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Channel Service Units and Digital Service Units (a) Separate DSU and CSU (b) combined DSU/CSU
Channel Service Unit:-A channel service unit (CSU) serves as the demarcation point
between the digital Station equipment and the telecommunications line. A CSU physically
terminates the telecommunications line, performs signal regeneration and reshaping,
performs zero substitution, and converts digital signals to a format more suitable for
transmission over the digital transmission facility, such as AMI,2B1Q encoding. CSU s may also
perform other functions, such as channel multiplexing and line conditioning
(equalization); execute certain carrier-controlled tests, such as local and remote loop backs;
and provide performance measurement capabilities and statistical compilations.
DCS UNIT-6b
Band pass filter and equalizer circuit: - There are band pass filter and equalizer circuits in
both the transmitter and the receiver sections of the modem. The transmit band pass filter
limits the bandwidth of the digitally modulated analog signals to a bandwidth appropriate for
transmission over a standard telephone circuit. The receive band pass filter limits the
bandwidth of the signals allowed to reach the demodulator circuit, thus reducing noise and
improving system performance. Equalizer circuits compensate for bandwidth and gain
imperfections typically experienced on voice-band telephone lines.
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DCS UNIT-6b
Telco interface circuit: - The primary functions of the Telco interface circuit match the
impedance of the modem to the impedance of the telephone line and regu1a amplitude of
the transmit signal. The interface also provides electrical isolation and protection and serves
as the demarcation (separation) point between subscriber equipment and Telephone
Company provided equipment. The Telco line can be two wire or four wire, and the modem
can operate half or full duplex. When the telephone line is two wire, the Telco interface
circuit would have to perform four-wire-to-two-wire and two-wire-to-four-wire conversions.
Demodulator circuit: - This receives modulated signals from the band pass filter and
equalizer circuit and converts the digitally modulated analog signals to digital signals. The
output from the demodulator is directed to the serial interface circuit, where it is passed on
to the serial interface.
Carrier and clock generation circuit: -The carrier generation circuit produces the analog
carriers necessary for the modulation and demodulation processes. The clock
generation circuit generates the appropriate clock and timing signals required for performing
transmit and receive functions in an orderly and timely fashion.
DCS UNIT-6b
data is sent to the DTE. The purpose of the scrambler is not simply to randomize the bit
sequence but also to detect the occurrence of an undesirable bit sequence and convert it to a
more acceptable pattern (i.e., one Containing transitions).
The above figure illustrates the basic idea behind scrambler and descrambler circuits. The
scrambler shown detects eight consecutive logic 0s and converts them to an alternating 1/0
pattern, which is more conducive to clock recovery. The descrambler detects the alternating
1/0 pattern and converts the sequence back to the original eight consecutive Os. Actual
scrambler and descrambler circuits obviously use more complex scrambling and
descrambling algorithms.
DCS UNIT-6b
and transmission rates considerably higher on the downstream connection. Cable modem
frequency assignments and transmission rates are the following:
Upstream:
Carrier frequency: 5 MHz to 40 MHz
Transmission rate: 19.2 kbps to 3 Mbps
Downstream:
Carrier frequency: 250 MHz to 850 MHz
Transmission rate: 10 Mbps to 30 Mbps
Individual data channels are assigned frequency slots in 250-kHz increments with a
maximum bandwidth of 6 MHz
6b
DCS UNIT-6b
Part-1
DCS UNIT-6b
Each character begins and ends with a black bar with alternating white bars in
between.
It is a discrete code; characters are separated with an intercharacter gap, usually one
character wide.
DCS UNIT-7
DCS UNIT-6b
Error detection
Error Detection is the process of monitoring data and determining when transmission errors
have occurred. Error-detection techniques neither correct errors nor identify which bits are
in error; they indicate only when an error has occurred. The most common error detection
techniques are:
Redundancy is a form of error detection where each data unit is sent multiple times, usually
twice. At the receive end, the two units are compared, and if they are the same, it is
assumed that no transmission errors have occurred. When the data unit is a single
character, it is called character redundancy, whereas if the data unit is the entire message, it
is called message redundancy.
Echoplex (sometimes called echo checking) is a relatively simple form of error-detection
scheme used almost exclusively with data communications systems involving human
operators working in real time at computer terminals or PCs. With echoplex, receiving
devices retransmit received data back to the transmitting device; therefore, echoplex
requires full- duplex operation. Each character is transmitted immediately after it has been
typed on the key board. At the receive end, once a character has been received, it is
immediately transmitted back to the originating terminal, where it appears on that
terminals screen; When the character appears on the screen, the operator has verification
that the character has been received at the destination terminal, if a transmission error
occurs, the wrong character will be displayed on the transmit terminals screen; When this
happens, the operator can send a back space and remove the erroneous character and then
type and resend the correct character.
Redundancy Checking: Adding bits to data units to check for transmission errors is called
redundancy checking. The basic types of redundancy checks are:
1. Vertical redundancy checking (VRC)/Character Parity: With character parity, a single bit
(called the parity bit ) is added to each character to force the total number of logic 1s in the
character ,including the parity bit, to be either an odd number (odd parity) or an even
number(even parity). With VRC, odd parity is generally used.
2. Check sum: Checksum is another relatively simple form of redundancy error checking
where the data within a message is summed together to produce an error- checking
character (checksum). The checksum is appended to the end of the message. The receiver
replicates the summing operation and determines its own sum and checksum character for
the message; The receivers checksum is compared to the checksum appended to the
message, and if they are the same, it is assumed that no transmission errors have occurred.
If the two checksums are different, a transmission error has definitely occurred.
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DCS UNIT-6b
There are five primary ways of calculating a checksum: check character, single precision,
double precision, Honeywell, and residue.
Check character checksum: With a check character checksum, a decimal value is
assigned to each character. The decimal values for each character of the message are
added together (summed) to produce the checksum character, which is
appended to the end of the message as redundant bits and transmitted.
Single-precision checksum: With single precision, the checksum is calculated by
simply performing binary addition of the data within the message. However, with nbit characters (where n equals the number of bits in each character), if the sum of the
data exceeds 2n-1, a carryout occurs. The carry bit is ignored, and only the n-bit
checksum is appended to the message.
Double-precision checksum: A double-precision checksum is computed in the same
manner as with single-precision except the checksum is 2n bits long. For example, if
the data is comprised of eight-bit characters, the checksum would contain 16 bits,
thereby reducing the probability of producing an erroneous checksum.
Honeywell checksum: The Honeywell checksum is another form of double-precision
checksum. The Honeywell checksum is 2n bits long however, the checksum is based on
interleaving consecutive data words to form double-length words. The double
length words are summed together to produce a double-precision checksum.
Residue checksum: The residue checksum is virtually identical to the single-precision
checksum except for the way the carry bit is handled. With the residue checksum,
carry bit is wrapped around and added to the LSB of the sum, adding complexity.
3. Longitudinal redundancy checking (LRC)/Message parity: With LRC, each bit position has a
parity bit. In other words, b0 from each character in the message is XORed with b 0 from all of
the other characters in the message. Similarly, b1, b2, and so on are XORed with their
respective bits from all the other characters in the message. With LRC, even parity is
generally used.
4. Cyclic redundancy checking (CRC): The most reliable redundancy checking technique for
error detection is CRC. Several popular versions of CRC are CRC-12, CRC-ITU, CRC-16 and CRC32.In the United States, the most common CRC code is CRC-16(also called cyclical
parity).With CRC-16, 16 bits are used for the block check sequence. A CRC-16 block check
character is the remainder of a binary division process.
A data message polynomial G(x) is divided by a unique generator polynomial function
P(x),the quotient is discarded and the remainder is truncated to 16 bits and appended to the
message as a BCC(block check character). With CRC generation, the division is not
accomplished with standard arithmetic division. Instead, modulo-2 division is used, where the
remainder is derived from an exclusive OR (XOR) operation. In the receiver, the data
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DCS UNIT-6b
stream, including the CRC code, is divided by the same generating function P(x). If no
transmission errors have occurred, the remainder will be zero.
Mathematically, CRC can be expressed as
G(x)/P(x) =Q(x) +R(x)
Where, G(x) = message polynomial
P(x) = generator polynomial
Q(x) = quotient
R(x) = remainder
Example: - Determine the BCS for the following data- and CRC-generating polynomials:
Data G(x) = x7+x5 +x4 +x2+x1+x0
= 10110111 CRC P(x) =x5+x4+x1+x0
=110011
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DCS UNIT-6b
Error Correction
Data communication network designers have developed two basic strategies for
handling transmission errors: error-detecting codes and error-correcting codes. Errordetecting codes include enough redundant information with each transmitted message to
enable the receiver to determine when an error has occurred. Error-correcting codes
include sufficient extraneous information along with each message to enable the receiver to
determine when an error has occurred and which bit is in error.
There are two primary methods used for error correction: retransmission and forward error
correction.
Retransmission: Retransmission is when a receive station requests the transmit station to
resend a message when the message is received in error. As the receive terminal
automatically calls for a retransmission of the entire message, retransmission is often called
ARQ which means automatic repeat request or automatic retransmission request. ARQ is
probably the most reliable method of error correction, although it is not always the most
efficient.
Forward error correction: Forward error correction (FEC) is the only error-correction
scheme that actually detects and corrects transmission errors when they are received
without requiring a retransmission. With FEC, redundant bits are added to the message
before transmission. When an error is detected, the redundant bits are used to determine
which bit is in error. Correcting the bit is a simple matter of complementing it. The most
popular error correction code is the hamming code.
Hamming code: The Hamming code is an error-correcting code used for correcting
transmission errors in synchronous data streams. However, the Hamming code will correct
only single-bit errors. Hamming bits (sometimes called error bits) are inserted into a
character at random locations. The combination of the data bits and the Hamming bits is
called the Hamming code. The only stipulation on the placement of the Hamming bits is that
both the sender and the receiver must agree on where they are placed. To calculate the
number of redundant Hamming bits necessary for a given character length, a relationship
between the character bits and the Hamming bits must be established.
The following figure shows a data unit contains m character bits and n Hamming bits.
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6b
DCS UNIT-6b
If an error occurs in one data bit, one or more of the Hamming bits will indicate a
parity error. To determine the data bit in error, simply add the numbers of the parity bits that
failed. For example, if bit 6 were received in error, the received bit sequence would be 00 1
00101001.Parity checks for n1 and n8 would pass, but parity checks for n2 and n4 would
fail. To determine the bit position in error (called the syndrome), simply add the
positions of the Hamming bits that are in error. In this case, n2 + n4 equates to 2 + 4= 6.
Thus, bit 6 is in error.
An alternate method of determining the Hamming bits is shown below
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