Sign Language Use

for Deaf, Hard of Hearing, and Hearing Babies:

The Evidence Supports It
Tiara V. Malloy
American Society for Deaf Children
July 2003

Sign Language Use for Deaf, Hard of Hearing,

exhaustive, but is intended to serve as a resource

and Hearing Babies: The Evidence Supports It

for parents and professionals working with all

Linguistic proficiency has been called a

central requirement for human life (Magnuson,
2000). Parents and professionals have rightly

populations of children, as they seek to help

individuals reach their full potential.
Importance of Early Language Learning

given great importance to the various

discussions and studies concerning methods
most likely to further childrens language

Experiences
Why Early?
The most critical language learning

development. Educators and parents have long

occurs in a very short window of time, and

debated whether access to visual language

research has shown repeatedly that lack of full

(American Sign Language, for instance)

exposure to language (spoken or otherwise) in

enhances or hampers the efforts of deaf and

this critical period can have devastating and

hard of hearing children who are learning to

permanent effects. Gleason (2000, p. 44) reports

develop spoken language and literacy skills. In

that babies begin to communicate intentionally

more recent times, the discussion has broadened

before the end of their first year, usually at

to include the relative merits of signed

around nine or ten months, when they first

languages when used with children who have

realize that they can make a vocalization or

no auditory impairments. Does the use of signs

gesture, and expect their caregiver(s) to respond.

encourage language development in young

After that milestone, most childrens language

children? If so, are the advantages available

development proceeds at an amazing pace. By

only to specific populations?

the time they get to kindergarten, children have

The following is a review of current

amassed a vocabulary of about 8,000 words and

research addressing these questions.

almost all of the basic grammatical forms of

Conclusions drawn support the use of sign

their language (p. 7). Connor asserts that early

language with all children: hearing, hard of

vocabulary skills have a strongly documented

hearing, and deaf, and including those who

relationship to later reading skills. She cites

benefit from technological hearing supports.

Anderson and Freebody, who documented this

The information provided is by no means

relationship in hearing children as far back as

Sign Language Use

1981, and Oakhill and Cain, who reported in

relationship between strong vocabulary skills

2000 that the same relationship applied to deaf

and later reading skills held true whe

children. They found that for deaf children the

ther childrens vocabulary skills were in

language acquisition was highly correlated to

signed or in spoken language (Connor, 2002), so

eventual proficiency in the language.

we know that early vocabulary skills are

Effect on Other Areas of Development

important, regardless of a childs hearing status

or communication mode.
Vocabulary skills alone arent enough.

Failure to provide complete and early

access to language can have devastating and
permanent effects on a child. Few things have

Gleason (2000) reported that by kindergarten

as great an impact on a child--and in as many

children with normal language acquisition are

areas of development--as language skills. An

able to handle questions, negative statements,

article recently published by the American

dependent clauses, compound sentences, and a

Speech-Language-Hearing Association gives

great variety of other constructions. It is

detailed discussion of how language

believed that everyone can learn to use nouns

competency can powerfully affect childrens

and verbs correctly throughout childhood, but

development of fundamental social and

the critical period for learning grammar--the

cognitive skills (Schick, J. de Villiers, P. de

correct use of articles, conjunctions, and

Villiers, & Hoffmeister, 2002). This conclusion is

prepositions--seems to be much shorter,

corroborated by the findings of a recent study of

according to Neville, a cognitive neuroscientist

children with specific speech and language

at the Salk Institute in La Jolla, CA (quoted by

difficulties; it was confirmed that children with

Pennisi). In separate studies, this was shown to

these difficulties have problems with academics,

be true of immigrant children arriving in new-

and are more likely to have self esteem and

language environments after the crucial period

behavior issues (Lindsay, Dockrell, Letchford, &

had passed (Pennisi, 1992), as well as of children

Mackie, 2002).

whose first exposure to sign language occurred

The British Medical Journal reports that

too late for them to acquire the language fully

failure to develop effective and sophisticated

(Glennen 2002). In every case, the age of first-

language at an early age has negative

consequences for all aspects of psychological

Sign Language Use

development, and thus for childrens mental

scheme of things? Schick et al. (2002) explains

health (Hindley & Parks, 1999). One frequently

that without Theory of Mind, education is all

used measure of a childs cognitive

but impossible. Education requires children to

development is Theory of Mind. Theory of

talk about mutual understandings and

Mind is the concept that allows us to distinguish

misunderstandings, to reflect on their own

our own thoughts, beliefs, desires and emotions

beliefs as well as others, and to shift

from those of others. As an example, one simple

perspectives where evidence suggests that

test that might be used to determine whether a

another point of view is valid. All of these

child understands Theory of Mind involves

require Theory of Mind skills. Even a simple

having her view a series of pictures that tell a

fairy tale is pointlessly confusing without

story. In the story, a boy puts a favorite toy

Theory of Mind skills. Why, for instance, would

under the bed before leaving the room. Later,

Snow White bite into a poisoned apple, and why

an adult comes into the room and moves the toy

would Little Red Riding Hood merrily skip into

(without the boys knowledge) to a shelf in the

her grandmothers house when there was a wolf

closet and closes the closet door. After viewing

waiting for her? This clearly has serious

the picture story, the child might be asked

implications for all children, as the same study

where the boy in the picture would look for his

noted that children who had more advanced

toy. A response indicating that the boy would

language skills were far more likely to pass the

look in the closet indicates a lack of Theory of

Theory of Mind tasks.

Mind skills. If the child responds that the boy

Theory of Mind is not the only problem

would look under the bed, in the last place he

area for children who do not have complete

saw the toy, it indicates the ability to separate

access to language at an early age. Addressing

what she knows from what the character in the

the challenges faced by children with specific

story knows, and we know that she has

speech and language difficulties, one group of

developed an understanding of Theory of Mind.

researchers writes that, in addition to their

Most children reach this milestone by around

communication difficulties, they have

age four (Schick et al., 2002).

educational problems, and are also more likely

What does something so abstract as

Theory of Mind really matter in the grand

to have problems with behavior and self

esteem (Lindsay, Dockrell, Letchford & Mackie,

Sign Language Use

2002). Consistent inability to understand and to

classroom, too. Inappropriate behavior is a one

interact with caregivers and the environment

area in which low language ability is considered

may negatively affect the childs estimation of

a risk factor. A report published on the

himself and make him feel helpless to request

homepage of the American Speech-Language-

(and obtain) the information and things he

Hearing Association, abbreviated ASHA, (Prison

desires. Magnuson (2000) corroborates this

Populations, 2002) comments that poor

finding, and agrees that earlier language

language skills, frustration, academic problems,

stimulation enables the child to gain confidence

and inadequate social skills may lead to school

by knowing what is going on. A study

drop out, juvenile delinquency, and eventual

reported in Developmental Psychology found

adult criminal behavior. The report says that as

that children who had a positive representation

far back as the 1920s, researchers have been

of self were rated as being more involved and as

aware of a relationship between poor

participating more in school activities, as well as

communication abilities and high levels of

being more self-directed and independent, than

delinquency, violence, and incarceration.

children who had a negative representation of

Wickstrom-Kane and Goldstein (1999) explain it

self. This is more than a matter of simple feel-

this way: Children gain access to what they

good. The same study reported that children

want and need using many behaviors, including

who had a negative image of themselves at age

those that would be considered inappropriate,

five were less liked by their peers and less

annoying, or harmful. These problem behaviors

positively ranked by their teachers by age eight

act as unconventional communication

than were the students whod had a positive self

strategies. The same article goes on to explain

image at age five. Low feelings of self-worth in

that there is a remedy. One needs to focus on

early childhood constitute a risk factor for the

training a more conventional communication

ability to cope successfully with the demands

form that can serve the same function, and thus

and stresses of school, not only concurrently but

replace problem behavior.

also over time (Verschueren, Buyck & Marcoen,

2001).

Considering the risks associated with

low-language ability for hearing children, it is

Unmet language needs have

consequences extending far beyond the

little surprise that deaf and hard-of-hearing

children are frequently at risk in the same areas.

Sign Language Use

They have been described as more impulsive

had severe behavior issues. He pushed others,

and as less compliant, less socially mature, and

and cried when he couldnt make himself

less skilled in social problem solving and social

understood. By age four and a half, he had

cognition than hearing children (Brubaker &

begun to develop more quickly, but he still had

Szakowski, 2000). The American Speech-

problems, and was not on par with others his

Language-Hearing Association article on Prison

age. Drawing from that study and others,

Populations (2002) cites startling figures: The

Magnuson (2000) postulated that the deaf

reported incidence of hearing loss in jail

children who are the most competent in their

populations is approximately thirty percent!

social, cognitive, and linguistic development are

Again, the difficulties are due to poor language

those who have participated in active linguistic

skills.

interaction with their parents from an early

In a comparison study of two hard of

hearing boys we have an example of how full

age.
Deaf and hard of hearing children and

access to language can change a childs

incarcerated adults arent the only individuals

situation, all other circumstances being equal.

who show measurable differences in behavior

In the study, one boy was given full access to

when they find themselves unable to

language at age six months, while the other did

communicate. There has been a large body of

not have full access to language until he was

research of late which connects the treacherous

two and a half years old. The boys were similar

terrible twos stage of toddler development

in all aspects except the ages at which their

with frustration over being unable to

hearing losses were confirmed. Both were from

communicate wants and needs. As Burton

hearing families, both were enrolled in the same

White, an educational psychologist and author

(signing) preschool. By age one, the first boy

of The First Three Years of Life has noted, the

was communicating and by age three and a half

second year of life is a time when most children

he was considered to be on par with--or even

have very little spoken language, and this can

ahead of--his normally hearing peers. The

cause their parents a lot of grief. Lack of

second boy, whose hearing loss was confirmed

communicative abilities can cause temper

at a later date, and who did not have complete

tantrums and fits as children struggle to make

access to language until he was two and a half,

their needs known. The prevailing theory is that

Sign Language Use

having the ability to communicate with parents

hearing families. About 63% of the students

and other caregivers reduces a major source of

were deaf from birth, and only about 47% of

tantrums and stress for infants (Brady, 2000).

them considered English (as opposed to

As long as a child is not able to communicate

American Sign Language or other languages) to

effectively--regardless of the childs hearing

be their first language. The one thing these

status--the child and his parents are sentenced to

successful students had in common (besides

frustration and headaches that might otherwise

hearing loss) was that they communicated

be prevented.

frequently and easily with their families. The

Benefits of Successful Early Language

results of the survey supported the principle

Experiences

that the mode of communication is less

Not all of the news is negative; research

supports some very encouraging conclusions.
While it is true that lack of quality language

important than the quality of communication

(Magnuson 2000).
Surely this is information that can be

exposure early in life and late learning of a first

used to the advantage of every student: hearing,

language can result in long-term language

hard of hearing and deaf alike! Easy and early

deficits, Mayberry (1993) notes that early

communication between a child and the people

acquisition of a first language can facilitate the

in his environment provides positive effects not

acquisition of a second language. There is an

only in language development, but also in

abundance of evidence, too, suggesting

cognitive, psychological and social

immediate and complete language experiences

development. The advantages of early language

lead to improved success in many areas. A

exposure are clear. The answer to the biggest

survey was taken of successful college students

difficulty faced by students with hearing loss,

at Gallaudet University, the internationally

and a sure-fire way to boost progress for those

known and acclaimed university for deaf and

with normal hearing, is an approach that will

hard of hearing students (Toscano, Mckee, &

facilitate the highest quality of communication

Lepoutre, 2002). Students were asked a wide

for each individual from the very earliest age

variety of questions relating to possible factors

possible.

in their academic success. Their backgrounds

differed greatly. 90% of them came from

Sign Language Use

Signing to Promote Early Language for All
Children
Defining Sign Language
The phrase sign language is sometimes

review the already extensive body of literature

covering this subject. Realistically, the vast
majority of parents (whether their children are
deaf or hearing) are unlikely to be native users

used with very different meanings. As such, it

of ASL; as they learn to sign they are likely to

may be helpful to define what is meant by the

adopt some mixture between their signed an

phrase as it is used in this paper. Generally

their spoken language, even if only as an aid to

speaking, the terms sign language or signed

them in the beginning stages of their learning.

languages have been used to mean any manual

For this reason, I have here reviewed studies

representation of language relying on the use of

pertaining both to signed systems and to ASL.

signed vocabulary to represent concepts. This

(In some cases, the authors of the studies have

includes American Sign Language--a full

not indicated to what degree their subjects were

language that (like English, Spanish or any other

using ASL structures and vocabulary, which

language) has its own vocabulary, grammar,

would complicate any separation of the two

literature and even poetry--but it also includes

bodies of research.) In this report, distinctions

signed representations of spoken language (such

will be made between ASL and the various

as Pigeon Signed English, Total Communication,

signed systems only when the distinction is

Signing Exact English, and many others) which

clearly noted by the authors, and is important to

are rightfully sign systems, not true languages. I

the interpretation of the research. No

do not include in my definition any manual

distinctions will be made between the various

system (such as Manually Coded English) which

sign systems.

relies only on attempts to make the phonics or

Sign Language is the earliest possibility!

the spelling of spoken language visually

Given adequate exposure, children

accessible, and which does not use any distinct

begin learning language long before they are

vocabulary to express concepts.

physically capable of reproducing the sounds

As American Sign Language (ASL) is a

and patterns of speech (Gleason, 2000, p. 356).

complete language and the sign systems are not,

Fortunately, physical maturation of the organs

I have no intention of comparing ASL to the

of speech need not be a hindrance to childrens

others. Interested parties are encouraged to

expressive communication. Use of sign

Sign Language Use

language with childrenhearing or

languages too early may cause language delay

otherwiseis known to promote early

and, worse, language confusion... [a fear that

communication, since children can communicate

was] reflected both in educational settings and

with their hands sooner than they can master

in comments made by many parents raising

verbal skills. Marilyn Daniels, associate

bilingual children. Parents have feared dual

professor of speech communication at

exposure held the possible danger of preventing

Pennsylvania State University, and author of a

full competency in either language, and often

book promoting signing for hearing childrens

said they were waiting until one language was

literacy,, says that signs can encourage

firmly established before introducing a second

communication at least six months before most

language (Petitto and Holowka, 2002).

children start to form basic words[which] not

Language Confusion is the label given

only increases the parents bond and interaction

to a theory that, in the beginning stages of

with their babies, it helps reduce a major source

language development, bilingual children do

of tantrums and stress for infants. Garcia,

not understand that they are learning two

quoted in the same Business Week article, has

distinct languages. The idea that children

been researching the subject since 1986, and says

initially are confused about the matter was the

many children exposed to sign at the age of

result of observations and studies made of the

seven months would be signing back in eight

language development of children who learned

months, and that by nine months some babies

two languages simultaneously. The theory

can master as many as seventy-five individual

appears to have some holes, though. Although

signs (Brady 2000).

it has not been decisively proven wrong for

Starting with two languages

children learning two spoken languages, it has

For years, there has been a belief held by

been shown conclusively untrue of bilingual

professionals and by the general populace alike

children who learn both a signed and a spoken

that has kept wary bilingual parents from

language. For children learning two spoken

teaching their prodigy two languages

languages, it is possible to mix vocabulary from

simultaneously. People have viewed early

each into the same utterance, or to pronounce

simultaneous bilingual exposure suspiciously,

something so unclearly that researchers cannot

fearing that exposing a young child to two

be certain which language the child is choosing,

Sign Language Use

if he is choosing one at all. (An example of this

they are exposed to two languages from the

would be the English word ball, and the French

start, and neither language suffers!

equivalent balleeither of which might be

Signing for Hearing Infants

pronounced ba by a young bilingual, leading

observers to wonder if the child knows there is a
difference between the two words.) For a child

10

Handy communication for better

behavior.
As discussed earlier, quality and ease of

learning languages of two different modes,

communication can have tremendous effects on

thoughas a signed language and a spoken

nearly every aspect of a childs life. The

onethe problem is resolved by the inherent

theoretical possibility of preventing behavior

differences between the two languages. The

issues by giving children a method of

lack of confusion experienced by these children

communicating their wants and needs more

is easily verifiable, because there can be no

readily at an early age has become a reality.

ambiguity between vocabulary words, and it is a

There are now available countless books and

matter of greatest ease to identify which mode a

videos specifically dedicated to teaching parents

child uses each time he expresses himself

how to sign with their children. Parents and

(Petitto and Holowka, 2002).

teachers alike are touting the benefits of signing

The easier identification of signed

with hearing infants, and all around the country

versus spoken vocabulary made it possible for

classes that teach signing skills to parents and

researchers to prove that children learning

their hearing babies are increasingly popular.

signed and spoken languages simultaneously

Signing Together is one such class.

reach all of the major language milestones (such

Taught by Celeste McAlvaine Davis, a speech-

as first-word, first fifty words, and first two-

language pathologist, the class enrolls children

word phrase) on a similar timetable in each of

as young as six months old. Davis, who taught

their two languages, and on a timetable similar

her own (hearing) children to sign, says the

to that at which monolingual babies reach all the

classes have proven useful for foreign-adopted

same milestones (Petitto and Holowka, 2002).

babies, too, as they adapt to their new language

Imagine: Children learn twice as much language

environments. Is signing with hearing babies a

as others in the same time frame, simply because

passing fad? It seems unlikely. Some of the

research dates back more than a decade, and

Sign Language Use

11

Davis class enrollment numbers doubled

no spoken language at home in that same crucial

between 1999 and 2000 (Brady, 2000). Clearly,

time period!

parents are more than a little impressed with the

results thus far.
Signing for smarts and scholastic
achievement.
Behavioral differences arent the only

Daniels told Waldman (2001) that she

recalls her graduate students in the
communications field repeatedly approaching
her for answers to what seemed an
unexplainable phenomenon. Many of the

issue being examined in connection with

students worked as sign interpreters in the

hearing children who learn to sign as part of

public schools, and frequently attended

their early language development. Evidence

conferences with deaf parents and their hearing

from a variety of studies shows that children

children. How was it possible, they wanted to

who learn to sign as infants often score higher

know, that these hearing children who were

on standardized tests, measure higher on tests of

growing up in silent homesand learning

I.Q., and outperform their peers in a variety of

English after learning to signseemed always

social and academic arenas (Waldman, 2001).

to show an above-average ability to speak and

Critics have argued that parents of hearing

read? Why was it that they excelled in reading

children who teach their babies to sign are

and in spoken English? Their questions led

spending a greater amount and quality of time

Daniels to ten years of research, and the results

with the infants, and that the sign alone may not

were astounding. Daniels did seven studies of

account for the childrens I.Q. scores. The added

pre-school and kindergarten students, and

attention given to the children, and the intent of

compared those whose teachers used sign

the parents to develop early language skills

languages simultaneously with spoken English

certainly cannot be discounted as factors, but

to those whose teachers did not. In each study,

hearing babies of deaf parents also have been

children in the sign-language classes scored

shown to have better than average abilities

higher on standardized tests than the students

(Waldman, 2001). These are children who learn

whose learning was not augmented with sign

to sign as a natural consequence of their daily

language.

exposure--not because of greater efforts made by

the parents-- and this is despite getting little or

Believing that instruction in sign

language might be advantageous to other

Sign Language Use

12

populations, she tested her theory in Prince

foreign, geographically speaking--it is rapidly

Georges county, MD. There, a large percentage

gaining approval as a foreign language for study

of the population is African American, and

in public high schools, and institutes of higher

educators were concerned by studies showing

learning in many states have begun to accept

that black children consistently score 15 points

ASL course-work for the fulfillment of foreign

lower on standardized tests than do their white

language requirements at entrance and

peers. Daniels compared four middle school

graduation. Better still, although ASL is not

classes, all made up of children from

universally used by deaf people across the

disadvantaged neighborhoods. Two of the

globe, it is frequently the language of choice for

classes were given sign language instruction,

deaf individuals in international forums, and so

and two were not. Not only were the test scores

has international as well as domestic uses

of the signing children significantly higher than

(Wilcox, 1991). This does not even take into

the scores of the other classes, but the African-

account the obvious advantages that come of

American signing children had significantly

being readily able to communicate with

decreased the gap with their non-minority peers

members of a rich culture distinct from ones

(Waldman, 2001).

own, and possibly living no farther away than

A third advantage is to be had by these

the house next door.

children, if their sign instruction is in American

Taking advantage.

Sign Language (ASL), an officially recognized

Its true: A hearing child born to hearing

language used by most of the deaf population in

parents does not need to learn sign language. If

the U.S. In addition to the positive effects that

the parents wait, children will very likely

signing has on the academic, developmental and

develop spoken language with no particular

behavioral aspects of a childs life, mastery of

effort on the parents part, and the lines of

American Sign Language provides the

communication will eventually be opened.

advantages usually associated with knowledge

Parents are a strange breed though--Good

of more traditional foreign languages.

enough is very often not what we want for our

Although signing peoples of other regions and

children. As long as research continues to point

countries have languages of their own and ASL

clearly to the advantages of involving our

is not universal--so it is more domestic than

children in the earliest language interactions

Sign Language Use

possible, parents of hearing children are

develop language--and if we are to prevent

unlikely to ignore the benefits of teaching sign.

them from facing all the negative effects of

Signing for Deaf Infants

inadequate language skills on other aspects of

Avoiding the risks of language delays.

The most pressing issue facing children

13

their development.
Articles from New Scientist (in 1995 and

with hearing loss is the process of developing

again in 2000) offer devastating figures to

their language skills at a rate comparable to that

support this conclusion. In the 1995 published

of their normally hearing peers. The common

study of deaf adults who had used ASL for

estimate is that ninety percent of children with a

twenty years or more, individuals were asked to

significant hearing loss are born to families in

judge the grammatical correctness of complex

which all other individuals use a spoken

sentences in ASL. The group of adults who had

language. This leaves these children unable to

been exposed to the language since infancy

access the full, natural language stimulation that

scored very well with little effort. Those who

is so critical to the development of language

learned the language at around six years

(Gleason, 2000, p. 349).

(usually as they began primary school) were

The human brain is wired for language.

intelligible but not fluent. Predictably, those

It doesnt matter whether the language is

who learned ASL between the ages of nine and

spoken, signed, or otherwise--All humans crave

thirteen were even worse. They showed little

language. Even lacking exposure to any

signs of comprehension (Mestel 1995). The

language from its parents, a deaf baby will

study published in 2000 had similar results.

attempt to communicate. Researchers have

Children of signing parents scored very well,

found that deaf children spontaneously

children who learned in primary school were

developed gestures that were not based on

not as proficient, and late learners performed

gestures used by the parents. The babies

barely better than chance (Motluk 2000).

actually invented a way to attempt to

As we know that language learning is

communicate (Gleason, 2000, p. 48). Yet, all

most effective in the early years of life, none of

that promise and potential has a limit. Early

these results seem particularly surprising--until

sign language exposure is vital for deaf children,

we learn about the last group studied in the 1995

if they are to be given the opportunity to fully

study. The last group of adults had grown up as

Sign Language Use

14

hearing children, and lost their hearing later in

isnt necessarily true. The Journal of Child

life. How did they do on the test of complex

Psychology and Psychiatry states that many of

grammar in ASL? They, like those who had

the quantitative and qualitative psychological

been exposed from birth, signed fluently and

differences observed during the school years

easily. The author explains how it is that these

between deaf children with deaf parents and

children, who learned the language later than

deaf children with hearing parents can be linked

infancy, scored so well on the test. By learning

to the effectiveness of early communication

their first language during the critical childhood

(Vaccari, & Marschark, 1997). Magnuson (2000)

period, they had acquired the neurological

agrees with the conclusion, stating the deaf

foundation that would allow them to learn other

children who are the most competent in their

languages later in life (Mestel). What an

social, cognitive, and linguistic development are

advantage for young deaf children who will

those who have participated in active linguistic

later need to learn English, if they are allowed to

interaction with their parents from an early

first develop those neurological foundations

age.

through access to the language that comes most

naturally to them!

Although visual language is obviously

the sensible answer to any question of how to

Fears and facts.

improve communication between hearing

There is significant controversy on the

parents and their deaf children, there has been a

matter of whether deaf children (especially

long-running debate, which has led to confusion

those with minimal losses, and those using

for both parents and professionals. Many have

assistive technologies) learn best through oral-

held the fear that introducing young deaf

only education, through visual-only education,

children to sign language might impair their

or through some combination of the two. A

ability or motivation to later acquire spoken

history of better test scores by deaf children of

language--a fear that research has proven

deaf parents--as compared with those of deaf

unfounded. There seemed at first to be evidence

children with hearing parents (Hoffmeister &

that, in measures of spoken language, children

Wilbur, 1979)--might seem to indicate an

in oral-only programs out-performed children in

additional disadvantage for children with

programs emphasizing signed communication.

hearing losses born to hearing parents, but this

Its important to consider the nature of those

Sign Language Use

15

statistics. As Yoshinaga-Itano (1998) wrote in

sign language only inconsistently with their

analysis of her own study showing that oral-

children. In these cases, write Vaccari and

only children produced the most intelligible

Marschark (1997) parents are unlikely to see

speech, it is a descriptive statistical analysis,

many benefits to the children in either signed or

not a causal one. Such numbers cannot alone

spoken language development, even if the signs

answer questions about what causes the

are sufficient to allow some level of

correlation. Were children of greater speech

interpersonal communication. Of the notion

ability more likely to be enrolled in oral-only

that signing might prevent later learning of

programs? Similarly, if children had greater

spoken languages they write the following:

residual hearing or had been deafened after

There has been no empirical research

some period of critical language exposure,

demonstrating that learning sign

would they not have somewhat better than

language as a first language impedes the

average success with oral-only instruction? In

learning of spoken language. In fact,

other words, there is no way to know the actual

deaf children who learn sign language

cause of the better speech production in one

as a first language generally have been

group of children over the other, if the speech

shown to have better reading and

abilities of the children were not also analyzed

writing skills than deaf children

before they began their respective programs.

exposed only to spoken language.

Such studies have become more available in

It has also been postulated that it may

recent years, as the greater number of early-

be harder for deaf children to read if they have

identified cases of deafness increases

learned sign language first, because signed

researchers abilities to study childrens

languages have different syntax and semantics,

development from its earliest stages.

so students must translate the grammatical

Does sign language in fact hinder deaf

system of written English in order to obtain

children from learning to read and to write

meaning from the text. However, according to

spoken languages? According to findings

information presented at the American Speech-

presented in the Journal of Child Psychology and

Language-Hearing Association Convention in

Psychiatry, there is no evidence to support that

2002 (Connor), using sign language did not

position, except in those cases where parents use

interfere with reading comprehension skills for

Sign Language Use

16

these students. Not only did sign language not

childs learning. In effect, lack of parental

interfere with students abilities to read and

confidence could lead to semi-lingualism--the

write, but Yoshinaga-Itano notes that

development of only a partial language--which

expressive language ability, when both spoken

isnt much better than the situation of other deaf

and signed output were considered... was a

children who, without exposure to signs, are left

significant predictor of speech outcome (1998).

to semi-lingual development of English, or of no

As Mestel 1995 writes, Profoundly deaf

children must be exposed to sign language as

language at all.
The best hope for deaf children to fully

early as possible or they may miss a critical

develop their language skills lies with their

learning period for language acquisition and

parents. It may be useful for parents to review

never become fluent at signing. With hearing

their attitudes towards signing. If a parent acts

screening at birth now mandatory in many

in public as though the childs first language is a

states that should be easy; but that isnt the end

source of embarrassment, how will the childs

of the barriers. Assuming parents are convinced

perception of himself be affected during those

of the value of sign language for their deaf

important developmental years? And how will

children, there remains one possible hindrance

the child become proficient enough in his first

to the deaf childs language learning, and this

language to allow him to grasp a second?

was mentioned previously in the Journal of Child

Magnuson (2000) encourages parents to sign as

Psychology and Psychiatry. Vaccari (1997) notes

much as possible, regardless of their skill levels.

that sometimes hearing parents do not feel

For a deaf child with hearing parents, she

comfortable with sign language, especially in

writes, it is vital that parents start signing...

public, and tend to sign only when they

though the signing may first be simple and

communicate directly with the child. He goes

incomplete. This provides the opportunity for

on to say that this presents a difficulty for deaf

the child to start developing language.

children because it disallows them access to

Yoshinaga-Itano (1998) notes that

environmental and incidental learning. If

several researchers have reported that children

parents sign only when directly addressing their

with hearing loss speak more clearly if they

child, it leaves the child ignorant of what is

have better mastery of the rules of syntax and

being said and constitutes an obstacle to the deaf

strong skills in vocabulary and semantics.

Sign Language Use

17

Fortunately, time and research have brought

measured, the greater the number of people

positive changes. Parents do not have to choose

who are affected. Unfortunately, hard of

between a sign-only method (which might

hearing children continue to be forgotten and

preclude a child from later success in academics

overlooked in comparison to their peers with

if literacy is not a prerogative) and an oral-only

severe and profound hearing losses (Meadows-

method (which might also preclude the

Orlans, Mertens & Sass-Lehrer, 2003).

possibility of later success if it does not allow the

One of the contributing factors in the

child to develop a full language.) Recognizing

neglected needs of these children has long been

the advantages afforded by early language

the simple matter of identification. Meadows-

development for deaf children who will have to

Orlans et al. (2003) note that parents of hard of

learn a spoken language to which they cannot

hearing children have reported that their

gain full access through sound, many parents

childrens losses were discovered at an average

and schools of the deaf have chosen to teach

of 28.7 months old, while the loss of profoundly

both signed and spoken languages in the same

deaf children was found (on average) by age

program.

14.5 months. For those children whose loss is

Signing for Hard of Hearing Children

especially minimal, or whose loss is progressive

Children who are hard of hearing live

(and doesnt appear significant during initial

with a kind of double jeopardy. Despite all the

screenings), their remaining hearing and their

research as to what most benefits deaf children

own adaptive abilities often become their worst

in education, and even the vast quantities of

enemy, say some researchers. They cite the facts

research concerning the hearing majority, those

that hard of hearing children have typically

who lie between the two extremes are relatively

communicated very well in one-on-one and

unserviced by either side. Although the lack of

face-to-face interactions, and their good lip-

literature and research might indicate otherwise,

reading skills tended to mask the extent of their

the hard of hearing population is far from small.

hearing loss, lulling parents and teachers into

Not only do the ranks of children with mild or

believing that they understood more than they

minimal hearing losses greatly exceed those of

did. This isnt a problem that can be solved by

children with severe or profound hearing loss,

asking the children whether theyre hearing or

statistics show that the smaller the loss

not, either. The person with the hearing loss is

Sign Language Use

18

the worst judge of what he or she heard,

behavioral problems, she writes, hard of hearing

according to Vesey and Wilson (2003), both hard

children had significantly worse scores on the

of hearing. They write, Our biggest problem is

behavior rating scale--even when compared to

not what we dont hear, but what we think we

children with severe losses! In consideration of

heard. For people who were born with a

the information earlier presented concerning

hearing loss, what they hear feels normal.

behavior problems of deaf children, this is

Fortunately, many states now require hearing

undoubtedly an alarming figure--and one that is

screenings for infants, and this will go a long

worthy of further study.

way toward preventing unidentified hearing

Having established already that a lack

losses from going by unnoticed at the time of

of adequate language skills can be a cause of

birth.

disruptive behaviors, one might still question

Even assuming every hearing loss is

whether it is fair to assume the same causes for

identified at birth (or at the onset of the loss, if it

hard of hearing children as we have found for

occurs later), hard of hearing children face other

those who are profoundly deaf. The language-

difficulties if their needs are not met adequately.

learning difficulties of deaf children are well

Meadows-Orlans, Ph.D., a former senior

documented; how do hard of hearing children

research scientist at Gallaudet Research

compare on similar measures? To begin with, it

Institute, wrote with others that professionals

is useful to define what we consider to be a

and parents too often assume erroneously that

hearing loss. Generally speaking, audiologists

once hard of hearing children are fitted with

consider any loss of less than 25 dB to be within

hearing aids, they will function like children

normal limits (Bess & Humes, 1995). Yet, even

without a hearing loss (Meadows-Orlans et al.,

students whose hearing is considered normal

2003). Although technological helps have come

may suffer the consequences of having a hearing

a long way and have done much to help

loss. Grushkin (2003) reports that even for

individuals to hear better, they havent solved

students with mild hearing losses of 15 to 25 dB,

the host of other problems associated with

the average delay in vocabulary and other

hearing loss. Studies focusing on social or

language skills has been found to be over one

behavioral issues for hard of hearing children

year. Beyond that, he writes hard of hearing

have reported severe problems. In a study of

students have been found to perform two to

Sign Language Use

three years behind hearing students on
standardized academic achievement tests, and

19

Signing for Children with Cochlear Implants

Significant numbers of pre-lingually

are commonly held back from grade promotion

deaf children are receiving cochlear implants.

by an average of one and a half grades. So yes,

While parents and professionals have reported

it is safe to say that even very minor hearing

positive experiences with implants (Connor,

losses can have a strongly negative impact on

2002), it is important to remember that even

language development, behavior and academic

recent positive clinical experience with cochlear

performance.

implants... does not suggest that [the impact of]

Adding to the difficulty, it has been

deafness can be fully overcome by assistive

found that parents of hard of hearing children

devices (Gleason, 2000). At Cochlear.com, the

are very frequently not given the information

internet site of the company producing the

that would most help then to meet their

Nucleus cochlear implant, the information

childrens needs. A study cited by Meadows-

given clearly states that the device is a tool,

Orlans et al. (2003) found these parents were less

nothing more, and parents are cautioned that

likely than parents of profoundly deaf children

children will not miraculously be able to

to receive information about legal rights,

discriminate sound following implantation

behavioral development, school choices,

(Cochlear, 2003). As such, children with

deafness or sign language instruction, or even to

cochlear implants continue to have special

be given opportunities for participation in

language-learning needs and it is worthwhile to

parent groups! Where does this leave us? This

consider the available research that addresses

leaves us with dedicated and hopeful--but

the matter of how best to meet those needs.

sometimes uninformed--parents, who are

Connor (2002) found that children with

struggling to do their best for children who are

larger pre-implant vocabularies performed

only partially able to access spoken language,

better in measures of language ability than did

and who have the full capability of learning

peers who had smaller pre-implant

visual language, but often are denied the

vocabularies. That finding has important

opportunity.

implications: Parents considering cochlear

implants for their children must do whatever is
necessary to increase their childrens vocabulary

Sign Language Use

skills before the surgery! Children can receive

language after the surgery, parents can ensure

cochlear implants at ages as young as twelve

that their children will not need to go through

months (refer to Cochlear, 2003), but that leaves

regressive periods in which they are suddenly

very little time if parents are to teach language

unable to express themselves or to understand

skills to their children before that time. Thus--

others.

even for children whose parents are considering

Parents who begin with sign language

cochlear implant surgery--sign language

and who encourage its continued use after

continues to be the most supportable early

cochlear implant surgery may be helping their

communication option for deaf children.

children with second (spoken) language

What communication mode is best after

20

development more than they realize. In a study

a cochlear implant surgery? An interesting

of thirty-nine adult volunteers who had learned

parallel can be drawn between newly implanted

English as a second language between the ages

deaf children and hearing children who are

of five and eight (Motluk, 2000), results were

adopted internationally to families who do not

very encouraging. There were three groups of

speak the childrens native languages. An

adults. The first group was hearing and spoke

article in the American Journal of Speech-Language

Urdu as their first language. The second group

Pathology, details the difficulties faced by such

was all deaf, and had used sign from early

internationally adopted children. There is a

childhood. The third group were also deaf, but

period of time in which these children show

had learned sign sometime after age five, and

signs of language delay in both languages,

had had no fluent language prior to that time.

because they begin to lose their native language,

Measurements of English language skills with

while simultaneously acquiring the newly

the third group were decidedly grim, and

adopted language (Glennen, 2002). For children

individuals scores were comparable to the

traveling across the globe far from their native

scores obtained by people after theyve suffered

lands, this period of arrested language

strokes. The scores for the second group,

development is unfortunate but generally not

however, were excitingly positive. The deaf

preventable. For children receiving cochlear

individuals who had used sign from early

implants, there is another option. By continuing

childhood had scores comparable to the first

to enforce development in a childs first (signed)

group, who were all hearing. The Journal of

Sign Language Use

21

Speech and hearing Research published similar

failings are complicated further still by human

findings, stating that the timing of first language

error and misinformation. An awareness of

development positively affects individuals

what technology can--and cannot--do for our

abilities to learn a second language. The article

children is important if we are to be prepared to

says the first language provides dual benefits by

provide the best language-learning

(a) allowing individuals to recognize and figure

environments possible for children auditory

out new material based on previous language

losses.

experience, and by (b) reducing the increased

Hearing aids

load on individuals working memory by

The primary purpose of a hearing aid is to make

allowing them to translate unfamiliar second-

otherwise inaudible speech accessible to hard of

language material into a more familiar first

hearing persons (Bess & Humes, 1995, p. 242).

language (Mayberry, 1993). Then, too, it would

For many people, especially those with

hardly make sense to deny these children all the

moderate sensory-neural loss, hearing aids

advantages afforded to their normally-hearing

provide the amplification needed to meet their

peers who, having the benefit of sign language

communication goals, particularly in quiet

as one of their languages, show above average

environments where background noise is not a

performance in their later pursuits.

factor (p. 245). When any unwanted noise is

What tremendous advantages these

present, though, we must remember that aids do

children have! They are deaf, but--with access

not improve the speech-to-noise ratio; they

the very best and earliest language input

amplify all sounds, including those that interfere

possible--we can help each to reach his full

with the speech signal (p. 251). Kim Meyer

potential in a way never before possible.

(2003), an educational audiologist, reminds us

When Technology Fails--Language to the

that in addition to amplifying unwanted

Rescue!

background noise, hearing aids fall short

Hearing aids and other technological

because they can only pick up and amplify

helps are of great benefit to children with

sounds that are less than ten feet away. Such a

hearing losswhen they are utilized, and when

deficiency might easily be problematic in school,

they are functioning properly. Sadly, no

especially in consideration of the fact that

technology is without its failings, and those

children, unlike adults, are still learning

Sign Language Use

language and may not have the skills necessary

use. In addition to the advantages sign

to guess what is missed in an interaction.

language affords to all students by virtue of

For young deaf and hard of hearing

22

providing earlier access to expressive language,

children, consistent amplification is crucial, say

it might well provide a crucial support for hard

Bess and Humes (1995, p. 261), but they cite

of hearing students who must frequently suffer

numerous school surveys that have revealed

through inconsistent amplification and poor

about one-half of childrens hearing aids do not

quality of spoken language input.

perform satisfactorily. Most (2002) agrees this

Cochlear Implants

has been a long-standing issue for children

A cochlear implant is an alternative to

using hearing aids, and cites hearing aid

conventional amplification that some parents

malfunctioning rates ranging from twenty five

choose for their children with profound hearing

to sixty nine percent when checks were made

loss. Although there are potential advantages to

periodically throughout the school day. In his

the use of such a device, there remain some

study of high school students (whom we might

technical issues that warrant consideration. For

suppose were old enough to recognize and

example, each cochlear implant must be

report problems with their aids), Most reported

individually programmed for its user.

adolescents were not even aware of the criteria

According to information published by the

for a well-functioning hearing aid, and they

Laurent Clerc national Deaf Education Center at

tended to report that their devices were

Gallaudet University (Nussbaum, 2003), the

functioning even when they were not. The

program is determined by setting each electrode

primary causes of malfunctioning hearing aids,

in the device to be loud enough for sound

as reported by Most, were deteriorated batteries

awareness, but quiet enough to prevent

and damaged tubing. The second leading cause

discomfort. The process can take about two

reported was problems with the earmold, such

hours on the first appointment, and requires

as poor cleanliness or improper insertion. Other

follow-up appointments for fine-tuning and

common causes he noted were incorrectly set

continued adjustments as the brain begins to

operating switches and volume controls.

adapt to sound. Nussbaum writes that, because

Obviously, regular and diligent maintenance is a

children often will not sit through an entire

crucial factor in the effectiveness of hearing aid

mapping session, and because maps for very

Sign Language Use

23

young children must be designed with only age-

external portion of cochlear implants cannot be

appropriate responses (a change in movement

worn, for instance, when a child is bathing or

or facial expression, for example), there is a lot

swimming. Even mild moisture, as from

of guessing involved. Nussbaum writes, The

sweating, can affect implants. The makers also

map may be set by generalizing responses

warn that parents should use their judgement

obtained in a few electrodes to the full array of

when determining whether to allow the external

electrodes. The audiologist may also have a

portion (necessary for the childs perception of

child try a map with similar characteristics to

sound) to be worn during sports events and

those used successfully by other children.

other activities in which impact to the speech

Thus, original programming for the implant

processor might be a problem, and consider

may not be accurate for some time after the child

mandating the use of protective head gear.

begins to use the device and, while it is certain

Wearers of cochlear implants must be wary of

the child can hear something, there is no

typical playground and amusement center

guarantee as to what he is hearing, or how well.

equipment, too. Plastic slides, ball pits and

Imagine trying to learn a spoken language

moon walks can create an excess of electrostatic

through such unreliable means! Many children

discharge, which can scramble the speech

have had great success with their implants, but

processors programming and necessitate

parents must be aware that success is relative to

another round of audiologist appointments

ones expectations, and that complete success

before the implants functioning can be restored.

with young children can not be expected

Some device makers are beginning to provide

immediately. It would be unfair and without

safeguards against the problem of electrostatic

benefit to deny some form of full language

discharge, but the necessity of removing a

access during the childs adjustment period.

childs source of sound input during certain

There are many instances in which

parents of cochlear implant users will find a
visual means of communication very

activities mandates the retention of another form

of communication, if only for safety purposes.
There are maintenance issues to

convenient. A search of the Cochlear website

consider with implants, too. Taking the

(Cochlear, 2003) reveals many instances when

information still from Cochlear.com, we learn

the implant will not be immediately useful: The

there are small parts that will necessarily have to

Sign Language Use

24

be replaced, such as cords, coils and

measures of intelligence in later life. For deaf

microphones, and it is possible the speech

children, sign language is the critical first step to

processor and headsets will require maintenance

communication and eventual development of

as well. The actual risk of device failure for the

literacy and spoken language skills. It provides

implanted portion is small, according to

a means of preventing children from falling prey

Nussbaum (2003), but there is the slim

to the well-documented risk of language delay,

possibility that a child will need additional

as well as other negative outcomes often

surgery to replace the device, or to reposition it

associated with inadequate language learning

if it has moved from its intended placement. If

opportunities, while opening the door to a

this happens, or if a smaller part needs to be

world of supportive communication with deaf

replaced and is not immediately at hand,

peers. For children who depend on various

children using only spoken language will be left

technologies to improve their auditory acuity,

without any means of communicating (or

sign language is the natural way of supporting

learning to do so) until the problem is resolved.

language development through visual stimuli.

Children who have developed good expressive

It does not depend on batteries or other

skills with sign language before their operations,

maintenance issues, and is always accessible to

and who have been encouraged to retain the use

the children, even when the technologies arent.

of sign language will not, of course, suffer the

Sign language provides all parents--whether

same consequences while awaiting the

their children have optimal hearing or not--a

restoration of the technological support.

way of furthering their childrens progress and

Sign Language Use--An Advantageous

helping them to meet their highest potential.

Approach to Language Development for All

Children
For infants with normal hearing, sign

There are many credible sources of

information about the advantages of using
American Sign Language and various sign

language can prevent tantrums caused by poor

language systems to boost language

verbal communication skills, and give a head

development, literacy, and even to improve the

start in language learning, positively affecting

quality of deaf childrens speech production.

childrens cognitive, academic and social

Interested parties are encouraged to use the

development, and even leading to higher

sources cited in this document as a beginning

Sign Language Use

reference tool, and to contact schools for the
deaf, infant-toddler programs, and the
American Society for Deaf Children for further
information.
The controversies over available
technologies and over the cultural and political
implications of choosing a communication mode
or educational philosophy need not be a barrier
to parents as they choose what is best for their
children. While the information presented here
strongly supports the use of sign language with
all children, the primary purpose of this paper is
to provide information that will allow parents to
make informed decisions based on their own
values and needs. The philosophical, political
and educational stand that will best serve our
children is one that supports well-informed
parents and teachers, and takes into account the
individual goals and circumstances of each
family as it strives to meet the early language
needs of its children.

25

Sign Language Use

26

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