source rock facies is mentioned
by McDaniel (1982),who analyzed Permo-Triassic rocks from
the Book Creek Range in Humboldt County, Nevada. Overmature Triassic shales contained as much as 3.46 percent
organic carbon. The areal significance of this occurrence is
unknown.
Blackfeet Sequence (Jurassic)
Rocks of this sequence in the Rocky Mountain area were
deposited on a broad, mostly emergent shelf area and in a
ROCKY MOUNJAIA ASSOCIA JION OF GEOLOGISTS
20
SOURCE ROCKS IN THE BLACKFEET SEQUENCE

(JURASSIC)
Figure 20. Schematic distributionof source rocks in the Blackfeet sequence (Jurassic).
geosynclinal trough bordering the shelf on the western side.

Deposits in the shelf area are largely continental in nature
and consist of red and green shales and sandstones with occasional evaporites and intercalations of marine limestones.
Environments in this area were generally not conducive to the
deposition of hydrocarbon source rocks; however, one notable exception is present in the area of the San Juan basin,
where source rocks contained in the Todilto Formation were
deposited in an extensive evaporitic lake environment (Figure
20).Sediments deposited to the west of the shelf area in the
Jurassic Cordilleran geosyncline consist dominantly of marine carbonates and dark shales, with a few areas containing
significant bodies of salt. Depositional environments in this
area were more conducive to the deposition of organic-rich
rocks than those of the adjacent shelf area, and such rocks
may have been deposited under conditions of anoxic silling in
the trough (Figure 4D) or where the oceanic oxygen-minimum
layer intersected the shelf edge (Figure 48). The distribution

of probable and possible sourcerock units associated with
the geosynclinal area is shown in Figure 19 as long, discontinuous, narrow band extending from western Montana and
adjacent Idaho through western Wyoming and central Utah.
Source rocks in the lacustrine Todilto Formation are characterized by dark kerogen-rich laminae within limestone and
anhydrite beds. Reported organic carbon values range from
0.25 to 1.0 percent (Ross, 1980), but may be substantially
higher in some un-analyzed parts of the section where the
number of organic laminations is greatest. The Todilto Formation, together with the underlying Entrada Sandstone constitute an ideal geologic oil machine. Todilto source rocks are
mature in the deep northern part of the San Juan basin (vim
cilette and Chittum, 1981) and have expelled oil into the
underlying Entrada. One of the principal migration paths
within the Entrada and beneath the Todilto (which also serves
STRATIGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS AND DISTRIBUTIONOF SO1JRCE ROCKS IN THE GREATER ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION
as a top seal migration barrier in addition to being a hydrocarbon source) was updip on the gentle south flank of the basin.
Oil migrating up this flank has accumulated in a series of
stratigraphic traps formed by the preserved configuration of
Entrada sand dune reservoirs. Oil produced from the Entrada
is of the peculiar waxy high pour-point nature that seems to
be typically derived from lacustrine source rocks containing
Type I sapropelic algal kerogen.
Probable or possible source rocks in the geosynclinal area
of Jurassic sedimentation are present in the Sawtooth Formation (and possibly also in the overlying Rierdon and Swift
formations) of western Montana and in the equivalent Rock
Creek Member of the Fernie Group to the north in Alberta.
Analyses of Sawtooth shales (Clayton and others, 1982) indicate organic carbon values ranging from 0.27 to 2.68 percent (avg. 0.67 percent) and extractable organic matter yields
ranging from 90 to 139 ppm (avg. 92 ppm) Values for the
overlying Rierdon (organic carbon 0.12-0.87, avg. 0.32 percent)
and Swift (organic carbon 1.77, avg. 1.09 percent, extractable
organic matter 303 ppm) are somewhat lower, but in the case
of the Swift, they would seem to indicate some source rock
potential exists. Rock-Eva1 (pyrolysis) analysis of the Jurassic
rocks in this area suggests that they are primarily gas generating sources with some possibility of associated liquid hydrocarbons.. Presumably these rocks are mature at depth in
the Alberta trough and beneath adjacent thrust plates further
west. Hydrocarbons generated in these areas have migrated
to east within associated carrierlreservoir units in the
Jurassic and also possibly in the underlying Mississippian,
and have accumulated in a series of small fields in the vicinity of the Sweetgrass arch. A similar generationlmigrationlaccumulation system operative to the north in Canada
has been envisaged by many geologists to explain the occurrence of significant Jurassic oil production in southwestern
Saskatchewan.
There is little analytical evidence documenting the occurrence of source rocks in the Blackfeet sequence in the vicinity of prolific Jurassic production characterizing the overthrust belt area of western Wyoming and northern Utah.
Some geologists believe that the source hydrocarbons found
in the Nugget sandstone and overlying Twin Creek Formation
is within dark-colored shales and limestones of the Twin
Creek. Presumably, these source rocks are mature in underlying thrust plates or within downdip positions of productive
plates and expulsionlmigration paths have charged adjacent,
overlying, or downdip traps containing Nugget and other reservoirs. Further to the south in central Utah, Britt and Howard
(1982) have presented evidence for the presence of source
rocks in the Twin Creek and Arapien formations. Although
surface sampling of units in this area indicated low organic
carbon contents (1.1 percent maximum), values as high as 4
percent were reported from subsurface samples of the Twin
Creek.
I
Zuni Sequence (Cretaceous)

Rocks contained in the Zuni sequence have historically
been of important significance to the occurrence of oil and
gas in the Rocky Mountain area. Sedimentary rocks representing this sequence were deposited as syntectonic basin fill in
a large north-south-trending geosyncline which lay between
the rising Mesozoic Cordilleran thrust belt on the west and
the stable Mid-Continent craton to the east (see Meissner,
1984, his Figure IOA). A generalized cross-section showing the
character of sediments - including the occurrence of major
21
source rock units - is shown in Figure 21. The Zuni s e

quence represents a single major cycle bf depositional
transgression-regression (or deepening-shallowing) within
which are many smaller cycles. These smaller cycles may be
related to major episodes of thrusting and uplift in the Cordillera to the west. The overall character of the deposequence
is simillar to that illustrated as a conceptual model in Figure
9D. The fill section starts at its base with a regional transgressive sandstone unit (the Dakota Group and equivalents). The
central part is occupied primarily by marine shales, (Benton,
Mancos, Pierre, Lewis, etc. and equivalents). The upper part is
characterized by a final regressive marine to continental s e
quence (Fox Hills and Lance or equivalents). The smallerscale cycles of regressive sedimentation (Frontier, Mesa
Verde) are marked by pulses of continental clastic sedimentation which were shed primarily from the orogenic uplift area
to the west; however, several significant clastic regressions
also occurred from the east in the lower part of the section
(Muddy, D and J sandstones). Significant cycles of deepening or transgression are also present in the lower part of
the central marine shale section (Greenhorn and Niobrara).
Geochemicallydocumented hydrocarbon source rocks
containing dominantly Type II kerogen (oil prone) occur near
the base of the sequence (Skull Creek, Mowry, Greenhorn,
Niobrara and equivalents) and appear to be associated with
minor cycles of transgression or basin deepening which produced anoxic conditions, possibly associated with basinal
silling in the deeper part of the geosyncline. The map of
Figure 22A shows the depositional distribution of most of
these units. Total organic carbon (organic richness) values
reported for the source rocks range from 0.7 to 4.0 percent.
Although the organic carbon is believed to represent primarily
Type II kerogen, it has been noted that admixing with Type 111
(gas-prone) kerogen occurs consistently toward the west in all
of the units.
Coals and carbonaceous sediments containing Type 111 kerogen (gas-prone) are present in the Zuni sequence in association with regressive continental subcycles (i.e., Frontier,
Mesaverde) and especially in the final regression at the top of
the sequence (Lance and equivalents). The distribution of major coal-bearing sequences associated with Type 111 kerogen
is shown in Figure 22B. The distribution of individual units is
shown following Weimers (1960) scheme relating the syncronous timing of major regressive continental sedimentary sub
cycles extending westward into marine rocks of the central
geosyncline from the area of uplift and erosion to the west.
Maturity patterns in Zuni Sequence source rocks appear to
be mostly the result of depths achieved in Laramide basinal
areas as a result of burial beneath critically thick Tertiary
sediments; however, it is possible that maturity was produced
in some of the older source rock units on the west side of the
geosyncline as a consequence of the thick Cretaceous depositional and overthrust section overlying these rocks in this
area. Maturity has not been achieved in Zuni sequence
source rocks in several areas; i.e., the lower Cretaceous in the
Williston basin (Mowry, Niobrara) and the uppermost Cretaceous coals in the Denver and Powder River basins. Maturity
in some basins (i.e., the San Juan) has apparently been influenced by igneous activity. Present-day active high-rate generation in several basinal areas appears to be associated with
the occurrence of abnormally high formation fluid pressures
(i.e., the Powder River, Green River).
Most of the documented source rock units containing either Type II or Type 111 kerogen occur in regional association
with beds that may serve as reservoirs (mostly sandstones)
ROCKY MOUNTAlN ASSOCIATION OF GEOLOGISTS
E
Kansas and Nebraska
Colorado and Wyoming
Utah
Iowa
n
n
rn
D
Z
........
_____
rn
z0
CRETACEOUS-TERTI ARY
BOUNDARY
L 10,000
SCHf MATIC t I O H I Z O N T A L
CONTINENTAL
CONTl N E N T A L ALLUVIAL-
PIEDMONT-FAN
DELTA PLAIN
ss e
W I T H H U M l C COAL
CONGL
ss. a
SH.
SCALE
zD
c
T R A N S I T I O N A L SHALLOW
MARINE
SS.
M A R I N E SH
MARINE L S
ti C H A L K
Figure 21. Schematic cross section througR'Cretaceous Geosyncline showing distribution of lithofacies, depositional environments and
hydrocarbon source rocks in the Zuni sequence (after Kauffman, 1977). Also shown are distributions of similar rock characteristics in the overlying Lower Tertiary Ute sequence. The Ute sequence was superposed on the Zuni as a result of Laramide structural
movement and resulting erosion/deposition, and burial patterns related to the addition of this sequence have greatly affected
maturity patterns within Zuni source rocks.
ANOXIC (?)MARINE
SH. &MARL W L H
SAPROPEI IC
SOURCE ROCKS:
OIL-GENERATION
PRONE AT EARLY
MATURITY STAGES
i-
t
3
z
i.
STRATIGRAPHICRELATIONSHIPSAND DlSTRlBJTlON OF SOUF3CE ROCKS IN THE GREATER ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION 23
11
fl
ii
j\
E1
1
j
1,
1I
I
I
and seals (mostly shales). Where the source rocks are mature,
they form an essential element of a number of identifiable
hydrocarbon machines. Hydrocarbons generated from Source
rocks are expelled to overlying or underlying sandstone
carrierlreservoir sandstones through which they migrate in a
dominantly updip direction toward either sites of entrapment
or the outcrop. Seals confining the resulting migration and
accumulation cell are provided mainly by thick marine shale
sequences. Typical hydrocarbon machines which may be
identified include, 1) the oil-prone Huntsman Shale in the
Denver basin, which charges the overlying ID Sandstone
and underlying J Sandstone and 2) the gas-prone coals in
the Menefee Formation of the San Juan basin, which charge
reservoirs in the overlying Cliffhouse and Underlying Point
Lookout Sandstones.
The geometry of many of the carrierlreservoir units is conducive to the formation of stratigraphic-type traps. These
types of traps are highly Characteristic of the Zuni sequence
and are similar to those conceptually illustrated in Figure 8.
Growth fault-type structural traps similar to those depicted in
Figure 9A have localized accumulations on the south flank of
the San Juan basin, and thrust structures similar to those
depicted in Figure 9D in the overthrust belt area of northern
Utah and adjacent Wyoming. Laramideage anticlinal structures superimposed on the Zuni sequence are also productive
in a number of Rocky Mountain basins.
Ute Sequence (Upper CretaceousLower Tertiary

Potential source rocks within the Ute deposequence are
represented by those containing exclusively either humic
(gas-generation prone) or sapropelic (oil-generation prone)
organic matter. The distribution of these two source-rock
types is shown in Figure23.
Bedded coals representative of humic-type source rocks
are characteristic of coal measures found in the Wasatch and
Fort Union formations in such areas as the Williston and
Powder River basins. They were deposited in sedimentary environments dominated by alluvial flood plains and swamps
similar to the setting illustrated in Figure 4F. Except for areas
in the deep Wind River and possibly the Hanna-Laramie
basins, the coals are of low rank (lignite and subbituminous),
and have not reached maturity stages sufficient for significant thermal generation of gas; however, they are often associated with minor amounts of gas attributed to a biogenic
origin. Although the coals are associated with channel sandstone reservoirs and shale seals in configurations suitable for
the formation of traps, valid gas machines related to the large
volumes produced by thermally-mature coals are not operative because of the lacking thermal generation factor. An ex.
ception to this case is thought to be present in the deeper
part of the Wind River basin. Here, coals in the lower Fort
Union Formation are buried to depths greater than 10,060 ft
(3050 m), and are believed to have reached ranks sufficient for
thermal gas generation. This gas has charged adjacent sandstone reservoirs and has been trapped in several significant
fields. The presence of gas in the Fort Union is associated
with conditions of high porefluid overpressure, a fact that
suggests a currently-active high rate of generation.
Organic matter characterized by oil-generation prone Type I
algal kerogen was deposited moreor-less contemporaneously to coal measures in a number of lake basins under conditions similar to those shown in Figure 4D. Sediments
deposited in the lake basins represent typical sequences
associated with a cycle of depression and infill in several intermontane basins (i.e., Uinta and Green River basins) on the
east side of the area of uplift characterizing the Sevier-Laramide

thrust belt (Figure 23). Similar sequences were also
deposited on the west side of the thrust belt in the area of the
present Great Basin; however, these sediments were exten;
sively deformed by later Basin-and-Rangestructural activity.
Llepositidnal sequences associated with lacustrine deposition are characterized by sediment patterns characterized by
the following three types of facies:
1. Alluvial fakes: consisting generally of red-colored, clay
filled sandstone, siltstone and shale; deposited as basal,
capping and marginal units to those of the following
facies. Rocks of this facies constitute a general seal to hydrocarbon migration within the deposequence. They are
represented by part of such formations as the Wasatch
and its equivalents in the Uinta and Green River basins.
2. Lake Margin Facies: consisting of interbedded gray to
green-colored lime grainstones and sandstones; deposited
between the preceding and following described facies.
Rocks of this facies exhibit reservoir properties. They are
included in parts of both the Green River and Wasatch
formations or their equivalents in the Uinta and Green
River basins.
3. Resfricfed Lacustrine Facies: consisting of light- to darkcolored bituminous marly carbonates and lime mudstones;
evaporites are present in some basins; deposited as a lake
as a lake core facies.
Osoillations in lake levels during deposition of typical lake
basin fill sequences are associated areally with expansions
and contractions of marginal and core facies. Occasional drying-up of some lakes produced playa environments.
The central lake core facies sediments were deposited
under conditions of bottom-water anoxia and relative inorganic sediment starvation that lead to the preservation of
Type I kerogenous material in such concentrations as to
create oil shales in many instances. Formational names applied to rocks represented by this facies are given in Figure
23. Source rock parameters related to some of these formations are contained in several papers included in this volume
(i.e., Green River Formation, Uinta basin, Anders and Gerrild;
Sheep Pass and Elko formations, Great Basin; Poole and
Claypool; Elko Formation, Great Basin, Palmer).
Because the Ute sequence is generally the youngest of
those present in Rocky Mountain sedimentary sections, the
maturity patterns associated with lacustrine source rocks
have been produced mostly by burial depths associated with
the deposition of the sequence itself. However, maturity patterns in Individual basins within the Great Basin have been
produced by elements of abnormal heat history characteristic
of the area, as well as additional burial depths achieved
beneath younger sediments of the Piute sequence. Known
areas of maturity in basins east of the thrust belt are present
in the deeper parts of the Uinta and Green River basins. Areas
of maturity west of the thrust belt are present within Railroad
and Huntington Valleys in the Great Basin area. Oils generated from these lacustrine source rocks is characteristically
strongly paraffinic, with a high pore point. The area of maturity in the Uinta basin is associated with a cell of abnormallyhigh fluid pressure that is believed to be produced by a current high generaton rate within the source rocks.
Migrationlaccumulation patterns characterizing lacustrine
related deposequences consist principally of 1) expulsion
from source rocks into nearby carrier- rocks present in the
lake margin facies followed by 2) lateral updip migration
within the carrier beds to sites of entrapment. Stratigraphictype traps produced by lateral discontinuities in the lake
ROCKY MOUN TAlN ASSOCIA TlON OF GEOLOGISTS
24
A
DISTRIBUTION OF CRETACEOUS-AGE
OIL-GENERATING SOURCE ROCKS
CONTAINING TYPE II KEROGEN
L6WER-u.
CRETACEOUS
LOWER CRETACEOUS
Skull Gr. Sh
M o w r y Sh
Huntsman
Tongue:
M o w r y Sh
Niobrara Fm
Figure 22. Schematic distributions of source rocks in the Zuni sequence (Cretaceous). a. Distribution of sapropelic oil-generation-prone
source rocks. b. Distribution of humic (coal) gas-generatiorimprone source rocks.
ili:
k
STRATIGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPSAND DISTRIBUTION OF SOURCE ROCKS IN THE GREATER ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION 25
B
DISTRIBUTION OF CRETACEOUS-AGE
GAS-GENERATING COALS
(TYPE Ill KEROGEN)
SMIT
KEYED TO WEIMER'S U. CRETACEOUS REGRESSIVE CYCLES

Ri
R2
R3
R4
(Younaest)
(Qldes t 1
Gallup
Ferron
Frontier
Mesaverde
Emery
Eagle
Fruit Iand-Kirt land

Vermejoda t on
Lance
NW Colo/Wyo 'Mesaverde' St.'Marys R.
Two Medicine-Judith R.
Hell Cr.
26
SOURCE ROCKS IN THE UTE SEQUENCE

(LOWER TERTIARY)
KlSHEN
IRES
d
__
-1
.
- .
Figure 23. Schematic distribution of source m k s in the Ute sequence (uppermost Cretaceous Lower Tertiary). Area of coal measures contains humic gas-generation-proneorganic matter. Areas of lacustrine deposition (stippled pattern) contain sapropelic oil-generation-prone organic matter.
margin facies are productive in the Uinta basin. The large

Altamont-Bluebell field in the Uinta basin is apparently
localized as an overpressured basin-bottom fracture reservoir
within the area of active generation. Structural traps are productive in the Green River basin. Several fields in the Great
Basin produce from erosional truncation stratigraphic traps
at the margins of basins.
Piute Sequence (Miocene to Recent)

Rock of Mio-Pliocene age were deposited as alluvial outwash in the Great Plains area east of the Rocky Mountains
and rarely as thin alluvial infill in intermediate basins within
the main Rocky Mountain area. The general depositional environment of these strata are not conducive to the formation
of source rocks. In the Great Basin area to the west, however,
relatively thick sequences of Miocene to Recent-age rocks
were deposited in the various valley- basins of the Basin-andRange province (Figure 24). The nature of deposition in a
number of basins within this area was more conducive to the

depositionof organic-richlayers.
Structure in the Basin-and-Range province was produced
by extensional tectonic activity that began in the Middle Tertiary and produced a series of generally north-south trending
horst and graben blocks. The horsts became mountain
ranges and the grabens became valley-basins filled in part by
variable thicknesses of material derived from the adjacent
horsts. Many of the graben basins are isolated closed drainage systems and were occupied periodically by lakes during
their cycle of infill. The environment of lake deposition in at
least some areas is believed to be similar to that depicted in
Figure 4D, and represents an environment highly favorable to
the formation of organic-rich layers of lake or playa floor
sediment.
A well drilled in the Carson basin of western Nevada penetrated an 11,OOO ft section of Upper Tertiary sedimentary and
interbedded volcanic rocks containing several intervals of
ROCKY MOUNTAINASSOCIAUON OF GEOLOGISTS
I
\
,
?
I
\
1
I
academic sense, the presence of known source rocks and

derived migration paths may be used to explain known accumulation patterns. In an exploration sense, the existence of
source rocks and postulated migration paths may lead to the
delineationof prospective areas.
A preliminary synthesis of available data pertaining to
source rocks in general indicates that:
1. The types of organic matter they contain influence the
types Of hydrocarbon pecies (Oili gas) they may generate.
2. Organic matter is deposited in specific settings and environments.
positions. These positions and distributions may ideally

be placed within genetic depositional sequences d e
fined as cycles of transgressiveregressive sedimentation.
4. Certain ideal depositional sequences contain all of the
critical elements controlling hydrocarbon generation/
migrationlaccumulation; e.g., they contain 1) mature
source rocks that have generated hydrocarbons, 2) barrier and sealing lithologies that control migration and accumulation and 3) they may contain stratigraphic andl
or structural configurations defining traps. These ideal
horst blocks exposing older

sedimentary strata.
Basins with known occurrence
of organic-rich lacustrine f i l l
in part
Figure 24. Schematic distribution of source rocks in the Piute se.
quence (Middle Tertiary-Recent). A -Carson Basin. B
-Salt Lake Basin.
barrierlseal lithologies, have been utilized to identify and

describe a number of documented or postulated hydrocarbon
machines.
REFERENCES
Listed alphabetically by general subject
andforpertinent depositionalsequence
Creation and Deposition of Organic Matter
- General
28
Brongersma-Sanders, M., 1948, The important of upwelling water to

vertebrate paleontology and oil geology: Koninklijke Nederlandsche Akademie Wetenschappen, afd. Natuurkunde, 2nd series, v.
6.
. .D. 112.
Coleman, J.M., 1976, Coal environments (abs.): AAPG Bulletin, v. 60,
p. 658.
Demaison, G.J., and G.T. Moore, 1980, Anoxic environments and oil
source bed genesis: AAPG Bulletin, v. 64, p. 1179-1209.
-,
and
, 1981, Oil source bed deposition and occurrence on active continental margins, in R.G. Douglas, I.P. Colburn
and D.S. Gorsline, eds., Depositional systems of active continental
margin basins, Short course notes: Bakersfield, SEPM, Pacific
Section, p. 157-165,
, and
, 1982, Stratigraphic aspects of source bed occurrence: the organic facies concept: AAPG Continuing Education class notes, AAPG Geochemistry for Geologists, Oct. 4-6,
Houston, 20 p.
I
-,
and ___,
1984, Predictive source bed stratigraphy: A
guide to regional petroleurn occurrence: World Petroleum congress 11th London, in press.
Ibach, L.E.J., 1983, Relations between sedimentation rate and total

organic carbon content in ancient marine sediments: AAPG Bulletin, v. 66, p. 170-188.
Parrish, J.T., 1982, Upwelling and petroleum source beds with reference to Paleozoic: AAPG Bulletin,v. 66, p. 750-774.
Trask, P.D., 1932, Origin and environment of source beds of petroleum: Houston, Gulf Publishing,p. 323.
-1
1934, Deposition of organic matter in recent sediments, in
Problems in PetroleurnGeology, Tulsa, AAPG, p. 2733.
-1
and Patnode, H.W., 1942, Source beds of petroleum: Tulsa,
AAPG, p. 566.
Waples, D.W., 1982, Phosphaterich sedimentary rocks: Significance
for organic facies and petroleum exploration: Journal of Geochemical Exploration,v. 16, p. 135160.
Depositional Sequences
General
Conan, A.H., 1967, Recent and ancient carbonate depositional cycles,
in S. Chuber and J. Elam, eds., Cyclic sedimentation in the Permian basin: West Texas Geological Society Publication no. 6456,
p. 516.
Heckel, P.H., 1977, Origin of phosphatic black shale facies in PennAAPG Bul- sylvanian cyclothems of MidContinent North America:
- letin, v. 61, p. 1W-1048. -Kent, H.C., 1972, Review of Phanaorozoic history, in W.W. Mallory, ed.,
Geologic atlas of the Rocky Mountain region: Denver, Rocky
Mountain region: Denver, Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists, p. 57-59.
Kingston, D.R., C.P. Dishroon and P.A. Williams, 1983, Global basin
classificationsystem: AAPG Bull., v. 67, p. 21752193.
Sloss, L.L., 1962, Stratigraphic models in exploration: AAPG Bulletin,
v. 46, p. 1050-1057.
-1
1963, Sequences in the cratonic interior of North America:

GSA Bulletin,v. 74, p. 95114.
Weimer, R.J., 1976, Stratigraphy and tectonics of Rocky Mountain

coals, in D.K. Murray, ed., Symposium on the geology of Rocky
Mountain coal: Colorado Geological Survey, Department of Natural Resources,Resource Series no. 1, p. 427.
Wheeler, H.E., 1963, Post-Sauk and preAbsaroka Paleozoic stratigraphic patterns in North America: AAPG Bulletin, v. 47, p. 14971526.
White, D.A., 1980, Assessing oil and gas plays in facies cycle wedges:
AAPG Bulletin, v. 64, p. 1158-1178.
Sauk Sequence (Upper Precambrian - Lower Ordovician)

General
Hunt, J.M., 1979, Petroleum geochemistry and geology: San Francisco, W.H. Freeman, 617 p.
Foster, N.H., 1972, Ordovician System, in W.W. Mallory, ed., Geologic

atlas of the Rocky Mountain region: Denver, Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists, p. 7685.
Lochman-Balk, C., 1972, Cambrian System, in W.W. Mallory, ed., Geo
logic atlas of the Rocky Mountain region: Denver, Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists, p. 6@75,
Apache Group
Desborough, G.A., F.G. Poole, T.A. Daws, and R. Scarborough, 1984,
Hydrocarbon source rock evaluation of the Middle Proterozoic
Apache Group, in J. Woodward, F.F. Meissner, and J.L. Clayton,
eds., Hydrocarbon source rocks of the greater Rocky Mountain r e
gion: Denver, Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists, this
volume.
Creek Sequence (Middle Ordovician)

General
Foster, N.H., '1979, Ordovician System, in W.W. Mallory, ed., Geologic
atlas of the Rocky Mountain region: Denver, Rocky Mountain
region: Denver, Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists, p.
7685.
Winnipeg Shale
Dow, W.G., 1974, Application of oilcorrelation and sourcerock data
to exploration in the Williston basin: AAPG Bulletin, v. 58, p. 1253
1262.
Williams, J.A., 1974, Characterization of oil types in Williston basin:
AAPG Bulletin, v. 58,,p. 1243-1252.
Vinini Shale
Merriam, C.W., and C.A. Anderson, 1974, Reconnaissance survey of
the Roberts Mountains, Nevada: GSA Bulletin,v. 53,p. 16751728.
Osmond, J.C., and D,W. Elias, 1971, Possible future petroleum resources of Great Basin - Nevada and Western Utah, in I.H. Cram,
ed., Future petroleum provinces of the United States - their geology and potential: AAPG Memoir no. 15, v, 1, p. 413430.
Poole, F.G., and G.A. Desborough, 1980, Oil and metals in Ordovician
and Devonian kerogenous marine strata of Central Nevada, AAPG
Bulletin, v. 64, p. 717.
I-
and G.E. Claypool, 1984, Petroleum source rock potential

and oil correlation in the Great Basin, in J. Woodward, F.F. Meissner and J.L. Clayton, eds., Hydrocarbon source rocks of the
greater Rocky Mountain region: Denver, Rocky Mountain Associa-tion of Geologists, this volume; - - - - .
Minnik, E.P., 1975, Structure and stratigraphy of the Ordovician Vinini
Formation, Tyrone Creek area, Eureka County, Nevada: MS thesis,
Ohio University,Athens, Ohio, 55 p.
McKee, E.H., 1976, Geology of the northern part of the Toquirna
Range, Lauder, Eureka, and Nye Counties, Nevada: USGS Professional Paper 931,48 p.
Desborough, G.A., F.G. Poole, and R.K. Hose, 1979, metals in Devonian kerogenous marine strata and Gibellini and Bisoni properties
in the southern Fish Creek Range, Eureka, Co., Nevada: USGS
Open-File Report 79-530,30 p.
Tutelo Sequence (Upper Ordovician-Silurian)

General
Foster, N.H., 1972, Ordovician System, in W.W. Mallory, ed., Geologic
Association of Geologists,p. 76-85.
Gibbs, F.K., 1972, Silurian System, in W.W. Mallory, ed., Geologic
Association of Petroleum Geologists, p. 86-89.
Williston Basin Production
Dow, W.G., 1974, Application of oil-correlation and source-rock data
to exploration in the Williston basin: AAPG Bulletin, v. 58, p.
1253-1262.
~~
Piankasha Sequence (Devonian
- lowermost Upper Devonian)
General
Baars, D.L., 1972, Devonian System, in W.W. Mallory, ed., Geologic
Association of Geologists, p. 90-99.
Woodruff-Slaven
Desborough, G.A., F.G. Poole, R.K. Hose and AS. Radtke, 1979,
Metals in Devonian kerogenous marine strata at Gibellinin and
Bisoni properties in southern Fish Creek Range, Eureka County,
Nevada: USGS Open File Report 79-530,31 p.
Aneth
Baars, D.L., and J.A. Campbell, 1967, Devonian System of Colorado,
western New Mexico and the Colorado Plateau: The Mountain
Geologists, v. 5, p. 31-40.
Beus, S.S., 1980, Late Devonian (Frasnian) paleogeography and
paleoenvironments in northern Arizona, in T.D. Fouch and E.R.
Magathan, eds., Paleozoic paleography of the west-central United
States, Rocky Mountain paleogeography symposium 1: Denver
SEPM, Rocky Mountain Section, p. 55-67.
Conley, J.N., and S. Guardira, Jr., 1979, Favorable and potentially
favorable areas for hydrocarbon and geothermal energy sources
in northeastern arizona: Arizona Oil and Gas Conservation Commission Investigation 7, 54 p.
Cooper, J.C., 1960, Cambrian Devonian and Mississippian rocks of
the Four Corners area, in Geology of the Paradox basin fold and
fault belt, 3rd field conference; Durango, Four Corners Geological Society, p. 69-78.
Gustafson, V.O., 1981, Petroleum geology of the Devonian and
Mississippian rocks of the Four Corners region, in D.L. Wiegand,
ed., Geology of the Paradox basin: Denver, Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists, p. 101-109.
Rose, P.R., 1976, Mississippian carbonate shelf margins, western

United States: USGS Journal of Research, v. 4, no. 4, p. 449-466.
Upper PilotlChaimanlDeseret
Britt, T.L., and E.L. Howard, 1982, Oil and gas potential of the central
Utah hingeline thrust belt region, in R.B. Powers, ed., Geologic
studies of the Cordilleran thrust belt, v. 2: Denver, Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists, p. 475-505.
Claypool, G.E., T.D. Fouch, and F.G. Poole, 1979, Chemical correlation of oils and source rocks in Railroad Valley, Nevada: GSA
Abstracts with Programs, v. 11, n. 7, p. 403.
Gutschick, R.C., and J. Rodriquez, 1979, Biostratigraphy of the Pilot
Shale (Devonian and Mississippian) and contemporaneous strata
in Utah, Nevada, and Montana: Brigham Young University Geological Studies, v. 26, pt. 1, p. 37-63.
Hite, R.J., 1978, Possible genetic relationships between evaporites,
phosphorites and iron-rich sediments: Mountain Geologist, v. 14,
p. 97-107.
Meissner, F.F., 1978, Petroleum geology at Great Basin, western
Utah and Nevada (abs.): AAPG Bulletin, v. 62, p. 888-889.
Poole, F.G., T.D. Fouch and G.E. Claypool, 1979, Evidence for two
major cycles of petroleum generation in Mississippian Chainman shale of east central Nevada: AAPG Bulletin, v. 63, p. 838.
-,
Sando, W.J., C.A. Sandberg, and R.C. Gutschick, 1981, Stratigraphic

and economic significance of Mississippian sequence of North
Georgetown Canyon, Idaho, AAPG Bulletin, v. 65, p. 1433-1443.
Sandberg, C.A., 1975, Petroleum geology of Paleozoic rocks of
Cordilleran miogeosyncline: USGS Open File Report 75-96, 7 p.
-,
and Poole, F.G., 1975, Petroleum source beds in Pilot

shale of eastern Great Basin: USGS Open File Report 75-371,
p. 13.
, and Gutschick, 1977, Paleotectonic, biostratigraphic
and economic significance of osagean to early Meramecian
starved basin in Utah: USGS Open File Report 77-121,16 p.
-,
F.G. Poole, and R.C. Gutschick, 1980, Devonian and

Mississippian conodont zonation in Pilot and Chainman shales,
Confusion Range, Utah, in T.D. Fouch and E.R. Magathan, eds.,
Paleozoic paleogeography of the west-central U S . Rocky Mountain paleogeography symposium 1: Denver, Rocky Mountain
-,
and R.C. Gutschick, 1980, Sedimentation and biostratigraphy of the Osage-Merimecian starved basin and foreslope, Western United States, in T.D. Fouch and E.R. Magathan,
eds., Paleozoic paleogeography of the west-central US.,
Rocky Mountain paleogeography symposium 1: Denver, Rocky
Mountain Association of Geologists, p. 129-147.
and R.C. Gutschick, 1984, Distribution, microfauna,
and source-rock potential of Mississippian Delle Phosphatic
Member of the Woodman Formation and equivalents, Utah, and
Adjacent States, in J. Woodward, F.F. Meissner, and J.L. Clayton, eds., Hydrocarbon source rocks of the greater Rocky Mountain region: Denver, Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists,
thisvolume.
Harrison, G.C., 1975, Facies analyses of the Devonian in the Black

Mesa basin: MS thesis, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff,
Arizona, 57 p.
Stevenson, G.M., and D.L. Baars, 1977, Pre-Carboniferouspaleotectonics of the San Juan basin, in J.E. Fassett and H.L. James,
eds., Guidebook of San Juan basin Ill northeastern New Mexico, 28th field conference: Socorro, New Mexico Geological Society, p. 99-110.
Teichert, C., 1965, Devonian rocks and paleogeography of central
Arizona: USGS Professional Paper 464, 181 p.
Lower Pilot
Biller, E.J., 1976, Stratigraphy and petroleum possibilities of the
Lower Upper Devonian (Filasnian and Lower Filasnian) strata,
southwestern Utah: USGS Open-File Report 76343,105 p.
Gutschick, R.C., and J. Rodriquez, 1979, Biostratigraphy of the
Pilot Shale (Devonian-Mississippian) and contemporaneous
strata in Utah, Nevada, and Montana: Brigham Young University
Geological Studies, v. 26, pt. 1, p. 37-63.
Sandberg, C.A., and F.G. Poole, 1975, Petroleum source beds in Pilot
Shale of eastern Great Basin: USGS Open File Report 75-371,
14p.
F.G. Poole, and R.C. Gutschick, 1980, Devonian and
Mississippian stratigraphy and conodont zonation of Pilot and
Chainman Shales, Confusion Range, Utah, in T.D. Fouch and E.R.
Magathan, eds., Paleozoic paleogeography of the west-central
U.S.,Rocky Mountain paleogeography symposium 1: Denver,
SEPM, Rocky Mountain Section, p. 71-79.
Tamaroa Sequence (Uppermost Upper Devonian
Middle Mississippian)
General
Craig, L.C., 1972, Mississipian System, in W.W. Mallory, ed., Geologic
atlas of the Rocky Mountain regions: Denver, Rocky Mountain
and G.E. Claypool, 1984, Petroleum source rock potential and crude oil correlation in the Great Basin, in J. Woodward,
F.F. Meissner, and J.L. Clayton, eds., Hydrocarbon source rocks
of the greater Rocky Mountain region, this volume.
I-
-9
Cottonwood Canyon Member

Sandberg, C.A., and G. Klapper, 1967, Strtigraphy, age, and paleotectonic significance of the Cottonwood Canyon member of the
paleotectonic significance of the Cottonwood Canyon member
of the Madison Limestone in Wyoming and Montana: USGS
Bulletin 1251-B, p. B1-670.
Exshaw
MacQueen, R.W., and C.A. Sandberg, 1970, Stratigraphy, age, and
interregional correlation of the Exshaw Formation, Alberta
Rocky Mountains: Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology,
v. 18, n. 1, p. 32-66.
30
Bakken
Dow, W.G., 1974, Application of oil-correlation and source-rock data
1253-1262.
Meissner, F.F., 1978, Petroleum geology of the Bakken Formation,

Williston basin, No. Dak. and Mont., in Economic geology of the
Williston basin, Williston basin symposium: Billings, Montana
Geological Society, p. 207-227.
Price, L., 1984, Geochemical analysis of petroleum source rocks of
the Bakken Formation in North DAkota, in J. Woodward, F.F.
Meissner, and J.L. Clayton, eds., Hydrocarbon source rocks of
the greater Rocky Mountain region: Denver, Rocky Mountain
Association of Geologists, this volume.
Schmoker, J.W., and T.C. Hester, 1983, Organic carbon in Bakken
Formation, United States portion of Williston basin: AAPG
Bulletin, v. 67, p. 2165-2174.
Webster, R.L., 1984, Analysis of petroleum source rock of the Bakken Formation in North Dakota, in J. Woodward, F.F. Meissner
and J.L. Clayton, eds., Hydrocarbon source rocks of the greater
Rocky Mountain region: Denver, Rocky Mountain Association
of Geologists, this volume.
Williams, J.A., 1974, characterization of oil types in Williston basin:
Zumberge, J.E., 1983, Tricyclic diterpane distributions in the correlation of Paleozoic crude oils from the Williston basin, in M.
Bjoroy and others, eds., Advances in organic geochemistry 1981:
New York, John Wiley, p. 738-745.
- Assiniboine Sequence (Upper Mississippian)

General
Craig, L.C., 1972, Mississippian System, in W.W. Mallory, ed., Geologic atlas of the Rocky Mountain region: Denver, Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists, p. 100-110.
Upper Chainman
Poole, F.G., and G.E. Claypool, 1984, Petroleum source-rock potential
and crude-oil correlation in the Great Basin, in J. Woodward,
F.F. Meissner, and J.L. Clayton, eds., Hydrocarbon source rocks
of the greater Rocky Mountain region: Denver, Rocky Mountain
Association of Geologists, this volume.
Sandberg, C.A., F.G. Poole, and R.C. Gutschick, 1980, Devonian and
Mississippian stratigraphy and conodont zonation of Pilot and
Chainman shales, Confusion Range, Utah, in T.D. Fouch and E.R.
Magathan, eds., Paleozoic paleogeography of the west-central
United States, Rocky Mountain paleogeography symposium 1:
Denver, SEPM, Rocky Mountain Section,-p.71-79.
-.
HeathlManning CanyonIDoughnut
Cole, G.A., and J.A. Daniel, 1984, Thermal maturity trends of the Heath
Formation, Fergus County, Montana, in J. Woodward, F.F. Meissner, and J.L. Clayton, eds., Hydrocarbon source rocks of the greater
Rocky Mountain region, Denver: Rocky Mountain Associatin of
Geologists, this volume.
Evaluation of
Cox, W.E., 1973, Fergus County research project
Heath-Tyler oil shales, with laboratory analyses by John W.
Blumer: Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Open File Report 15, 85 p.
-,
and G.A. Cole, 1981, Oil shale potential in the Heath and
Tyler formations, central Montana: Montana Bureau of Mines and
Geology Geologic Map 19, 2 sheets.
Derkey, P.D., 1983, Oil and metal potential of the Heath Formation,
Fergus County, Montana: Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology, Open File Report 110,28 p.
DOW,W.G., 1974, Application of oil-correlation and source-rock data
1253-1262.
Maughan, E.K., and A.E. Roberts, 1967, Big Snowy and Amsden
groups and the Mississippian-Pennsylvanian boundary in Montana: USGS Professional Paper 554-B, 27 p.
Swetland, P.J., J.L. Clayton, and E.G. Sable, 1978, Petroleum sourcebed potential of Mississippian-Pennsylvanian rocks in parts of
Montana, Idaho, Utah, and Colorado: Mountain Geologist, v. 14,
p. 79-87.
Cornmanche Sequences (Pennsylvanian)
General
Mallory, W.W., 1972, Pennsylvanian System, in W.W. Mallory, ed.,
Nebraska, Colorado, Wyoming and adjacent areas
Clayton, J.L., and J.D. King, 1984, Organic geochemistry of Pennnorthern Denver
sylvanian-Permian oils and black shales
basins (abs.): AAPG Bulletin, v. 67, p. 463.
-2
and R.T. Ryder, 1984, Organic geochemistry of black shales

and oils in the Minnelusa Formation (Permian-Pennsylvanian),
Powder River Basin, Wyoming, in J. Woodward, F.F. Meissner,
and J.L. Clayton, eds., Hydrocarbon source rocks in the greater
of Geologists, this volume.
Hatch, J.R., and J.S. Leventhal, 1982, Comparative organic geochemistry of shales and coals from Cherokee Group and lower
part of the Marmaton Group of Middle Pennsylvanian age, Oklahoma, Kansas, Missouri, Iowa (abs.): AAPG Bulletin, v. 66,
p. 579.
Heckel, P.H., 1977, Origin of phosphatic black shale facies in Pennsylvanian cyclothems of mid-continent North America: AAPG
bulletin,^. 61, p. 1045-1048.
-,
1980, Paleogeography of eustatic model for deposition of
midcontinent upper Pennsylvanian cyclothems, in T.D. Fouch
and E.R. blanathan, eds, Paleozoic paleogeography of the westcentral United States, Rocky Mountain-paleogeography symposium 1: Denver, SEPM, Rocky Mountain Section, p. 197-215.
Maughan, E.K., 1978, Pennsylvanian (upper Carboniferous) System
of Wyoming: USGS Open File Report 78-337, 32 p.
McBane, J.D., and R.P. Swinehart, 1983, Depositional environment
of Leo sands, Minnelusa Formation, Niobrara County, Wyoming
(abs.): AAPG Bulletin, v. 67, p. 1349.
McCaslin, J.C., 1980, Pre-Cretaceous Nebraska find draws interest:
Oil and Gas Journal, v. 78, no. 17, p. 137,
.--I
1982, Nebraska Pre-Cretaceous hunt under way: Oil and
Gas Journal, v. 80, no. 21, p. 103-104.
Momper, J.A., and J.A. Williams, 1979, Geochemical exploration in
the Powder River Basin: Oil and Gas Journal, v. 77, no. 50, p. 129.
. .
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,1984, Geochemical exploration in the Powder River Basin,
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Watney, W.L., 1980, Cyclic sedimentation of the Lansing-KansasCity
Groups in northwestern Kansas and southwestern Kansas: Kansas Geological Survey Bulletin 220, 72 p.
Wenger, W.J., and Reid, B.W., 1958, Characteristics of petroleum in
the Powder River Basin, in Strickland, F. Byrne and J. Barlow,
eds., Powder River Basin, 13th annual field conference: Laramie,
Wyoming Geological Association, p. 174-179.
Wilson, J.M., 1978, Permo-Pennsylvanianof the west-central Nebraska
panhandle, in J.D. Pruit and P.E. Coffin, eds., Energy resources
of the Denver basin: Denver, Rocky Mountain Association of
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Paradox Basin
Hite, R.J., 1966, Shelf carbonate sedimentation controlled by salinity
in the Paradox basin, southeast Utah, in J.L. Rau and L.F. Dellwig, eds., symposium on salt, 3rd, v. 1: Cleveland, Northern Ohio
Geological Society, p. 48-66.
Hite, R.J., and F.N. Cater, 1972, Pennsylvanian rocks and salt anticlines, Paradox basin, Utah and Colorado, in W.W. Mallory, ed.,
ROCKY MOUNTAIN ASSOCIATIONOF GEOLOGISTS
..
i
./
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Hite, R.J., D.E., Anders, and T.G. Ging, 1984, Organic-rich source
rocks of Pennsylvanian age in the Paradox basin of Utah and
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Mescalero Sequence (Pertno-Triassic)
General
Rascoe, B., Jr., 1972, Permian System, in W.W. Mallory, ed., Geologic
MacLauchlan, M.E., 1972, Triassic Ssytem, System, in W.W. Mallory,

ed., Geologic atlas of the Rocky Mountain region: Denver,
Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists, p. 166-176.
Phosphoria/Park City
Claypool, G.E., A.H. Love, and E.K. Maughan, 1978, Organic geochemistry, incipient and metamorphism and oil generation in
black shale members of Phosphoria Formation, western Interior
United States: AAPG Bulletin, v. 62, p. 98-120.
Cheney, T.M., and R.P. Sheldon, 1959, Permian stratigraphy and oil
potential Wyoming and Utah, in N.C. Williams, ed., Guidebook
to the geology of the Wasatch and Uinta Mountains transition
area, 10th annual field conference: Salt Lake City, Intermountain Association of Petroleum Geologists, p. 90-100.
Maughan, E.K., Organic carbon in shale beds of the Permian Phosa sum
phoria Formation of eastern Idaho and adjacent states
mary report, in F.A. Exum and G.R. George, eds., Geology and
mineral resources of the Bighorn basin, Cody, Wyoming, 27th
annual field conference guidebook Laramie, Wyoming Geological Association, p. 107-115.
Maughan, E.K., 1979, Petroleum source-rock evaluation of the Permian

Park City Group in the northeastern Great Basin, Utah, Nevada
and Idaho,in G.W. Newman and H.D. Goode, eds., Basin.and Range
symposium and Great Basin field conference 1979: Denver, Rocky
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Maughan, E.K., 1984, Geological setting and some geochemistry of
petroleum source rocks in the Permian Phosphoria Formation,
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McKelvey, V.E., 1959, Relation of upwelling marine waters to phos
phoriteand oil (abs.): GSA Bulletin, v. 70, p. 1783-84.
-,
and others, 1959, The Phosphoria, Park City and Shedhorn

formations in the western phosDhate field: USGS Professional
Paper 313A, p. 47.
Powell, T.G., P.J. Cook, and D.M. McKirdy, 1975, Organic geochemistry of phosphorites - relevance to petroleum genesis: AAPG
Bulletin, v. 59, p. 618-632.
Rooney, L.F., 1956, Organic carbon in Phosphoria, Park City and Shedhorn formations in the western phosphate field: USGS Professional Paper 313A, p. 47.
Sandberg, C.A., 1975, Petroleum geology of Paleozoic rocks of
Cordilleran miogeosyncline: USGS Open File Report 75-96.
Sheldon, R.P., 1967, Long-distance migration of oil in Wyoming:
Mountain Geologist, V. 4, p. 53-65.
Stone, D.S., 1967, Accumulation theory, Bighorn basin: AAPG Bulletin, v. 67, p. 2056-2114.
Tisoncik, D.D., 1984, Regional lithostratigraphy of the Phosphoria Formation in the western overthrust belt in J. Woodward, F.F. Meiss
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31
Wardlaw, B.R., J.C. Collinson and K.B. Ketner, 1979, Regional relations of Middle Permian rocks in Idaho, Nevada and Utah, in G.W.
Newman and H.D. Goode, eds., Basin-and-Range symposium
and Great Basin field conference 1979: Denver, Rocky Mountain
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Triassic
Koch, W.J., 1976, Lower Triassic facies in the vicinity of the Cordilleran hingeline: western Wyoming, southeast Idaho, and Utah, in
J.G. Hill, ed., Geology of the Cordilleran hingeline: Denver, Rocky
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McDaniel, S.B., 1982, Permian Triassic source bed analysis at Quinn
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Blackfoot Sequence (Jurassic)
General
Peterson, J.A., 1972, Jurassic System, in W.W. Mallory, ed., Geologic
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Cordilleran Geosyncline
Britt, T.L., and E.L. Howard, 1982, oil and gas potential of the central
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Clayton, J.L., M.R. Mudge, C. Luceck, and T.A. Daws, 1982, Hydrocarbon source rock evaluation of the disturbed belt, northwestern Montana in R.B. Powers, ed., Geologic studies of the Cordilleran thrust belt, v. 2: Denver, Rocky Mountain Association of
TodiltoIEntrada
Ross, L.M., 1980, Geochemical correlation of San Juan basin oils
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Vincilette, R.R., and W.E. Chittum, 1981, Exploration for oil accumulations in Entrada Sandstone, San Juan basin, New Mexico:
Zuni Sequence (Cretaceous)
General
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-,
1973, Stratigraphic evidence for Cretaceous eustatic

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-,
1977, Geological and biological overview: Western interior

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McGookey, D.P., J.D. Haun, L.A. Hale, H.G. Goodell, D.G. McCubbin,
R.J. Weimer, and G.R. Wulf, 1972, Cretaceous System, in W.W.
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Weimer, R.J., 1960, Upper Cretaceous stratigraphy, Rocky Mountain
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Sapropelic Source Rocks
Burtner, R., and B. Warner, Hydrocarbon generation in Lower Cretaceous Mowry and Skull Creek shales in the northern Rocky
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Beneis, C.W., and D.W. Larson, 1979, Paleoenvironments of MoWV
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Clayton, J.L., and P.J. Swetland, 1977, Petroleum geochemistry of
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ROCKY MOUNTAIN ASSOCIA TlON OF GEOLOGISTS
32
Clayton, J.L., M.R. Mudge, C. Lubeck, and T.A. Daws, 1982, Hydrocarbon source rock evaluation of the disturbed belt, northwestern
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1970, Petrology of Cretaceous Mowry Shale of Wyoming:

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Hagen, E.S., and R.C. Surdam, 1984, Maturation history and thermal
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Nixon, R.P., 1973, Oil source beds in the Cretaceous Mowry Shale of
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Rubey, W.W., 1928, Origin of the siliceous Mowry Shale of the Black
Hills region: USGS ProfessionalPaper 154, p. 153-170.
-,
1930, Lithologic studies of fine-grained Upper Cretaceous
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rocks in the greater Rocky Mountain region: Denver, Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists, this volume.
Ryer, T.A., 1980, Deltaic coals of the Ferron Sandstone Member of
the Mancos Shale - a predictive mode! for Cretaceous coals of
the western Interior, in L.M. Carter, ed., Proceedings of the fourth
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Cretaceous Maturity Patterns
Bond, W.A., 1984, Application of Lopatin's method to determine
burial history, evolution of the geothermal gradient, and timing
of hydrocarbon generation in Cretaceous source rocks in the
San Juan basin, Northwestern New Mexico and southwestern
Colorado, in J. Woodward, F.F. Meissner and J.L. Clayton, eds.,
Hydrocarbon source rocks in the greater Rocky Mountain region:
Denver, Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists, this volume.
STRATIGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPSAND DISTRIBUTION OF SOURCE ROCKS IN THE GREATER ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION
Bostick, N., and M.J. Pawlewicz, 1984a, Regional distribution of vitrinite
reflectance of the Pierre Shale (Upper Cretaceous) in mountain
basins and along the eastern mountain front, Colorado, in J.
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source rocks in the greater Rocky Mountain region: Denver,
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stone in Pierre shale in the contact aureole of igneous dikes near
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to gas generation in low-permeability Upper Cretaceous and
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Ute Sequence (Uppermost Cretaceous-LowerTertiary)
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Hydrocarbon Source Rocks of the Greater Rocky Mountain Region, 1984

STRATIGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS AND DISTRIBUTION

Bird Oil Gorp., 717 Seventeenth Street, Denver, Colorado 80202.

ZARCO Exploration Co., P.O. Box 5540, Denver, Colorado 80217.

Geological Survey, Box 25046, DFC, Denver, Colorado 80225.

We gratefully acknowledge drafting done by Stratigraphics, Inc. provided by

this goal, a highly simplified conceptual geologic framework

2009 Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists

FRED.F. MEISSNER, JANE WOODWARD AND J.L. CLAYTON

2. The illustration of a plumbing system involving a typical

FACTORS CONTROLLING SOURCE ROCK DEPOSITION

Source Rock Maturation 8 Generation of

Seals-Trap-AeEUmUl;eti0n (Type, Size .Dis tribution)

Figure 1. Scheme for assessing factors controlling hydrocarbon

ROCKY MOUNTAIN ASSOCIATION OF GEOLOGISTS

Figure 2. Diagramatic model of a hydrocarbon machine showing

cerned primarily with water-generated sapropelic matter that

Conditions for generation and presewation of sapropelic

A. High organic productivity

POSITION OF ROCKS CONTROLLING HYDROCARBON

FRED F. MEISSNER, JANE WOODWARD AND J.L. CLAYTON

Two distinct classes of depositional sequences may be

An ideal depositional sequence containing an internal

Tern pera te-t ropical climate

periodic river flooding

Conceptual environments and depositional settings for

FRED F. MEISSNER, JANE WOODWARD AND J.L. CLAYTON

G -Basal high-energy shallow marine transgression

A-Ba sal I o w -energy transgression

H -Shallow rnarine/transitional sandstone,

SAPROPELIC SOURCE ROCKS (TYPE 1/11)

carbonate grainstone, reefs

B - 0 2 minimum against depositional surface

I -Deep water turbidites

D-Silled anoxic basin

E-Coastal coal swamp

K -Alluvial fan sandstone and conglomerates

F-Deltallower alluvial plain coastal swamp

SEALS :.Eva Pori te s , shales, carbonate mud s t one s

- M a y be only partially efficient

Figure 5. Common piisitions of important lithologihs In transgressive-regressivedepositionalsequences. Diagram A

Assiniboine, Commanche, Mescalero, Blackfeet, Ute and

conceptually described in the preceeding text, It should be

S I MPLE SYMMETRIC SEQUENCE

Datum: Maximum transgression time line

Datum: Top main regressive disconformity

Mature Source Rock

Primary reservoir porosity

A compound depositional containing mature source rocks

The ideal depositional sequence as a generationlrnigra.

FRED F. MEISSNER, JANE WOODWARD AND J.L. CLAYTON

SEQUENCES WITH FORELAND

EARLY-STAGE FORELAND BASIN

MID-STAGE FORELAND BASIN

migrating back -arc

Sapropelic s o u r c e r o c k s (aqua tic)

Humic s ourc e r o c k s (t erres t ri al)

Conceptual1 depositional sequences characteristic of

GEOSYNCLINES & OROGENIC BELTS

FRED F. MEISSNER, JANE WOODWARD AND J.L. CLAYTON

Figure 11. Types of geosynclinal and/or orogenic belts marginal

The Woodruff-Slaven mudstonechert sequence of the

RELATION OF DEPOSITIONAL SEQUENCES TO ROCKY MOUNTAIN