Elements of

Aerospace
Engineering

Lecture 10

Measurement of
Airspeed

Elements of Aerospace Engineering

Airspeed

Measurement of Airspeed
AE602 Elements of Aerospace Engineering

Manoj T. Nair
IIST
10.1

Agenda

Elements of
Aerospace
Engineering

Measurement of
Airspeed
Airspeed

Measurement of Airspeed

Airspeed

10.2

Measurement of Airspeed I

Elements of
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Engineering

Measurement of
Airspeed
Airspeed

Airflow velocity in the test section of a low-speed wind

tunnel can be obtained by measuring p1 p2
We assumed that the flow properties are constant over a
cross section
This is not true in reality - the velocities in the middle of the
test section would be higher than near the walls
These changes can only be obtained if we are able to
measure velocities at a point
This measurement can be done by a Pitot static tube

10.3

Measurement of Airspeed II
Static pressure at a point is the pressure we would feel if
we were moving along with the flow
Whenever the word pressure is used, it means the static
pressure

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Measurement of
Airspeed
Airspeed

The second type of pressure is the total pressure

Consider a fluid element moving along a streamline

The pressure of the gas in this element is the static
pressure
Imagine we slow down this element to zero velocity
isentropically
10.4

Measurement of Airspeed III

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Measurement of
Airspeed
Airspeed

The p, T , and would increase above their original values

when the element was moving along the streamline
The value of p, T , and of the fluid element after it has
been brought to rest are called total values
These are denoted at p0 , T0 and 0
Therefore, total pressure at a given point in a flow is the
pressure that would exist if the flow were slowed down
isentropically to zero velocity
When the gas is not moving, i.e. the fluid element has no
velocity in the first place, then p0 = p

10.5

Measurement of Airspeed IV
There is an aerodynamic device that measures the total
pressure at a point in the flow: Pitot tube

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Measurement of
Airspeed
Airspeed

This consists of a tube placed parallel to the flow and open

to the flow at one end (point A)
The other end of the tube is closed (point B)
10.6

Measurement of Airspeed V
Now we start the flow
Gas fills inside the tube and, after a few moments there
would be no motion inside the tube

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Measurement of
Airspeed
Airspeed

The gas would be stagnant everywhere inside the tube

including at point A
Due to this flow field would see the point A as an
obstruction
The fluid element moving along the streamline C would
stop when it arrives at A
Since friction and heat transfer are absent, the process
would be isentropic
10.7

Measurement of Airspeed VI

Elements of
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Measurement of
Airspeed
Airspeed

i.e., due to the presence of the pitot tube, the fluid element
moving along C would be brought to rest
So, the pressure at A must be the total pressure p0
Then if a pressure gauge is kept at point B, we would be
able to measure this total pressure
By definition, any point in the flow where V = 0 is called a
stagnation point
Therefore, A is a stagnation point
10.8

Measurement of Airspeed VII

Now consider the following arrangement

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Measurement of
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Airspeed

There is uniform velocity with velocity V1 moving over a flat

surface parallel to the flow
There is small hole in the surface at point A
Point A is called the static pressure orifice

10.9

Measurement of Airspeed VIII

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Measurement of
Airspeed
Airspeed

Since the surface is parallel to the flow, only the random

motion of the molecules is felt at the plate
The surface pressure is the static pressure, p
This would be the pressure at the orifice at point A
The pitot at point B would feel the total pressure p0
If the static pressure orifice at A and Pitot tube at B are
connected across a pressure gauge, it will measure the
difference p0 p
This pressure difference gives a measure of the velocity V1

10.10

Measurement of Airspeed IX
A combination of total and static pressure measurement
allows us to measure the velocity
These to measurements can be combined in a single
instrument call the Pitot-static probe

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Measurement of
Airspeed
Airspeed

p0 is measured at the nose of the probe and p is

measured at a point downstream of the nose
p0 p yields V1 , but the formulation differs whether the
flow is incompressible, high-speed subsonic, or supersonic
10.11

Measurement of Airspeed X

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Measurement of
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Airspeed

10.12

Elements of
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Measurement of Airspeed XI
Incompressible flow

Measurement of
Airspeed
Airspeed

At point A, the pressure is p and the velocity is V1

At point B, the pressure is p0 and the velocity is zero
Applying Bernoullis equation between points A and B
p+
q =

1
2
2 V

1 2
V = p0
2 1

is called the dynamic pressure

10.13

Measurement of Airspeed XII

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Measurement of
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Airspeed

For incompressible flow

p0 = p + q
The total pressure is the sum of static plus dynamic
pressure
r
p0 p
2
V1 =

This allows the calculation of flow velocity from the

measurement of p0 p obtained from the Pitot-static tube

10.14

Measurement of Airspeed XIII

A Pitot tube can be used to measure the flow velocity at
various points in the test section

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Measurement of
Airspeed
Airspeed

The static pressure is assumed to be constant throughout

the test section
This constant static pressure assumption is fairly good for
subsonic wind tunnel test sections
10.15

Measurement of Airspeed XIV

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Measurement of
Airspeed
Airspeed

If the test section is open to the room, the static pressure

at all pint in the test section is p = 1atm
Density is constant
The velocity can be obtained from the expression
10.16

Measurement of Airspeed XV
Either Pitot tube or Pitot-static tube can be used to
measure the airspeed of airplanes
Such tubes extend from airplane wingtips, with the tube
oriented in the flight direction

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Measurement of
Airspeed
Airspeed

If a Pitot tube is used, then the ambient static pressure in

the atmosphere is obtained from a static pressure orifice
10.17

Measurement of Airspeed XVI

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Measurement of
Airspeed
Airspeed

This static pressure orifice is strategically placed on the

airplane surface such that the surface pressure is nearly
same as that of the surrounding atmosphere
Such a location is found by experience
It is generally on the fuselage somewhere between the
nose and the wing
The measurements of p0 and p are joined across a
differential pressure gauge which is calibrated in terms of
airspeed
This airspeed indicator is in a dial in the cockpit

10.18

Elements of
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Measurement of Airspeed XVII

V =

r
p0 p
2

However, one must decide which value of to be used

If is the true value in the actual air around the airplane,
then we get the true airspeed
r
p0 p
Vtrue =
2

Measurement of
Airspeed
Airspeed

However, this measurement of true air density at the

airplanes location is difficult
Therefore, airspeed indicators on low-speed airplanes are
calibrated using standard sea-level value of s
This gives the equivalent air speed
r
p0 p
2
Ve =
s
The equivalent air speed Ve differs slightly from Vtrue by a
factor (/s )1/2

10.19

Measurement of Airspeed XVIII

Problem: The altimeter of a low-speed Cessna 150 private
reads 1500 meters. The outside air temperature is 7.5 C.
If a pitot tube mounted on the wing tip measures a
pressure of 8.705 104 Pascals. From the standard
atmosphere table at 1500 meters p = 8.456 104 Pascals.
What is the true and equivalent airspeed of the airplane?
Ans: 68.85 m/s

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Measurement of
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Airspeed

10.20

Measurement of Airspeed XIX

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Subsonic compressible flow

Measurement of
Airspeed

For high speed flows, where the Mach number is still less
that 1, other equations must be used

Airspeed

This is the flight regime of commercial transports like

Boeing 747 and some military aircrafts
cp cv = R
R
1
=
1
cp /cv
cp
1
R
1
=
=
1

cp
R
cp =
1
Again consider the Pitot tube
Assume the velocity V1 is high enough that compressibility
must be taken into account
10.21

Measurement of Airspeed XX
The flow is isentropically compressed to zero velocity at
the stagnation point on the nose of the probe
Let the stagnation values of pressure and temperature be
denoted as p0 and T0

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Measurement of
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From the energy equation

cp T1 +

Substituting cp =

1 2
V = cp T0
2 1
V12
T0
= 1+
T1
2cp T1

R
1

V12
T0
1 V12
= 1+
= 1+
T1
2 [R/( 1)] T1
2 RT1
From speed of sound a12 = RT1
T0
1 V12
= 1+
T1
2 a12

10.22

Elements of
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Engineering

Measurement of Airspeed XXI

Since Mach number M1 = V1 /a1

Measurement of
Airspeed

1 2
T0
= 1+
M1
T1
2

Airspeed

Since the gas is isentropically compressed at the nose, we

can use
 
 /(1)
0
T0
p0
=
=
p1
1
T1
Then
p0
=
p1

0
=
1

1 2
1+
M1
2

/(1)

1 2
M1
2

1/(1)

1+

The temperature relation holds for adiabatic flow, while the

pressure and density relation holds for isentropic flow
10.23

Elements of
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Engineering

Measurement of Airspeed XXII

Measurement of
Airspeed

Rearranging the following relation

Airspeed

p0
=
p1


1+

1 2
M1
2

/(1)

We get
M12

2
=
1

"

p0
p1

(1)/

#
1

Hence for subsonic compressible flow, the ratio of total to

static pressure p0 /p1 , is a direct measure of Mach number
Individual measurement of p0 and p1 can be used to
calibrate an instrument called Mach meter
The instrument directly reads the flight Mach number of
the airplane

10.24

Measurement of Airspeed XXIII

The flight velocity can be obtained as
" 
#
(1)/
2a12
p0
2
V1 =
1
1
p1
"
#
(1)/
2a12
p0 p1
2
V1 =
+1
1
1
p1

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Measurement of
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This gives the true air speed

However, it requires a1 and hence T1
The static temperature in the air surrounding the airplane
is difficult to measure
Hence a1 is assumed to be equal to the standard sea-level
value of a = 340.3m/s
The calibrated airspeed is given as
"
#
(1)/
2as2
p0 p1
2
+1
1
V1 =
1
ps
where as and ps are the standard sea-level values of
speed of sound and static pressure

10.25

Measurement of Airspeed XXIV

Problem: A high speed subsonic McDonnell-Douglas
DC-10 airliner is flying at a pressure altitute of 10 km. A
Pitot tube on the wing tip measures a pressure of
4.24 104 N/m2 . Calculate the Mach number at which the
airplane is flying. If the ambient air temperature is 230 K,
calculate the true air speed and the calibrated air speed.
(At 10,000 m, p = 2.65 104 N/m2

Elements of
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Measurement of
Airspeed
Airspeed

10.26

Elements of
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Airspeed I
Airspeed is the velocity of an aircraft along its flight path
It is an important parameter, as aerodynamic forces are
proportional to square of airspeed

Measurement of
Airspeed
Airspeed

F V2
Aircraft maneuvers during take-off, turns and landing are
initiated only at specified airspeeds
Different airspeeds are used in flight mechanics literature
Indicated airspeed (IAS)
Equivalent airspeed (EAS)
Calibrated airspeed (CAS)
True airspeed (TAS)

There are also terms like Ground speed, Stalling speed,

etc
For calculating aircraft performance, TAS is used
For the pilot, airspeed is the value shown on the airspeed
indicator (ASI) - IAS
10.27

Airspeed II

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Measurement of
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Ground Speed (Flight Speed)

The ground speed of an aircraft is its speed along its flight

path w.r.t. a fixed location on the ground
This is denoted by Vg
The ground speed is used when referring to mileage or
endurance of the aircraft
Presence of winds causes differences between the ground
speed and TAS
Ground speed is also TAS in case of no wind

10.28

Elements of
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Airspeed III

Measurement of
Airspeed

True Airspeed

Airspeed

TAS is defined as the velocity of the c.g. of the aircraft

w.r.t. the wind velocity
If Vw is the wind velocity parallel to the flight path and Vg is
the ground speed of the aircraft, TAS velocity is
V = Vg Vw
The +ve sign is for headwind
The -ve sign is for tailwind

10.29

Airspeed IV

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Measurement of
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Headwind is an oncoming wind that moves in the direction

from head to tail
The reverse is tailwind
TAS is defined w.r.t. the wind due to
1

2
3

The speed sensing devices (pitot-static tube) sense p0 and

p w.r.t the wind
It is the speed the aircraft configuration feels
Aerodynamic forces and moments are proportional to the
square of relative speed

10.30

Airspeed V

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Measurement of
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Indicated Airspeed

Airspeed

Indicated airspeed is the airspeed shown by the airspeed

indicator which a pilot reads in his cockpit
It is denoted by Vi
Readings of ASI generally has following errors
instrument error
lag error
position error

IAS is designed to read EAS in incompressible flow

IAS reads CAS in compressible flow regions

10.31