AE 4713 Spacecraft Dynamics and Control

Supplemental lecture/overview on attitude control system (ACS)

Prof. Michael A. Demetriou
Aerospace Engineering
Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, 01609

2015-16, A-term, Lec: M,T,W,Th,F, 10:00-10:50am

Lectures are based on material from
1. Elements of Spacecraft Design, C. D. Brown, AIAA 2003

Outline

ACS tasks
1. common attitude control system types
2. disturbance torques
3. attitude determination
4. attitude control hardware

Attitude Control Tasks

measure attitude using attitude sensors (e.g. gyroscopes)

correct attitude - done by torquers or actuators (e.g. thrusters)
control law - determines magnitude and direction of torque in response to a given disturbance

1. common attitude control system types

The most common ACS types are as follows

spin stabilized; entire s/c spins around the axis with the highest moment of inertia
dual spin stabilized; a dual spin s/c has a spinning segment and an inertially fixed section
three-axis stabilized; actively controls the inertial position of all three axes
momentum-bias; uses a momentum wheel to provide stiffness in two axes and wheel speed
to control the third axis

gravity-gradient; completely passive, takes advantage of the s/c tendency to align the long
axis with the gravity gradient

1. common attitude control system types: SPIN-STABILIZED SYSTEM

Description:
A spin-stabilized s/c takes advantage of the inherent resistance of a spinning body to disturbance
torques.
If no disturbance torques are experienced, the momentum vector remains constant in magnitude
and fixed in inertial space
If a disturbance torque occurs that is parallel to the momentum vector, the spin rate will be
affected, but not attitude. Thrusters are used to correct spin rate.
Disturbance torques perpendicular to the momentum vector will cause the spin axis to precess;
thruster force is used to remove precession
rotational maneuvers are performed by precessing the spin axis
translational maneuvers are always made parallel to the spin axis
maneuver is slow and energy-consuming process because of inherent stability of vehicle

1. common attitude control system types: SPIN-STABILIZED SYSTEM

Advantages:
useful in applications that require simplicity, low cost, modest pointing accuracy and minimal
maneuvering.
Stabilization about transverse axes is passive for long periods of time
sensor gyros, momentum exchange devices and onboard computers are unnecessary;
result in substantial cost and mass savings

1. common attitude control system types: SPIN-STABILIZED SYSTEM

Disadvantages: pointing accuracy is low, 0.3 to 1 degrees; tight control of the moments of inertia
is required.
moment of inertia about the spin axis must be substantially greater than that about the transverse
axis, or the vehicle will reverse axis; moment of inertia ratio must be greater than 1; a ratio of 1.2
is common requirement
the only location for solar arrays is the spinning body exterior; total power available is limited to
that which can be obtained from the body surface; this area is not in the sun all of the time; a
given area on a cylindrical spinning body gets only 32% of the solar intensity that would fall on a
pointed planar array; power is therefore a scarce commodity on a spinner
maneuver rate is limited; a maneuver is made by precessing the spin axis (slow process);
maneuver slew rates greater than 0.5 degrees/second indicate three-axis stabilization
body pointing of payload sensors and antenna is not possible
examples are: Explorer I, Pioneer Venus and INTELSAT I, II and III
7

1. common attitude control system types: DUAL-SPIN SYSTEM

Description:
it is a compromise design; has some of the simplicity of a spinner and some of the pointing
accuracy of a three-axis vehicle
major mass of s/c spins providing gyroscopic stiffness, while an instrument platform is despun to
point at instruments or an antenna
Advantages: vehicle stable about the transverse axes for long periods of time; sensing gyros
and onboard computers not required
spinning body provides a built-in scan for sensors and provides a centrifugal bottoming for any
liquid propellants; thrust vector not require for V maneuvers
despun platform provides pointing for antenna and instruments

1. common attitude control system types: DUAL-SPIN SYSTEM

Disadvantages: despin drive assembly (motor, bearings, slip rings) is expensive and failure
prone
Nadir tracking not practical except at high altitudes, geosynchronous and above
solar-array efficiency is limited because a given cell is illuminated 32% of the time
complex nutation dynamics must be dealt with; For stability a dual spinner places constraints on
the inertial properties and damping in the spun and despun sections
energy dissipation of the spun section must be greater than that of the despun sectionexpensive
issue late in the development of Galileo
examples of dual-spin s/c are Galileo and INTELSAT VI

1. common attitude control system types: THREE-AXIS STABILIZED SYSTEM

Description: a three-axis stabilized system actively maintains the vehicle axis aligned with a
reference system, usually inertial reference or nadir reference.
typical system uses gyros as inertial reference and updates the gyros periodically using star
scanning or horizon scanning.
attitude errors are removed by torquing reaction wheels, which are periodically unloaded using
thrusters
thruster layout provides pure torque about all three axes and positive or negative translation
along each axis

10

1. common attitude control system types: THREE-AXIS STABILIZED SYSTEM

Advantages:
unlimited pointing capability in any direction-nadir, inertial, sun, scanning
provides the best pointing accuracy, limited only by sensor accuracy
pointing accuracy of greater than 0.001 degrees can be achieved
solar panels can make full use of available solar energy; solar panel size is not restricted; most
adaptable to changing requirements.

11

1. common attitude control system types: THREE-AXIS STABILIZED SYSTEM

Disadvantages:
ACS hardware (gyros, reaction wheels, star scanners, computers) are complex, heavy,
power-consumers, failure sources and expensive
active thrust vector control is required for V burns; propellant tanks require 0-g propellant
control devices
mechanical gimbals required for scanning instruments Examples of three-axis controlled s/c are:
Magellan, INTELSAT VIII, Hubble Telescope and GPS

12

1. common attitude control system types: GRAVITY-GRADIENT SYSTEM

Description: takes advantage of the tendency of a s/c to align its long axis with the gravity vector
for this to work, it is necessary that the gravity-gradient torques are greater than any disturbance
torque;
this can be met in orbits lower than 1000 km
necessary for the moment of inertia about x and y axis to be much greater than the moment of
inertia about the z-axis
deployed booms have been used on the long axis to improve inertial properties
gravity gradient stabilizes the pitch and roll axes and not the yaw axes
common practice to use a momentum wheel with its axis perpendicular to the orbit plane to
provide stiffness in yaw
Gravity-gradient torques are small and active damping might be required to prevent slow
oscillations of as much as 10 degrees.
useful when long life and high reliability are required and the pointing requirements are modest
Examples of s/c that used gravity-gradient stabilization: ATS-5, GEOSTAT and ORBCOM
13

1. common attitude control system types: MOMENTUM-BIAS SYSTEM

Description: uses a momentum wheel to provide inertial stiffness in two axes and control of
wheel speed provides control in the third axis
particularly useful for a nadir pointing s/c using wheel speed to hold z-axis on nadir
relatively simple and good for long-life missions
cheaper than a three-axis system
good pointing in one axis (usually pitch) and poor accuracy in the wheel axes (usually roll/yaw)
momentum bias cannot achieve the pointing accuracy of three-axis control.
maneuvering capability very restricted
does not provide adequate torque authority for thrust vector control
Examples: Seasat and INTELSAT VIII used this technique

14

2. disturbance torques

A s/c released into Earth orbit w/o attitude control would tumble in response to 5 different kinds of
environmental torques:
1. drag torque - orbits below 500km
2. gravity-gradient torque - orbits 500 to 35,000km
3. magnetic torque - orbits 500 to 35,000km
4. solar torque - dominant geosynchronous and above
5. spacecraft-generated torques

15

2. disturbance torques: DRAG TORQUE

Aerodynamic drag is a source of torque as well as velocity reduction for s/c in low Earth orbits.
The drag force is

1 2
D = V Cd A
2
where:

D = drag force - aligned with the velocity vector and opposite in sign
= atmospheric density, kg/m3
V = s/c velocity, m/s
Cd = drag coefficient-depends on shape, usually about 2.5
A = area normal to velocity vector, m2
greatest uncertainty in s/c drag analysis is in atmospheric density (altitude, temperature, time of
day, intensity of solar radiation 11-year cycle).
Drag torque is TD = D L where L is the distance between the center of pressure and the center of
gravity
Example: Consider a s/c in a 400-km circular Earth orbit. What is the drag force on a solar panel
16

2. disturbance torques: DRAG TORQUE

with 9 m2 of surface area normal to the velocity vector?

The velocity of a s/c in a 400-km altitude Earth orbit is 7.669 km/s. Assuming the atmospheric
density at 400km is 1.2 1011 kg/m3 , under average conditions, the drag force is

1
D = (1.2 1011 kg/m3 ) (7669 km/s)2 (2.5) (9 m2 ) = 7.9 103 N
2
Using the same s/c as in the solar torque example further down, assume that the body and solar
arrays are each uniform such that their center of pressures are at the centroid. The torque on the
main body would be zero because the center of gravity is at the centroid. The drag torque caused
by the solar array is

T = (7.9 103 N)(2.25 m) = 1.78 102 N m

17

2. disturbance torques: GRAVITY-GRADIENT TORQUE

For long slender s/c (dumbell-shaped) the lower extremities of the s/c are subjected to
exponentially higher gravity forces than the upper extremities. The effect acts to align the long
axis with the Earth radius vector. The gravitational acceleration on the lower mass is g =
and on the upper mass g =

GM
r12

GM
.
r22

Because r2 is greater than r1 , the gravitational force is greater on the lower mass than the upper
mass, and the net force tends to hold the s/c upright.

18

2. disturbance torques: GRAVITY-GRADIENT TORQUE

The resulting torque is

3
Tg = 3 |Iz Iy |
r
where

Tg = gravity-gradient torque, N-m

= gravitational parameter, 398, 600.4 km3 /s2 = GM
r = radius from s/c center of mass to central body center of mass, km
Iz = moment of inertia about z axis
Iy = moment of inertia about the y axis
= angle between s/c z axis and nadir vector (orbit normal), rad

19

2. disturbance torques: GRAVITY-GRADIENT TORQUE

Example: The Skylab was the first space station launched by the United States and the largest
U.S. s/c launched to that time (1973). Estimate the gravity-gradient torque on Skylab given the
following:
Vehicle properties:

Mass = 90,505 kg
Height = 35m
Diameter = 5.4 m
Radius = 2.7m
Orbit:

Altitude = 442 km circular

Radius - 5820 km
Attitude error:

5 degrees or 0.087266 radians

20

2. disturbance torques: GRAVITY-GRADIENT TORQUE

Assume a uniform density, calculate moments of inertia

mr2
(90, 505 kg)(2.7 m)3
Iz =
=
= 329, 890.7 kg m2
2
2
)
m
90, 505 kg (
2
2
2
2
Ix,y = (3r + h ) =
3(2.7 m) + (35 m) = 9, 403, 997.5 kg m2
12
12
Then

)
3(398, 600 km3 /s2 ) (
2
2
Tg =
9, 403, 997.5 kg m 329, 890.7 kg m (0.087266 rad)
3
(6830 km)
= 2.9851 N m

21

2. disturbance torques: MAGNETIC TORQUE

The earth and several other planets have a magnetic field that produces torque on s/c. The
torque of any magnetic field on a current-carrying coil is

T = N I A B sin()
where

T = magnetic torque, N-m

N = number of loops in the coil
I = current in the coil, amperes
B = Earths magnetic field, tesla
= angle between magnetic field lines and perpendicular to the coil
the residual magnetic field of a s/c is the result of current loops and residual magnetism in the
metal parts, and given by

M = N I A,

and T = M B sin()

Earths magnetic field is tilted 11 degrees wrt the Earths rotational axis, centered about 400km
from the Earths geometric center; hence, at a given altitude the field is stronger over the Pacific
22

2. disturbance torques: MAGNETIC TORQUE

than the Atlantic. The magnetic field varies as one over the radius from the Earths center cubed.
the higher the orbit, the less disturbance
The field strength also varies by a factor of 2 depending on latitude with the highest value at the
poles:

B0 r03
B= 3
r

(2 sin2 (L) + 1)

where

B = Earths magnetic field strength at any altitude or latitude

B0 = Earth sea-level magnetic field strength, 3 105 tesla
r = s/c orbital radius, m
r0 = Earths surface radius 6, 378, 000 m
L = latitude in magnetosphere, degrees
Using the above formula, the Earths magnetic field strength at the poles is twice the equatorial
strength
23

2. disturbance torques: MAGNETIC TORQUE

Example: Consider a s/c with a residual dipole of 2 A m2 in a circular equatorial orbit at an

altitude of 400 km. What is the magnitude of magnetic moment on the s/c?
We first calculate the orbit radius r = (400 + 6478) 103 m = 6, 778, 000 m. The Earths
magnetic field in a 400-km equatorial is

(
B=

6, 378, 000
6, 778, 000

)3

3.1 105 tesla (3 sin 0 + 1)2 = 2.5 105 tesla

Then T = (2.5 105 tesla)(2 A m2 ) = 5 105 N m

24

2. disturbance torques: SOLAR TORQUE

solar photon strikes a s/c surface

small momentum exchange
force exerted on surface
pressure produced is proportional to the projection of surface area perpendicular to the sun
and solar intensity, which is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the sun

pressure depends on whether photon is

absorbed,
specularly deflected or
diffusely reflected

25

2. disturbance torques: SOLAR TORQUE

Absorption: if solar radiation impinging on a surface is totally absorbed, then the force on the
surface will be aligned with the sun vector, and will have magnitude

F = Ps A cos()
where

Ps =

Is
c

1376W /m2
2.998108 m/s

= 4.59 106 , N/m2 , (near Earth)

Is = incident solar radiation, W /M 2

c = speed of light, m/s
Ps = solar pressure, N/m2

26

2. disturbance torques: SOLAR TORQUE

Specular reflection: The force resulting from impingement on a specularly reflective surface is
normal to the surface regardless of sun line and is an elastic collision with twice the magnitude of
that of an absorbing surface

F = 2Ps A cos()
Diffuse reflection: A diffusely reflective surface can be considered to be an absorption and a
reradiation uniformly distributed over a hemisphere. The absorption component is aligned with
the sun vector with magnitude given by the one above. The net force resulting from the reflected
component is normal to the surface; all tangential components cancel.

2
Fs = Ps A cos()
3
The solar torque on the s/c is the sum of all forces on all elemental surfaces times the radius from
the centroid of the surface to the spacecraft center of mass. Total torque:

Ts = PAL(1 + q)
where

Ts = total torque on s/c caused by a surface A, N m

27

2. disturbance torques: SOLAR TORQUE

A = area of surface projected to sun line normal, m2

L = distance from the centroid of the surface to the center of mass of the s/c, m
q = reflectance factor, 0 q 1. S/c bodies tend to be reflectors; a q of 0.5 is
representative; solar panels tend to be absorbers, a q of 0.3 is representative

28

2. disturbance torques: SOLAR TORQUE

Example: What is the solar force on a 9 m2 solar panel inclined at 20 degrees to the sun with a
reflectance factor q of 0.3 if the vehicle is in Earth orbit?
Using Fs = PA(1 + q) cos() we obtain

Fs = (4.59 106 N/m2 ) (9 m2 ) (1 + 0.3) cos(20o ) = 4.0 105 N

Now, what is the resultant torque for a s/c with a single square solar panel of this size with a 1-m
body with the c.g. in the center of the body and a 0.25m boom to attach the panel?

T = (4 105 N)(2.25 m) = 9.0 105 N m

29

2. disturbance torques: SPACECRAFT-GENERATED TORQUE

In addition to environmental torques, there are a variety of s/c generated torques. These are
generally much smaller than the external torques but must be accounted for, especially for a
high-precision pointing system.
Common causes of internal torques are:

pointing rotation of solar arrays, antennas, or cameras

deployment of antennas, solar arrays, instruments, booms
parts jettison, which means that the s/c will react to jettison of parts such as covers, doors,
and solid-rocket-motor cases

propellant slosh, which can cause motion of the vehicle and center of gravity-slosh is
attenuated by bladders and diaphragms

flexible appendages can cause motion by thermal distortion or by dynamic interaction with
the attitude control system

reaction wheel imbalance, which is caused by small misalignments in the reaction wheels
30

2. disturbance torques: Torques due to air leaks

Common causes of internal torques are:

Air leak in the pressurized module

Depressurization inside the cabin
Leaking hole will act like a thruster because of the air leaving the station produces a reaction
force

Attitude change occurs due to reaction torque

31

2. disturbance torques: Torques due to air leaks

Figure 1: Thruster-Like leak hole

32

2. disturbance torques: SYSTEM SIZING

System sizing Once all disturbance torques have been identified and quantified, the actuator
sizing can be determined. First, the magnitude of the torques must be found. The actuator must
have sufficient torque authority to counteract the disturbance torques
The difference in the magnitude of the disturbance torque and the actuator torque capacity is a
measure of the control authority.
The control authority is expressed as a percentage such that an actuator with twice the capability
of the disturbance torques would have a 100% control authority margin
After the actuator with sufficient control authority is chosen, then the system resources over time
must be considered; in the case of a three-axis stabilized s/c with reaction wheels, the storage
time of the reaction wheels must be considered. Reaction wheels store momentum until they
reach their maximum specified speed, at which point they are saturated and must be desaturated
by another torque.
In LEO, magnetic torquers typically used for wheel desaturation; For higher orbits or
interplanetary s/c, reaction control system or thrusters are used.
Magnetic torquers require electric power, but avoid use of consumable propellant.
If thruster control is selected, the disturbances caused by the thruster firings and the amount of
33

2. disturbance torques: SYSTEM SIZING

propellant consumed must be considered

Example on reaction wheel sizing: Consider the s/c from the solar torque and drag force
examples and determine the size, that is, the torque capability and momentum storage capability
of a reaction wheel required to maintain position and require desaturation once per 98-minute
orbit
Solar torque and drag force are acting in the same direction, therefore

T = solar torque + drag torque = 9.0 105 + 1.78 102 = 1.789 102 N m
reaction wheel torque capability, at least 1.85 102 N m. Momentum buildup over 1 orbit:

M = T t = 1.85 102 (98)(60) = 108.78 N m s

34

3. attitude determination

Determined by the following

1. gather data from onboard sensors; these data corrected for errors and biases, then analyzed
mathematically to determine attitude estimate
2. body frame axes or spin axis location determined form sensor data
3. instantaneous attitude, or state vector, is expressed wrt a reference frame, usually inertial or
geocentric, as a set of Euler angles, a direction cosine matrix, or a quaternion
4. attitude estimate is the basis for correcting the attitude

35

3. attitude determination: DCM

relationship between reference frame and s/c frame is defined by the three rotation angles (Euler
angles)
Euler angles are a set of three angles and a sequence of rotation such that one coordinate
system can be rotated into another
both the magnitude of the angles and the sequence of rotation are important; there are 12
different Euler sets that describe the same relative position
A direction cosine matrix (DCM) is defined as the product of the three Euler rotations;
the Euler angles can be extracted from the DCM; for example, using the specific expression (9)
for Rib , the Euler angles are as follows:

1 = tan1

r1,2
r1,1

)
,

r1,3
,
2 = tan1
2
1 r1,3

3 = tan1

r2,3
r3,3

where ri, j denotes the element in the ith row and jth column of Rib
when attitude determination involves very small angles, the small-angle approximation can be
36

3. attitude determination: DCM

made and for the specific rotation matrix in (9), we have

ib
R
1

performing a rotation using a DCM, requires 27 multiplications, 12 additions/subtractions and 29

trigonometric evaluations require a large amount of memory and are computationally intensive

37

3. attitude determination: QUATERNIONS

an alternative to the DCM is the quaternion (a.k.a. Euler symmetric parameters), which has no
singularities and no trigonometric functions;
Quaternions make use of Eulers theorem (any series of rotations of a rigid body can be
expressed as a single rotation about a fixed axis-can be shown that any attitude transformation in
space by consecutive rotations about the three orthogonal unit vectors of the coordinate system
can be achieved by a single rotation about the eigenvector with unity eigenvalue)
orientation of a body can be defined by a vector giving the direction of a body axis and a scalar
angle specifying a rotation about that axis; i.e. quaternions express the same information as a
DCM: rotation from one frame to another, with four elements; three elements express the vector
of rotation and the fourth element is the angle of rotation Q = iq1 + jq2 + kq3 + q4 with i, j, k
satisfying i2 = j2 = k2 = 1 i j = ji k, jk = k j = i, ki = ik = j
= iq jq kq + q and the norm (magnitude) of the quaternion is
the conjugate of
Q
is
Q
1
2
3
4

a scalar |Q| =

q21 + q22 + q23 + q24

can relate the DCMs and quaternions

may relate a frame A to frame B using quaternions; this computation requires 15 multiplications
and 12 additions/subtractions
38

3. attitude determination: QUATERNIONS

to relate the Quaternions to the Direction Cosine Matrix, first denote q = (q1 , q2 , q3 ) which
implies Q = (q4 ,q), then

Rib = (q24 qT q)I + 2qqT 2q4 Q ,

Q =
q3

q2

q3
0
q1

q2

q1

may use Quaternions to parameterize the attitude error

39

3. attitude determination: STATE ESTIMATION

may also use State Estimation Methods: successively correct estimates of the attitude

sequential estimator (recursive estimator): obtains a new state estimate after each
observation

batch estimator processes all observations concurrently to produce a new estimate of state
vector
two types of estimators:

least squares estimator: determines the state vector, which minimizes the square of the
difference between observed data and computed data from a dynamics model; error
assumed to have Gaussian distribution

Kalman filter: makes a sequential minimum variance estimation

40

3. attitude control systems

An attitude control system is composed of three major parts

1. attitude sensors, which provide direct measurements of s/c attitude
2. a feedback control system, which corrects measured attitude to desired attitude
3. actuators (a.k.a. effectors or torquers), that provide the desired control torques

41

3. attitude control systems

brief description of feedback control system:

let a be the angle between the s/c axis and the reference coordinate, and let r be the desired
angle
define the error signal = r a ; the error signal is used by the control law to calculate the
necessary control torque Tc ; the sum of all torques creates vehicle rotation a in accordance with
the relation

Ta = Iv a
Ta = actual torque on the vehicle about a given axis
Iv = moment of inertia of the vehicle about the axis of rotation
a = actual rotational acceleration of the vehicle about the given axis

42

3. attitude control systems

some typical Control laws:

1. Proportional control Tc = K

Tc = control torque
K = system gain
= error signal
proportional control is seldom used because it allows large angular excursions
2. Bang-bang control, a type of proportional control, sometimes used with thruster control,

Tc = Tp sign(); when a dead band is added, the performance of the bang-bang controller is
improved; in this case the error signal is compared to a limit and a pulse is fired only if the
error exceeds the limit

43

3. attitude control systems

some typical Control laws:

3. Position-plus-rate controller: Tc = k1 k2 , also known as PD-controller; the rate term
provides damping and reduces the angular excursions
4. linear state feedback controller, nonlinear controller; include adaptation, robust modifications

44

4. attitude control hardware

describe the specialized equipment used in an ACS; requires three types of specialized
equipment
1. sensors used to measure attitude of s/c wrt known quantities such as the sun, starts, or Earth
2. actuators are used to provide a torque to s/c to correct measured attitude to desired attitude
3. computers are used to perform the sensor processing, attitude determination, control law,
attitude, and maneuver calculations, on-line learning (neural networks, fuzzy learning)

45

4. attitude control hardware-SENSORS

sensors provide sensed data about the position of the s/c relative to known quantities; A s/c
uses sensors to:
1. detect and measure rotation about three axes
2. locate the spacecraft-sun vector
3. measure rotational and linear acceleration
4. detect or track stars

46

4. attitude control hardware-RATE SENSORS

Gyros are precision instruments that detect small rotations wrt inertial space; have small angular
range and high accuracy as opposed to aircraft instrument gyros, which have a wide range and
low accuracy
operate on the principle that when a torque is applied to a spinning wheel the wheel precesses.
the axes that describe precession are the spin axis, the torque axis and the precession axis
angular velocity vector and momentum vector are aligned with spin axis
vector direction determined by RH rule
precession and angular acceleration in the direction of torque
for single axis gyro, the torque axis is called the input axis and the precession axis the output axis
angular rate of precession p is directly proportional to the input torque and inversely
proportional to the momentum of the gyro p = I Tin
w w
Inertial systems: Gyros used in two major ways to effect attitude control
1. Gyros and accelerometers mounted on a servo-driven stable platform; gyro output is used to
keep platform inertially fixed; vehicle control information obtained in inertial coordinates by
comparison with the stable platform position
47

4. attitude control hardware-RATE SENSORS

2. more popular method uses strap-down gyros which are fixed to the s/c body; gyros read
disturbance in body-fixed coordinates and the ACS computer is used to relate body-fixed
output to inertial reference frame; offers hardware simplicity, less power and weight at a cost
of computational complexity

48

4. attitude control hardware-RATE SENSORS

Figure 2: Gyroscope

49

4. attitude control hardware-RATE SENSORS

Gyro errors or drift: result from imperfections in gyro; some forms of drift are proportional to
acceleration or acceleration squared; some repeatable forms of drift can be measured and
removed by calibration corrections.
Description of various gyros and other sensors
1. one-degree-of-freedom gyros: single gimbal, free to rotate about output axis and is otherwise
fixed; reference axis is body fixed and coincident with gyro spin axis at null; gyro input axis is
also body fixed and perpendicular to reference axis and output axis; gyro input is a rotation of
the case about input axis; rotation is transmitted to wheel and axle through the gimbal
bearings and constitutes a forced precession of the gyro, causes a rotation about output
axis. Instrument measures the error angle, which can then be used to correct error.
Depending on the way disturbing torque error is handled, the gyro is an integrating gyro, an
undamped gyro, or a rate gyro

out

H
=
C

t
0

in dt,

or out

H
= in
C

where:

in = angular input error caused by s/c motion

50

4. attitude control hardware-RATE SENSORS

out = sensor output angle

H = momentum of gyro rotor
C = viscous damping around output axis
H/C = gyro gain
2. two-degree-of-freedom gyros: Gyro wheel is set on bearings in the inner gimbal; the inner
gimbal is set in bearings in the outer gimbal, which in turn is set in bearings in the gyro case;
the gimbal arrangement allows the case rotational freedom wrt the inner gimbal; motion of
the inner gimbal is measured in 2 sensitive axes wrt the case; any small motion about the
sensitive axes is measured and used to correct disturbing torques.
A variety of designs are used to reduce friction:

electrostatic gyro; spherical rotor is supported electromagnetically in cavity

gas-bearing gyro; spherical rotor supported in cavity by a thin layer of gas under pressure
3. ring-laser gyro: few moving parts since spinning light instead of spinning mass is used; gyro
detects and measures angular rates by measuring the frequency difference between two
contrarotating laser beams
51

4. attitude control hardware-RATE SENSORS

4. hemispherical resonator gyro; small volume and mass along with simple operation and no
wearout components; a hemispherical resonator is driven at its resonant frequency;
disturbance torques produce measurable changes in the resonance pattern of the
hemisphere, which is detected by a collar surrounding the resonator
5. accelerometers: simple instrument that measures force on a known mass

52

4. attitude control hardware-INERTIAL SENSORS

1. star scanners: rotated past the calculated position of a guide star; difference between the
calculated position and the measured position of the guide star is used to calculate an
attitude update
2. star tracker: camera-like using a charge-coupled device (CCD) array; provides a horizontal
and vertical position (in tracker coordinates) which is then converted to a position error;
provides continuous position updates as the star moves through the instruments field of view
3. star cameras: use CCD combined with image processing performed in the onboard
computer; observes a segment of sky and deduces position by pattern matching
4. sun sensor: wide-angle measurement used primarily to point solar panels or in attitude
initialization; much smaller, more rugged instrument than star scanners; weigh about 0.3kg
and consume about 0.5 W continuously
5. horizon sensors: useful for finding the nadir vector; are an infrared (IR) sensing instrument;
location of the horizon is sensed by the dramatic difference in IR emission of the Earth disk
and cold deep space; suitable for spinning s/c. It used on a three-axis s/c, the instrument
must have a scanning head. Used in pairs they can provide nadir within about 0.1 degrees;
weigh about 2-7kg and require 5-10 W.
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4. attitude control hardware-INERTIAL SENSORS

6. global positioning system receiver: small, light, very accurate instrument for determining
position (navigation)

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4. attitude control hardware-ACTUATORS

1. wheels

control moment gyros (CMG): gimbaled wheels spinning at a constant rate (10);
commanded force on the input axis of the gyro causes a control torque to the s/c on the
output axis; larger and heavier than reaction wheels and consume more power

momentum wheels: are flywheels designed to operate at a biased nonzero speed (10);
momentum is exchanged at the wheel by changing wheel speed; usually body fixed.
Momentum wheels and reaction wheels differ only in speed bias

reaction wheels; small flywheels powered by dc motor, which exchanges momentum with
the s/c by changing wheel speed.

torque rods; take advantage of Earths magnetic field to generate a correcting force on a
s/c; it is simply a wire coil wrapped around a rod, usually a few centimeters in diameter
and about a meter in length; when current is sent through the coil a torque is generated
by the interaction of the current and Earths magnetic field

T = NBAI sin()
where
T = torque, N-m
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4. attitude control hardware-ACTUATORS

N = number of loops in coil
B = magnetic field of central body, tesla
A = area of coil, m2
I = current, amperes
= angle between Earths magnetic field lines and coil centerline
2. thrusters provide momentum to s/c by ejecting mass overboard in the form of high velocity
exhaust gas; three types:

cold gas; simplest, used for small s/c with impulse requirements of a few hundreds
newtons per second

monopropellant hydrazine; dominant choice, gives mid-range specific impulse with a

simple system; requires 12 thrusters to provide pure moments about three axes

bipropellant; most expensive and complex; used for trajectory control and infrequently for
attitude control
Thrusters can be used directly to control the s/c attitude or used as momentum desaturation
actuators for the reaction wheel, (10)
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4. attitude control hardware-COMPUTERS

used for attitude control system and data handling; considerations for central computer for both
control and data handling and attitude control vs individual computers for each subsystem:

central computer is lighter and cheaper

central computer is a simpler system from the hardware standpoint; however, the software
system may be more complex

dominant requirements for the two systems are different; attitude control system needs a
very fast computer; data system needs large memory and file handling features; specialized
computers offer better performance; central computer is a performance compromise

two different computers make a more comprehensive fault protection system possible; the
ACS can monitor the C&DA computer and vice versa; to take full advantage of cross
monitoring requires redundant computers of each type so that a failed computer can be
taken off line; such a system requires substantially more complicated software

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