1

Epithelial tissue
I. OBJECTIVES
This learning notes should help the student to:
General objectives
1. Know the structural and functional characteristics that distinguish epithelial tissues from the 3 other basic
tissue types,
2. Know the structure and function interrelationship of epithelial tissue,
3. Know the types of epithelia] tissues and give examples of body sites where each may be found.
4. Know the functional capabilities of each epithelial tissue type and relate them to tissue structure.
5. Describe the specialized functions of the various epithelial cell types and give examples of body sites where
each may be found.
6. Describe the epithelial tissue regeneration mechanisms,
7. Recognize the various epithelial types in photo micrographs or slides and predict their function from their
structure.
8. Know the criteria used to classify glands.
9. Know the names of the types of glands commonly found in humans and give examples of body sites where
each may be found.
10. Recognize glands in photomicrographs or diagrams and identify the gland type.
Specific objectives (related to growth and development module)
1. Know the structural and functional characteristics that distinguish epithelial tissues from the 3 other basic
tissue types,
2. Describe the epithelial tissue regeneration and remodeling mechanisms in response to internal and external
stimuli.

Study-Focusing Questions
1.
2.
3.

List the principal functions of epithelial tissues.

Frrom which embryonic germ layer(s) are epithelial tissues derived? Give examples of epithelia derived from each
List the structural and functional characteristics of epithelial tissues that distinguish them from other tissue types. Consider:
a. Cell polarity
b. Specializations of the apical, lateral, and basal surfaces
c. Nutrition
d. Mitotic rate
4. Describe the basal lamina in terms of its:
a. Location
b. Composition
c. Staining properties
5. Which structures and molecules specifically aid in the attachment of epithelia] cells to their basal laminae?
6. Compare basal laminae and basement membranes
7. Name 4 types of junctions found between epithelial cells
8. Which junction(s) named in the answer to question 7 is associated with:
a. A disklike structure
b. A bandlike structure
c. Fusion of the outer leaflets of the plasma membranes of adjacent cells
d. A sealing effect
e. Cytokeratins;
f. Dense attachment plaques
g. Connexons
9. What type of cellular junction is more important in cell-to-cell communication than in cell-to cell adhesion?
10. Compare microvilli, stereocilia, cilia, and flagella in terms of
a. Their width and length

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11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

16.
17.

18.
19.

b. The presence of plasma-membrane covering

c. The presence of microtubules or microfilaments
d. Their motility
e. The presence of axonemes and basal bodies
f. Their function and location in the body
List the types of simple and stratified epithelia and give examples of body sites where each may be found
Compare endocrine and exocrine glands in terms of:
a. Their embryonic origin
b. The way their products are transported
What structural criteria are used to classify exocrine glands?
Compare the merocrine, holocrine. and apocrine modes of secretion in terms of the portion of the cell that is released, and
give an example of each type of gland.
Name the structural modifications and staining properties of epithelial cell types specialized for the following and give
examples of each type:
a. Transport of ions and water
b. Synthesis and secretion of proteins
c. Synthesis and secretion of mucus
d. Synthesis and secretion of steroids
Compare paracrine and endocrine cells in terms of the distances their products travel to reach their targets. Give examples
of each type of' cell.
Describe DNES (APUD) cells in terrns of:
a. What the acronyms DNES and APUD stand for
b. Their embryonic origin
c. Their structure
d. The type of' their secretory product
e. Their distribution in the body
Give examples of DNES (APUD) cells and name the substance produced by each.
Compare serous and mucous cells in terms of appearance and secretory product.

Studi focusing question in relation with growth and development module

1.
2.
3.

List the principal functions of epithelial tissues.

Frrom which embryonic germ layer(s) are epithelial tissues derived? Give examples of epithelia derived from each
List the structural and functional characteristics of epithelial tissues that distinguish them from other tissue types. Consider:
a. Cell polarity
b. Specializations of the apical, lateral, and basal surfaces
c. Nutrition
d. Mitotic rate

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Muscle Tissue
OBJECTIVES
This handout should help students to:
General objectives
1. Know the 3 major types of muscle tissue (smooth muscle, skeletal muscle, and cardiac muscle) and compare them in terms
of structure, function, and location in the body with the emphasis on skeletal muscle.
2. Know the relationships between muscle fascicles, muscle fibers, myofibrils, and myofilaments.
3. describe the structure related to the role of the T tubules and the sarcoplasmic reticulum in skeletal and cardiac muscle.
4. Describe the mechanisms of skeletal muscle stimulation, contraction, and relaxation at the molecular, cellular, and tissue
levels.
5. Recognize the type of muscle tissue present in a slide or photomicrograph of an organ and describe its probable function.
6. Know well the schematic picture of skeletal muscle structure in relation with the real histological appearance
7. Describe the structural changes in relation with exercise and regeneration capability.

Specific objectives related to growth and development module:

1.
2.

Know the 3 major types of muscle tissue (smooth muscle, skeletal muscle, and cardiac muscle) and compare them in terms
of structure, function, and location in the body with the emphasis on skeletal muscle.
Describe the structural changes in relation with exercise, individual growth, and regeneration capability.

Study-Focusing Questions
1. Compare skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle in terms of:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.

The size and shape of their muscle cells (eg, cylindric, spindle-shaped, branched, Unbranched)
The orientation of their adjacent cells (eg, end-to-end, overlapping)
The presence of striations
The ratio of thick to thin filaments and their arrangement
The presence of distinct myofibrils
The composition and arrangement of intracellular membrane systems (eg, triads, dyads, caveolae)
The position of their T tubules in relation to the banding pattern
The characteristic number and position of nuclei in each type of muscle cell
Their type of motor control (voluntary or involuntary)
The presence of motor end-plates (myoneural junctions)
The presence of intercalated disks
The abundance of their capillaries

2. Compare parts of muscles, muscle fascicles, muscle fibers, and myofibrils of skeletal muscle in terms of
a. Their largest structural subunits
b. The named structure that ensheathes each
3. Sketch a longitudinal section of 2 resting sarcomeres attached end-to-end and label the following:
a. Thin filaments
b.Thick filaments
c. A band
d.band e.
e. Z line
f. H band
g.M line
4. Which of the bands or lines in question 3 contain the following?
a. Thin filaments only
b. Thick filaments only
c. Both thick and thin filaments
d. Actinin
e. No actin
f. No myosin

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5. Sketch the arrangement of myofilaments in a cross section of a sarcomere cut through:

a. The H band lateral to the M line
b. The A band lateral to the H band
c. The I band
6. Sketch a longitudinal section through 2 adjacent sarcomeres during contraction. Which bands or lines shrink (compared with your
drawing for question 3)?
7. How are the thin filaments attached to the Z lines in skeletal muscle and to dense bodies in smooth muscle?
8. Compare thick filaments and thin filaments in terms of:
a. Their proteins
b. The names and arrangement of their subunits or components
9. Compare troponin and tropomyosin in terms of their:
a. Structure
b. Association with thin filaments
c. Function during contraction
10. Sketch a myoneural junction (motor end-plate) and label the following:
a. Terminal boutons
b. Synaptic (acetylcholine) vesicles
c. Presynaptic membrane
d. Postsynaptic membrane
e. Junctional folds
f. Primary synaptic cleft
g. Secondary synaptic clefts
h. Basal lamina
11. List the events of skeletal muscle fiber stimulation, contraction, and relaxation.
12. Compare red and whit skeletal muscle fibers in terms of:
a. Their myoglobin content
b. Their cytochrome content
c. The rate of their contractions
d. Their main source of energy
e. Their capacity for sustained activity
f. The body sites where they may be found
13. List the components of an intercalated disk and describe the structure and function of each
14. Compare atrial and ventricular cardiac muscle cells in terms of:
a. The number of their T tubules
b. Their cell size '
c. The number of their small cytoplasmic granules
15. Compare vascular and nonvascular smooth muscle in terms of the type(s) of intermediate filaments they contain.

Specific study focusing question related to growth and development module

1.

Compare skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle in terms of:

a. The size and shape of their muscle cells (eg, cylindric, spindle-shaped, branched, Unbranched)
b. The orientation of their adjacent cells (eg, end-to-end, overlapping)
c. The presence of striations
d. The ratio of thick to thin filaments and their arrangement
e. The presence of distinct myofibrils
f. The composition and arrangement of intracellular membrane systems (eg, triads, dyads, caveolae)
g. The position of their T tubules in relation to the banding pattern
h. The characteristic number and position of nuclei in each type of muscle cell
i. Their type of motor control (voluntary or involuntary)
j. The presence of motor end-plates (myoneural junctions)
k. The presence of intercalated disks
l. The abundance of their capillaries

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2.

Compare the regeneration, adaptation to external and internal stimuli capabilities.

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Nerve Tissue
General objectives
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

List the structural and functional features that distinguish nerve tissue from the other basic tissue types.
List the cell types that make up nerve tissue and describe the structure, function, location, and embryonic origin of each.
Describe in detail how -neurons receive, propagate, and transmit signals.
Describe the organelles of neurons in terrns of their intracellular location and their roles in transmitting nerve impulses and
in repairing ncuronal damage
Describe synapses in terms of their structural components, function, and classification.
Describe the organization of the nervous system in terms of the structure, function, distribution, and any distinguishing
features of its subsystems.
Describe the structure and function of the meninges.
Describe the response of nerve tissue to injury.
Recognize the type of nerve tissue and identify the individual cells and cell processes in a photomicrograph or slide of a
tissue or organ.

Specific objectives related to growth and development module

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

List the structural and functional features that distinguish nerve tissue from the other basic tissue types.
List the cell types that make up nerve tissue and describe the structure, function, location, and embryonic origin of each.
Describe in detail how -neurons receive, propagate, and transmit signals.
Describe the organelles of neurons in terrns of their intracellular location and their roles in transmitting nerve impulses and
in repairing neuronal damage
Nerve plasticity to accommodate growth of an individual
Memory development in relation with neuron growth in the brain tissue.

Study focusing questions

1.
2.

List the basic functions of nerve tissue

Compare the CNS and PNS in terms of
a.
Their major structural components (organs)
b.
The term used for collections of nerve cell bodies
c.
The term used for collections of nerve cell fibers
d.
The types of supporting cells (neuroglia) present
e.
The cell type responsible for myelination
f.
The supporting cell type that invests unmyclinated fibers
3. Compare gray matter and white matter in terms of.
a.
Their predominant neuronal components (cell bodies, axons, dendrites)
b.
The amount of myelin present The- predominant type of astrocyte present
c.
The abundance of synapses
4. List 2 basic subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system
5. Compare the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems in terms of:
a.
The locations of the cell bodies of their preganglionic neurons
b.
The locations of the cell bodies of their postganglionic neurons
c.
The primary neurotransmitter released by the axons of their postganglionic neurons
d.
Their primary function (sensory or motor)
6. Beginning with the formation of the neural plate, list the basic steps in the development of the nervous system .
7. List the cell types derived from the embryonic neural crest.
8. Compare the dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater (I.G) in terms of:
a.
Their location
b.
Their attachment to other structures (eg, periosteum, brain, spinal cord)
c.
Their tissue type
d.
The presence of blood vessels
9. Describe the blood-brain barrier in terms of its structural correlates and its function.
10. Compare multipolar, bipolar and pseudounipolar neurons in terms of their:
a.
Number of axons
b.
Number of dendrites
c.
Usual function
d.
Examples and location in the body
11. How do pseudounipolar neurons form their single cell process?
12. Compare axons and dendrites in tenris of:

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Number per neuron
Relative length
Presence of surface projections
Primary function
Content of Nissl bodies (RER and ribosomes)
Degree of branching Variation in diameter as a function of distance from the perikaryon
Content of synaptic vesicles
Draw a terminal bouton and the associated synapse and label the following:
a.
Synaptic vesicles
b.
Mitochondria
c.
Presynaptic membrane
d.
Synaptic cleft Postsynaptic membrane
Compare protoplasmic astrocytes and fibrous astrocytes in terms of their location and the length and diameter of their cell
processes.
Compare astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia in terms of
a.
The shape, size, and staining intensity of their nuclei
b.
The relative number of their cell processes
c.
Their ability to form myelin
d.
Their relationship to the mononuclear phagocyte system
Describe ependymal cells in terms of their embryonic origin and location.
Compare neurons and neuroglia in terms of:
a.
The staining properties and visibility of their cytoplasm in routine H&E preparations
b.
The real size of their nuclei
c.
Their numbers in the CNS
d.
Their capacity for proliferation in adults
e.
Their embryonic origin
f.
Their general function
Which part of a Schwann cell forms the myelin sheath and what is the predominant biochemical constituent of myelin?
Compare myelinated and unmyelinated axons of the peripheral nervous system in terms of:
a.
Their impulse conduction velocity
b.
Their usual diameter
c.
The number of axons ensheathed by a single Schwann cell
d.
The presence of nodes of Ranvier
e.
Their means of propagating an action potential (diffusion vs saltatory conduction)
Compare large- and small-diameter axons in terms of their:
a.
Relative impulse conduction velocity
b.
Relative likelihood of being myelinated
Compare Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes in terms of.
a.
Their location
b.
The number of axons each can myelinate
c.
The number of cells per internode of an axon it myelinates
d.
Whether they ensheathe unmyclinated axons
Compare craniospinal and autonomic ganglia in terms of:
a.
Their location
b.
Their primary function (motor or sensory)
c.
The class of neurons present (ganglion cells)
d.
The distribution of the ganglion (neuronal)..cell bodies
e.
The shape and position of the nucleus in the ganglion cell body
f.
The completeness of the layer of satellite cells associated with the perikaryons
How do the ganglion cells of the spinal ganglion (of the acoustic nerve) differ from those in other craniospinal ganglia
How do intramural ganglia differ from other autonomic ganglia?
Draw a cross section of a peripheral nerve and label the following:
a.
Epineurium
b.
Perineurium
c.
Endoneurium
d.
Myelin sheaths
e.
Axons
Compare the inside and outside of a resting-state neuron in terms of:
a.
Potassium ion concentration
b.
Sodium ion concentration
c.
Approximate charge differential (resting membrane potential) in millivolts
How does a neuron maintain its resting membrane potential?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

13.

14.
15.

16.
17.

18.
19.

20.
21.

22.

23.
24.
25.

26.

27.

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28. Beginning with an excitatory synaptic stimulus, list the events leading to the generation of an action potential.
29. After depolarization, how does a neuron reestablish its resting membrane potential? Does this process require energy in the
form of ATP? How long does it take?
30. Beginning with the spread of the action potential into a terminal bouton, list the sequence of events.. leading to
depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane
31. What happens to the neurotransmitter acetylcholine after it binds to its receptor in the postsynaptic membrane.
32. Examine your answers to questions 27 through 30 and try to appreciate the cyclic nature of events occurring as a signal is
relayed along a chain of several neurons.
33. List several neurotransmitters. Which one is known to be inhibitory?
34. Compare type A, type B, and type C nerve fibers in terms of:
a.
The presence of myelin
b.
The diameter of their fibers
c.
The length of their internodes

Studi focusing question in relation with growth and development module

1.
2.

3.

4.
5.

List the basic functions of nerve tissue

Compare the CNS and PNS in terms of
a. Their major structural components (organs)
b. The term used for collections of nerve cell bodies
c. The term used for collections of nerve cell fibers
d. The types of supporting cells (neuroglia) present
e. The cell type responsible for myelination
f. The supporting cell type that invests unmyclinated fibers
Compare gray matter and white matter in terms of.
a. Their predominant neuronal components (cell bodies, axons, dendrites)
b. The amount of myelin present The- predominant type of astrocyte present
c. The abundance of synapses
The capability of a neuron to regenerate and its mechanisms
The neuron plasticity to accommodate body growth.

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Connective Tissue
General objectives
1. List the structural and functional characteristics of connective tissue that distinguish it from other basic tissue types.
2. Know the functions carried out by connective tissues.
3. Know the 3 fundamental components found in all connective tissues.
4. Know the biochemical composition and the sites of synthesis of the extracellular matrix components and how they
associate with one another.
5. Know the structure and function of the cell types found in connective tissue.
6. Compare types of connective tissues in terms of the types, relative amounts, and arrangement of cells, fibers, and ground
substance.
7. Relate the composition of each connective tissue type to its specific functions.
8. Name body sites where each connective tissue type may be found and relate location to tissue function.
9. Recognize the types of connective tissues and connective tissue cells in a photomicrograph or slide of a tissue or organ and
describe their probable function.
10. Predict the functional consequences of a given structural defect in a connective tissue.
11. Describe the cell type and function using given specific histological characteristics.

Specific objectives related to growth and development module:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

List the structural and functional characteristics of connective tissue that distinguish it from other basic tissue types.
Know the functions carried out by connective tissues.
Know the 3 fundamental components found in all connective tissues.
Know the biochemical composition and the sites of synthesis of the extracellular matrix components and how they
associate with one another.
Know the structure and function of the cell types found in connective tissue.

Study-Focusing Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

List the 3 major classes of connective tissue components

List the general functions of connective tissues.
Name the germ layer(s) from which connective tissue cells are derived and the embryonic tissues composed of
undifferentiated connective tissue cells.
List the 2 major classes of macromolecules that constitute the ground substance.
List the types of glycosaminoglycans commonly found in the ground substance.
Name the important structural glycoproteins found in connective tissue ground substance and describe their functions.
Name the 2 forces (pressures) that act on the water in capillaries, affecting the amount of fluid in connective tissue.
Give some common causes of edema and describe the effect of each on the pressures named in the answer to question 7.
Name the 3 main fiber types in connective tissues and compare them in terms of:
a. Their protein composition
b. The arrangement of their protein subunits
c. Their characteristic amino acids
d. Their degree of glycosylation
e. The arrangement and appearance of the fibers
f. Their diameter
g. Their physical properties and function
h. Their staining properties
i. List their location in the body

10. Name the major types of collagen and compare them in terms of:
a. Their protein composition
b. Their tendency to form fibers or fibrils
c. Their tissue distribution
d. The cell type responsible for their synthesis
11. Describe collagen synthesis and assembly and indicate the intracellular or extracellular location where each step of the
process occurs. It might be helpful to draw a diagram of a cell with numbered steps.
12. What is the difference between procollagen and tropocollagen?
13. 13. Describe the roles played by the following enzymes in connective tissue fiber synthesis, assembly, and turnover:
a. Collagenase

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14.
15.

16.
17.
18.
19.

20.

21.
22.
23.

24.
25.

26.

27.

28.
29.
30.
31.

b. Elastase
c. Signal peptidase
d. Lysyl oxidase
e. Procollagen peptidase
f. Proline hydroxylase
List the cell types found in connective tissues and indicate which type is most common.
Compare fibroblasts and fibrocytes in terms of.
a. Their cell shape
b. The morphologic characteristics of their nuclei
c. Their mitotic activity
d. Their synthetic activity
List the important substances synthesized and secreted by fibroblasts and the organelles necessary for their synthesis and
secretion .
From which type of circulating blood cells are macrophages derived?
Name the organelles characteristically found in abundance in macrophages and the major function for which they are
needed.
Describe mast cells in terms of:
a. Their shape and size
b. Their staining properties
c. The contents of their cytoplasmic granules
d. The cause of their degranulation (release of granule contents)
e. The effects of their degranulation
f. Their role in allergic reactions
Describe plasma cells in terrns of:
a. Their shape
b. Their staining properties
c. The appearance of their nucle
d. Their major cytoplasmic organelles
e. Their major secretory product f.
f. Their role in immunity g.
g. The specific blood cell type from which they derive
List the types of leukocytes commonly found in connective tissue.
Name 3 types of connective tissue proper and compare them in terms of general function and location in the body .
23.Compare loose (areolar) and dense connective tissue in terms of:
a. Their abundance
b. The types and proportions of their matrix components
c. The number of their cells
d. Their flexibility and resistance to stress
e. Their rate of collagen turnover
Compare dense regular and dense irregular connective tissue in terms of the arrangement of their collagen bundles and their
location in the body.
Describe reticular connective tissue in terms of:
a. Its characteristic appearance
b. The types of organs in which it is commonly found
c. Its predominant cell type
d. Its function
Describe elastic connective tissue in terms of its:
a. Composition
b. Predominant cell type
c. Location in the body
Describe mucous connective tissue in terms of its:
a. Predominant matrix component
b. Consistency
c. Predominant cell type
d. Location
Discuss the active (immunologic) and passive (physical) roles of connective tissue in defending the body against the
invasion of pathogens.
Name 2 enzymes, produced and released by pathogenic bacteria, that digest specific components of connective tissue
cxtracellular matrix.
Which connective tissue cells specifically contribute to the repair of wounds by removing and replacing damaged tissue?
List the effects of the following on connective tissue structure and function:
a. Hydrocortisone

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b. ACTH
c. Hypothyroidism
d. Ascorbic acid

Study focusing questions related to the growth and development module

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

List the 3 major classes of connective tissue components

List the general functions of connective tissues.
Name the germ layer(s) from which connective tissue cells are derived and the embryonic tissues composed of
undifferentiated connective tissue cells.
List the 2 major classes of macromolecules that constitute the ground substance.
List the types of glycosaminoglycans commonly found in the ground substance.
Name the important structural glycoproteins found in connective tissue ground substance and describe their functions.
Name the 2 forces (pressures) that act on the water in capillaries, affecting the amount of fluid in connective tissue.
Give some common causes of edema and describe the effect of each on the pressures named in the answer to question 7.
Name the 3 main fiber types in connective tissues and compare them in terms of:
a. Their protein composition
b. The arrangement of their protein subunits
c. Their characteristic amino acids
d. Their degree of glycosylation
e. The arrangement and appearance of the fibers
f. Their diameter
g. Their physical properties and function
h. Their staining properties
i. List their location in the body

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