Respiration

Form 4 Biology Chapter 7: Respiration
The Respiratory Process in Energy Production

1. Respiration is an important living process carried out by all living
organisms.
2. Respiration can be divided into two stages:
a) external respiration
b) internal respiration
3. External respiration is a mechanical process that maintains a
continuous exchange of gases between the respiratory surface of an
organism and its environment.
4. For most organisms, the exchange of gases occurs through a specialized
structure called respiratory structure.
5. Internal respiration is the biochemical process in which energy is
made available to all living cells. This process involves the oxidation
of organic molecules to release the chemical energy stored within
these molecules.
6. The energy that is released during this process is used to synthesis
energy-carrying molecules called adenosine triphosphate.
7. The main substrate for cellular respiration is glucose.
8. There are two types of cellular respiration:
a) aerobic respiration
b) anaerobic respiration
Energy Production in Aerobic Respiration

1. Aerobic respiration requires a continuous supply of oxygen from the air
or water surrounding the organism.
2. In the cells, glucose molecules are oxidized by oxygen to release energy.
3. Aerobic respiration involves the oxidation of glucose in the presence of
oxygen to carbon dioxide, water and energy.
4. Organisms that respire aerobically are called aerobic organisms.
5. Aerobic respiration releases all the available energy stored within the
glucose molecules.
6. The entire process does not involve only a single chemical reaction, but
is also driven by a sequence of complex biochemical reactions which are
catalyzed by respiratory enzymes
7. The energy that is stored within the glucose molecules is release
gradually. This is far more useful to the organism than as sudden release
of all the energy.
8. Only a small portion of the energy is lost in maintain the body
temperature. A larger portion of the energy is used to synthesize
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and
inorganic phosphate.
How anaerobic respiration occurs in human muscle
1. During vigorous exercise such as running a race, the muscles initially
respire aerobically.
2. However, the muscle soon uses up all the available oxygen. In spite of
the increased breathing rate and heartbeat rate, the blood cannot supply
oxygen fast enough to meet their requirements.
3. The rate at which oxygen is used by the muscles exceeds the amount of
oxygen supplied by the blood.
4. The muscles are in a state of oxygen deficiency and an oxygen debt is
incurred.
5. The muscle obtains the extra energy from anaerobic respiration,
because oxygen is not available.
6. During anaerobic respiration, the glucose molecules break down
partially into an intermediate substance called lactic acid instead of
carbon dioxide and water.
7. Because glucose is not completely broken down, the energy released
during anaerobic respiration is much less than the energy released during
aerobic respiration.
8. In fact, for every molecule of glucose, anaerobic respiration releases
only two molecules of ATP.
9. Therefore, in terms of energy yield, anaerobic respiration is less efficient
than aerobic respiration.
10.
Much of the energy is still trapped within the molecules of lactic
acid.
11.
The accumulation of lactic acid can reach a high level of
concentration which can cause muscle cramps and fatigue.

3
12.
This contributes to the exhaustion a person feels during and after a
period of intense exercise.

13.
The person needs to breathe in deeply and rapidly in order to
inhale more oxygen.

14.
The excess oxygen is used by the body to oxidize the
accumulated lactic acid to carbon dioxide and water.

15.
Oxidation of lactic acid occurs mainly in liver. A portion of the
lactic acid is oxidized to produce energy. The remaining lactic acid is

converted into glycogen and stored in the muscle cells.
16.
The oxygen debt is paid off when all the lactic acid is removed.
This happens through the increased breathing rate after vigorous

exercise.
17.
Therefore, an oxygen debt is the amount of oxygen needed to
remove lactic acid from the muscle cells.
Anaerobic respiration in yeast

1. Yeast normally respires aerobically.
2. In the absence of oxygen, yeast carries out anaerobic respiration.
3. It produces ethanol, carbon dioxide and energy during anaerobic
respiration.
4. Anaerobic respiration in yeast is also known as fermentation and is
catalyzed by the enzyme zymase.
5. The ethanol produced during fermentation can be used in wine and beer
making.
6. In bread making, yeast is used as it produces carbon dioxide during
fermentation. This causes the dough to rise. Ethanol evaporates during
baking.
Comparison between aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Aerobic Respiration
Anaerobic Respiration
Present
Availability of oxygen
Absent
Complete oxidation
of glucose
Oxidation of glucose
Incomplete oxidation of
glucose
Carbon dioxide,
water and energy
Products of respiration
Lactic acid and energy (in

muscle cell) or ethanol,
carbon dioxide and energy
(in yeast)
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Number of ATP
molecules released per
molecule of glucose
A large amount of
energy is released per
mole of glucose
Amount of energy
released per mole of
glucose
A small amount of energy

is released per mole of
glucose
Mitochondria
Where the process takes

place
Cytoplasm
The Respiratory Structures and Breathing Mechanisms in Humans

and Animals
Adaptations of the respiratory structures
Unicellular Organism
1. The entire plasma membrane of unicellular organism is the respiratory
surface.
2. This organism has a large surface area to volume ratio for the
diffusion of gases and the plasma membrane is thin and moist
3. Gaseous exchange occurs in the entire plasma membrane of Amoeba sp.
by simple diffusion.
4. The concentration of oxygen in the natural surroundings of the organism
is high causing oxygen to diffuse into the cell and the carbon dioxide
produced from respiration to diffuse into the surroundings.
The respiratory structure and breathing mechanism of insects

1. The respiratory system in insects is a tracheal system which consists of
a series of tracheae that branch repeatedly to form very fine, thin-walled
tubes called tracheoles.
2. The respiratory system of insects is separated from the circulatory

system. Unlike mammals, the insects circulatory system is not
involved in gaseous transport.
3. Air enters the insects tracheal system through spiracles, i.e. openings in
the exoskeleton. The spiracles are located at the sides of the thorax and
abdomen of the insect, usually a pair per body segment. Air flow is
regulated by small muscles that contract and relax to control the
valves in each spiracle.
4. After the spiracles, air enters a longitudinal tracheal trunk, then diffuses
throughout a branched network of tracheoles which are very fine thinwalled tubules that reach into every part of the insects body.
5. The tracheoles are filled with liquid to facilitate gas exchange. The
thin and moist surface of tracheoles also aid in the exchange of
respiratory gases between atmospheric air and living cells.
6. The air in the trachea, full with carbon dioxide, eventually diffuses out
of the tracheal system, through the spiracles, and out into external
environment.
7. In larger insects, rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the
abdominal muscles to control body volume facilitates better
ventilation of the tracheal system. Contraction of the abdominal
muscles increases the air pressure in the tracheal system, so that the air
is forced out through the spiracles. When the same muscles relax, the
tracheal air pressure drops and air flows in through the spiracles and into
the tracheae.
8. In the tracheal system there are collapsible air sacs. In dry and warm
environments, these air sacs provide a temporary air supply allowing
the insect to close its spiracles for short periods to reduce loss of water
through evaporation. These air sacs also provide air which help regulate
buoyancy in aquatic insects.
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The structural adaptation of gills for gaseous exchange
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1. Each fish has 4 pairs of gills, each with double rows of lamellaecovered filaments. The total surface area of the lamellae is 10-60 times
more than that of the external surface area of the whole fish.
2. The walls of the lamellae are only one-cell thick and the lamellae on the
filaments are located very close together so that most of the water
passing between them is involved in the gaseous exchange process.
This makes for very efficient gaseous exchange between the lamellae
and the water flowing past the gills.
3. The blood in the lamellae flows in the opposite direction
(countercurrent) to the flow of water. This allows the gills to absorb 80%
of the waters oxygen content. If the blood were to flow in the same
direction as the water, only a maximum of 50% of the waters oxygen
content can be absorbed.
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The respiratory structure and breathing mechanism of fish
1. The breathing mechanism of fish involves gill ventilation which is

achieved through a one-way flow of water, in through the mouth, past
the gill arches, and out through the opercula flaps.
a) The opercula are closed and the mouth is opened. The floor of the
buccal cavity is lowered. Pressure is lowered inside the buccal cavity.
The higher external water pressure forces oxygen-rich water into the
buccal cavity.
b) The mouth is then closed and the floor of the buccal cavity is raised.
This forces the water to flow backwards, between the gill arches and
past the filaments and lamellae.
c) The flow of water is aided by the opening of the opercula which
helps to draw the water backwards. The mouth skin flaps (valves)
closes due to the high pressure in the buccal cavity, preventing outward
flow of water through the mouth.
d) As water passes over the gill filaments and lamellae, gaseous exchange
occurs.
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The respiratory structure and breathing mechanism of amphibians

The structural adaptation of the skin for gaseous exchange
1. The respiratory surface of a frog is adapted for efficient gaseous
exchange in the lungs and the skin.
2. The frog often breathes through its skin either on land or in water.
3. The skin of the frog is thin and very permeable to respiratory
gaseous. The skin is kept moist by the secretion of mucus.
4. Beneath the skin, there are many blood vessels which receive and
transport oxygen to the body cells.
5. The lungs of the frog are a pair of thin-walled sacs that are connected to
the mouth.
6. The membranes of the lungs are thin, moist and surrounded by a
network of blood capillaries.
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The Mechanism of Breathing of a Frog

The nostril open
The base of the oral cavity is lowered
The glottis closes
Air enters the oral cavity
The nostrils close
The glottis opens
The base of the oral cavity is raised
The air pressure increases
Air enters the lungs
The lungs expand
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The respiratory structure and the breathing mechanisms of humans

1. The respiratory system of humans consists of the air passages, a pair of
lungs and the respiratory muscles that facilitate the movement of air into
and out of the lungs.
2. Within the lungs, the air passages end at thin walled alveoli surrounded
by capillaries. Here, gaseous exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
occurs between the alveolar space and the blood by passive diffusion.
3. The respiratory system functions to oxygenate the blood and to remove

carbon dioxide from deoxygenated blood. In removing carbon dioxide,
the respiratory system helps to maintain the pH balance of body fluids.
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4. Air is drawn into the body through the nose. It then enters the nasal
passages. The nasal passages filter, warm and moisten the air. Foreign
particles such as dust are filtered by the nostril hairs and trapped by
mucus secretions.
5. The air then passes the pharynx (the region behind the oral cavity) and
enters the trachea. The opening of the trachea is protected by the
epiglottis that prevents the entry of food.
6. The air first flows through the larynx, and then the trachea which then
branches into two bronchi that enter the lungs.
7. The trachea and bronchi are reinforced with semi-circular cartilage
rings to prevent their collapse during inhalation, when the internal air
pressure drops.
8. The inside walls of the trachea and bronchi are lined with ciliated
epithelial cells and mucus-secreting goblet cells. The mucus traps
small particles present in the air and the cilia sweep the mucus and
trapped particle to the throat to be swallowed or coughed out.
9. The bronchi branch into smaller tubes known as bronchioles which end
in grape-like sacs known as alveoli. Gaseous exchange occurs at the
alveoli.
10.
The air that enters the lungs is free of small particles and microbes
to protect the respiratory surfaces from disease and contamination. The

air is also warmed and moistened by the surrounding tissue.
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Structural adaptation of the alveoli for gaseous exchange

(a)
A large surface area
There are 300-500 million alveoli in an adult humans pair of lungs.

Together, these provide a total surface area of 70 90 m2, 80 times of
the total area of an average adult humans skin.
(b)
A rich supply of blood
The alveoli are supplied with dense networks of blood capillaries. This
allows efficient diffusion of oxygen into the blood and carbon dioxide
out of the blood.
(c)Thin walls
The wall of each alveolus is a single layer of epithelial cells. Each
alveolus is surrounded by a network of one-cell thick capillaries. Only
0.2 m separate the air in the alveolus from the blood in the capillaries.
Diffusion of respiratory gases between the two surfaces is very rapid
(d)
Moist surface
The inside surfaces of the alveoli are lined with a layer of moisture
secreted by the epithelial cells. Respiratory gases dissolve in this
moisture and diffuse efficiently through the walls of the alveoli and
capillaries.
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The Breathin Mechanism
Inhalation
Exhalation
Diaphragm contracts and descends
Diaphragm relaxes and ascends
External internal muscles contract
External intercostal muscles relax
Internal intercostal muscles relax
Internal intercostal muscles contract
Ribcage expands
Ribcage contracts
Thoracic volume and lung volume

increase
Thoracic volume and lung volume

decrease
Air pressure in lungs decreases
Air pressure in lungs increases
Higher external air pressure forces air High air pressure in lungs forces air
to flow into the lungs
to flow out to the exterior
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SBP Trial 2009
a) Based on Diagram 3, explain one adaptation of alveolus for efficient

gases exchange. (2 marks)
b) i) Name P (1 mark)
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ii) Explain the role of P to prevent dirt and bacteria from entering the
alveolus. (2 marks)
c) i) On Diagram 3, draw labeled arrow (
) to show the direction of:
Blood flow
Oxygen diffusion
Carbon dioxide diffusion
(3 marks)
ii) Explain why the diffusion of oxygen occur at the alveolus. (2 marks)
d) A hard mass of food passing down the oesophagus might indirectly

interrupt the air supply to lung by pressing on P. Explain how P
overcome this problem. (2 marks)
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Gaseous Exchange across the Respiratory Surfaces and Transport of

Gases in Humans
Partial pressure of gases and gaseous exchange across respiratory
surfaces
1. The partial pressure of a specific gas is a measure of the
concentration of that particular gas in a mixture of gases. It is
shown as the pressure that the particular gas exerts in gas mixture.
2. Atmospheric pressure at sea level is approximately 760 mm Hg.
Oxygen comprises 21% of atmospheric gas, its partial pressure is
around 159.6 mm Hg. Carbon dioxide which comprises 0.03% of the
atmosphere has a partial pressure of 0.23 mm Hg.
3. In the lungs, respiratory gases diffuse between the alveoli and the
blood; the net direction is dependent on the difference of the partial
pressures of the gas in the two areas.
4. Figure 7.15 shows the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide
in an alveolus and in the surrounding blood capillaries.
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5. The inspired air in the alveolus has a higher oxygen partial

pressure than the dexoygenated blood in the capillaries. Thus,
oxygen diffuses into the blood. Conversely, carbon dioxide diffuses
into the alveolus as inspired air in the alveolus has a lower carbon
dioxide partial pressure than the deoxigenated blood in the
capillaries.
6. Figure 7.16 shows the partial pressure of oxgen and carbon dioxide
respiring cells and the surrounding blood capillaries.
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7. Similarly, diffusion of oxygen from blood in the capillaries into

respiring cells in body tissues occurs, as the carbon dioxide partial
pressure in the blood is higher than in the cells. Diffusion of carbon
dioxide from the respiring cells into the blood also occurs as the
carbon dioxide partial pressure in the cells is higher than in the
blood.The Transport of Respiratory Gases in Humans
Transport of Oxygen
1. In the lungs, oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood, resulting in
oxygenated blood.
2. In oxygenated blood, molecular oxygen is transported in two ways:
a) 98.5% of the oxygen inhaled is bound to haemoglobin in red blood
cells, forming oxyhaemoglobin.
Hb + 4O2
Hb8 (oxyhaemoglobin)
b) 1.5% of the oxygen is dissolved in the plasma

3. The oxygenated blood is then transported to the body tissues. At the
body tissues, the partial pressure of oxygen is higher in the blood than in
the respiring cells.
a) The dissolved oxygen diffuses out from the blood plasma
b) The oxyhaemoglobin in the red blood cells dissociates, forming
haemoglobin and molecular oxygen.
HbO8
Hb + 4O2
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Transport of Carbon Dioxide

1. In the body tissues, cellular respiration uses oxygen and produces carbon
dioxide. Thus, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide. Thus, the partial
pressure of carbon dioxide is higher in the cells than in the blood; this
causes carbon dioxide to diffuse into the blood.
2. Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood in three ways.
a) 7% to 10% of the carbon dioxide is transported in a dissolved state in
blood plasma.
b) Some of the carbon dioxide is reversibly bound to haemoglobin in red
blood cells forming carbaminohaemoglobin. About 20% to 30 % of the
carbon dioxide is transported in this way.
c) 60% to 70% of the carbon dioxide is transported in the form of
bicarbonate ions in plasma. In the red blood cells, carbon dioxide
combines with water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3). This reaction is
catalyzed by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, found in red blood cells.
Carbonic acid then dissociates to form bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) and
hydrogen ions (H+).
CO2 + H2O
H2CO3
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H+ + HCO3-
SBP Midyear Trial 2008
a) i) Based on Diagram 3, name structure X. (1 mark)
ii) State the adaptation of X in order to perform the following

function:
Facilitating the diffusion of gases (1 mark)
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Transportation of oxygen to all the body cells (1 mark)
b) Explain why the concentration of carbon dioxide in the body cells

is always higher than in the blood. (2 marks)
c) i) Compare the concentration of the respiratory gases in the blood

vessels labelled P and Q. (1 mark)
ii) Describe how the following respiratory gases are transported in

the blood.
Oxygen (2 marks)
Carbon dioxide (2 marks)
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d) A boy used to smoke cigarettes during his leisure time. Explain

how his bad habit affects his lungs. (2 marks)
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Composition of Inhaled and Exhaled Air in Humans

Component
Inhaled Air
Exhaled
Air
Nitrogen
78%
78%
Oxygen
21%
16%
Oxygen is absorbed from inhaled

air and used for cellular
respiration.
Carbon
dioxide
0.03%
4%
Carbon dioxide is produced

during cellular respiration and
excreted from the body during
exhalation.
Saturated
Exhaled air is saturated with water

vapour because water evaporates
from the mucus and cells lining
the air passages. Besides that, one
of the waste products of cellular
respiration is water which will be
eliminated out through the lungs.
Water vapour Variable
Temperature
Explanation
External
Body
Exhaled air comes from the body
environmental temperature which has been warmed by body
temperature,
temperature.
usually lower
than body
temperature
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The Regulatory Mechanism of Respiration

Control of the breathing rate
1. Changes in the breathing rate can be caused by afferent information
received by the respiratory centre. This information includes information
about the partial pressure of oxygen, information about the partial
pressure of carbon dioxide, blood pH.
2. This information comes from specialized cells called chemoreceptors
that respond to chemical stimuli.
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3. There are two types of chemoreceptors.

a) Central chemoreceptors
These are cells in the medulla oblongata that are sensitive to changes in
the partial pressure of carbon dioxide and pH in the cerebrospinal
fluid.
If the level of carbon dioxide in the blood increases, for example,
during vigorous exercise, then the carbon dioxide and carbonic acid
concentrations increase in the cerebrospinal fluid.
The respiratory centre is stimulated. The centre instructs the
diaphragm and external intercostal muscles to increase their
contraction rate. This increases the breathing rate.
More carbon dioxide is removed from the blood. The bloods carbon
dioxide level and pH return to normal. Negative feedback then causes
the respiration rate to decrease to normal.
b) Peripheral chemoreceptors
These are located in the aortic bodies on the aorta, and the carotid
bodies on the carotid arteries.
They are connected by nerves to the respiratory centre and are sensitive
to changes in the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide, and
also to the pH of the blood leaving the heart.
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During vigorous exercise, in the blood, the oxygen partial pressure

decreases and the carbon dioxide partial pressure increases.
If the arterial blood reaching the carotid body has a too low oxygen
partial pressure or a too high carbon dioxide partial pressure, the
peripheral chemoreceptors are stimulated.
Information is sent to the respiratory centre to increase the breathing
rate.
The increased breathing rate allows the intake of more oxygen and the
removal of more carbon dioxide from the blood.
When the partial pressures have returned to normal, the respiratory rate
returns to normal.
4. The respiratory centre also receives information from proprioreceptors

in the muscles, tendons and joints.
During physical activity, the muscles, tendons and joints are
stretched; this stimulates the proprioreceptors which then send
impulses to the respiratory centre to bring about an immediate increase
in the breathing rate so that the body can rapidly increase its oxygen
intake.
5. Breathing can also be influenced by other parts of the brain. A person
can consciously breathe more deeply and more rapidly.
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6. Receptors in the skin that are sensitive to stimuli when suddenly

stimulated can also cause immediate increases in the breathing rate. This
allows greater oxygen intake that may be necessary for the fight-orflight response.
The human respiratory response in different situations
At rest
1. When at rest, the bodys energy needs are low. The levels of blood pH,
carbon dioxide partial pressure and oxygen partial pressure are within
the normal range. All the receptors are not abnormally stimulated.
2. Therefore, the respiratory centre only affects its normal stimulation of
the respiratory muscles. The respiration rate and heartbeat rate are
normal.
During vigorous activity

1. Vigorous physical activity requires greater energy expenditure and the
rate of cellular respiration increases to generate this energy. This higher
respiration rate requires more oxygen and glucose, and will produce
more carbon dioxide.
2. An increased breathing rate allows more oxygen to be absorbed into the
bloodstream and more carbon dioxide to be expelled from the body.
39
3. An increased heartbeat rate allows more blood carrying oxygen and

glucose to be pumped to the bodys tissues, and more blood carrying
carbon dioxide to be pumped to the lungs for excretion.
Fear
1. At the face of a threat, a person readies himself for a fight or for flight.
This is aptly named fight-or-flight response. It is mediated by hormone
adrenaline that is secreted by the adrenal glands.
2. The effects of adrenaline on the circulo-respiratory system include
An increase in the heartbeat rate, 5 times as much output as its
normal volume to pump more oxygen and glucose to tissues such as
the muscles.
Arteries constricting to maximize pressure around the bodys
systems and veins dilating to speed up the return of blood to the heart.
The breathing rate speeds up so that more oxygen can be absorbed
into the bloodstream and more carbon dioxide can be excreted.
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At high altitudes
1. As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases as the air becomes
thinner. There is less oxygen in the atmosphere.
2. At high altitudes, with each normal breath, a person takes in relatively
less air, and thus, less oxygen into the lungs, compared to breathing at
sea level.
3. The result is lower blood oxygen levels (hypoxia) which can causes
altitude sickness. The symptoms include headaches, breathlessness,
fatigue, nausea, and swelling of the face, hands and feet.
4. For mountain climbers, acclimatization to high altitudes starts with an
increase in both the breathing rate and the heartbeat rate.
5. After a few weeks at high altitudes, the body further adapts by
increasing red blood cell production in the bone marrow to increase the
bloods oxygen-carrying capacity. Production of myoglobin, the
oxygen-carrying protein in cardiac muscles, also increases. The body
also develops more capillaries in response to altitude as this allows faster
diffusion of oxygen to the cells.
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The Contents of Cigarette Smoke and The Dangers of Smoking

1. The chemicals in cigarette smoke include:
Benzene: a colourless cyclic hydrocarbon obtained from coal and
petroleum, used as a petrol additive and as a solvent in chemical
manufacture. It is a known carcinogen and is associated with
leukaemia.
Formaldehyde: a colourless, highly poisonous liquid, used to
preserve dead bodies. It is known to cause cancer, respiratory, skin
and gastrointestinal problems.
Ammonia: used in cleaning fluids. In cigarettes, it turns nicotine
from tobacco into a gaseous form which is easily absorbed in the
lungs.
Tar: a particulate drawn into the lungs with cigarette smoke. Once
inhaled, the smoke condenses and the tar is deposited in the airways,
paralyzing the cilia of the epithelial lining.
Nicotine: one of the most addictive substances known to man. It is
the main cause of addiction to smoking. It is also a powerful and fastacting poison and can be used as an insecticide.
Carbon Monoxide: an odourless, tasteless and poisonous gas.
Compared to oxygen, haemoglobin has a higher affinity for carbon
dioxide. In the blood, it reduces the supply of oxygen to the bodys
tissues.
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Arsenic: a rat poison

Hydrogen cyanide: a respiratory enzyme inhibitor used as a gas
chamber poison.
2. The effect of smoking include:

a) Cancer
The risk of dying from lung cancer is more than 20 times higher
among men who smoke cigarettes, and about 10 times higher
among women who smoke cigarettes, compared o non-smokers.
Because toxins from cigarette smoke are transported all round he
body, smoking also causes cancers of the bladder, oral cavity,
oesophagus, cervix, kidney, lung, pancreas and stomach.
b) Cardiovascular Disease
Smoking can result in coronary heart disease because it causes
narrowing of the arteries, thus reducing blood circulation.
It increases the risk of coronary heart disease and stroke by 2 -4
times. Smokers are 10 times more likely to develop peripheral
vascular disease, compared to nonsmokers.
c) Respiratory Disease
Cigarette smoking causes a ten-fold increase in the risk of dying
from obstructive lung disease (chronic bronchitis and emphysema)
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d) Birth Defects
Cigarette smoking among expectant mothers causes an increased
risk of infertility, stillbirth, low birth weight and sudden infant
death syndrome (SIDS).
Respiration in Plants
The intake of oxygen by plants
1. In green plant tissues that are capable of photosynthesis, the oxygen for
respiration comes from photosynthesis and the carbon dioxide from
respiration is used for photosynthesis.
2. However, in non-green parts of the plants, and in all parts of the plant
when light intensity is low, there is either insufficient or no oxygen from
photosynthesis.
3. Oxygen for respiration has to be obtained from the external
environment, and the carbon dioxide from respiration has to be expelled
to the external environment.
4. Gaseous exchange occurs between a plant and the external environment
through diffusion. Leaf surfaces have openings called stomata that
allow gaseous exchange to occur.
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5. All other plant surfaces such as the roots, stems, branches and twigs
have openings called lenticels which also allow gaseous exchange.
Lenticel on the plant twig

6. In the leaves, when light intensity is low, photosynthesis becomes very
slow or stops completely.
7. However cellular respiration continues. As oxygen concentration in the
leaves intercellular spaces becomes lower than in the external
environment, external oxygen diffuse through the stomatal pores into
the intercellular spaces, and into the cells for respiration.
8. Cellular respiration produces carbon dioxide, which diffuses out of
the cells into the intercellular, which diffuses out of the cells into the
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intercellular spaces. The carbon dioxide concentration in the

intercellular spaces becomes higher than in the external environment;
carbon dioxide diffuses out through the stomatal pores, and out of the
leaves.
9. In the plants roots, stems, branches and twigs, the living tissue does not
photosynthesise but does respire. External oxygen constantly diffuses
down to the concentration gradient, through the lenticels, into the
plant for aerobic respiration. Similarly, carbon dioxide constantly
diffuses down its concentration gradient out through the lenticels,
and out of the plant.
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Respiration and photosynthesis in plants

1. A plant will absorb or release gases (oxygen or carbon dioxide)
depending on light intensity.
2. Figure 7.24 shows a graph depicting respiration and photosynthesis rate
in a plant at different light intensities.
a) In bright light,
The rate of photosynthesis is faster than the rate of respiration
Thus, plant produces more oxygen than it uses, and uses more carbon
dioxide than it produces.
Under very high light intensity, the photosynthesis rate does not
increase further due to limiting factors such as carbon dioxide
concentration.
b) As light intensity decreases,
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The rate of photosynthesis drops, but the rate of respiration

remains constant.
The rate of photosynthesis decreases until a point when it is equal
to the rate of respiration. This is the compensation point.
c) As light intensity decreases further (until it reaches zero)
The rate of photosynthesis drops to zero is tandem, but respiration
continues at its constant rate.
When the rate of photosynthesis becomes lower than the rate of
respiration, plants produce more carbon dioxide than is produced.
3. If the photosynthesis rate falls below the respiration rate for an extended
period of time, the plants would eventually die when their energy stores
are depleted.
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Form 4 Biology Chapter 7: Respiration

The Respiratory Process in Energy Production

Form 4 Biology Chapter 7: Respiration

Energy Production in Aerobic Respiration

Form 4 Biology Chapter 7: Respiration

Much of the energy is still trapped within the molecules of lactic

The accumulation of lactic acid can reach a high level of

concentration which can cause muscle cramps and fatigue.

Form 4 Biology Chapter 7: Respiration

This contributes to the exhaustion a person feels during and after a

period of intense exercise.

The person needs to breathe in deeply and rapidly in order to

inhale more oxygen.

The excess oxygen is used by the body to oxidize the

accumulated lactic acid to carbon dioxide and water.

Oxidation of lactic acid occurs mainly in liver. A portion of the

lactic acid is oxidized to produce energy. The remaining lactic acid is

This happens through the increased breathing rate after vigorous

Therefore, an oxygen debt is the amount of oxygen needed to

remove lactic acid from the muscle cells.

Form 4 Biology Chapter 7: Respiration

Form 4 Biology Chapter 7: Respiration

Anaerobic respiration in yeast

Form 4 Biology Chapter 7: Respiration

Comparison between aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Lactic acid and energy (in

A small amount of energy

Where the process takes

Form 4 Biology Chapter 7: Respiration

The Respiratory Structures and Breathing Mechanisms in Humans

Form 4 Biology Chapter 7: Respiration

The respiratory structure and breathing mechanism of insects

2. The respiratory system of insects is separated from the circulatory

Form 4 Biology Chapter 7: Respiration

Form 4 Biology Chapter 7: Respiration

Form 4 Biology Chapter 7: Respiration

The structural adaptation of gills for gaseous exchange

Form 4 Biology Chapter 7: Respiration

Form 4 Biology Chapter 7: Respiration

The respiratory structure and breathing mechanism of fish

1. The breathing mechanism of fish involves gill ventilation which is

Form 4 Biology Chapter 7: Respiration

The respiratory structure and breathing mechanism of amphibians

Form 4 Biology Chapter 7: Respiration

The Mechanism of Breathing of a Frog

Form 4 Biology Chapter 7: Respiration

Form 4 Biology Chapter 7: Respiration

The respiratory structure and the breathing mechanisms of humans

3. The respiratory system functions to oxygenate the blood and to remove

Form 4 Biology Chapter 7: Respiration

to protect the respiratory surfaces from disease and contamination. The

Form 4 Biology Chapter 7: Respiration

Form 4 Biology Chapter 7: Respiration

Structural adaptation of the alveoli for gaseous exchange

A large surface area

There are 300-500 million alveoli in an adult humans pair of lungs.

A rich supply of blood

Form 4 Biology Chapter 7: Respiration

The Breathin Mechanism

Diaphragm contracts and descends

Diaphragm relaxes and ascends

External internal muscles contract

External intercostal muscles relax

Internal intercostal muscles relax