EVERYTHING ABOUT COCRETE

Content.
Page
Part 1 - Concrete as a Material

Part 2 - Historical Development of Cement and Concrete.

Part 3 - Properties of Portland Cement..

Part 4 - Hydration of Portland Cement.

11

Part 5 - Water Quality.

16

Part 6 - Concrete Aggregates.

17

Part 7 - Admixtures for Concrete.

24

Part 8 - Fresh Concrete 30

Part 9 - Handling and Placing. 37
Part 10 Curing.. 42
Part 11 - Concrete as a Composite Material.. 45
Part 12 - Fracture and Failure 48
Part 13 Strength. 51
Part 14 - Testing of Hardened Concrete.. 54

Part 1

Concrete as a Material
Concrete is a very important and integral part of our modern world. Although it is
less impressive and dramatic than other more advanced technologies, it is literally
the "foundation" of our society. Concrete affects us directly or indirectly in many
ways:
1. Shelter - we live, work, and play in concrete structures
2. Transportation - highways, railways, shipping, and air
3. Energy - food supply, water supply (human and agriculture), hydroelectric
(dams), and nuclear (reactor vessels).

Concrete is a composite of two materials

1. Coarse granular material (aggregate or filler). May be composed of many
different materials, however due to economic and structural reasons we use
common rock.
2. Cement or binder (basically glues the aggregate together). Cement refers to
any binder formulated from many possible chemical quantities. There are
many common cements used in civil engineering practice. The one most often
used is called Portland cement.

Advantages of concrete
Ability to be cast - many different shapes and types of structures, offsets other
disadvantages.
Economical - on-site preparation, local materials, unskilled labor.
Durable - maintenance-free, generally no protective coatings.
Fire resistant - can maintain structural integrity.
Energy efficient - requires less energy to produce than steel.
On-site fabrication.
Aesthetic properties.

Disadvantages of concrete:
Low tensile strength - very brittle, must be reinforced with steel to carry the
tensile stresses.
Low ductility.
Volume instability - shrinkage and creep.
Low strength-to-weight ratio.

Part 2
2

Historical Development of Cement and

Concrete
Early forms of concrete can be traced back to ancient Egypt and Rome. The earliest
cement was mud, used to bind sun-dried bricks together. A problem in other
climates is that clay has no resistance to water. Therefore, other forms of binders
needed to be developed.
Nonhydraulic cements - hardening will not take place under water. For example:
mud (clay), early lime (calcareous) mortars of the Greeks and Romans. The
production of these mortars involves burning off the water in a gypsum or lime
based material. Some of these cements were very good, evidence being the
surviving structures of the civilizations.
Hydraulic cements - Hardening will occur under water. Romans and Greeks produced
this form of cement by calcining limestones containing clayey impurities. The clay
component gives the cement its hydraulic characteristic.
The quality and development of concrete, like most things, declined during the
Middle ages. High quality mortar was rediscovered during the 14th century.
However, it was not until the 18th century that study into the nature of cements
really began. In 1796, John Smeaton, the first self-proclaimed "civil engineer", was
involved in the construction of a lighthouse that required cements that could
withstand the action of sea water. This lead to a series of experiments on cements
of different compositions. He found the best mortars were limestones with a high
clay content.
Development in cement and concrete technology continued at a rapid pace after
Smeaton's experiments. James Parker patented a natural hydraulic cement in 1796.
In 1813 in France, Vicat developed an artificial hydraulic cement. James Frost
introduced the same procedure in England in 1822. In 1824, Joseph Aspdin patented
"Portland" cement using a limestone and clay mixture burned in a kiln and then
finely ground into a powder. It was named because of similarities to a naturally
occurring building stone located in Portland, England. The first American patent for
Portland cement was given to David Saylor in 1871. By the turn of the century, local
Portland cement displaced imports and other natural cement products.
The introduction of admixtures occurred at the beginning of cement production.
Romans used animal fats, milk, and blood to improve the workability of the
concrete. The blood was also an effective air-entraining agent to improve durability
and help with the effects of freezing and thawing.

Part 3
Properties of Portland Cements
The chemical composition of available cements can vary widely. Since most
concretes use Portland cements, we will concentrate on these. As noted before, the
term "Portland" is a trade name and gives no indication of the chemical contents.

Manufacture of Portland Cement

Portland cement is simply a mixture of limestone and clay heated in a kiln to 1400
to 1600 degrees centigrade (2550 to 2990 F). Due to the high temperatures and
large amounts of materials being used, considerable attention is given to each stage
of the production process.
Raw materials - High quality cements require adequate and uniform raw materials.
Location near sources of calcium and clay. Plant chemists analyze the material at all
stages of production to ensure quality control.
Preparation of materials - quality control during mixing will produce a uniform end
product. The exact procedure varies from plant to plant based on design. Some
plants use wet grinding processes to better blend their mixtures, however this
causes an increase in kiln cost. In a dry process the grinding and blending phase is
more expensive but is offset by cheaper kiln costs. Another procedure is called a
semi-dry procedure which is a dry process with 12 to 14% water added before the
burning phase.
The burning process - Once the materials are ground and blended, they are ready
for the kiln. The heat process is called "clinkering" or partial melting. Only about
one-fourth of the material is liquid at any time. In a wet process, the material is in
the kiln for 2 to 3 hours. This is reduced to 1 to 2 hours for a dry process. Some new
heat exchanges only require 20 minutes.
Final processing - The hot porous material nodules leaving the kiln are known as
"clinker". This clinker is ground in ball mills into a fine powder with small amounts of
gypsum to avoid flash setting. Without the gypsum, the material is ground clinker
and not Portland cement.

Composition of Portland Cement

In ordinary Portland cement, approximately three-fourths of the mixture is some
form of calcium silicate. This material is responsible for the cementing process. The
chemical composition is traditionally written in an oxide notation used in ceramic
chemistry. In this notation, each oxide is abbreviated to a single capital letter. For
example, lime written as CaO is denoted as C. In order to write carbonates and
sulfates in shorthand a single capital letter is used with an overbar.
Determining the exact chemical composition of a cement would be a very complex
procedure. However, simpler oxide analysis is generally available from most cement
plants on request. With this information, the compound composition may be
determined using the Bogue calculation. More sophisticated procedures have been
developed, but the Bogue calculation is suitable for most purposes.

Hydration of Cement
When Portland cement is mixed with water, it undergoes a chemical reaction which
leads to the hardening of the material. This process is called hydration and the
results are the hydration products. The hydration process can be quantified by two
characteristics; (1) the rate of reaction, and (2) the heat of reaction.

ASTM Types of Cements

Type I - most common, no special properties
Type II - good strength with lower heat of hydration
Type III - rapid setting; used in precast work or at low temperatures
-- possible tensile cracking due to thermal stress if sections are large
Type IV - Used in mass concrete applications-low heat of hydration
Type V - provides protection from damage due to exposure to sulfates
(seawater, some groundwater supplies, and particularly wetting and drying
processes).
*** The ASTM standards are really performance specifications. There are few
limitations on compound composition. Generally only Types I and III are available
throughout the United States, Types IV and V in areas where a market exists. Type II
is common in western states because of available materials.

Impurity Oxides
Oxides such as alumina, ferric oxide, and magnesia are composed of calcium
silicates, about 3% by weight. These forms are more reactive than pure silicates and
hydrate faster. Magnesia gives Portland cement its gray color and also can contribute
to unsoundness, or the characteristic of cracking after hardening.

Modified Portland Cements

1. Portland-Pozzolan Cements - blended with pozzolan (reactive silica); reduces
both the heat of hydration and early strength, but provides resistance to
sulfate attack and high ultimate strength.
2. Slag Cements - Use blast-furnace slag, a by-product of the iron and steel
industry. Slag is composed of lime, silica, and alumina. Requires an activator
for hydration. Generally not popular in the United States.
3. Supersulfated Cements - Slag cement activated with calcium sulfate; lower
heat of hydration and better sulfate resistance than Portland blast-furnace
cements. Used in Europe.

Expansive Cements
Portland cement concrete experiences high shrinkage during drying which can cause
tensile cracking if restrained. Expansion during moist curing does not offset the
contraction. Several cements with expansive properties have been developed. Steel
reinforcement is used to control the expansion and convert it to a prestress force.
Some additional restraint may occur through subgrade friction or from formwork.
Lack of restraint will cause the concrete to self-destruct.
Expansion is controlled by adjusting the admixture material in the cement
compound and by the amount of water available to the curing mixture. Physical
properties of expansive cement is assumed to be that of Type I cement concretes.
Several areas of applications: parking structures, eliminating water damage to cars;
pavements, elimination of shrinkage-control joints; structures where watertightness
is important; and in tilt-up construction to help in the stress during lifting.

Rapid Setting and Hardening Cements

Two special types of cement are regulated-set (jet cement) and VHE (very high early
strength). Regulated-set cement is not available in North America, but is used in
Japan and Germany. VHE is sold in the United States.
1. Regulated-set cement -- modified Portland cement where the tricalcium
aluminate is replaced with calcium fluoroaluminate. The result is more
reactive than with water. Care has to be taken to avoid flash setting. By
controlling flash setting, the handling time can range from 2 to 40 minutes.
Strength develops very rapidly. There is a balance between handling time and
early strength development. High heat of hydration, more than Type II
cement. Applications: lightweight insulation of roof decks, pavement and
bridge deck repair, shotcreteing, and slip forming.
2. VHE cement -- Basically a dicalcium aluminate compound with a high percent
of calcium sulfoaluminate, similar to a Type K expansive concrete. Handling
time and early strength development is similar to regulated-set except VHE
will develop higher strength than regulated-set cement concretes. Durable,
with creep and shrinkage lower than with Type III cement.
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Miscellaneous Cements
1. Other rapid-hardening cements -- extra-rapid-hardening cement - a modified
Type III, ultra-rapid-hardening - a very finely ground Portland cement, superhigh-early-strength developed in Japan.
2. White cement -- An iron poor cement with a white surface color, popular with
architects because of its ability to be colored by pigments.
3. Masonry cement -- Type I Portland cement with finely ground limestone;
workable, plastic, minimal water loss.
4. Oil-well cements -- Slow hardening under high pressure and temperature and
stable in corrosive conditions.
5. Natural cements -- produced from natural clayey limestones burn at low
temperatures containing very little tricalcium aluminate. Rarely used today.

Non-Portland inorganic cements

1. High-alumina cement (HAC) -- also known as calcium aluminate cement, was
developed as a sulfate-resisting cement. A major problem is loss of strength
due to adverse chemical reactions. Unlike Portland cement, HAC undergoes a
complete fusion of the raw materials. Develops strength rapidly. About 75% of
ultimate strength is developed in the first seven days. The major
disadvantage of HAC is the potential conversion problems if the cement is
exposed to hot, moist conditions. The temperature causes an increase in
porosity and a disruption of the original microstructure. This leads to an
extreme loss of strength. Strength loss is also severe at high water/cement
ratios. Several structural failures in Europe have lead to its ban in structural
use. Some structural applications are possible if the strength can be
accurately predicted after conversion has taken place. However, it is now
used in refractories. At high temperatures, the cement forms a ceramic bond
stronger than the original hydraulic bond.
2. Gypsum plaster -- used as a surface finish on interior walls or in the
production of drywall products. Quick-setting with rapid strength
development, however very soluble in water. Also, leachates from the plaster
are rich in sulfates, which can attack any surrounding concrete.

Specifications and Test for Portland Cement

To maintain quality control on Portland cement, a set of ASTM specifications for
both the chemical and physical requirements have been established. A series of
"standard" tests have been developed to ensure that these specifications are met.
However, since results from different tests for the same property can vary widely,
direct comparison of these tests is difficult.
Chemical requirements -- These specifications are not very strict since cements
with different chemical compounds can have similar physical behavior.
Physical requirements -- These specifications are more important than chemical
requirements
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Fineness -- Grinding of the clinker is the last step in Portland cement

production. The degree that the material is ground is the fineness.
Rate of hydration increases with fineness, leads to high strengths and heat
generation.
Hydration takes place on the cement particle surface. Finer particles will be
more completely hydrated.
Increasing fineness decreases the amount of bleeding but also requires more
water for workability which can result in an increase in dry shrinkage.
High fineness reduces the durable to freeze-thaw cycles.
Increased fineness requires more gypsum to control setting.
** The most important properties are: specific surface of the particles, and
particle-size distribution. Fineness was originally measured using a sieve
analysis, but this method is very awkward and really gives no information
about the distribution of fine particles. In general, fineness is measured by a
single parameter, specific surface area. This parameter is considered the
most useful measure of cement fineness even though it does not measure
particle distribution.
There are two ASTM tests for fineness:
Wagner Turbidimeter -- measured specific surface area from a suspension of
the cement in a tall glass container. The test is based on Stoke's Law that
states a sphere will obtain a constant velocity under the action of gravity.
Blaine air permeability apparatus -- This test is based on the relationship
between the surface area in a porous bed and the rate of fluid flow (air)
through the bed. The test is compared to a standard sample determined by
the U.S. Bureau of Standards.
** The Blaine method is used more often in practice and is generally 1.8 times
larger than the Wagner method. However, in cases of dispute, the Wagner
method governs.
Test on Cement Paste
Two of the common physical requirements for cement 1) time of setting, and
2) soundness depend on the water content of the cement. This is measured in
terms of normal consistency. A cement paste is said to be of normal
consistency when a 300 gram, 10-mm-diameter Vicat needle penetrates 10 + 1
mm below the surface in 30 seconds. The plasticity of the cement is sensitive
to environmental conditions.
Time of setting -- Two arbitrary points of no real significance are used to
develop general relationships between addition of water and strength gain.
Used mainly for quality control.
Initial set - paste begins to stiffen (2-4 hours)
Final set - ability to withstand load (5-8 hours)
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** Time of setting by Vicat needle -- Initial setting occurs when a 1-mm

needle penetrates 25mm into cement paste. Final set occurs when there is
no visible penetration .
** Time of setting by Gillmore needle -- Less common than Vicat needle test.
Initial set occurs when a 113.4 gram Gillmore needle (2.12 mm in
diameter)fails to penetrate. Final set occurs when a 453.6 gram Gillmore
needle (1.06mm in diameter) fails to penetrate. Gillmore times tend to be
longer than Vicat times.
Early stiffening -- Two measures of early stiffening are:
False set - rapid rigidity without much heat generation, plasticity can be
regained by further mixing with no additional water.
Flash set - rapid rigidity with considerable heat generation, plasticity cannot
be regained.
A cement paste is mixed such that Vicat needle penetrates 32 +/- 4mm after
20 seconds. The final penetration is measured at 5 minutes. The result is a
percentage of (final penetration/initial penetration) X 100%.
Unsoundness -- is the characteristic of excessive volume change after setting.
It may appear many months or years after setting. Therefore any test for
unsoundness must detect the potential for this type of failure. Two standard
tests are:
Le Chatelier test - Designed to test for expansion due to excessive lime. The
device is filled with cement of normal consistency, covered with glass plates,
and immersed in water at 20 + 1 degree C for 24 hours. The distance
between the indicator points is measured and the device is returned to the
water and brought to a boil in 25-30 minutes, and boiled for 1 hour. The
device is cooled and the indicator points are measured again. The difference
in the readings cannot exceed 10 mm.
Autoclave expansion -- More severe test than Le Chatelier. A cement paste
of normal consistency is molded and cured for 24 hours. Then it is measured
and placed in an autoclave and the temperature is increased for 45-75
minutes until a pressure of 295 psi is achieved. It remains for 3 hours and
then is cooled in the autoclave for 1 1/2 hours, then 15 minutes in water, and
15 minutes in the air and then its length is measured. The change in length
must be less than 0.80% to be acceptable.
Heat of Hydration -- Determined by the heat of solution method. The heat of
solution of dry cement is compared to partially hydrated cement at 7 and 28
days. The heat of hydration is the difference between the dry and the partially
hydrated cements.

Test on Mortar
Mortar testing depends on the sand used for the test. Therefore, a standard ASTM
sand is used, natural silica sand from Ottawa, Illinois. Mortar test provides a more
reliable indication of quality than do neat pastes.
Mortar flow -- Consistency of mortar is expressed as mortar flow. A mix of 2.75
parts Ottawa sand to 1 part cement (by weight) is compacted into a cone-shaped
mold. The sample is placed on a flow table, a table whose top can be
mechanically raised and lowered about 1/2 inch 25 times in 15 seconds. The flow
is the increase in the base diameter as a percent of the original diameter.
Strength test
Compression is the most common measure of strength. A 2-in. mortar cube using
a 2.75:1 sand/cement ratio with a water/cement ratio of 0.485 - 0.460 is tested.
After a certain procedure is followed the specimens are failed.
Tensile strength is determined by a direct tensile test. The results are not of
much value.
Flexural strength is determined by a flexural test of a small rectangular-shaped
prism on simple supports with a center load. The flexural strength is directly
calculated. This mortar strength does not necessary relate to concrete strength
using the same cement; used for quality control.
Air Content of Mortar -- Test for air content to determine the air entraining
potential of a given cement.
Sulfate Expansion -- Not a true measure of sulfate resistance, more of a measure
of expansion. Useful for Type V cements.

10

Part 4
Hydration of Portland cement
Chemistry of Hydration - It is assumed that each compound hydrates independently
of others in Portland cement. This is not completely true because interaction
between hydrating compounds will affect the mix.
Calcium Silicates - The hydration reaction of the two calcium silicates, which make
up the largest percent of Portland cement, are similar.
The principle products are: 1) calcium silicate hydrate, poorly crystalline material
of extremely small particle size and 2) calcium hydroxide, a crystalline material.
The reaction can be measured by the rate of heat generation.
Stage 1 - Rapid heat generation (15 min.) -- on mixing with water, calcium and
hydroxide ions are released from the surface of the C3S; pH rises to a very alkaline
solution. When the calcium and hydroxide reach critical concentrations,
crystallization of CH and C-S-H begins. Early chemical reactions are temperature
dependent.
Stage 2 - Dormant period - causes cement to remain plastic (2-4 hours). The
reaction slows. CH crystallizes from the solution, C-S-H develops on the surface of
the C3S and forms a coating. As the thickness increases, the time it takes water to
penetrate the coating increases, thus the rate of reaction becomes diffusion
controlled. C<small><small>2</small></small>S hydrates at a slower rate because
it is a less reactive compound.
Stage 3 - Acceleration period - Critical concentration of ions is reached and
silicate hydrates rapidly, maximum rate occurs at this stage. Final set has passed
and early hardening begins (4-8 hours).
Stage 4 - Deceleration - rate of reaction slows; completely diffusion dependent
reaction.
Stage 5 - Steady state - constant rate of reaction (12-24 hours). Temperature has
little effect on hydration at this point.
Tricalcium Aluminate - Hydration of C3A occurs with sulfate ions supplied by
dissolved gypsum. The result of the reaction is calcium sulfoaluminate hydrate,
called "ettringite" after a naturally occurring mineral.
If the supply of sulfate from the gypsum is exhausted before the C 3A is completely
hydrated, a second reaction can occur. The product of this reaction is
monosulfoaluminate. This reaction may occur before the formation of the
ettringite if the reaction of C3A and the sulfate ions is faster than the gypsum will
11

allow.
The ettringite decreases the reaction by forming a diffusion coating around the
C3A similar to the reaction of C3S. The coating can be broken down by the
conversion to monosulfoaluminate.
If the monosulfoaluminate is exposed to another source of sulfate ions, the a new
reaction will occur forming more ettringite. This new formation causes volume to
increase and leads to tensile cracking. This tendency is the basis for sulfate attack
of Portland cements.
In the absence of sulfates, C3A reacts with water to form two unstable calcium
hydrates which later convert to hydrogarnet. This is the same process found in
HAC. A pure C3A paste will not develop significant strength.
Ferrite Phase (C4AF) forms the same hydration products as C3A, with or without
gypsum. The reaction is slow and is decreased further by gypsum. If the iron oxide
content is increased, the reaction is slower.
Experience has shown cements low in C3A and high in C4AF are sulfate resistant.
The conversion from ettringite to monosulfoaluminate is inhabited by the
presence of the iron component.
** The rate of hydration is on the order of C3A > C3S > C4AF > C2S. Reactions for
even identical compounds may vary due to: 1) fineness, 2) rate of cooling of
clinker, and 3) impurities.

Properties of the Hydration Products

Some general comments on the properties of hydration products affecting the
overall behavior of the cement.
C-S-H, calcium silicate hydrate -- very poor crystallinity; the exact chemical
compound is variable. The ratio of C/S varies between 1.5 and 2.0 and depends on
many factors; temperature, w/c ratio, impurities, etc. Likewise, measures of the
water content vary considerably.
Because of the poor crystallinity, C-S-H develops very small irregular particles and
consequently a very high surface area. In general, the surface area of the hydrated
cement is about 1000 times larger than the unhdyrated cement. Therefore, the
increase in surface area greatly influences physical properties of the C-S-H hydrate.
Considerable work has been done in modeling the structural components of C-S-H,
with much disagreement among scientists. C-S-H is considered a layer structure
composed of calcium silicate sheets randomly connected by strong ionic-covalent
bonds. The remainder of the interlayer space is classified as: 1) capillary pores,
relatively large openings where water can form menisci; 2) micropore, smaller
12

spaces where water cannot form menisci. The water forces the layers apart by
exerting a disjoining pressure. This pressure decreases with lower water content; 3)
interlayer space, layers are close enough that the trapped water bonds the sheets
together by van der Waal forces.
There are three accepted models for the C-S-H structure:
1. Powers-Brunauer -- a chemical structure model based on the layered claylike
configuration. The sheets are randomly arranged and contain absorbed water
on their surfaces. Water can penetrate the interlayer, micropore region.
Interlayer water can be permanently removed with strong drying.
2. Feldman and Sereda -- a model composed of a completely random array of
single layers forming irregular interlayer space. Water can move in and out of
the interlayer space even after drying.
3. Munich -- a physical model where C-S-H is considered a three-dimensional
arrangement of colloidal particles. The chemical nature of the model is
secondary. Van der Walls' forces bind surfaces together, but strong covalent
bonds are more common. Water is attracted to the solid particles resulting in
disjoining pressures which reduce particle interaction.
*** In all these models, water affects the structure of the C-S-H. As water is removed
from capillaries, a resultant compressive stress is induced. Loss of interlayer water
affects particle or sheet bonding.
Calcium Hydroxide -- a well understood hexagonal crystalline material. Crystals are
much larger than C-S-H particles and are sometimes visible to the naked eye.
Calcium Sulfoaluminate (ettringite) -- These hexagonally-shaped prism crystals are
considerably longer than CH crystals. Large clusters of ettringite needles may be
visible in concrete affected by sulfate attack. Monosulfoaluminate tends to form
very thin, hexagonal plates.

Microstructure of Hydrated Cement Pastes

The development of cement microstructure relates to the five chemical stages
described earlier in this chapter.
C-S-H -- the largest component of the cement paste (50-70%) and is the most
important component in the hydration process. The amount of C-S-H coating on a
C3S grain is very small during stage 2 of hydration and increases rapidly in stage 3.
The spines of the forming C-S-H radiate outward from each grain with the bulk of
the material below the spines. As the C-S-H hydrates further, the coating thickness
grows forcing the outward spines of adjacent particles to interlock to form solid
bonds. As hydration continues the intermeshed spines contribute to an increase in
the undercoating of C-S-H growth. The effect is to bond the cement grains together
with the C-S-H coating.

13

CH -- constitutes 20-25% of the cement volume. In the acceleration stage, CH grows

in the capillary pore space. CH will only grow in free space; on encountering
another CH crystal it will grow in another direction; also it will grow completely
around a hydrating cement grain. The latter effect gives the CH a larger apparent
volume in cement pastes than it would have as a pure crystal.
Calcium Sulfoaluminate -- a small component of cement pastes (10-15%) having
little effect on microstructure. Young spiny ettringite crystals grow into capillary
space and later convert to flat monosulfoaluminate crystals. There will be
unhydrated residues in the cement paste, mainly caused by calcium hydroxide, even
in very matured hydrated pastes.
Porosity -- a major component of microstructure which will influence paste
properties. Pore size distribution is difficult to measure. Many tests require drying,
which affects the pore structure. There are two classifications of pore sizes:
1. Capillary pore -- space formed between hydrating gains.
2. Gel pores -- very small spaces in the C-S-H coating. Constitutes the bulk of
porosity in a cement paste.

Properties of Hydrated Cement Pastes

Hydration products have lower specific gravities and larger specific volumes than
their parent cement compounds. Therefore, every hydration reaction is
accompanied by an increase in solid volume.
Calcium Silicates -- hydration of these materials is not accompanied by an
increase in volume. Recall, these crystals will only occupy free space. If this space
is filled, the growth or hydration will stop.
Calcium Aluminate -- The hydration product of this material (ettringite) will
continue to form even when a solid surface is encountered. Since there is no
volume in which the crystal can grow, internal pressures develop.
Volume change is directly related to porosity. It is possible to calculate pore space
by measuring the loss of evaporable water and nonevaporable water. The evaporable
water describes water held in capillary and gel pores. This amount can be
determined by oven drying a sample. Nonevaporable water is a measure involving
the microstructure of the hydration product and is obtained from a paste heated to
very high temperatures (1000 C0). T.C. Powers developed several empirical
relationships for degree of hydration based on the amount the two types of water
described above.
wn = 0.24a g/g of original cement
where a = degree of hydration and wn = nonevaporable water
wg = 0.18a g/g of original cement
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where wg = gel water or evaporable water

Other relationships for volume of hydration products and porosity are available (see
p. 105). Based on these, a minimum water/cement ratio relationship for complete
hydration can be formed.
wmin = ( wn + wg ) g/g of original cement
(w/c)min = 0.42a
Therefore, for complete hydration, the w/c ratio should not fall below 0.42.
However, complete hydration is not required for high ultimate strength. This means
that paste with low w/c ratios will self-desiccate unless external water is added.
Generally, this is not a problem in the field.

15

Part 5
Water Quality
"If you can drink it, you can make concrete with it." However, good quality
concrete can be made with water that would not pass drinking water standards.
Hence, there is no ASTM standard for water quality. However, mixing water can
introduce impurities that could have negative effects on concrete. Water with large
quantities of suspended solids, dissolved solids, or organic material should not be
used.
Suspended Solids -- High amounts of solids can increase water demand, increase
dry shrinkage, cause efflorescence (excessive leaching of salts which increases
porosity and decrease strength), and affect air-entraining.
Dissolved Solids -- A variety of dissolved salts can cause many problems from
slower setting and hardening times to reduced strength. The use of seawater can
lead to high early strengths, but lower 28-day strengths. This is due to high
amounts of sulfate, which cause increased crystallization of ettringite. High
amounts of chloride increase the risk of corrosion of reinforcing bars. Therefore,
this should not be used for prestressed concrete.
Organic Material -- Many organic waters from industrial wastes retard hydration
and entrain excessive amounts of air into the concrete. Some waste waters are
used to produce just such set-retarding or air-entraining admixture effects.

ASTM Testing of Water

There are no ASTM standards for water. However, there are two methods for
determining the suitability of water. They involve comparing setting times and
compressive strengths from concretes made with the water in question and distilled
water. A water is considered suitable if the setting time does not differ by more than
30 minutes and the strength is not reduced by more than 20% when compared with a
sample using distilled water.

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Part 6
Concrete Aggregates
Aggregates generally occupy 70 to 80 % of the volume of concrete and therefore
have a significant effect on its properties. Strength of concrete and mix design are
independent of the composition of aggregate, but durability may be affected.
Aggregates are classified based on specific gravity as heavyweight, normal-weight,
and lightweight. Normal weight aggregates make-up 90% of concrete used in the
United States.

Shape and Texture

Shape and texture affect workability of fresh concrete. The ideal aggregate would
be spherical and smooth allowing good mixing and decreasing interaction between
particles. Natural sands are close to this shape. However, crushed stone is much
more angular and requires more paste to coat the increased surface area. Long, flat
aggregate should be avoided due to increased interaction with other particles and
the tendency toward segregation during handling.
Shape and texture of coarse aggregates affects the strength of the concrete mix.
Increased surface area provides more opportunity for bonding and increases
strength. However, excessive surface area in an aggregate can lead to internal stress
concentrations and potential bond failure.

Size Gradation
Grading or aggregate size distribution is a major characteristic in concrete mix
design. Cement is the most expensive material in concrete. Therefore, by
minimizing the amount of cement, the cost of concrete can be reduced.
Sieve Analysis -- determines the grading of an aggregate. Coarse aggregate is that
retained on the #4 sieve and fine aggregate is that passing a #4 sieve. In a sieve
analysis a series of sieve are used with smaller and smaller openings. Coarse
aggregates are analyzed with standard sieves and fine aggregates with half-sized
sieves.
Maximum Aggregate Size -- Smallest sieve in which the entire sample will pass
through. The maximum nominal size is the smallest sieve in which at least 95%, by
weight, of the sample will pass. Maximum size should not be larger than 1/5 the
minimum dimension of a structural member, 1/3 the thickness of a slab, or 3/4
the clearance between reinforcing rods and forms. These restrictions limit
maximum aggregate size to 1 1/2 inches, except in mass applications.

17

Higher maximum aggregate size lowers paste requirements, increases strength and
reduces w/c ratios. However, excessively large aggregate tends to lower strength by
reducing available bonding area. ASTM has limits for grading of concrete aggregates.
Fineness Modulus -- a parameter for checking the uniformity of grading.
Generally calculated for fine aggregates but also for coarse aggregates assuming
100% is retained on #8 - #100 sieves. Therefore, for fine and coarse aggregates
respectively, the fineness modulus is:
F.M. = (Cumulative percent retained on half-sized sieves)/100
F.M. = (Cumulative percent retained on standard sieves including #4 + 500 )/ 100

A fineness modulus for fine aggregates should be 2.3 - 3.1. Two aggregates with the
same fineness modulus can have different grading curves. A low fineness modulus
requires more cement paste to maintain workability. Variations from mix design
requirements for fineness modulus should not exceed 0.2 (ASTM standards). ASTM
allows for an increase in fine aggregates (% passing #50 and #100) if smoother
surface finishing is required. However, there are solid restrictions on very fine
particles to prevent increased water demand and volume instability.
Gap Grading -- An aggregate where one or more of the intermediate-sized fractions
is omitted. Advantages of gap grading are more economical concrete, use of less
cement, and lower w/c ratios. The resulting concrete is very stiff and has low
workability. An extreme case is no-fines concrete. This concrete is difficult to
handle and compact; developing low strength and high permeability.

Moisture Content
Aggregate can contain water, both internal, based on porosity, and external, surface
moisture. This gives aggregate the ability to absorb water. This will effectively
reduce the amount of water available for hydration; or conversely, if the aggregate
is very wet, add excess water to a cement mix.
There are four moisture states:
1. Oven-dry (OD); all moisture removed.
2. Air-dry (AD); surface moisture removed, internal pores partially full
3. Saturated-surface-dry (SSD); surface moisture removed, all internal pores
full.
4. Wet; pores full with surface film.
Of these four states, SSD, saturated-surface-dry, is considered the best reference
state. It is an equilibrium state, where the aggregate will not absorb or give water
to the cement paste, simulates actual field conditions more closely, and used to
determine bulk specific gravity. However, this moisture state is not easy to obtain.

Absorption and Surface Moisture

18

To determine the amount of water an aggregate will add or subtract from a cement
paste, the following three quantities are used:
1. Absorption capacity (AC) -- maximum amount of water the aggregate will
absorb. The range for most normal-weight aggregates is 1 - 2%.

2. Effective Absorption (EA) -- amount of water required to bring an aggregate

from the AD state to the SSD state.

The weight of water absorbed by the aggregate Wabs is calculated from the weigh of
the aggregate Wagg in a concrete mix using effective absorption (EA).

3. Surface Moisture (SM) -- amount of water in excess of SSD

It is used to calculate the additional water Wadd of the concrete mix

The moisture content (MC) of aggregate is given by:

If the moisture content (MC) is positive, there is surface moisture. If the MC is

negative, it has the potential for absorption. Therefore, the total moisture
associated with an aggregate is:

Stockpiled fine aggregate is often in a wet state with a surface moisture of 0 to 5%.
More water can be held in the interspace between particles than in coarse

19

aggregates. This also leads to thicker films of water which in turn push the
aggregate apart and increase the apparent volume. This is called bulking.

Specific Gravity
A dimensionless ratio of density of the material in question to the density of water.
SG = [density of solid] / [density of water]
Absolute specific gravity (ASG) considers the weight and volume of the solid part of
the aggregate. Whereas, bulk specific gravity (BSG) is a measure of the
weight/volume of solids and pores of a material.
ASG > BSGSSD > BSGOD
However, since the porosity of most rocks used in concrete is 1 to 2%, the values of
all specific gravities are approximately the same; in the range of 2.5 to 2.8.

Unit Weight
Unit weight (UW) or bulk density is the weight of a given volume of material.
Basically, unit weight is measured by filling a container of known volume with a
material and weighing it. The degree of moisture and compaction will affect the
unit weight measurement. Therefore, ASTM has set a standard oven-dry moisture
content and a rodding method for compaction. The maximum unit weight of a blend
of two aggregates is about 40% fine aggregate by weight. Therefore, this is the most
economical concrete aggregate since it will require the least amount of cement.

Durability of Aggregates
Aggregates makeup the largest part of concrete mixes and are responsible for the
durability of the mix. Durability is a measure of how well concrete will handle
freezing and thawing, wetting and drying, and physical wear. Chemical reactions
also can contribute to problems with durability.
Soundness -- rocks that undergo volume changes due to wetting and drying are
rare. However, aggregate is susceptible to volume change during freezing and
thawing cycles. Freezing can cause internal stresses to build up as water inside
the aggregate freezes and expands. A critical size can be calculated below which
freeze-thaw stress is not a problem; however, for most rock it is greater than
normal sizes.
Wear Resistance -- a good aggregate will be hard, dense, strong, and free of
porous material. The abrasion resistance of aggregate can be tested by the Los
Angeles abrasion test; however, this test does not match well with concrete wear
in the field.
Alkali-Aggregate Reaction -- An expansive reaction between some reactive forms
20

of silica with the aggregate and alkalis in the cement paste. The result is overall
cracking in the structure, manifesting itself in map or pattern cracking at the
surface. This reaction can be controlled most easily by using low-alkali cements.
However, due to changes in manufacturing, low-alkali cements may not be
feasible. A better approach is to avoid aggregate with the potential or proven
record of reactivity. A low w/c ratio is very impermeable and will slow down the
reaction but not stop it. No adverse reactions will occur without external water.
Other Alkali-Silica Reactions -- sand-gravels found in river systems of Kansas and
Nebraska are highly reactive and cause map cracking. Replacement of 30% of the
aggregate with crushed limestone is effective in reducing the damage. Basically, it
results in the separation of flat clay minerals causing very slow expansion.
Alkali-Carbonate Reactions -- an expansive reaction involving clayey carbonate
rock. Reaction can be controlled by using low-alkali cements or blending
aggregate with other less reactive material. ASTM has set standards for
deleterious substances in aggregates, which depend on application. This can be
divided into two categories:
Impurities
Solid materials - particles passing a 200-mesh sieve. These fine particles may
increase water requirements and interfere with surface bonding between
cement and coarse aggregates.
Soluble substances - organic matter may interfere chemically with alkaline
cement pastes affecting setting time. Aggregates obtained from the sea should
be thoroughly cleaned to avoid problems from salt contamination.
Unsound particles -- Soft particles such as clay lumps, wood, and coal will cause
pitting and scaling at the surface. Organic compounds can be released which
interfere with setting and hardening. Weak material of low density which have
low wear resistance should also be avoided.

Evaluation of Aggregates
It should be noted that tests on aggregates alone are not an effective means of
predicting aggregate performance in the field. Tests for aggregate properties for mix
design are straightforward. However, tests for durability and performance have
limitations.

Physical Tests
Abrasion Resistance

21

Abrasion resistance -- The Los Angeles test for abrasion involves ball milling an
aggregate sample for a given time and measuring how the sample particles are
reduced in size.
Scratch hardness test -- assumes a relationship between hardness and abrasion.
Neither of this tests are an accurate or reliable measure of the concrete
hardness. An indication would be to test the concrete itself.
Frost Resistance
Soundness test -- This test is a simulation of ice formation in an aggregate
sample. The sample is saturated with a solution of sodium or magnesium salt and
dried in an oven. The salt crystals which form in the pores simulate ice.
Correlation between this test and field tests are not good. Again, a better
approach is testing aggregate in concrete.

Chemical Tests
Alkali-silica Reaction -- A rapid reliable test for alkali-aggregate reactivity has not
yet been developed. Most acceptable tests require long curing times of about 6
months. In this test, the aggregate is ground into a fine sand and used to make a
variety of mortar bars. The mortars are stored in hot, moist conditions to
accelerate the reaction. Expansion of the sample is measured and compared to
ASTM specifications.
Aggregate Beneficiation -- If an aggregate does not pass the ASTM tests, an
engineer may choose to try to upgrade the material. Beneficiation may be useful
in areas where aggregate is scarce. There are several possible ways of treatment:
Crushing -- Soft, porous rock may be removed by crushing.
Heavy-media separation -- Lightweight particles may be separated by floating
them to the top of a liquid.
Reverse water flow or air flow -- used to remove lightweight particles like
wood.
Hydraulic jigging -- Stratification of aggregate in a vertical pulsation of water.
Lightweight particles separate to the top.
Elastic fractionation -- Aggregate is dropped on an incline steel plate. Hard
particles bounce higher off the plate than do softer particles. Appropriate
placement of collection bins can provide good separation.
Washing and scrubbing -- Removes fine surface particles.

Waste Materials as Aggregate

22

The use of waste materials as aggregate in concrete is gaining increased attention,

especially in view of our escalating solid-waste problems. A wide variety of
materials are being considered as aggregates: garbage, building rubble, industrial
waste products, and mine tailings. All of these potential aggregates are evaluated
on their 1) economy, 2) compatibility with other materials, and 3) concrete
properties. Successful utilization of waste material as aggregate depends on
anticipating potential problems and ensuring that the properties of concrete will
remain unchanged.

Special Aggregates
Aggregates are classified by their specific gravities into three categories; 1)
lightweight, 2) normal-weight, 3) heavy-weight; each with different applications.
Lightweight Aggregates -- A general characteristic of lightweight aggregate is high
internal porosity. Most of these materials are synthetic, however, some natural
materials can be treated to provide low specific gravity. Clays, shale, or slates will
bloat at high temperatures resulting in an expansion in volume. Other synthetic
materials are produced using pyroprocessing techniques, such as volcanic glass,
slags, or waste glass. Lightweight aggregates have high absorption capacity
associated with their high porosity. However, some materials have a coating
resulting from the fusion process and water cannot penetrate. This coating can be
damaged during handling resulting in an abrupt increase in absorption.
Heavyweight Aggregates -- A material with a high specific gravity.These types of
materials are mostly used for radiation shielding and application where a high
mass-to-volume ratio is required.
Abrasion and Skid-Resistant Aggregates -- Hard, dense aggregates used in heavyindustry applications where high resistance to abrasion is required. The strength
of the cement paste and the cement-aggregate bond are more important than the
aggregate hardness.
Marginal Aggregates -- Use of this type of aggregate will require more care and
thought in design, and generally more cost. In considering marginal aggregates,
there are four areas of interest: 1) concrete properties, 2) weaknesses of
aggregate, 3) beneficiation, and 4) use of protective measures.

Part 7
23

Admixtures for Concrete

An admixture is "a material other than water, aggregate and hydraulic cement that
is used as an ingredient of concrete or mortar and is added to the batch
immediately before or during mixing." A functional addition is an admixture added
by the cement manufacturer at the cement plant and not at the job site. There are
four categories of admixtures:
Air-entraining agents -- added to improve frost resistance of concrete.
Chemical admixtures -- used to control setting and hardening of concrete or
reduce concrete water requirements.
Mineral admixtures -- fine solids used to improve workability, durability, and
provide additional cementing properties.
Miscellaneous admixtures -- all other admixtures not in the above categories.
** Admixtures should not be used when similar results can be obtained by following
good design and concrete practices.
When using admixtures, the following precautions should be considered: 1)
admixture should conform to relevant ASTM specifications, 2) follow manufacturers
instructions regarding dosage, 3) ensure that reliable procedures are established for
batching of admixture, 4) consider the effects of the admixture on other concrete
properties.

Air-Entraining Admixtures
One major disadvantage of concrete is its susceptibility to damage by single or
multiple freeze-thaw cycles when it is in a saturated or near-saturated state.
Without some admixture, concrete could not be used in pavements, dams,
foundations, or other major applications. However, concrete can be made frostresistant by using air-entraining admixtures. Concrete is routinely air-entrained in
the Northern U.S. and Canada.
Entrained Air-Void System -- The volume of air for optimum frost protection is
about 9% by volume of the mortar. The easiest quantity to measure in the field is
the amount of air as a percentage of concrete volume. The air content should be
in the 4 to 8% range for good frost protection. Some air is naturally entrained in
the cement paste, therefore air-entraining admixtures increase the air voids 3 to
4% by volume of concrete. Air-entraining admixtures cause the mixing water to
foam resulting in literally millions of tiny air bubbles to be uniformly spaced
throughout the paste. These tiny voids are not visible with the naked eye, but are
observable with a microscope. The spacing of the voids is a critical measure of the
effectiveness of the admixture. Also, small voids do not easily fill with water even

24

when the concrete is saturated.

Air-Entraining Materials -- A good air-entraining compound will promote the
formation of small stable bubbles during agitation. Surface-active agents
concentrate at the water-air interface, lowering the surface tension of the water
allowing bubble formation. A typical dose of admixture is 0.0005 to 0.05% of
active ingredient by weight of cement - often requiring predilution before
batching.
Testing of Air-Entrained Agents -- One way to test the effectiveness of air
entrainment is by counting bubbles in a polished section of concrete under a
microscope and calculating the spacing factor. A more routine test is a
performance specification in which an admixture concrete is tested in rapid
freeze-thaw cycles.
Factors Affecting Air Entrainment -- Increasing admixture dosage will increase air
content and decrease spacing factors. Finely ground cements entrain less air than
do coarsely around ones. Therefore, the addition of fines into the mix will reduce
the air content. The use of other admixtures can affect the air-entraining
potential of surface-active agents. Low cement content concretes entrain more
air than do rich mixtures. In addition, low w/c ratio mixes entrain less air than do
concretes with high w/c ratios.
Mixing and Consolidation -- Air entrainment occurs during mixing.There are
several factor which can effect the air content: type of mixer, rate of mixing,
amount of concrete being mixed, time of mixing, consolidation, temperature, and
slump.
Effects on Concrete Properties -- Air entrainment increases the workability of
fresh concrete. The tiny bubbles in the cement act like fine aggregates and
reduce the interactions between solid aggregates. The improvement in workability
leads to use of air entrainment admixtures even when freeze-thaw is not a
problem. In general, air entrainment will produce a uniform well-compacted
concrete. Air entrained concrete is generally 10 to 20% weaker than non-airentrained mixtures. Excessive air will lower strength and reduce freeze-thaw
resistance.

Chemical Admixtures
25

This class of admixtures encompasses all soluble chemicals which affect setting
times and reduce water requirements of concrete mixes. They are classified as
follows:
Type A. Water-Reducing Admixtures
Lowers the water required to obtain a given slump. ASTM classifies an admixture
as water-reducing if it reduces water requirements by 5%. Under this
specification, many air-entraining admixtures are also classified as waterreducing. Most water-reducing admixtures reduce water requirements by 5 to
10%. Newer admixtures called "superplasticizers" achieve reductions of 15 to 30%
in water requirements. Reducing water requirements while maintaining cement
contents effectively lowers the w/c ratio with an accompanying gain in strength.

The main reaction of all water-reducing admixtures is at the solid-water

interface. In general, solid particles carry a residual surface charge, which may
be positive or negative. This causes the particles to collect together trapping
and attracting water. Water-reducing admixtures neutralize the surface charge
so that all surfaces carry a uniform charge of like sign. The particles now repel
each other instead of attracting one another. The water is free to reduce the
viscosity of the paste and improve workability. Most conventional water-reducing
admixtures will also act as retarding admixtures.
By lowering the water requirements using water-reducing admixtures, an
increase in compressive strengths up to 25% greater than those anticipated from
an equivalent mix with a decrease in the w/c ratio is obtained. This can be
attributed to more uniformity throughout the cement paste structure.
Superplasticizing Admixtures -- A linear polymer which can reduce water
requirements by 15 to 30%. They are used to produce flowing concretes with
very high slumps (7 to 9 in.) and high strength concretes with w/c ratios in the
range of 0.3 to 0.4. ASTM refers to these admixtures as "high-range waterreducing admixtures." If added dosages equivalent to normal water-reducing
admixtures are used the results are similar (5 to 10%). However, at higher
dosages, the water reduction increases. The effect of this admixture is that
undesirable side-effects like air-entrainment and retardation are much reduced.
High strength can be obtained for concretes with w/c ratio below 0.4
(incomplete hydration). Superplasticizers can modify Type I cement resulting in
strength gain in excess of Type III. The accompanying lower cement content
reduces the rate of heat generation. Also, lower w/c ratios lead to better
durability, lower creep, and dry shrinkage.
Type B. Set-Retarding Admixtures

26

Admixtures which prolong the plasticity of concrete. Useful to counter the

effects of high temperature, eliminate cold joints, and reduce cracking
associated with form deflections. Basically, retarding admixtures increase the
dormant stage in the C3S hydration process. However, subsequent hydration in
stages 3 and 4 will be more rapid. Too large a dose of retarding admixture will
cause the reaction never to proceed beyond stage 2 resulting in a cement that
will never set. Over-retarding of concrete has helped many a ready-mix truck
driver out of trouble. The addition of sugar or carbonate drinks to concrete that
may have set up in the truck will return it to a useable form.
The effective of the retarder depends on the amount of C3A in the concrete.
Retarder is removed from the solution by the C3A reaction, so less is available to
retard C3S hydration. Less retarder is removed if its addition to fresh concrete is
delayed. Even though this admixture extends setting times, a side effect is loss
of workability. Set-retarding admixtures have been reported to increase ultimate
compressive strengths. Dry shrinkage and creep rate are increased, but ultimate
values are unaffected.
Type C. Set-Accelerating Admixtures
There are two types of set-accelerators, those that accelerate normal setting
and strength development and those that provide rapid-setting concretes by
means not associated with normal hydration. There are many application;
shotcreting, plugging leaks under pressure, rapid emergency repair, or when
rapid development of rigidity is required.
Conventional accelerators increase the rate of hydration of C3S by shortening the
dormant period and increasing the rate of hydration in stages 3 and 4.
Set-accelerators do not generally affect air entrainment. However, handling
time is reduced and additional water or a water-reducing admixture may be
necessary to control workability. Early strength gain can be observed however,
ultimate strength is reduced. Effects on dry shrinkage and creep are similar to
those resulting from set-retarding admixtures.
Some set-accelerating admixtures have a chloride component which will cause
corrosion on reinforcing bars. As discussed earlier in the course, chloride should
never be used in any prestress application. Alternative admixtures require larger
dosages and will be more expensive. Another solution is to use Type III cement
and a concrete with a higher cement content in order to get early strength.
Type D. Water-Reducing and -Retarding Admixtures
27

Type E. Water-Reducing and -Accelerating Admixtures

Mineral Admixtures
Mineral admixtures are used to improve workability and durability and to harden
concrete. This can be accomplished by introducing finely ground minerals, generally
divided into three groups:
Materials of Low Reactivity -- Improve the workability of concrete deficient in
fines. Generally, cementitious or pozzolanic materials are preferred due to an
additional increase in strength and durability.
Cementitious Materials -- Materials that have hydraulic reactions off their own,
like hydraulic limestones and blast-furnace slags. Most common admixture of this
category.
Pozzolanic Materials -- A material that reacts with calcium hydroxide (CH) to form
C-S-H. The reaction improves workability and lowers heat of hydration while
causing a more impermeable cement. This reaction is comparable to that of C 2S
hydration. Type I cement can be turned into Type IV cement with a pozzolan
admixture. Therefore, Type IV cement is rarely manufactured. A low early
strength is obtained similar to type IV cements.

Miscellaneous Admixtures
28

Consumption of these admixtures added together is less than the amount used in
any of the single types discussed so far.
Bonding Admixtures -- Bonding between old and new concrete or concrete and
other materials.
Corrosion Inhibitors -- Generally, an accelerating admixture which is not corrosive
to reinforcing bars.
Dampproofing Admixture -- prevent penetration of rain into porous concrete;
provide water-repellent characteristic.
Expansion-Producing Admixtures -- convert ordinary cement into expansive
cement.
Grouting Admixtures -- A variety of admixtures for concrete-based grouts which
prevent bleeding and segregation, increase cohesion and retention of water during
pumping, and increase set times.

Part 8
29

Fresh Concrete
There are two sets of criteria that we must consider when making concrete; 1)
Long-term requirements of hardened concrete, such as, strength, durability, and
volume stability, 2) Short-term requirements, like workability. However, these two
requirements are not necessarily complementary. This chapter deals only with the
short term requirements. For fresh concrete to be acceptable, it should:
1. Be easily mixed and transported.
2. Be uniform throughout a given batch and between batches.
3. Be of a consistency so that it can fill completely the forms for which it was
designed.
4. Have the ability to be compacted without excessive loss of energy.
5. Not segregate during placing and consolidation.
6. Have good finishing characteristics.

Workability
All the characteristics above describe many different aspects of concrete behavior.
The term workability is used to represent all the qualities mentioned. Workability is
often defined in terms of the amount of mechanical energy, or work, required to
fully compact concrete without segregation. This is important since the final
strength is a function of compaction.
The concept of viscosity is a measure of how a material behaves under stress. For a
Newtonian fluid, the relationship may be written as:

where t is the shear stress, nis the viscosity, and D is the rate of shear or velocity
gradient.
For a very dilute suspension of solids in liquids, this relationship holds true.
However, for large volumes of suspended solids, like concrete, the Newtonian model
does not work. Concrete has an initial shear strength that must be exceeded before
it will flow. This type of behavior is described by the Bingham model:

where t0 is the yield shear stress, n is the plastic viscosity.

A third type of viscous behavior is called thixotropic, where the apparent viscosity
decreases with shear stress. Concrete will exhibit thixotropic characteristics.

30

Factors Affecting Workability

Water Content of the Mix -- This is the single most important fact or governing
workability of concrete. A group of particles requires a certain amount of water.
Water is absorbed on the particle surface, in the volumes between particles, and
provides "lubrication" to help the particles move past one another more easily.
Therefore, finer particles, necessary for plastic behavior, require more water.
Some side-effects of increased water are loss of strength and possible segregation.

Influence of Aggregate Mix Proportions -- Increasing the proportion of aggregates

relative to the cement will decrease the workability of the concrete. Also, any
additional fines will require more cement in the mix. An "oversanded" mix will be
permeable and less economical. A concrete deficient of fines will be difficult to
finish and prone to segregation.
Aggregate Properties -- The ratio of coarse/fine aggregate is not the only factor
affecting workability. The gradation and particle size of sands are important.
Shape and texture of aggregate will also affect workability. Spherical shaped
particles will not have the interaction problems associated with more angular
particles. Also, spherical shapes have a low surface/volume ratio, therefore, less
cement will be required to coat each particle and more will be available to
contribute to the workability of the concrete. Aggregate which is porous will
absorb more water leaving less to provide workability. It is important to
distinguish between total water content, which includes absorbed water, and free
water which is available for improving workability.
Time and Temperature -- In general, increasing temperature will cause an
increase in the rate of hydration and evaporation. Both of these effects lead to a
loss of workability.
Loss of Workability -- Workability will decrease with time due to several factors;
continued slow hydration of C3S and C3A during dormant period, loss of water
through evaporation and absorption, increased particle interaction due to the
formation of hydration products on the particle surface. Loss of workability is
measured as "slump loss" with time.
Cement Characteristics -- Cement characteristics are less important than
aggregate properties in determining workability. However, the increased fineness
of rapid-hardening cements will result in rapid hydration and increased water
requirements, both of which reduce workability.
Admixtures -- In general, air-entraining, water-reducing, and set-retarding

31

admixtures will all improve workability. However, some chemical admixtures will
react differently with cements and aggregates and may result in reduced
workability.

Segregation and Bleeding

Segregation refers to a separation of the components of fresh concrete, resulting in
a non-uniform mix. This can be seen as a separation of coarse aggregate from the
mortar, caused from either the settling of heavy aggregate to the bottom or the
separation of the aggregate from the mix due to improper placement. Some factors
that increase segregation are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Larger maximum particle size (25mm) and proportion of the larger particles.
High specific gravity of coarse aggregate.
Decrease in the amount of fine particles.
Particle shape and texture.
Water/cement ratio.

Good handling and placement techniques are most important in prevention of

segregation.
Bleeding is defined as the appearance of water on the surface of concrete after it
has consolidated but before it is set. Since mixing water is the lightest component
of the concrete, this is a special form of segregation. Bleeding is generally the result
of aggregates settling into the mix and releasing their mixing water. Some bleeding
is normal for good concrete.
However, if bleeding becomes too localized, channels will form resulting in
"craters". The upper layers will become too rich in cement with a high w/c ratio
causing a weak, porous structure. Salt may crystalize on the surface which will
affect bonding with additional lifts of concrete. This formation should always be
removed by brushing and washing the surface. Also, water pockets may form under
large aggregates and reinforcing bars reducing the bond. Bleeding may be reduced
by:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Increasing cement fineness.

Increasing the rate of hydration.
Using air-entraining admixtures.
Reducing the water content.

Measurement of Workability
Workability, a term applied to many concrete properties, can be adequately
measured by three characteristics:
1. Compatibility, the ease with which the concrete can be compacted and air
void removed.

32

2. Mobility, ease with which concrete can flow into forms and around
reinforcement.
3. Stability, ability for concrete to remain stable and homogeneous during
handling and vibration without excessive segregation.
Different empirical measurements of workability have been developed over the
years. None of these tests measure workability in terms of the fundamental
properties of concrete. However, the following tests have been developed:
Subjective Assessment -- The oldest way of measuring workability based on the
judgement and experience of the engineer. Unfortunately, different people see
things, in this case concrete, differently.
Slump Test -- The oldest, most widely used test for determining workability. The
device is a hollow cone-shaped mold. The mold is filled in three layers of each
volume. Each layer is rodded with a 16mm steel rod 25 times. The mold is then
lifted away and the change in the height of the concrete is measured against the
mold. The slump test is a measure of the resistance of concrete to flow under it
own weight.
There are three classifications of slump; "true" slump, shear slump, and collapse
slump. True slump is a general reduction in height of the mass without any
breaking up. Shear slump indicates a lack of cohesion, tends to occur in harsh
mixes. This type of result implies the concrete is not suitable for placement.
Collapse slump generally indicates a very wet mix. With different aggregates or
mix properties, the same slump can be measured for very different concretes.
Compaction Test -- Concrete strength is proportional to its relative density. A test
to determine the compaction factor was developed in 1947. It involves dropping a
volume of concrete from one hopper to another and measuring the volume of
concrete in the final hopper to that of a fully compacted volume. This test is
difficult to run in the field and is not practical for large aggregates (over 1 in.).
Flow Test -- Measures a concretes ability to flow under vibration and provides
information on its tendency to segregate. There are a number of tests available
but none are recognized by ASTM. However, the flow table test described for
mortar flows is occasionally used.
Remolding Test -- Developed to measure the work required to cause concrete not
only to flow but also to conform to a new shape.
Vebe Test - A standard slump cone is cast, the mold removed, and a transparent
disk placed on top of the cone. The sample is then vibrated till the disk is
completely covered with mortar. The time required for this is called the Vebe
time.
33

Thaulow Drop Table - Similar to the Vebe test except a cylinder of concrete is
remolded on a drop table. The number of drops to achieve this remolding is
counted.
Penetration Test -- A measure of the penetration of some indenter into
concrete. Only the Kelly ball penetration test is included in the ASTM Standards.
The Kelly ball penetration test measures the penetration of a 30 lb. hemisphere
into fresh concrete. This test can be performed on concrete in a buggy, open
truck, or in form if they are not too narrow. It can be compared to the slump
test for a measure of concrete consistency.
Summary
1. All tests are empirical and are not based on any fundamental concrete
properties.
2. None of the tests work for all concrete. They may give similar results for
quite different concretes.
3. Their primary usefulness is to provide quality control for a given concrete
mix.

Setting of Concrete
Setting is defined as the onset of rigidity in fresh concrete. Hardening is the
development of useable and measurable strength; setting precedes hardening. Both
are gradual changes controlled by hydration. Fresh concrete will lose measurable
slump before initial set and measurable strength will be achieved after final set.
Setting is controlled by the hydration of C3S. The period of good workability is
during the dormant period, (stage 2). Initial set corresponds to the beginning of
stage 3, a period of rapid hydration. Final set is the midpoint of this acceleration
phase. A rapid increase in temperature is associated with stage 3 hydration, with a
maximum rate at final set.
If large amounts of ettringite rapidly form from C3A hydration, the setting times will
be reduced. Cements with high percentages of C3A, such as expansive or setregulated cements, are entirely controlled by ettringite formation.

Abnormal Setting Behavior

False Set -- Early stiffening of concrete, fluidity may be restored by remixing.
Basically, it is a result of hydration of dehydrated gypsum, which forms rigid
crystals. Because there are few of these crystals and they are weak, the matrix
can be destroyed by remixing. Accelerated hydration of C3A will cause rapid
development of ettringite and false set.
Flash Set -- Stiffening of concrete due to the rapid development of large
quantities of C3A hydration products which cannot be returned to a fluid state
with mixing. This is generally no longer a problem since the introduction of
gypsum to control C3A hydration. However, some admixtures will increase C3A
34

hydration and flash set may be a problem.

Tests of Fresh Concrete

1. They permit some estimation of the subsequent behavior of the hardened
concrete.
2. Changes in the properties of fresh concrete imply that the concrete mix is
changing, so that some action can be taken if necessary.
Concrete is a composite material made from cement, aggregate, water, and
admixtures. The variation of these components both in quality and quantity directly
affects the resulting mix. When sampling fresh concrete for testing, it is important
to take samples from various locations or several points during the discharge of the
concrete. Samples should not have contacted forms or subgrade, and collection
should be done in such a way that no segregation occurs.
Time of Setting -- A penetration test, used to help regulate the times of mixing
and transit, gauges the effectiveness of various set-controlling admixtures, and
help plan finishing operations. The test is performed on the mortar faction, the
amount of concrete passing a No. 4 sieve, of the concrete rodded into a container.

Air Content -- These tests measure the total air content, entrained air plus
entrapped air expressed in terms of the volume of concrete.
Gravimetric Method -- Compares the weight of a concrete containing air to that
of a computed air-free concrete.
Volumetric Method -- Compares the volume of fresh concrete containing air
with a volume of the same concrete after the air has be expelled by agitating
the concrete under water. Difficult to measure in the field and required a large
amount of physical effort.
Pressure Method -- The most common field measurement for air content.
Compares the change in volume of a concrete under a given pressure. This
change in volume is caused entirely by the compression of air in the concrete,
both in the cement and the aggregate.
*** All these tests give no information about the spacing of the voids. They only
measure the total air content of the concrete.

Unit Weight and Yield

The unit weight of fresh concrete can be determined by weighing a known volume.
This is usually performed just before air content is determined since there is known
volume concrete. The volume of a batch of concrete can be determined from the
following relationship:

35

where w is the weight of the concrete components, including water. The yield of a
concrete mix can be determined from:

where wcement is the weight of the cement for a given mix.

Rapid Analysis of Fresh Concrete

There are a number of tests which separate the components of fresh concrete and
test for a variety of mix properties; however, none are as yet accepted by ASTM.
There are some tests that do not require separation of the components of the
concrete:
Thermal Conductivity -- Increase in water slows temperature rise.
Capacitance Test -- Higher water content , increases dielectric constant.
Electrical Resistance -- Electrical resistance of fresh concrete is inversely
proportional to the water content.
Nuclear Methods -- X-rays, gamma-rays, and neutron activation analysis can be
used to measure the cement and water contents.

36

Part 9
Handling and Placing
The design of concrete is very important to strength and durability, however,
attention should be placed on handling, placing, and curing to ensure uniform
quality throughout the mix. In this section we will discuss the proper handling and
placing techniques.

Batching and Mixing

Batching -- Batching of aggregates and cement should always be done by weight.
Other components, like water and admixtures, can be batched by volume.
Batching by weight allows rapid and convenient adjustment of mix parameters if
desired. Material quantities should be measured with a high degree of accuracy.
Batching Equipment -- Any piece of batching equipment should allow free and
unobstructed flow of materials while minimizing segregation. Machines of this
type may be divided into three categories: (1) manual - used for small jobs or low
output requirements; (2) semiautomatic - batching process is manually started but
is automatically terminated; (3) fully automatic - in this device a single switch
activates the entire batching procedure. All of this devices should be kept clean
and as dust free as possible. Avoid free fall of fine particles, like cement and
admixtures to reduce dust and material loss. Weighing device should be checked
often to ensure that the proper amounts of each material is being batched
correctly.
Handling of Aggregate -- The main objective in handling aggregate is to prevent
segregation and control moisture of the material. Segregation problems can be
minimized by storing coarse aggregate in coarse, medium, and fine factions. This
will allow the proper gradation of the aggregate. Protection from the weather can
prevent wide variation in moisture content.
Mixing -- Proper mixing is essential to produce homogeneous, uniform concrete.
Inadequate mixing will result in concrete with lower strengths and greater batchto-batch variations. Excessive mixing will reduce the output of a batching
operation and can lead to breakdown of the aggregate.
Mixing Times -- The optimum mixing time depends on several factors; (1) the type
of mixer, (2) the condition of the mixer; (3) the speed of the mixer; (4) the size of
the charge; (5) the nature of the materials. In general, mixing time should be

37

assessed in the field based upon batch-to-batch variations. Lean, dry, or harsh
mixes require longer mixing times. Concrete made with angular aggregates
required more time than do concretes with more rounded aggregates.
Charging the Mixer -- This refers to the preblending of materials. Generally, it is
desired to add about 10% of the mixing water before the aggregates are added
and continuously added throughout the charging of the aggregate. The cement
should be added after about 10% of the aggregate has been added. Admixtures
should batched separately to avoid any potential adverse interactions between
them.
Types of Mixers -- Generally, mixers can be divided into three types; (1) drum
mixers - a series of interior fixed blades which ensure end-to-end mixing of the
materials. The concrete can be removed by dumping the mix or reversing the
direction of rotation; (2) pan mixers - in this type the mixing blades are fixed and
the pan rotates; (3) continuous mixers - the materials are proportioned at one end
of a drum, mixed in the drum, and exit the other end of the drum as concrete.
Ready-Mixed Concrete -- By using automated equipment and trained personnel
ready-mix operations can obtain better quality control. This type of operation also
eliminates the need for mass storage of materials on the job site. There are
several ways to handle this type of operation; (1) central-mixed - completely
mixed at the batching plant, truck is used mainly for transportation, mixing in the
truck reduces slump loss and prevents segregation; (2) transit-mixing - concrete is
partially or completely mixed in transit; (3) shrink-mixed - concrete is partially
mixed at the plant to reduce the volume and completed in the truck mixer (4)
truck-mixed - completely mixed in the truck after being charged at the plant.
Remixing -- Concrete is often remixed at the job site to ensure proper slump is
achieved. If this is the case, at least half the mixing time should occur during the
remixing. Remixed concrete is likely to set more rapidly than concrete mixed only
once.

Transportation
There are many different ways to handle concrete and the choice will depend many
factors. In general, any means of transportation should protect the concrete from
weather and avoid segregation.

Pumping
Concrete pumping technique were developed in the 1930's but remained uncommon
until 15 to 20 years ago. Typically, concrete can be pumped more than 1500 feet
horizontally and 500 feet vertically. There are three basic types of concrete pumps;
(1) piston pumps; (2) pneumatic pumps; and (3) squeeze pumps. Pipelines are made
38

of rigid or flexible material. Generally the rigid pipe performs better allowing up to
8 in. diameter section, while flexible pipe is limited to about 4 in. inner diameter.
Pumping Distances -- The distance concrete can be pumped depends on many
factors; (1) the capacity of the pump, (2) the size of the pipeline, (3) obstructions
top uniform flow, (4) velocity of pumping, and (5) the characteristics of the
concrete. The concrete is pumped as a plug lubricated by a thin layer of mortar or
grout at the pipe wall. The is achieved by priming the pump with a mortar or a
concrete with the coarse aggregate removed.
Mix Design -- If concrete is to pumped it should be designed to be plastic and
cohesive with emphasis on quality control and uniformity of components. Harsh or
dry mixes do not pump well. Most failures in pumping occur because of
segregation and high frictional resistance. To avoid such problems, the maximum
aggregate size should be restricted to 33% of the inside pipe diameter for angular
aggregates and 40% for rounded aggregates. Special attention must be given to
the amount of fine aggregate in the mix since the mortar fluid is the pumping
medium in which the coarse aggregate is suspended. Admixtures are available
which increase the viscosity of the mixing water preventing excessive bleeding
and reducing frictional resistance. Concrete of high slump can segregate in the
pipeline and cause blockage. Air-entrained concrete can be pumped if the air
content is not too high. The compressibility of air reduced pumping capacity.

Placement of Concrete
Proper handling of concrete during placement should minimize segregation of coarse
aggregates. Basically, concrete should be placed by a vertical drop, however, the
material should not be allowed to free fall for long distances. Concrete should be
allowed to flow slowly into the forms at a vertical angle. If placement on a slope is
desired the concrete should be constrained to fall vertically by some sort of chute
or baffle.

Special Placement
Slip Forming -- A method for the continuous placement and consolidation of
concrete. In this technique low slump concrete capable of retaining it shape
without formwork shortly after placement is used for horizontal applications. In
vertical application the formwork must remain until the adequate strength has
been gained. A variation of this method is the jump forming technique. In this
method the forms are not moved continuously, but repositioned of jump to the
next lift.
Preplaced Aggregate -- In this method, forms are packed with well-graded
aggregates and injected with mortar to fill the voids. This method is used for
underwater placement of when normal placement is very difficult. Since the
aggregate is packed more densely than ordinary concrete, less cement paste is
required. The direct contact between aggregate will affect the elastic and
39

fracture properties of concrete.

Shotcreteing of Gunniting -- In this method concrete is applied by spraying it
from a nozzle by means of compressed air. Normally, the material are blended dry
and the water is injected just before entering the nozzle. The concrete can also
be sprayed in a wet state. Generally, fine aggregate and sand are used in
shotcreteing operations. The force of the spray compacts the concrete at the
surface resulting in high compressive strengths. Up to 1/2 of the mixture rebounds
off the surface and is lost. This results in a richer mixture than the design mix.
Tremie Concrete -- This method is used for pouring concrete underwater or
placement in deep forms. The concrete is placed by gravity through a long vertical
pipe with a funnel-shaped hopper at the end. This method is designed to eliminate
trapped air or voids in the concrete. To obtain the high slump, flowing concrete
necessary for this technique a high percentage of sand, 40 to 50% by weight of
total aggregate, is used. The size of the tremie pipe depends on maximum
aggregate size.
Underwater Placement -- The tremie method is only one method for underwater
placement. Pumping and preplaced aggregate methods are also used. Special
bottom-dump buckets are also used to place concrete underwater.

Consolidation
After placement, the concrete should be consolidated into the forms and around
reinforcing bars to eliminate trapped air and voids. Most concrete now placed is
consolidated by vibration. The main advantage of this technique over other methods
is that concrete can have as little as 1/3 the slump of concrete consolidated by
hand. Lower slump mixes are also less prone to segregation. Overvibration will bring
excessive paste to the surface, enhances bleeding, and causes loss of entrained air.
Concrete Vibrators -- Basically, a vibrator applies periodic shear forces to the
concrete which causes the material to flow. There are generally two types of
vibration devices; internal or immersion vibrators or external vibrators. External
vibrators clamp direct to the formwork requiring strong, rigid forms which remain
watertight to withstand the energy imparted to the system. Internal vibrators are
more suited general construction. As the concrete is caused to flow by the
vibration it does not flow uniformly. As the vibration starts the dense coarse
aggregate is forced away form the vibrator head and mortar begins to flow
between the aggregate. The vibrator head must be moved up and down to create
a homogeneous mix. To aid in the removal of trapped air the vibrator head should
be rapidly plunged into the mix and slowly moved up and down. Any trapped air
flows away from the head and to the forms. As the head is pull out the air is
forced out along the form sides ahead of the vibrator. Vibration has a limited
sphere of influence. Typically, the concrete should be vibrated at 18 inch intervals
and at each lift. Revibration can produce better consolidated concrete if done

40

before final set.

Vacuum Dewatering -- A method of consolidation of horizontal surfaces which
removes water form the upper 12 inches of the slab, effectively consolidating the
material. A filter prevents the removal of fine particles. The lower w/c ratio
improves strength and durability.

Casting in Lifts
When casting in lifts units between construction joints should be cast in successive
layers. Each layer should be vibrated together by passing the vibrator into the lower
lift. If the lower lift hardens before the nest placement, a cold joint or construction
joint must be used. The lower lift surface is cleaned to create a roughened state so
that a good mechanical bond with the next lift can be made. A layer of mortar helps
provide a good bond and reduced the potential for segregation.

Finishing Concrete
Several techniques have been developed for finishing slabs for floors or pavements.
Good finishing can provide a maintenance free surface and can offset some
deficiencies of a poorly designed mix.
Screeding -- Excess concrete is struck off to bring the surface to the desired level
and fill any low spots.
Floating -- After the concrete has hardened and bleed water has disappeared, the
surface is floated to a flat blade. This process compacts and removes
imperfections from the surface while forcing cement and water to the surface.
Excessive floating will cause a high w/c ratio and weaken the surface.
Trowelling -- After floating, a surface may be steel-troweled to provide a really
smooth, dense, wear-resistant surface.
Texturing -- If a skid-resistant surface is desired, the freshly screeded surface can
be textured by scoring the surface with a wire or fiber broom. Excessive paste can
be removed with washing which results in an exposed aggregate finish.
Hardening -- This treatment causes the surface to provide additional durability
and wear-resistance. This is the result of a chemical reaction with calcium
hydroxide in the paste creating more C-S-H.

41

Part 10
Curing
An adequate supply of moisture is necessary to insure that hydration is sufficient to
reduce the porosity to a level such that the desired strength and durability can be
attained. Concrete needs time to gain strength even when good curing methods are
used, and strength should be checked before form removal.

Curing at Ambient Temperatures

Cement paste will never completely hydrate because of the thick layer of C-S-H
around each cement grain; however, in practice, water is lost from the paste by
evaporation or absorption by aggregate, formwork, or subgrade will further reduce
the reaction. If the internal relative humidity drops below 80%, hydration and
strength gain will stop. The rate of strength gain is directly related to the amount of
moist curing.
Interrupted Curing -- This is more of a problem during early hydration than later
in the concrete's lifetime. Intermittent wetting and drying can cause the concrete
to be susceptible to tensile cracking developed during drying.
Effects of Relative Humidity -- As discussed earlier, if the relative humidity falls
below 80%, hydration will stop. A fully saturated concrete will be able to provide
water to localized areas in the paste that are starved for moisture. Concrete that
is sealed against moisture loss will hydrate and gain strength more slowly than a
continuously moist cured concrete.
Effect of Temperature -- Increased temperature results in improved early
strength and lower ultimate strength. The early strength gain is explained by the
increase of the hydration process. The lower ultimate strength is more difficult to
explain, but seems to be related to nonuniform development of the
microstructure.

42

Time of Moist Curing

For concrete cured above 45 C, ACI suggests that 7 days of moist curing, or the time
necessary to attain 70% of the specified compressive strength, whichever is less, is
adequate for structural concrete. Unreinforced concrete requires longer times. At
temperatures below 45 C, freezing can be a problem. The concrete should not be
allowed to freeze until it has developed some strength (500 lb/in2).

Methods of Curing
Water Curing -- This technique involves ponding, spraying, or sprinkling of water
on the concrete surface or to saturate some form of cover of the concrete. The
water should be continuously applied so that the concrete does not dry out.
Sealed Curing -- Waterproof paper, plastic sheeting, and curing membranes are
the most widely used material for sealed curing. Each of these materials simply
reduces the amount of water lost to evaporation. The major advantage is the
flexibility of application to any number of shapes and sizes of concrete structures.

Curing in Special Situations

Mass Concrete -- In this case, temperature is as important as moisture control.
The internal temperature should not rise 11o C above the ambient temperature.
Some form of internal cooling system might be necessary.
Hot-Weather Concreting -- To prevent excessive drying, protect concrete from
direct sun and wind. Curing materials should be used that reflect sunlight to
reduce concrete temperatures. Water curing is recommended, and care should be
taken to prevent excessive stress caused by wetting and drying or by cold water
on warm concrete.
Cold-Weather Curing -- Some problems associated with temperatures below 4o C
are: (1) freezing of concrete before adequate strength is developed; (2) slow
development of strength; (3) thermal stresses induced by the cooling of warm
concrete to cooler ambient temperatures.

Curing at Elevated Temperature

Low-Pressure Steam Curing -- Steam at atmospheric pressure is used to increase
the rate of strength development of pre-cast concrete products. Optimum
43

temperatures range from 65o to 80o C and is a compromise of strength gain and
ultimate strength. The curing cycle consists of a presteaming period, where the
concrete is allowed to hydrate and improve its stability; a controlled heating
period, where the concrete is slowly brought to the desired maximum
temperature; steaming or soaking period, an amount of time that the concrete
spends at the maximum temperature; a controlled cooling period; and finally, a
secondary curing or storage period. The properties of concrete using low-pressure
steam curing do not differ from those of concretes cured under ambient
conditions except for lower ultimate strengths.
High-Pressure Steam Curing -- If temperatures above 100o C are desired, then
saturated steam must be developed and a sealed vessel used. The temperature
range is about 160o to 210o C at 6 to 20 atm. The products of this hydration are
different from those cured below 100o C. The most important improvements are:
(1) products develop 28-day strength in 1 day; (2) substantially less creep and
shrinkage; (3) better surface resistance; (4) lower moisture content after curing.
The curing cycle is similar to that of low-pressure curing. A concrete using only
Portland cement as a binder will not develop good strength when autoclaved.
Reactive siliceous material must be added to the product to achieve the desired
high strength. Dry shrinkage is reduced by a third over regular concrete and
resistance to sulfate attack is improved. The resulting product is white in color
and is suitable for pigmenting.

44

Part 11
Concrete as a Composite Material
A composite material may be defined as a combination of at least two chemically
and mechanically distinct materials with a definite interface separating the
components; clearly concrete qualifies. This definition of a composite works on
many levels. At the macroscopic level. concrete consists of coarse aggregate
embedded in a cement matrix; on a finer scale the mortar itself consists of sand
embedded in a matrix of hydrated cement paste. On a microscopic level, the
hydrated cement contains a network of capillary pores and grains of unhydrated
cement. On a finer scale, the C-H-S is a mixture of poorly crystallized particles of
varies shapes and a system of gel pores.

Factors Affecting Composite Behavior

Before a specific model for a composite can be formed, a number of parameters
should be considered; (1) shape of the particles, (2) size and size distribution, (3)
concentration and concentration distribution, (4) orientation of particles, (5) spatial
distribution of particles, (6) composition of disperse phase, (7) composite of the
continuous phase, and (8) bond between the continuous and disperse phases.
Describing a system in terms of these parameters is very difficult. The purpose is to
determine the elastic properties of the composite based on the properties of the
components. The parallel system is the upper bound for elastic properties of
interest while the series system provides the lower bound. For the parallel model,
the modulus of elasticity can be determined as:

For a series model:

where Es is the modulus of elasticity of the system, E1, and E2 are the modui of
elasticity of the two components, and V1 and V2 are the volume fractions of the two
components. These equations can be applied to concrete in the following forms:

45

where Ec is the modulus of elasticity of concrete, Ep and Ea are the moduli of

elasticity of the paste and the aggregate, and Vp and Va area the volume fractions
of the paste and the aggregate.
Concrete made with natural aggregate in a soft paste conforms more closely to the
lower bound, the series model. However, concrete made with lightweight aggregate
in a hard matrix more closely resembles the parallel model. Another model
suggested by Hirsch is expressed as:

where x and 1-x are the relative proportions of material conforming to the upper
and lower bound models. There is another model proposed by Counto.
A more realistic model is one consisting of spherical particles in a continuous matrix
and can be expressed as:

This model depends on the assumptions that (1) there is no interaction between the
aggregate particles, and (2) that there is a perfect bond between aggregate and the
matrix. The first assumption is valid; however, the second assumption is not.
For normal weight aggregates, the Ea is considerably higher than Ep, or the case of
hard particles in a soft matrix; the theoretical lower limit. Therefore the true value
for E should lie between the lower limit and the spherical model. If Ea = Ep for a
lightweight concrete then Ec is independent of relative amounts of the cement and
aggregate. For Ep > Ea, soft particles in a hard matrix, the modulus of elasticity is
the upper limit.

46

Cement-Aggregate Bond
Concrete strength depends on the strength of the paste, the strength of the
aggregate, and the strength of the paste-aggregate interface. The weakest region is
the interface between the paste and the aggregate. This is affected by the shape
and texture of the aggregate. The bond region is weak because cracks exist at the
paste-coarse aggregate interface due to bleeding, segregation, volume change
during hydration. Also, during curing, the aggregate helps resist shrinkage, which in
turn induces shear and tensile forces at the aggregate surface.
Factors Affecting Bond Strength -- Bond strength is very difficult to determine
and there is no standard test. However, bond strength is reasonably well
understood and there are several tests used to determine strength. Many of the
same parameters that affect concrete strength also affect bond strength; e.g. w/c
ratio, type of cement, and age. Vibration is important since air voids can reduce
the contact surface. The potential for absorption capacity may be important;
porous aggregate (dried before used) can produce an excellent bond. Bond
failures do not occur between paste and fine aggregate. In fact, as particle size
increases, the stress at the paste-aggregate interface increases.
The shape and texture are also very important; a smooth texture can decrease (1)
strength, (2) stress at which cracking begins, (3) total strain failure, (4) maximum
volume strain, and (5) modulus of elasticity. A coarser surface should delay the
onset of bond cracking. The shear bond strength is increased over the intrinsic
shear strength due to frictional forces developed due to normal stresses.

Nature of Strength of Concrete

Concrete is a complex multiphase material where strength and mechanical
properties are dependent on the interaction between the various components.
Therefore, any discussion of strength is not absolute. In fact, a better approach to
strength might be to explain why concrete is weak in tension rather than why it is
strong in compression. In general, a normal weight aggregate is much more stiff
than a cement paste, therefore the aggregate-paste bond is very important.

47

Part 12
Fracture and Failure
Both hardened cement paste and concrete are considered brittle materials. The
stress-strain behavior and failure modes are governed by cracking at the pasteaggregate interface. Therefore, it is very important to understand the fracture
mechanism.

Fracture Mechanics
Fracture mechanics is the study of stress-strain relationships and displacement fields
in a region near a crack tip. The following is a brief introduction to the concepts of
classical fracture mechanics and the extension to a composite material.
Theoretical Cohesive Stress -- The strength of a solid depends on the strength of
its atomic bonds. Therefore, we will consider the interaction between two atoms.
There is a minimum energy associated with the equilibrium spacing of two atoms.
The total energy required to separate these two atoms is U0. As the solid fractures
and two new surfaces are formed, the energy, gs, is equally shared by both
surfaces. The force is zero at the equilibrium spacing. The initial slope of the
curve is the modulus of elasticity. The stress-strain curve can be approximated by
half a sine wave. The area under this curve is the amount of work necessary to
fracture the atomic bond, 2 gammas, the initial slope is E. The relationship
between stress, sigma, and displacement , x, is

The work to fracture is the area under the stress-strain curve. By using Hooke's law
for small displacement, the following relationship can be found

where sigmamax is the theoretic cohesive; for concrete this strength is about 300,00
lb/in^2.
Griffith Theory -- Based on thermodynamic considerations the total energy is the

48

system is

where - WL is the work due to the applied loads, UE is the strain energy stored in
the system, and US is the free surface in creating the new crack surface. When
dU/dc < 0 the crack will propagate and the fracture strength is

where C is half the crack length; this is similar to the cohesive stress theory
strength. The values of the theoretical strength differ enormously from the
measured values because the material contains flaws and microcracks that
concentrate the stress.
Consider the elliptical hole in an infinite plate in tension. As C >> rho, a very sharp
crack is modelled.
None of these simple fracture models are not accurate when applied to concrete.
The reasons vary form multiple cracking to high varied cracking paths.
Coulomb-Mohr Theory -- This theory attempts to describe the failure mechanism
on the macroscopic level. The method is used to develop a Mohr's envelope of safe
stress conditions. This theory also has difficulty in predicting ultimate strength. To
overcome this the Coulomb-Mohr theory has been modified and is the best
representation of a failure criterion for concrete.

Mechanisms of Failure
Since concrete is a composite material we are interested in the interactions of the
components. At low levels of stress the materials are linear in nature. However, a
higher levels concrete is highly nonlinear. This nonlinearity is due to the interactions
of the materials and the nature of the cement-aggregate bond. Stronger concrete
exhibits a more linear stress-strain curve behaviors, also linearity is increased when
the stress-strain relationship of the aggregate and the cement matrix are more
evenly matched.

49

Concrete like most brittle materials pass through three stages: (1) crack initiations,
(2) slow crack growth, and (3) rapid crack growth. As the stress reaches the ultimate
stress the value of the poisson's ratio also changes.
Effect of Aggregate -- Concrete is heterogeneous and the aggregate particles are
not only irregularly shaped but also imperfectly bonded to the cement. In general,
the order of failure is (1) tensile bond failure, (2) shear bonds, (3) shear and tensile
matrix failures, and (4) aggregate failure. Even in compression, regions of tensile
stress will develop around aggregate particles.

Stabilizing Crack Growth

Since aggregate is generally stronger than the cement matrix, cracks will tend to go
around aggregate and not through it. The energy required for crack extension is
increased by the aggregate. Also, unhydrated cement gains will act in a similar
manner. Air voids tend to blunt the crack tip. The affect of microcracking or branch
cracking will increase the surface area of new cracking and tend to distribute the
stress and prevent a large concentration to build-up at the crack tip.

Static Fatigue
If concrete is loaded to about 75% or more of its short-term static strength, and if
the load is sustained, the concrete will eventually fail. This is referred to a static
fatigue. The failure is not difficult to explain; slow crack growth continues until
they reach a critical size, then fracture will occur. Crack growth is sustained in the
presence of water.

Fatigue
This a phenomenon when failure occurs by repeated applications of loads which are
not large enough to cause failure in a single application. Fatigue data is represented
by an S-N diagram; Repeated stress S, plotted as a stress ratio, and the number of
cycles of the loading to cause failure, N. Generally, S-N diagrams are presented in
terms of the probability of failure. Properties of the concrete like w/c ratio,
aggregates, air entrainment, etc. have no significant effects. The frequency of the
loading has no effect on fatigue strength as long as the maximum stress is less than
about 75% of the static strength. Even though fatigue strengths are lower than the
static strength, the strains at failure are substantially larger in fatigue loadings than
in simple static loadings. The shape of the stress-strain curve changes with load.

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Part 13
Strength
Strength may not be the most important characteristic of concrete; durability,
volume stability, and impermeability may be equally significant. However, strength
has become universally accepted as the most important indication of concrete
quality. Factors that effect concrete strength may be divided into four categories:
(1) constitute materials, (2) methods of preparation, (3) curing procedures, and (4)
test conditions. We have already discussed methods of preparation and curing.
Therefore, we will be concerned with the effects of constitute materials (water,
cement, and aggregate) on concrete strength and mechanical properties.

Effect of Porosity on Strength

The primary factor that governs the strength of brittle materials, like concrete, is
porosity. As the capillary porosity decreases compressive strength increases. Also
there is data to indicate that large pores may be more effective than small pores in
reliving stress concentrations at crack tips.
Gel/Space Ratio -- In 1946, Powers and Brownyard published a work that showed
that the increase in compressive strength of Portland cement is directly proportional
to the increase in gel/space ratio, regardless of age, w/c ratio, or type of cement.
The gel/space ratio is the ratio of solid products of hydration to the space available
for these hydration products, in other words, it is a measure of capillary pore space.
Before hydration this space is occupied by mixing water, after hydration the space is
the sum of the hydrated cement and the remaining capillary pore space. The basic
trend of this graph will be the same if different cements or test shapes are used,
however, the data points will change. Even thought is this an important quantity the
gel/space ratio is difficult to determine.

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Factors Affecting Strength

Water/Cement (w/c) Ratio -- The capillary porosity of a properly compacted
concrete is determined by the w/c ratio. If concrete is not properly compacted it
may contain voids which will contribute to its porosity. At low w/c ratios where
full compaction is difficult to achieve, the relationship between w/c and strength
is invalid.
There are some problems associated with using the w/c ratio as the primary
indicator of strength. For example, if finer cements and admixtures are used, 7- and
28-day strengths may not represent the true quality of the cement. However, until
some other field test is available, w/c ratio remains the best indictor of strength
and durability.
Time -- The rate of strength gain depends of the w/c ratio, low w/c ratio mixes
gain strength faster than high w/c ratio mixes. As a general rule the ratio of 28day to 7-day compressive strengths lies between 1.3 and 1.7, and is generally less
than 1.5. These ratios are not valid if accelerators or extreme curing
temperatures are used.
The Maturity Concept -- The hydration of cement is greatly affected by both the
time and the temperature of hydration, therefore, strength gain is controlled by
these two factors. The concept of "maturity" is a function of the product of curing
time and temperature. The assumption is that concrete of different mixes, curing
times, and curing temperatures will have about the same strength at the same
level of maturity. A datum or reference point below which no concrete will gain
strength is commonly a value of -100C. The general trend is that as maturity
increases compressive strength increases, especially at low maturity values.
There are a number of limitations on the use of maturity for predicting compressive
strength. (1) humidity of curing is not considered, (2) only ambient temperature is
considered; the contribution of heat of hydration is ignored, (3) maturity functions
are not useful at low values (time should be calculated from when concrete actually
begins to gain strength not at mixing and casting), (4) invalid over large curing
temperature variations, (5) cement characteristics and w/c ratio affect strength,
and (6) invalid for accelerated concretes.
*** Nevertheless, the maturity concept may be useful in establishing "after the fact"
strength estimates of concrete.
Cement -- From our previous study we known that the chemical composition and
fineness of cement affect the strength of concrete. Early strength comes from C3S
and later strength from C2S. Cement that hydrates more slowly will have lower
initial strength but higher ultimate strength. The degree of fineness also affects
the strength; the rate of hydration increases with the increase of fineness.

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Aggregate -- Second to w/c ratio, aggregate is an important factor affecting

concrete strength. The most important properties of aggregate are shape and
texture and the maximum aggregate size. Since aggregate is generally much
stronger than cement paste the strength of the aggregate is less important.
Texture affects both the bond and the stress level at micro-cracks. This type of
behavior will affect the tensile strength but will not affect the compressive
strength. Compressive strength depends on the strength of the aggregate itself.
Maximum aggregate size affects strength in several ways: larger particles reduce
the specific surface area of the aggregate which leads to a reduction in bond
strength; also, larger particles tend to restrain volume changes in the cement
paste and therefore induce some internal stress which will weaken the concrete.
These effects can be offset by reducing the water content, therefore the net
effect of aggregate size is small. In general, at a constant w/c ratio, higher
strength can be obtained by using a leaner mixture. If constant workability is
maintained, strength will increase with cement content.

Part 14
Testing of Hardened Concrete

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There are several reasons why testing of hardened concrete is important: (1) test
can investigate the fundamental physical behavior of concrete such as elastic
properties and strength characteristics; (2) When physical laws are not fully
understood testing can simulate expected conditions to evaluate performance; (3)
tests to determined physical material constants like the modulus of elasticity; and
(4) quality control.
Common characteristics of concrete like strength and durability should not be
considered fundamental material properties. Variables like specimen geometry and
preparation, moisture content, temperature, loading rate, and the type of testing
device will affect the mechanical behavior. Therefore, when defining some
mechanical property it is necessary to specify the test used to determine the value.
Also, there is no unique relationship between mechanical properties obtained from
different test. In light of these restrictions, a series of "standard" tests have been
proposed. There are several organizations such as ASTM, British Standards Institute
(BSI), and the Canadian Standards Association (CSA) which publish standards. These
"standard" tests are continually revised as new technologies develop. It is estimated
that 1/3 of the ASTM tests are revised annually.
Small representative samples of concrete do not in any way guarantee the quality of
the concrete. Studies have shown that there is not a very good correlation between
strength of concrete determined by ASTM standard tests and the strength of the
concrete in the structure. However, there are many reasons to continue standard
testing: (1) test help ensure proper batching and proportioning; (2) provide
statistical information on properties; (3) reveal problems associate with the
materials; (4) helps ensure high production standards are maintained; (5)
documented testing will help identify any structural problems that arise; and (6)
strength test may be used as a guide for construction operations.

Test for Compressive Strength

The most common test preformed on concrete is for compressive strength. There
several reasons for this: (1) it is assumed that the most important properties of
concrete as directly related to compressive strength; (2) concrete has little tensile
strength and is used primarily in compression; (3) structural design codes are based
on compressive strength; (4) the test is relatively simple and inexpensive to
perform.
ASTM Cylinder Test -- The normal compressive specimen in North America is a
cylinder with length to diameter ratio of 2:1. Molds may be reusable, made of
heavy-gauge metal or single-use, made from sheet metal or waxed cardboard.
Cardboard molds have been found to yield slightly lower strength (+/-3%) than
other types. Specimen should be cast on a firm level surface, free from vibration.
If the slump is more than 3 inches, concrete is consolidated by rodding; if the
slump is less than 1 inch, the concrete is consolidated by vibration. Poorly
compacted cylinders will have lower strength. If the specimen is to be rodded, it
should be filled in three equal layers, each rodded 25 times with 5/8 inch
diameter steel rod with a rounded end.

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If specimens are to used for quality control the cylinders must be stored at 605F to
805F for the first 24 hours in such a way that moisture loss is prevented. The
cylinder are then removed and stored in a standard moist room or in saturated lime
water (73 F) until tested. If cylinder are made to estimate form removal they should
be stored as near to the part of the structure in question as possible.
Capping cylinder reduces the effects of concentrated stresses under loading. Testing
should be done as soon as capping is completed. Sulfur caps lose strength and
pourablity with used and therefore should not be reused more than five times.
Determination of compressive strength using ASTM C39 states tolerances for the
testing machine. Since strength is dependent on loading rate, the specimen should
be loaded at a controlled rate of 20 to 50 lb/in2/s or a deformation rate of 0.05
in/min.
Cube Test -- Cube test, standard in Great Britain and Germany, uses a6in cubic
mold, which is filled in three layers, rodded 35 times with a 25mm square rod or
compacted with a vibrator. The cube is tested at right angles to the position
casted and therefore required no capping or grinding. The loading rate is 33
lb/in2/s.
Prism Test (ASTM C116) -- Develop to test compressive strength from broken
portions of beams tested in flexure. This primary a research test and is not an
alternative to the cylinder test.

Factors Affecting the Measured Compressive Strength

Compression tests assumed that a pure state of uniaxial loading. However, this is not
the case, because of frictional forces between the load plates and the specimen
surface. The affect is to restrain the specimen from expanding. As specimen length
to diameter ratio decreases the end effects are more important resulting in higher
apparent compressive strengths. The use of rubber of lubricant between the
specimen and the loading plate can induce lateral tensile load at the end of
specimen. This will cause vertical splitting and reduce apparent strength.
A hard or stiff plate will concentrate stress at the outer edges whereas a softer
plate will have higher stress at the center. This same concepts of hard and soft at
applicable to the testing machines themselves. A soft machine will release the
stored energy of its deformation to the specimen as it fails whereas a hard machine
will not.
As l/d decreases below a value of 2 the strength increases. At ratios above 2 the
effect is more dramatic. Also, this phenomena is significant in high-strength cement.
Specimen size is important for the simple fact that as the specimens become larger
it is more likely to contain an element that will fail at a low load..

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Rate of loading as discussed above is quite important to the test compressive

strength. In general, the higher the loading rate the higher the measured strength.
The reasons for this are not completely clear, however, it is thought that under slow
loading rates more subcritical cracking may occur or that slow loading allows more
creep to occur which increase the amount of strain at a given load.
Most concrete specimens are tested in a saturated state. Concrete that has been
dried shows an increase in strength, probably do to the lack of lubricating effect
moisture has on the concrete particles. Higher temperatures at the time of testing
will lower the apparent strength of the concrete.

Tensile Strength
There is as yet no standard test for directly determining tensile strength. However
there are two common methods for estimating tensile strength through indirect
tensile tests. The first, is the splitting test carried out on a standard cylinder
specimen by applying a line load along the vertical diameter. It is not practical to
apply the a true line load to the cylinder because the side are not smooth enough
and because it would induced high compressive stresses at the surface. Therefore, a
narrow loading strip made of soft material is used.
Another way of estimating tensile strength is the flexural test. A specimen beam 6 x
6 x 20 inches is molds in two equal layers each rodded 60 times, once for each 2 in2
of top surface area. The beam may be vibrated and should be cured in the standard
way. This test tends to overestimate the true tensile strength by about 50%. This can
be explained by the fact that the simple flexural formula used is based on a linear
stress-strain distribution whereas concrete has a nonlinear distribution. This is an
important test because it model how a concrete beam is normally loaded.

Bond Between Concrete and Reinforcement

For bond between steel reinforcement and concrete to be effective, there must be
an adequate frictional bond between the two materials. As concrete ages and
shrinks there may be a decrease in bond strength, or if the concrete cracks or is
very permeable, some corrosion of the steel may take place. There are not standard
test for reinforcement, however, a pull-out test has been developed for comparison
of different concretes (ASTM C234). The test consist of a 6 inch cube with a No. 6
(19-mm-diameter) deformed steel bar embedded in it. The bar is loaded at a rate
not greater than 5000 lb/in^2/s. The load and slip at recorded at intervals until (1)
the steel is yielded; (2) the concrete splits; or (3) a slip of at lest 2.5mm occurs at
the loaded end.

Modulus of Elasticity
To estimate the modulus of elasticity from the nonlinear behavior of concrete the
chord modulus of elasticity, Ec, is measured. A standard cylinder specimen is fitted
with a strain gauge and slowly loaded, 5 lb/in^2/s. in compression. Stress is
recorded at a value of strain of 0.0005 in/in and at 40% of the ultimate load. Using
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these values the chord modulus of elasticity can be calculated. A dynamic measure
of the modulus of elasticity may be found by a nondestructive test in which the
concrete specimen is vibrated at its natural frequency.

Triaxial Strength
ASTM C801 is a standard test for triaxial loading of concrete, in which two of the
three principal stresses are always equal. The most important results form this test
are the compressive and shear strengths.

Accelerated Tests
When the standard compression test was first introduced, construction practices and
cement quality were not what they are today. We also realize that the strength of a
standard cylinder test is a true representation of the concrete strength.
Considerable work has been done to enable the engineer to predict the potential 28day strength within a few hours after casting. In general, 1- or 3-day strengths
cannot be used to predict 28-day strength because these early strengths are
sensitive to the fineness of the cement, curing time and temperature, and
admixtures. There are three accepted method for accelerating curing time: (1) the
warm water method; (2) the boiling water method; and (3) the autogenous method.
It should be noted that the values obtained from this three test are equal to each
other or to normal 28-day strengths. These test are becoming increasing more
common as a quality control measure.

Assessment of Concrete Quality

It is possible that a situation may arise that the actual strength of a structure is
desire. In this case a study of the concrete structure strength and the placement of
reinforcing bars may be necessary. The common way of measuring the strength of
concrete in a structure is to cut a core sample using a rotary diamond drill. These
cores, which may contain some steel, are soaked in water and tested the standard
way. There are a number of problems associated with this kind of test: (1) core
cylinder strength are generally lower than standard cylinders due to construction
site curing; (2) Damage may occur due to the vibration of the core drill; (3) the ratio
of core strength to cylinder strength is not constant (1.0 for 3 ksi to 0.7 for 9 ksi);
(4) Core strength is dependent on the location the sample was taken from; (5) The
concrete cast in the field is an anisotropic material due to the affects of bleeding.

Nondestructive Quality Test

This test are useful to: (1) quality control; (2) determination of the time for form
removal; and (3) help assess the soundness of existing concrete structures.
Surface Hardness Methods -- One of the oldest nondestructive tests, developed in
Germany in the 1930's. Basically, the surface is impacted with a mass and the size
of the resulting indention is measured. The accuracy of these type of tests is only
20 to 30%.
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Rebound Hardness -- The most common nondestructive test is the rebound test.
The test measures the rebound of a hardened steel hammer impacted on the
concrete by a spring. This method has the same limitations as the surface
hardness tests. The results are affected by: (1) surface finish; (2) moisture
content; (3) temperature; (4) rigidity of the member being tested; (5) carbonation
of the surface; and (6) direction of impact (upward, downward, horizontal). Most
useful in checking the uniformity of concrete.
Penetration Resistance -- Resistance of concrete to penetration by a steel probe
driven by a given amount of energy is measured. This test is not affected by
surface hardness or carbonation as the above tests, however, the mix proportions
and material properties are still important.
Pull-Out Test -- Pull-out test determine the force required to pull a steel insert
out of concrete which it was embedded during casting. This test is a measure of
the shear strength of the concrete which can be correlated with compressive
strength. This test is better than those previously discussed, however, the test
may be planned in advance and the assembly embedded in the concrete during
casting.
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity -- This test is based o the fact that the velocity of sound
is related to the elastic modulus. The device is accurate to about + 1%. The
position of the testing equipment can affect the measurement, method A given
the best results. There are several factors which affect this test: (1) surface
smoothness; (2) travel path of the pulse; (3) temperature effects on the pulse
velocity; (4) moisture content; (5) presence of steel reinforcing bars; and (6) age
of concrete.

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