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CHAPTER -1
INTRODUCTION
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1. INTRODUCTION
The voltage regulator is intended for the excitation and control of generator
equipped with DC exciter employing generator field breaker. The excitation equipment of
the generator and its inter connections with the voltage regulator is shown in the black
diagram below.
The station auxiliary supply 415V, 50Hz 3-phase normally provides supply to the
thyristor sets. Arrangements in the AVR to work with two feeders of station auxiliary are
available. This will lead to change over of operation feeder. Once feeder-1 becomes
healthy there will be an automatic change over to feeder-1.The switching of feeder-1&2
will be by operating breaker Q3&Q4.
The main parts of the voltage regulator equipment are two closed loop control
system including a separate gate control set and thyristor set each. Control system-1 is
automatic channel controlling the generator voltage.Controlsystem-2 is the manual
channel that is a field current regulator. Field discharge normally is initiated on shut down
of the generator by a speed dependent of reverse power relay, or in fault situations by the
generator protection equipment. Field discharge commands to drive the thyristor set to
the maximum negative output.(inverter operation) via the gate control set in operation .in
addition to this a tripping command I given to the main exciter field breaker. This field
breaker connects a discharge resistor across the field of main exciter for affective field
suppression. On the generator field side, the breaker Q1 connects a discharge resistor
across generator field and disconnects field from the DC exciter.
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Channel- 1 (auto channel) is built as voltage regulator and is on doing normal operations.
In addition to the voltage regulator, which has a PID control algorithm, this auto channel
also contains various limiters and corrective control circuits to ensure the use and stable
operation of the synchronous machine unto its operating limits. This channel possesses a
gate control unit with a subsequent final stage to generate the firing pulses for the
thyristor converter. During normal operations (auto), the pulse final stage of the
automatic channel is active and transmits the firing pulses to the auto thyristor bridge
pulse transformer. Various monitoring functions of the auto channel initiate the automatic
switch over to channel-2 in case of a malfunction.
Channel-2 (manual) is built as a simple field current regulator with a PI control
algorithm. It serves awes aback up channel in case of a malfunction of the automatic
channel, and is also used for the commissioning and for special machine tests. This
channel consists number of special limiters to ensure that the synchronous machine will
always remain with in operating limits. For this reason, operation using the field current
regulator requires expert adjustment of the machines operating point and continuous
monitoring of the machine by the in operating staff. When ever the generators operating
limiters are exceeded, the safety devices respond immediately by the shutting down the
excitation and the generator.
The manual channel has its own gate control unit (the software for the field
current regulator is also implemented there in) and it own pulse final stage. During
normal operation (automatic), the output pulses from the final stage are blocked. Various
monitoring on the manual channel initiate an alarm in cease of malfunctioning while the
manual channel is on stand by. If the manual channel suffers a malfunctioning while it is
in operation the excitation is switched off (trip).
Both channels are equipped with tracking equipment so that the inactive channel
always generates the same control variable as the active channel during steady state
operation.
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This ensure that the manual channel will, in a switch over initiated by
malfunction, take over the operating point of the machine as is was prior to the problem;
the response of the tracking for the manual channel is set relatively slow.
The excitation system has an atones excitation monitoring. As one of its functions,
this equipment monitors for field currents that exceed acceptable maximum limits. It
initiates an emergency switch over through the manual channel whenever the field
current exceeds the present value. if even after such a switch over, the field current does
not drop back to the permissible level, the excitation is switched off. The excitation
monitoring checks these measuring inputs for discrepancy and plausibility. An alarm is
always initiated in case of malfunction. In certain cases, a switch over channel to is also
initiated.
Generally conventional method suffers from cooling and maintenance problems
associated with slip rings, brushes and commutators as alternator rating rise. The trend
towards modern excitation systems has been to decrease these problems by minimizing
the number of sliding contacts and brushes. This trend led to development of static
excitation.
A good number of protection devices are installed in the static excitation scheme
for an possible fault in the excitation system.
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2. Regulated voltage: The voltage, which is held with in specified band or zone
during steady or gradually loads conditions with in specified range of load.
5. Pilot exciter: The equipment providing for field current to the exciter field.
6. Automatic Voltage Regulator: A subsystem of excitation system for regulating
the terminal voltage of synchronous machine automatically.
and feed forward control elements for controlling the synchronous machine output
variables
9. Rated field current: direct current in the field winding of the synchronous
machine operating at rated voltage, current, power factor.
10. Rated field voltage: Direct voltage required across the terminals of the field
winding of the synchronous machine under the rated continuous load conditions with
field winding at specified temperature (e.g. 75c).
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12. Exciter voltage response time: Time in seconds for exciter voltage to reach
95% of the under specified conditions.
13. Excitation system ceiling voltage: The maximum D.C voltage, which the
excitation system can supply to the generator field winding for a specified short time.
14. Field forcing the control function that rapidly forces the field current in the
synchronous machine in the positive or negative direction.
15. Voltage regulating adjuster: A device associated with the regulator by which
the adjustment in terminal voltage of synchronous generator can be made.
16. Limiter: It is an element in the excitation system that acts to limit variable under
the certain predetermined condition.
a. Under excitation limiter: prevents the voltage regulator from
in
lowering
b.Over excitation limiter: Prevents the voltage from rising in field current
below specified limit.
C.Volts per hertz limiter: Acts through voltage regulator to limits v / f ratio
with in specified limits and takes corrective action to make v / f nominal.
17. Manual control: The control of terminal voltage of synchronous generator and
by operates action e.g. by adjusting field rheostat, controlling of firing the
thyristor controlled rectifier.
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18. De-excitation: Removal of excitation of main exciter or pilot exciter for example
by of opening field circuit and discharging the field by means of field discharge
circuit breaker.
19. Power system stabilizer: A group of elements in the excitation system that
supplement the voltage regulating function and provide additional regulating
function to improve the dynamic performance of the power system.
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CHAPTER -2
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
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2. SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
Synchronous Generator
Consider an alternator connected to an infinite bus
An infinite bus means a large integrated power system whose frequency and voltage will
not change in case some changes are stipulated in the system input or the excitation
circuit of an alternator which is connected to the system. Our objective here is to study
the behavior of the generator (incoming) when a change in its steam input or change in its
excitation circuit is stipulated. It is to be noted that there is no signal bus in a large
interconnected system, which should be considered as infinite bus. Rather any bus could
be considered as an infinite bus and the whole existing system should be considered as an
infinite system with respect to the incoming alternator whose behavior is to be studied.
Or in large system we could consider one of the alternators whose behavior is to be
studied as a finite machine and the rest of the system as an infinite bus. In order to study
the effect of change in steam input and change in excitation on the performance of the
generator the following expressions are to be evaluated
I=E (-90) Xd -V-90/Xd
Power P= [VI*] =EV sin/ Xd
Reactive power Q=Im[VI*]
= (EV cos-V2)/Xd
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If cos is the power factor of the alternator, the active and reactive power are also given
as
P=VI cos
Q=VI sin
Therefore
EV sin/Xd=VI cos
(EV cos-V) Xd =VI sin
From the above equation it is clear that the alternator operates at unity P.F. If the reactive
power delivered by the alternator is zero i.e.
(EV cos-V)/ Xd =0 or Ecos=V
The excitation of the alternator corresponding to this operation (unity power factor) is
known as normal excitation. The alternator delivers lagging VARS to the infinite bus if
(EV cos-V)/ Xd>0 or
EV cos >V
And the alienator is said to over excited as cos <=1 and now E should be greater than
the value of E under unity power factor operation as V is constant for an infinite bus
system. Similarly, if the alternator absorbs lagging VARS from the system
EV cos <V
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By the generator, its power angle and induced voltage are Q, and E respectively .Our
objective is to find out these values if excitation of the alternator is changes.
A) Excitation increased:
1) Initial power factor lagging
Esin/Xd=1cos
Since excitation is increased E increased and there is no change in active power.
1cos=constant and therefore
Esin=constant also
as E increased sin should decreased, therefore, decreases.
As decreases and E increases and so Q increases.
Again
P+Q = (V1)
No change
, cos
Decreases
E, Q, 1
increases
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Summarizing
P,V,f
no change
1,,|Q|
decreases
E,cos
increases
B) Excitation decreases:
1) Power factor lagging
With decreases in excitation, the induced voltage E of the generator decreases and hence
for constant power , sin increases and , therefore, increases, Q decreases as
Q= (EV cos V)/Xd > 0.
And E and cos decreases, therefore, Q decreases and I decreases.
Since I decreases, and as I cos = constant, cos increases.
Summarizing
P,V,f
no change
Q,I,E
decreases
,cos
increases
no change
E,cos
decreases
I,,|Q|
increase
In fact all these result can be easily explained with the help of phasor diagram
Here E sin = constant and I cos = constant i.e. with increase or decrease in E its
component normal to V will be constant i.e. its arrow head will lie along a line parallel to
and a at distance E sin. Similarly the arrow head of I will lie along a line whose loci is I
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cos=constant.
From the phasor diagram
E1>E, I1>I, cos,1 <
Hence Q1>Q,P,V and f remain unchanged
Incase the excitation is decreased, the same phasor diagram can be used with suffix I as
the initial operation condition.
C) Steam input increased: With steam input increases,V,f and E remaining constant,
increases as
EV sin /Xd = P1 as P1>P,1
1) initial p.f lag
Q = (EV cos -V)/Xd >0
As cos decreases
Now =tan-1(Q/P)
As Q has decreased and P has increased decreases and so p.f. improves. As has
increased and E1=E current increases
Summarizing
E,V,f
no change
cos ,I,P
increase
decrease
no change
no change
P,
increase
decrease
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Similarly if the steam input is decreased its effect on the various parameters can be
studied. Figure below shows the effect of increases in steam input on the various
parameters for an initially lagg in p.f
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CHAPTER -3
TYPES OF EXCITATION SYSTEM
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The earliest AC turbine generator obtained their excitation supply from the power station
direct current distribution system. Each machine has a rheostat in series with its field
winding to permit adjustment of the terminal voltage and reactive load. This method was
suitable for machines, which needed small field power requirement also increased,
excitation power requirements also increased and became increasingly desirable for each
unit to be self excitation and thus the shaft driven DC exciter was introduced.
2. Static system
In order to maintain system stability it is necessary to have fast excitation system for
large synchronous machines which means the field current must be adjusted extremely
fast to changing operational conditions. Besides maintaining the field current and steady
state stability the excitation system is in this system, the ac power is tapped off from the
generator terminals stepped and rectified by fully controlled thyristor bridges and then
fed to the generator field there by controlling the generator voltage output. A high
controlled is achieved by using an inertial free control and power electronic system. Any
deviation in the generator terminal voltage is sensed by an error detector and causes the
voltage regulator to advance or retard the firing angle of the thyristors there by
controlling field excitation of the generator
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3. Brushless system:
Supply of high current by means of slip rings involves considerable operational problems
and it requires suitable design of slip rings and brush gear.
In brushless excitation systems diode rectifiers are mounted on the generator shaft and
their output is directly connected to the alternator. Thus eliminating brushes and slip
rings. This arrangement necessitates the use of rotating armature and stationary field
system for the main the AC exciter. The voltage regulator final stages take the form of the
main AC exciter. The voltage regulator final stages take the form of a thyristor bridge
controlling the field of the main AC exciter, which is fed from PMG on the same shaft.
The response ratio of brushless excitation is normally about 2. Required to extend the
stability limits. It because of these reasons the static excitation system is preferred to
conventional excitation systems.
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OPERATIONALAMPLIFIER:
The circuit schematic of an op-amp is a triangle. It has two input terminals and output
terminal. The terminal with a (-) sign is called inverting input terminal and the terminal
with (+) sign is called the non-inverting input terminal.
DIFFERENTIATOR:
One of the simplest of the op-amp circuits that contain capacitor is the differentiating
amplifier, or differentiator. As name suggests the circuit performance the mathematical
operation of differentiator that is the output waveform is the derivative of input
waveform.
Figure
INTEGRATOR:
A simple low pass RC circuit can also work as an integrator when time constant is very
large values of R and C. the output waveform for step, since wave and square wave.
Fig
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CHAPTER -4
EXCITATION SYSTEM
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4. EXCITATION SYSTEM
EXCITATION SYSTEM
BASIC FUNCTION
To meet the excitation power requirements of the generator under all operating
conditions i.e. to provide the required DC current to the field of the generator.
OTHER FUNCTIONS
Ensure that the capacity limits of the generator are not exceeded.
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c. Limiters.
d. Series compounding.
Type B
a. Basic static AVR.
b. Static AVR with limiters.
c. Slip stabilization-optional features
Initial excitation build-up circuit: For all generators, which supply their
excitation power directly from generator terminals, a special excitation build-up circuit is
provided. The remanence voltage of the generator supplied by a transformer is brought to
auxiliary diodes through contacts of the contactor. The AC voltage is rectified and
impressed in to the field winding through a protecting resistance and miniature circuit
breaker. As soon as a remanence voltage, which is depending on the speed, is high
enough, the voltage at the generator is built-up. When about 60% of rated voltage is
attained the conductor, the coil of which is connected to the rectified second auxiliary
voltage interrupts the excitation build-up circuit. The control itself takes over and the
generator voltage according to frequency at the adjusted nominal value.
Basic advantages:
1. Long life and fast operation.
2. Absence of mechanical inertia and bouncing of contacts, high resistance to shock
and vibrations.
3. High noise immunity and surge proof.
4. Modular construction, alternating and expansion is easier on smaller side.
5. Interfacing with more elaborate control system.
Conclusion:
Static AVR for indirectly excited synchronous generators is an up to date
andinancially attractive system having certain specific advantages over other systems.
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The equipment is housed in standard cubicles. The rating of the excitation system is:
If normal
= 1460A
Ifmax
1606A
Ufnominal
= 435V
Ufd
= 696V
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STATIC EXCITATION
MAIN COMPONENTS:
EXCITAION TRANSFORMER
CROW-BAR MODULE
It can be designed without and difficulty to provide high response ratio, which is required
by the system. The response ration of the order 3 to 5 can be achieved by this system.
This equipment controls the generator terminal voltage and hence the reactive load flow
by adjusting the excitation current. The rotating exciter is dispensed with and silicon
controlled rectifiers are used which directly feed the field of alternator.
EXCITATON TRANSFORMER:
Maintenance free dry type with Epoxy cast insulation for high reliability
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The excitation power is taken from generator output and fed through the excitation
(rectifier) transformer, which steps down to the required voltage, for the SCR Bridge and
then through riled breaker to the generator field. The rectifier transformer used in the
static excitation system should have high reliability, as failure of this will cause shut
down of power station.
Dry type cast oil transformer is suitable for static excitation applications. The transformer
is selected such that it supplies excitation current at rated voltage continuously and is
capable of supplying ceiling current at the ceiling excitation for short time of 10 seconds.
The excitation system is supplied with a dry-type three phase transformer with the vector
Y d5.
The excitation transformer is connected directly to the 11kv generator. The secondary of
the transformer is connected to both rectifier cubicles via cables.
Primary voltage
11KV
Frequency
Vector group
Yd5
>6%
Cooling
AN
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50HZ
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An earthed shield is situated between the primary and secondary windings of the
transformer in order protect the rectifiers from the transient over voltages in the 11KV
mains. For the protection of the three phase transformer against overheating, a
temperature monitoring system is supplied. It contains three parts: two systems supervise
the voltage windings (alarm and trip), one system supervises the core (trip)
CONVERTER BRIDGE:
Two converter panels with open type forced ventilation with double
Fans in the
same
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The SCR output stage consists of a suitable number of bridges connected in parallel.
Each thyristor bridge comprises of 6 thyristors, working as a six pulse full controlled
bridge. Current carrying capacity of each bridge depends on the rating of the individual
thyristors. Thyristors are designed such that their junction temperature rise is well within
its specified rating. By changing the firing angle of the thyristors, variable out put is
obtained. Each bridge is controlled by one final pulse stage and is cooled by a fan.
These bridges are equipped with protection devices and failure of one bridge causes
alarm. If there is a failure of one or more thyrister bridge excitation current will be
limited to a pre-determined value lesser than the normal current. However, failure of the
Thired Bridge results in tripping and de-excitation of the generator.
The 3 phase A.C bridges are connected via cables to the excitation transformer. The D.C
output is connected via cables to the existing de-excitation system. Each of both cubicles
contains one Thyrister Bridge, the fuses and the auxiliary circuits for the thyristors. The
modules of AVR, ECR and the excitation equipment control system as well as the firing
circuits and the fuse monitoring devices are mounted into an electronic box near by both
the thyristor rectifier-bridges.
The firing pulses are generated in the trigger set abd amplified by the pulse amplifier. A
matched fuse protects each thyristor module.
A cooling fan cools each rectifier bridge. The fans are mounted on the top of the cubicles.
The ventilators are protected by motor circuit breakers.
The airflow monitoring devices are house in the ducts between the fans and the thyristors.
In the active channel (cubicle) fails a switch over to the other channel is caused. The
continuous follow-up control results in a switch over with very small changes in the
reactive load.
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Pulse generation:
Each output of the synchronization circuit is connected to the trigger set. This control unit
produces firing angles at the output with a duration of 120 electrical
o, G , w are
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adhered in order to ensure reliable communication, i.e. switching of the current from one
thyristor arm to the next.
Not possible to build-up voltage during starting with the residual voltage in the
Stepped down, rectified and then fed to the field through a pre-excitation contactor
As soon as the voltage builds up to around 45 % , the main excitation takes over
Pre-excitation becomes off at 8 % of the nominal field current with a back- up timer
with 15 s
If the voltage is not reaching 50 % in 6 s while building up in Auto, change over takes
place to manual and there is a chance of Turbine tripping.
For the initial build up of the generator voltage, field flashing equipment is required.
The rating of this equipment depends on the no load excitation requirement and field time
constant of the generator. From the reliability point of view, provision for both AC and
DC field flashing is provided. The field breaker is selected such that it carries full load
excitation current continuously and also it breaks the maximum field current when the
three-phase short circuit occurs at generator terminals. The field discharge is normally of
non- linear type for medium and large machines i.e., voltage dependent resistor.
To protect the field winding of the generator against over voltages, an over voltage
protector along with a current limiting resistor is used to limit the over voltage across the
field winding. The OVP operates on the insulation break over principle. The voltage level
at which the OVP should operate is selected based on the insulation level of field winding
of the generator. 6 field flashing
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Normally the field flashing device is supplied from the 415V station service. If that
supply fails, which is detected by U < really, the power supply is switched over to the
220V station battery.
De-excitation:
Because the de-excitation system is a part of the generator protection, it must ensure the
de-excition of the synchronous generator, independent of the reaming excitation system.
Therefore a sure disconnection between the thyristor bridges (feeding power supply) and
the rotor is necessary. For this device the THYRIPOL Excitation System uses the
existing field circuit breaker, which disconnects the rectifier from the generator field.
An important assumption is to close in each case during de- excitation the field of the
generator; otherwise high over voltages will be caused. In our case the excitation energy
will be discharged over the de-excitation resistor. This resistor fixes the de-excitation
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time and the voltage at the field and the rectifier thyristor. For redundancy the rectifier is
driven as inverted rectifier.
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Control Electronics:
Regulator is the heart of the system. This regulates the generator voltage by controlling
the firing pulses to the thyristors.
C) Pulse amplifier:
The pulse output of the grid control unit is amplified further at intermediate stage
amplification. This is known as a pulse intermediate stage, the unit has a DC power
supply, which operates from a three phase 380V supply and delivers +5V, -15V, +5V and
a source stabilized voltage V. a built in relay is provided which can be used for blocking
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the six pulse channels. In a two-channel system, the change over is affected by
energizing/ de-energizing the relay.
f) Follow up unit:
To ensure a smooth switch over from a auto to manual control, it is necessary that the
position of pulses on the both channels should be identical a comparison unit defects any
difference in position of pulses and with a help of follow up unit activates the motor
operated potentiometer on the manual channel to turn in to a direction so as to eliminate
the difference, however, while transferring control from manual to auto made any
difference in control levels can be visually checked on a balanced meter and adjusted to
obtain null before change over.
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g) Limit controllers:
When a generator is running in parallel with the power network, it is essential to maintain
it in synchronism without exceeding the rating of the machine and also without the
protection system tripping. The automatic voltage regulator by itself cannot ensure this. It
is necessary to supplement the basic voltage regulators by limiters to limit over the
excitation and under excitation. Limiters dont replace the protection system but only
prevent the protection system from tripping unnecessarily under extreme transient
conditions.
The AVR also has a built in frequency dependent circuit so that when the machine is
running below the rated frequency, the regulated voltage should be proportional to
frequency. With the help of a potentiometer in the AVR, the circuit can be made to
respond proportionally to voltage above a certain frequency. The range of adjustment of
this cut-off frequency lies between 40 and 60HZ.
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This avoid thermal over loading of the stator windings. Stator current limiter is provided
to protect the generator against long duration of large stator currents. For excessive
inductive currents it acts over the AVR after a certain time lag and decreases the
excitation current
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auxiliary transformer. The voltage is reduced to different levels required for the power
packs by means of multi winding transformers.
A separate transformer supplies the synchronous voltage 3*380V for the filter circuit of
each channel and the voltage relay. During testing and pre-commissioning activities when
the generator voltage is not available, the step down transformer is used for testing
purpose with the help of a regulator test/service switch.
The supply for the thyristor bridge fan taken from an independent transformer, which gets
its input supply from the secondary of the excitation transformer. The control &
protection relays need 48V & 24V DC which are delivered from the station battery by
means of DC/DC converters, which are internally protected against overload.
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Instantaneous
Excitation
Failure of
Failure of
Failure of Auto channel power supply in case Manual follow-up switch is in off
position
PROTECTION ON AC SIDE:
transformer primary
Protection against voltage oscillations due to change over
PROTECTION ON DC SIDE:
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40
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CHAPTER -5
AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
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Field current of the Generator is matched extremely fast to the varying operating
conditions
Control
Output voltage of
the bride is changed by advancing or retarding the firing angle of the thyristor
ANALOG VERSION:
Difficult to incorporate automatic diagnostic features like self monitoring & fault
detection
Number of cards & modules required for configuring a system with complex control
DIGITAL VERSION:
A control bus
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Ease of setting & measuring of the stored parameters and variables using local
Micro terminal
Settings are in digital form and hence stable behavior even with distorted synchronous
voltage
Easy adaptation
other system.
to network disturbances
Better reliability
unauthorized operation
Smaller
measurement
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Designs:
The digital voltage regulator is for the execution and closed loop control of generators
with static excitation systems. Open loop and closed loop control of the excitations
system are implemented in the T400 processor modules. The T400 modules are located in
the SIMOREG-DG MASTER unit. This digital processor module is part of the
SIMADYN-D family and contains a 32-bit microprocessor with I/Os. The software of
digital open loop and closed loop control is the D7-ES programming language. The open
loop control comprises evaluation and interlocking of command from the control room
and other part of plant on the input side, and essentially the formation and evaluation
status signals and faults alarms on the output side.
excitation system and the higher level I&C is implemented by means of hardwired
connection via the serial communication interface S-32.from here, data transfer is
performed to the T400 processor module via fibro elastic connection to the serial
communication board SCB1which is also integrated in the electronic box of the imoregdc-master. The SCB1 is connected to the T400 via the rear SIDE BUS.
Under voltage monitoring relays supervise the internal voltages 1L+2L+.if the voltage of
running channel is missing,a switchover to the standby channels results.
Operator control from the control room/ unit control board (UCB)
Open loop control is performed from the control room / UCB and is working to both
channels.
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one AVR
one ECR
Operation is possible both in automatic mode (generator voltage regulator) and in
Excitation on/off
in automatic mode
in manual mode
In addition to various status signal, e.g. excitation is on /off, different Alarms, the
reference value of field current and the actual value field current are given to the control
room via isolating amplifiers as 4 to 20mA analogue signals.
LOCAL CONTROL:
For maintenance and commissioning or for failure detection the local control unit OP1S
are implemented, which are mounted in the front door of each cubical (+CHN01/ 02).
Also different analogue actual values will be retrieved.
All alarms will be stored in the message processor system and will be indicated in clear
text at the display of the parameterization module is possible after selecting/ reading of
all message and elimination of the faults in position local control the following control
functions are possible:
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Excitation off is possible when the generator is not connected to the grid. If the
excitation system does not react to the on or off command please puse first the other
button and then once more the correct button. E.g. if the excitation is off and can not be
switched on, first press the o button and after this the 1 button.
Switch over from ECR to AVR is only possible, when the actual of the generator voltage
is in the range of the reference value setter.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Fault UR_DETECTION
8.
fan draft
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CHAPTER-6
PERFORMANCE AND
CHARACTERISTICS OF STATIC
EXCITATION
EQUIPMENT
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conditions.
b)
Satisfactory
operation
with
other
machines
connected
in
parallel.
CEILING VOLTAGE:
It is the maximum voltage that can be impressed on the field under specified conditions.
Ceiling voltage ultimately determines how fast the field current can be change. For
normal disturbance, ceiling condition prevails for a few cycles to either increase or
decrease the excitation until the system returns to steady operating state. For static
excitation, the ceiling voltage ranges from 1.6 to 2.0 times the rated one, this is
considered to be adequate for a fast system response.
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Exciter ceiling voltage as a function of response ratio for a high initial response excitation
system
RESPONSE:
Response is defined as the rate of increase of the excitation system output voltage seen
from the excitation voltage-system response curve. The stating point for evaluating the
rate of change shall be the initial rated value. This is a rough measure of how fast the
exciter output circuit voltage will rise with in a specified time, when the excitation
control is adjusted in the maximum increase direction. Response ratio defined by ASA, is
the numerical value, which is obtained when the excitation system response in volts per
seconds. Measured over first 0.5 sec. this applies only for 0.5 sec as shown. Area
abd=Area acd, by approximation (see figure)
It is being recognized for sometimes that the modern fast excitation systems may
reach ceiling in 0.1 sec or less and as such the earlier definition is not applicable. There is
called high initial response excitation system.
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state error can be minimized appreciably and there by improving the steady state
accuracy with in + or 0.5 % this can be reduced for the proper integral control.
OTHER SPECIFICATIONS:
Excitation system performance could be judges by the exciter voltage Vs time
characteristics in response to a step change in generated voltage. (See figure below)
The factors to be studied for optimum performance are:
1)
Overshoot
2)
Rise time
3)
Setting time
4)
Damping ratio
For ideal performance, it should have one over shoot and one under shoot with a quicker
rise time to have a smaller steady state error.
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to smaller time constants in the excitation control loop, it is assumed that quick control
efforts could be achieved through this.
In transient stability the machine is subjected to several disturbances for a short time.
This results in dip in the machine terminal voltage and power transfer. Taking one
machine connected to infinite bus, the equation for power transfer can be written as
P = ((V1 x V) / x) X si
Where Vt
= interconnected reactance
= load angle
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excitation system the oscillating system changes casing separate excitation requirements
to be need. Through faster excitation system avoid this problem to certain extent power
system stabilizers as mentioned earlier or employed along with the AVR to damp out the
subsequent smaller swings in the system. This stabilizer gain in adjusted a value
depending on the negative damping of the system and the other network parameters.
Power system stabilizer helps to damp out inner area oscillation explained above and also
local machine system oscillations.
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2) The transmission system impedances under normal, faulted, and post fault
conditions. Here the flexibility of switching out faulted section is important such that
the large transfer admittance between synchronous machines is maintained when fault
is cleared.
3) The protective relaying scheme equipment. The object is to defect the fault and
isolate the fault sections quickly with minimum disruption.
During transients initiated by a fault, the armature reaction as the tendency to reduce the
flux linkage. Hence the type of excitation must be so chosen as to have a fast speed of
response and a high sealing voltage voltage as an aid to transient stability. With the help
of faster boosting up of the excitation, the internal machine flux can be off-stetted and
consequently the machine out-power may be increased during the first swing this results
in the reduction of accelerating power and there by effects improvements of transient
performance of the system.
The subject is not dealt details in greater details as a performance are to be evaluated on a
case to bases after obtaining the transfer functions of each elements inside the static
excitation equipment and the interconnected network.
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CHAPTER-7
LIMITERS IN STATIC
EXCITATION SYSTEM
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During over-excitation, the rotor current and stator current limiters intervene to bring
about a reduction in excitation. On the other hand during under-excitation, limitation of
rotor angle and stator current influences to increase the excitation. Rotor and stator
current limiters must be designed to intervene after a certain delay so as to permit
temporary over/ceiling excitation. Limiters do not impair the control behavior of the AVR
as over-excited condition can exist in the event of load surge of because of short-lived
faults in the power supply network. The AVR reacts to a distant fault (say 3-phase short
circuit) and commands ceiling excitation to be applied, thereby increasing the
synchronizing torque of the machine and prevents it from losing synchronism.
However, if the short circuit persists ands has not been cleared by system protection after
a set time; delayed rotor current limiter comes in to operation preventing the generator
and the excitation equipment from being subjected to thermal over load. An identical
situation prevails during sudden connection o load to the system. The AVR enables shorttime ceiling excitation to increase the excitation to prevail so as to obtain lower settling
time.
In under-excited mode, the rotor angle limiter and stator current limiter must intervene
instantaneously to increases the excitation to prevent the further increment in the rotor
angle.
In the under excitation mode, stator current limiter is essentially used with multiple-pole
synchronous condensers which run at suitable level of excitation to increase the
capacitive absorption capability of the machine. Power diagram of the generator and
range of influence of limit controllers.
The operational limits of the synchronous machine are shown in the power circle
diagram. The application and range of influence of the limiters depends on the conditions
in the installation and the generator data. The possible zone of intervention of the limiter
is marked in the power Chanel.
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Uv system voltage
Generator voltage
generator stator current
power factor
rotor angle
The system vector is derived from the voltage vector of the generator Uv by adding to it
the voltage drop in reactances external to the machine. This takes in to account the
transformers and transmission lines between the generator and the system load center.
The rotor voltage is simulated adding the inductive voltage drop in the machine Ixe drop
(reactance drop in the transmission line, transformers etc.) from the generator terminal
voltage. The phase angle between e and Un is converted in to a proportional D.C.
voltage. The actual value is compared with an adjustable reference and fed to the input of
an operational amplifier. In case the angle exceeds the set value and the output signal
immediately takes over the control of the thyristor network to build of the generator air
gap flux fast enough to avoid slipping. It stands to reason that the output of the limiter
acts directly over AVR output to avoid any loss of time due to filter time constants in the
AVR. Figure below explains the operation of automatic voltage regulator in conjunction
with rotor angle limit.
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The AVR may drive the field or the thyristtor network in to over load for one or more of
the following reasons:
a) Faulty handling
b) System voltage reduction
c) Loss of sensing voltage to AVR and
d) Failure within the controller.
The excitation limiter must prevent this over load from persisting. On the other hand,
during dynamic disturbances in the system the excitation should not be reduced at once
but ceiling excitation should be possible for a limited time.
The limiter can be operated in three different modes as explained below to cater the
above requirements.
1. Simple mode: in this mode the excitation current is limited to a present maximum
value. The limiter intervenes with a time delay which is proportional to the
magnitude of the over load. And which the limiter in operation, the current is
limited steadily to the rated value.
2. Dips steeply for any reason, the ceiling excitation limit are validated again. The
ceiling excitation current helps in the increasing the short circuit current in the
fault zone and hence aids selective tripping of the faulted section.
3. Tching mode: in the switching mode the excitation is limited to the thermal of
rated current value. Only in case of sharp dip in the machine voltage, the ceiling
limit is enabled momentarily. The limit switches back to the rated value after the
set time.
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some extent negatively excited generators it prevents excessive leading MAVR loading
corresponding to any given MW load.
The generator stator current is converted in to polarized dc +ve or ve, depending upon
whether the machine is over-excited or under-excited. This voltage forms the actual value
for the controllers which process each of the bipolar signals independently. One of these
controllers compares the capacitive stator current against its reference and acts directly on
the regulator via a decoupling diode to increase the excitation. The action of second
controller that limits the inductive stator current is delayed by means of an integrator
before it influences the control input of the AVR so as to reduce the excitation. The time
log offered is perfectly acceptable as for as stator over-heating is concerned because the
integrator time constant is set one order less than the stator terminal time constant. Figure
below shows an AVR operation in conjunction with a stator current limiter.
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current on the occurrence of failure of yet another thyristor bridge. The unit cop raises a
relay and the reference value is led through the relay contacts to the rotor current limiter
output stage. Intervention of (N-2) limiter introduces a definite limit on the excitation
current and application of ceiling excitation is prevented as the thyristor bridges are not
designed to meet ceiling excitation requirement under two bridge failure conditions.
Manual limiter:
Static excitation system designed for medium and large synchronous machines generally
have two independent channels namely the auto channel & the manual channel. While
auto-mode is normal mode of operation, operation is manual mode could at time be
inevitable.
In the auto mode, the machine is adequately protected against risks of outage by limiter
but in the event of operation in manual mode the machine is guaranteed only by the
protection system. Hence with view to increase the safety and reliability of operation in
manual channel, a manual limiter unit is essential
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manual mode. It is with this view that the rotor angle unit arranged to influence the
manual Ust suitably
SPECIAL FEATURES:
Easy access & replacement of converter modules, Fuses, Control modules etc.
open cycle forced ventilation with independent double cooling fans
Follow-up circuit for automatic transfer from auto to manual in case of faults
in auto
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CONCLUSION
While a large portion of this article has dealt with existing standard provisions in the
excitation system, two stage rotor angle limiter and manual limiter are the new
provisions. The former has been incorporated is same SEEs based on customers
requirements but the latter is still to find place as a regular feature. It is proposed to
introduce manual limiter as a regular feature of SEE in order to ensure more reliable and
safe manual operation. However, two-stage rotor angle limiter will only be provided, if
consumer specifications call for the same.
The latest regulator and limitations functions contained in the excitation system comply
with the strangest operating requirements in terms of safety, governing quality and
availability. The primary task of the AVR in the synchronous machine is to maintain the
terminal voltage of the generator at constant level and guarantee reliable machine
operations in all operating points. The governing functions of the AVR include voltage
control; reactive power control, power factor control and the controlling the functions
linked to the AVR include excitation current limitations, stator current limitation, and
rotor displacement angle limitation. The different variants for generating excitation
current include Auxiliary exciter, Permanent magnet generator, Field circuit transformer
and Auxillary minding in the main machine.
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REFERENCE BOOKS
Electrical Power System
BY
C.L.WADHAWA
BY
B.R GUPTHA
BY
SUNIL S. RAO
& Instrumentation
BY
A.K SAWHNTY
BY
D.P. KOTHARI
I.J. NAGRATH
Electrical machines
BY
P.S.BIMBRA
Electrical machines
BY
D.P. KOTHARI
I.J. NAGRATH
Power electronics
BY
P.S.BIMBRA
Power electronics
BY
M.D.SINGH
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