Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Buddhist Art
Author(s): Deborah Klimburg-Salter
Source: East and West, Vol. 51, No. 3/4 (December 2001), pp. 323-348
Published by: Istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente (IsIAO)
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Tucci Archive
Report,
Klimburg-Salter
several of
in wood,
In nessun altro gompa del Tibet occidentale ho ammirato tanta copia di oggetti
d'arte che costituirebbe pregio invidiato dei nostri musei meglio forniti.Quasi tutte
queste statue non sono posteriori al XII o XIII secolo e sono uscite dalle maestranze
del Bengala, delllndia gangetica, del Nepal. Molte portano sul dorso iscrizioni in
sanscrito. {Ibid.: 137).
Tucci
believed
Tsaparang,
been
the most
galloping at full speed in frontof our vehicles througha dry ravine, led us to the
small village of Dung dkar. Although we did not have time to visit the temples
The pictures ofDung dkar are for themost part by Prof. JaroslavPoncar during the September
1993 jointUniversity of Vienna-IsMEO (now IsIAO)-Tibetan Academy of Sciences expedition to
western
Tibet,
participating
were
Christian
Luczanits,
Jaroslav
Poncar,
Yeshe
Kalsang
and myself.
This
researchwas funded by the Austrian Fonds zur F?rderung der wissenschaftlichenForschung. The
photographs by General Eugenio Ghersi were taken during theTucci expeditions and are housed in
the IsIAO Tucci Himalayan Archives. I thank the Orientstiftung for their contribution to this
publication andDr Adele Schlombs,Director of theMuseum f?rOstasiatische Kunst, Cologne.
[1]
323
mentioned
by Tucci,
our expectations.
able
to document
more
than fulfilled
zone which
small village
includes, two kilometres to the east, the village of Phyi dbang; near each
are found cave temples, extensive ruins, and free-standing architectural
structures(Tucci 1937 [repr. 1989]) (1). In thevillage ofDung dkar are located two
extremelylarge st?pa (Fig. 1) with a stepped pyramicfalshape. In Phyi dbang the
ruins, buildings,
these monasteries
pattern.
The group of threecaves lies to thenorth side of thevalley at the footof a steep
to
of these caves are closed and one is open to the valley (Fig. 2). Due
we were only able to take a
strict control on the part of the Tibetan Government,
very limited amount of pictures, and also due to very bad weather we only stayed
there one night. The central cave is 1, to the east Cave 2 (the largest cave), and to the
cliff. Two
of the central cave, number 3 (the smallest). In the three caves at Dung dkar,
there are three different painted ceiling compositions,
centrally and symmetrically
are
cave
two
true
In
but
mandala.
each
the ceiling dominates,
only
organised,
of
of the cave temples.
overwhelms
the
decorative
each
indeed, optically
program
west
These dramatic ceiling paintings are the subject of this paper. The Dung dkar
paintings were previously attributed to the late llth-early
48 and n. 12, for other references). I use here the working
cave temples in Dung dkar may be attributed to the end of the 12th century
(Luczanits 1998a: 151). This short study deals with the last phase in the
of the painted
'Dome
development
mandala
ceiling inWest Tibet.
of Heaven',
the mandala-like
canopy
and
the
The Problem
In 1947Alexander Soper published a major articledefiningthedevelopment of
art. He
of Heaven'
in Chinese
The Mandala
ceilings [of twoMing temples] are worthy of attention not only for
their high quality and their historic importance in the long Chinese development,
[2]
324
Fig.
1 Dung
dkar, stipa.
(Photo D.
Fig.
2 -Dung
dkar, caves.
(Photo
Klimburg-Salter).
D. Klimburg-Salter).
[31
325
but also for the light that they shed on the practice of ceiling design in Tibet
proper: a fieldwhich forwant of information I have had to omit almost entirely [...].
(Soper 1947: 247).
can now provide these missing
We
lead us to is rather different than what
evolution
to the mandala
Dung
Tibetan
a logical
canopy,
ceiling.
dkar Caves
Each
cave
is excavated
with
a recessed
zone
an
1998: 11). The ceiling of Cave 1 (Fig. 4), is carved in imitationof a lantern roof
at right
carved beams are set in alternating squares placed
(in Chinese
zaojing)
over
a
at
successive
is
each
each
excavated
other,
square
angles
higher level, thus,
recess. A cross-section
in a stepped pyramid-like
the five squares are excavated
of
cave
to
excavation
the
would
be similar
from Dunhuang,
several examples
for
example Cave
and Cave no.
1984: pi.
192)
no. 380
dkar example
(compare Figs. 5 and 6). In both the Dung
Institute for Cultural Relics
from Dunhuang
(The Dunhuang
the main inner square is set on an angle along the main axis of the
380
cave.
Seven mandala
mandala
dedicated
v?glsvara-manjusri,
to either
south wall
side of
the entrance
to Avalokitesvara
dedicated
(Pritzker
a standing figure of an eleven-headed
1996: fig. 16) the other multi-armed.
1996:
are
two
15). Below
smaller
sized mandala
each
is represented
each mandala
one with six arms (Pritzker
Avalokitesvara,
to the latter is a mandala
Next
of the Five
is represented on the west and north walls. The
Protectors. The Life of the Buddha
is accompanied
view of an
visual narrative
by text panels. A comprehensive
an
the
attended
members
of
noble
families
enthroned
assembly
by
prince
flanking
the eastern section of the south wall. I have elsewhere discussed
the theme
occupies
in the kingdom
Gu
of the great assemblies
of Pu rang
ge (Klimburg-Salter
1996b).
[4]
326
The
centre motif
of the ceiling
decoration
is no
it
appears to have been a figure.I base this suggestionon the fact that there is still
visible a dark blue ground behind a largewhite circle,which I take tobe a mandorla.
Thus,
I tentatively propose
surface
in the
(=V1,
Fig. 8) is painted with st?pa, five to either side. In the four cornersof the second
surface (=H2, Fig. 8) are a pair of mythical lion-like beasts (not
completely symmetrical, one pair has a different form. The vertical surface of the
next square (=V2, Fig. 8) is painted with a modified valance pattern. The next two
innermost horizontal
horizontal surfaces,threeand four (=H3, H4, Fig. 8), of the ceiling are decorated
with overall
(=V3, Fig. 8)
of this outermost
the middle of the cave and looking up, into the 'Dome of Heaven' cannot
distinguishwhere theedge of theceilingends and the top of thewall begins (Fig. 4).
327
[5]
Seen
from beneath,
the walls
disappear
of Heaven'.
The
outermost
vertical surface (=V4, Fig. 7) has a row of Buddha figures (Figs. 3, 7, 8). Based on
the valance
patterns
I would
propose
two canopies
inside
each other.
7.2 m sq., with the ceiling
Cave no. 2 (Fig. 10), the largest, at floor level measures
a
a
m
to
in
in
section
truncated pyramid. The
of
the
also
5.4
centre,
rising up
height
back wall is slightly recessed so as to house a total of 8 statues seated on a plinth;
the
each Buddha
figure sits under a different tree set in a rocky environment. On
adjacent sidewalls are niches for two additional figuresto either side, includinga
aureoles. In Tucci andGhersis time (1935) theback wall statues (7 Buddhas of the
past andMaitreya) stillexisted (Fig. lla-b).
a quasi
ceiling of the cave, square at the lowest part, shrinks as it rises to
At
lantern roof (Fig. 12) which is painted with the Dharmadh?tu-v?gtsvara-mandala.
the centre of the floor are the bases of two destroyed structures, presumably
st?pa,
The
[6]
328
Fig. 6 Dunhuang, Cave no. 380. (AfterThe Dunhuang InstituteforCultural Relics 1984).
With
Cave
and the murals there are poorly preserved (Fig. 13). The
resembling
(Fig. 14).
This
a vault with
extensive
a recessed
group
centre zone,
of caves,
according
ceiling, roughly
with a Buddha
is decorated
to the local
authorities
mandala
more
than
Tibet.
Ajant?.
Buddhist
cave
sites where
clay
sculptures
were
set
into
an
overall
[7]
painted
329
Fig.
Dung
dkar, Cave
view of lantern
1, perspective
environment,
image/or
roof, M.
Falser.
the main
is
this type to the west
centred
around
temples in Central Asia, Afghanistan and West Tibet, in the Indian caves the
of
cave
temples
which
dkar are
clay sculptures as at Dung
oases
are
extensive
Asia. Within
the larger
with
contain
large
variety
of
architectonic
and
[8]
330
Fig. 8 Dung dkar,Cave 1,painted decor of thehorizontal (H) and vertical (V) planes of the lanternroof,
M.
Falser.
is the overall
schemes. A
phenomenon
painted
fairly consistent
This brief discussion
refers only to these cave temple complexes which
and Yulin. As we
influence specifically, Dunhuang
lay within the zone of Tibetan
cave temples from Dunhuang
shall see, a characteristic
and
that later Buddhist
Yulin share is that the painted program covers the total inner surface of the cave,
decorative
decoration.
In Indian
the architectonic divisions, specifically wall-ceiling.
obscuring
as
case
are
in
the ceilings
excavated with features
every
Ajant?,
temples, such
associated with ceilings, and this architectonic
clarity is reinforced by the painted
Not
decoration.
the decoration
the architectural
only does
clearly maintain
zones
different
walls
different
of
the
and
but
elements or
-,
integrity
ceiling
sometimes
cave
motifs
are
summarised
used
which
the concept
Salter 1996a]).
are
characteristic
of ceiling decoration
for each
in Ajant?
zone.
(I have
and B?miy?n
[9]
elsewhere
[Klimburg
331
Fig.
Tabo,
'Du khang.
(Photo
C. Luczanits).
Ceiling Compositions
The Central Asian origin of themandala ceiling can be clearly seenwhen the
of the Dung
ceilings
dkar
cave
temples
are compared
to the traditional
ceiling
Himalaya,
in what
in eastern Himachal
Pradesh
and Ladakh the ceilings of Buddhist temples are decorated with painted textile
patterns
ceilings
in parallel panels.
organised
are combined with a painted
birds,Klimburg-Salter 1997: pi. 199, fig.9) which runs around the top of the four
walls
these
and connects
ceiling
caused
canopies
me
to suggest
that
(Klimburg-Salter
1996a; 1997: 173-77). Indeed, in the earliest of these examples at Tabo realwhite
cloth fixed to the ceiling is used, albeit then painted with textilepatterns. This
motif, the 'honorificcloth covering', continued to be used inNako and Alchi and
[10]
332
such as Sumda-chung
monuments,
monuments
the textile patterns were painted
related
and Mangyu.
on wood panels
But
placed
in all
between
these
the
beams.
baldachin
we
also
centrally organised.
The Central Asian
is always clearly indicated throughthe inclusionof a painted valance on all four sides
334
[12]
SB^^^BIBHIl^^^^vT^
Fig.
13
Dung
dkar, Cave
3.
(Photo
C. Luczanits).
Fig.
14
Dung
dkar, Cave
3. (Photo
C. Luczanits).
(The Dunhuang Institute forCultural Relics 1984, II: pis. 44, 78). This centrally
motif
organised
gives priority
to symbolic
forms associated
with
the
'Heavenly
the ceilings
could expand at will. The decoration of the ceiling,which combined the canopy
motif with
decorative
decoration
the northernWei
increased
of space allotted for the ceiling in the cave excavations
over
in
cross-section
time.
which
of
the
The
decoration
appears
ceiling,
dramatically
as a truncated pyramid, became progressively more elaborate
(see for example The
The
amount
The decorated caisson of Early Tang is inevitably shaped like a canopy resembling
the heaven, hanging high on top, imparting a magnificent and solemn aura. [...]
This also characterizes the sinicization of the cave temple inChina. (Dunhuang Art,
1994: 148).
Relics 1987: pi. 53) with the earlier Sui period 'Dome ofHeaven' (TheDunhuang
InstituteforCulturalRelics 1984, II: pi. 22), which combined a painted lanternroof
as also in Dung dkar Cave
1, the
design with the canopy motif. In later examples,
in
four
directions, now
painted canopy, which is centrally organised and symmetrical
canopy motif.
Because
of the inclusion
of Buddhist
deities,
and particularly
the
defined
presumed Buddha figurein the centreof the composition,I have tentatively
this type of ceiling design
as a mandala-likc
canopy.
[14]
336
The
progressively more
complex
paintings
of canopies with
figurative elements,
Cave 3 (The Dunhuang Academy 1990: pis. 141, 171), decorated prior to 1193
(Linrothe 1996: 9) (2). In theXixia period themandala now dominates the ceiling
and the canopy motif is reduced to a border design. The canopy motif is
from the four-part symmetry of the border motifs including the
only recognisable
decoration
valance design at the edge of the ceiling, not the top of thewall as in Tibetan
temples.
In Dung
in Cave
2 is drawn
the wall
and
the
back,
north wall.
Note
the wall
and ceiling
intersect
vertical
in Cave
2 the deities
ceiling (H5) and forms optically speaking at the same time theborder of the top
of thewall (Fig. 4) and the outer edge of the lanternroof.A good example of this
optical illusion is fig.5 inPritzker 1996.The picture is identifiedas 'Figuredepicted
Compare a detail of this theme taken by Ghersi (Fig. 16) with thePoncar photo
(Fig.4) ofCave 1.
(2) In Cave 3, the relationship of the clay sculpture and mandala on the walls may also be
compared toDung dkar,but thiscannot be discussed here.
337
[15]
division; what
appears
to be the corners
(where walls
or the edge of
thewall are actuallypainted lines (Fig. 13). The concept of the ceilingdecoration in
Dung dkar follows the aesthetic already established in the decoration of Central
Asian
Buddhist
Yulin
and also
environment
unit. To
summarise:
as we
have seen, theman da la ceiling occurs in the last phase in the evolution of the
decoration of Chinese Buddhist cave temples,when the ceiling and its painted
heavens
came
to dominate,
iconographic
themes,
the main
halls.
are no ceilings, other than those inDung dkar, inWest Tibetan or Tibetan
or decorated
are transformed
with mandala-\ikc
into mandala
temples which
related to Dung
and geographically
patterns. All surviving temples, chronologically
There
[16]
338
with
Heaven'.
examples are found atAlchi, but compareFig. 17 toKyzil (Soper 1947: fig. 10).
The mandala-ceiling
The
canopy
in Ladakh
so-called
ceiling
as already noted by Goepper (1993: 136) (Fig. 18).More dramatic is the smaller
st?pa pair,which Luzcanits (1998) considers slightlylater than theGreat St?pa (3).
Here
a Vajradh?tu-mandala
is painted
inside of the
lanternroofof theouter st?pa (Fig. 19) and a canopy ispainted on the ceilingof the
(3) I thankChristian Luczanits for drawingmy attention to thesemandala and allowingme to
publish his photographs, aswell as forhis criticalcomments.
339
[17]
Fig.
17
Alchi,
'Great
St?pa',
Fig.
18
Alchi,
'Great
Stupa',
inner shrine.
outer
shrine.
(Photo
J. Poncar).
(Photo
J. Poncar).
Fig.
19
Alchi,
smaller
stupa, outer
shrine.
(Photo
C. Luczanits).
wall-border
motif - birds
and valance
artists confusion
is expressed
by the fact that thevalance and birds are placed not only at the top of thewall in
their usual position, but also on the beams of the lantern roof. As inDung dkar, the
principal deities are painted on the vertical surface of the beams, but in Alchi these
can only be seen when standing on top of the inner
beams are hidden. The mandala
are
But
Buddha
also
found on the horizontal
surfaces in the corners
st?pa.
figures
which are visible frombelow. In Dung dkar the iconographyis coherent and easily
read because
of the mandala
is the dominant
concern,
thus, the
is subordinate
Even today gateway st?pa in Ladakh and Himachal Pradesh often have very
simple
lantern
painted
they never have the complexity of the Dung dkar mandala ceilings or their
prototypes
ceiling was
in Central
Asia.
only continued
An
examination
in relationship
with
of
[19]
341
painted on the cave ceiling over the st?pa (Neumann 1994). The mandala ceiling
of Cave 1 inDung dkar, painted on a modified lanternroof and spreading, like an
umbrella,
over
is an earlier
example
of this phenomenon.
The next examples chronologically are the two pairs of st?pa fromAlchi, 13th
century.
these sub-schools
had
in Central
Tibet,
but from the late 12th centurythe influenceof the 'Brugpa spread toWest Tibet
and Central Asia. Thanks to the fortuitoussurvivalof a largenumber of thangka
fromCentral Tibet, particularlylineage thangka of the sTag lungpa, the early art
well known.
historyof thisschool is relatively
On thebasis of the sTag lung thangka paintings fromCentral Tibet, the charac?
teristicbKa' brgyudpa iconographycould be identified.
The hieratic representation
[20]
342
Fig.
of a bla ma with
21
Alchi,
a pair
smaller
st?pa,
outer
of Bodhisattva
shrine.
(Photo
attendants
C. Luczanits).
and
the importance
of
the
to
rten in Alchi,
be painted in this style (Luczanits 1998b: 156). This st?pa isdedicated toVairocana,
rong, which
has a lantern roof ceiling in six levels, and the larger st?pa of Lamayuru,
to the ceiling compositions in theDung dkar caves are found in a small group of
st?pa
in Ladakh.
The
are painted
with mandala.
The
st?pa may be dated on the basis of the style and iconographyof theirpainted
decoration
to the mid-
associated
with
brgyud pa patronage.
[21]
343
The Historical
Context
The Dung dkar paintings are slightlylater thanYulin Cave 3, painted prior to 1193,
and earlier than a small group ofmid- to late 13th centuryst?pa inLadakh whose
lantern roofs are decorated
historical
which
conditions
temples at Dung
dkar.
the
with painted mandala. The problem is to understand
on the cave
Asian
influence
the
Central
encouraged
238), rTse lde died in c. 1080 and was succeeded by dBang lde, c. 1040-1100. The
last threemembers of thisdynasty,descendants of dBang lde,were killed by the so
calledGar log {ibid.:239). Tholing appears, however, to have remained the spiritual
centreof the region throughouttheperiod. The kingdoms to thenorth of the Sutlej
(whereDung dkar is located) and to the south (whereTholing is located) were
separated in themid 12thcenturyand reunitedbyGrags pa lde (1230-1277) (Vitali
1999: 34).
There was a brief period of bKa' brgyud pa ascendancy (late 12th to late 13th
century) inTholing; it is unclearwhich of the sub-schools.For thisperiod we only
have
information concerning
pre-eminent
in the western
dominions (sTodmNga' ris) fromc. 1191-1275 (Vitali 1999: 34) and the 'Brugpa
(e.g.Vitali 1996: 368-416) who also established a few small communities(4).Late in
the 12thcentury,the 'Brigung bKa' brgyudpa began to expand fromtheirbase 'Bri
in Central Tibet. They
gung monastery, seat of 'Bri gung Rin po che (1143-1217),
came to the Gangs Ti se area (Mt. Kail?sa)
in c. 1191. They had close associations
with the rulingdynastiesofPu rang- Gu ge and Ladakh (Petech 1997: 240-42; Vitali
1996: 372-90, 408-25, 437-42; 1999: 34). This schoolwas particularlyimportantin
ris skor gsum and many shrines and hermitages were associated with them in
mNga'
into
Pu rang, Gro
shod and Kinnaur
(Petech 1978: 319). Their activities extended
monuments.
Other
other
Ladakh where they patronised Alchi and Lamayuru
among
bKa' brgyud pa schools may also have been active in these regions; due to the
different biases
omission
of
of evidence
the written
sources
and
the
[22]
344
During
period bKa'
ralAsia, both the 'Brigung and theKarma bKa' brgyud pa are mentioned in the
sources.Recent research (Sperling1987;Ruegg 1995) has demonstrated thattheyon
mchod/mchodyon relationshipbetween theking and the lama officiantoriginated in
the Tangut
realm.
(not theMongol)
[...] late in the twelfth century that sacral role [sacral empowerment]
upon Tibetan clerics, specifically monks belonging to Bka'-brgyud-pa
(Sperling 1987: 39).
are several
There
instances
recorded
of monks
travelling between
devolved
subsects.
Tibet, West
Cakrasamvara
are
important
deities
for bKa'
brgyud
pa
ritual practices
and
with
Dung
dkar.
Buddha
at
hand,
between
and Ladakh
on the one
Future Tasks
context
of
hypotheses
the artistic
presented
decoration
here need
of the Dung
dkar
to be examined
in more
caves.
The
detail:
the Central
two
related
Asian
influenceon the art ofDung dkar and thepossible associationwith bKa' brgyud pa
patronage.
none of the textilemotifs can be identifiedin the extensive repertoireof the gSum
brtsegs in Alchi (Papa-Kalantari 2000: 102). Surprisingly,some motifs can be
compared tomotifs found in theTabo 'Du khang (compareWandl 1999: fig.9).
Another
example, the figure style of the few remaining sculptures also indicates
to Central Asia. In Ghersi's
connections
of Cave 2 (Fig. 11)
stylistic
photographs
taken 1935 one sees the almost life-size sculptures of clay figures seated on a plinth
along the northwall. What is to be noticed here is the figurestyle: the long thin
body, the lightlyrounded stomachand,most particularly,the shape of thehead with
[23]
345
brow, thick cheeks, narrow almost slit-like eyes, the rather small pointed
and
the
low rounded usnisa. These stylistic features relate these images to the
chin,
art of the Tangut period. An interesting
sculptural style associated with the Xixia
in the Fogg Museum
is to the Buddha
head
from Khara Khoto
comparison
the broad
(Klimburg-Salter1982: fig.37).
fromDung dkar have been classifiedas 'Kashmiri' (Pritzker1996: 27-28; Rhie 1999:
As we have
mandala
evidence
the
the
the
the
are
extensive
the
Life
the
Buddha
of
of
inscriptions.
representations
accompanied
by
are quite destroyed
and as yet no reading has been possible. A careful
These
in situ might provide more information, until then only a comparative
examination
of
the
study
iconography may assist us in clarifying the patronage of the caves. An
evidence
have mentioned here only a few of the problems waiting to be explored at this
complex and once extensive site.
In closing
I should
the
like to return to Tucci's
observations
regarding
Tucci
the
finest
he
had
considered
seen,
extraordinary quality of the paintings, which
and the large size of the settlementsatDung dkar and Phyi dbang. It is evident that
centre.
these temples represent only a small part of a once affluent and cosmopolitan
a
context
more
extensive
and
cultural
of the
functions
of
the
decoration,
Thus,
study
an
caves
is
the
for
of
dkar
history of
important
understanding
undoubtedly
Dung
theGu ge kingdom.
[24]
346
REFERENCES
The Dunhuang Academy, ed. (1990) The GrottoArt ofChina. The Yulinku Grottoes. Tokyo.
Dunhuang Art Through theEyes ofDuan Wenfie, ed. and intr.by Tan Chung, forewordby Kapila
Vatsyayan.New Delhi 1994.
The Dunhuang Institute forCultural Relics, ed. (1982-87) The Mogao Grottos inDunhuang, 5 vols.
Beijing. (Chinese).
Goepper, R. (1993) The 'Great St?pa' atAlchi. ArtibusAsiae, 53, 1-2,pp. 111-43.
Klimburg-Salter,D.E. (1982) The Silk Route and theDiamond Path. Esoteric BuddhistArt on theTrans
Trade Routes.
Himalayan
Klimburg-Salter,D.E.
Naples-Rome.
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