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mmill
AfTRONOMY
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
FOR
BY
E.
VV.
NICHOLS,
COPYRIGHT, iwi,
C.
J.
&
SMITH.
Nsf
PEEFACE.
THIS text-book
is
designed
make
it
work
for
The aim
for beginners,
Colleges,
of
and
the
Universities,
at the
same time to
of
comprehensive
For the methods of develop
ment of the various principles he has drawn
largely upon his
sufficiently
home and
authors,
foreign,
available,
sets
who may
a more
placed for
subject.
of
Surfaces,"
Mathematics
in
appears as the
He
by
in calling attention to a
Washington
final
"Dis
which
PREFACE.
of
to
and
Virginia, to
North
Carolina,
of Pennsylvania,
to Prof. E. S. Crawley, B.S., University
LEXINGTON, YA.
January, 1893.
W. NICHOLS.
CONTENTS.
PAET
I.
I.
CO-ORDINATES.
PAGES
ARTS.
1-3.
4-6.
CHAPTER
Examples
....
II.
LOCI.
7.
Locus of an Equation.
8.
Variables.
9.
10-16.
17, 18.
The Equation
Constants. Examples
Relationship between a Locus and
of a
...
9
10
its
Equation
CHAPTER
Locus
....
11
...
11
Examples
23
III.
21.
22.
19.
20.
25
29
32
Ex
26.
amples
Equation of Line, Axes Oblique. Examples
General Equation, Ax + B?y + C =
Equation of Line passing through a Point. Examples
Ex
Equation of Line passing through Two Points.
27.
Length
23.
24.
25.
37
.
38
39
amples
of
33
35
Line joining
Two
Points.
Examples
...
41
CONTENTS.
vi
ARTS.
29.
30.
Intersection of
Two
PAGES
.......
= ......
28.
Examples
Lines.
Ax + By + C + K(A a5 + BV + e )
Examples.
Angle between Two Lines.
Ex
General
.................
amples
CHAPTER
IV.
TRANSFORMATION OF CO-ORDINATES.
31.
32.
33*
34 35
Objects
of.
............
Illustration
Examples
to a Parallel System.
an Oblique System. Rectangular
Rectangular System to
also Rectangular. Examples.
System to Another System
Polar
a
to
System. From a Polar
Rectangular System
Examples. General
System to a Rectangular System.
Examples
....... .........
CHAPTER
THE
V.
CIRCLE.
Equation of Circle
38.
Generation of Circle.
General Equation of
39.
36, 37.
~rv
ou
Circle.
....
Concentric
Circles.
59
Ex
.................
............
Supplemental Chords .............
Tangent. Sub-tangent ............
Normal. Sub-normal .............
General Equations
Tangent and Normal. Examples
Tangent ..............
Length
amples
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45, 46.
of
of
Radical Axis.
Radical Centre.
Examples
.....
47.
48.
Equation of Tangent
Chord of Contact
Pole and Polar
49, 50.
51.
^7
............
...............
.....
Conjugate Diameters.
Examples.
CHAPTER
General Examples
VI.
THE PARABOLA.
52, 53.
70
Slope
Generation of Parabola.
tions
Equation of Parabola.
Defini
................
...........
Parabola
54.
Construction of
55.
Latus-Rectum.
Examples
77
CONTENTS.
Vil
PAGES
ARTS.
57-59.
60, 61.
Normal.
Sub-normal
62.
Tangents
at Extremities of
63.
ici
56.
= +
88
.
89
90
Latus-Rectum
91
92
64.
Examples
y%
Tangent Line makes Equal Angles with Focal Lines and
Axis
Condition that a Straight Line touch the Parabola.
95
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71, 72.
73.
c$
Slope
Equation of Tangent
Locus of Intersection of Tangent and Perpendicular from
Focus
Locus of Intersection of Perpendicular Tangents
Chord of Contact
Pole and Polar
Conjugate Diameters
Parameter of any Diameter. Equation of a Diameter
...
Tangents
CHAPTER
95
96
97
97
98
98
100
Examples.
101
VII.
THE ELLIPSE.
74, 75.
76. 77.
78.
Construction of Ellipse
Latus-Rectum.
81.
Supplemental Chords
Tangent. Sub-tangent
Tangent and Line through
Centre
85.
86,87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
108
Ill
79.
84.
106
109
80.
82,83.
Eccentricity.
Examples
.
114
115
Point
of
Tangency and
H8
...
...
118
119
....
122
Slope
Equation of Tangent
Locus of Intersection of Tangent and Perpendicular
from Focus
Locus of Intersection of Perpendicular Tangents
Equation of Chord of Contact
Pole and Polar
Conjugate Diameters
.
123
124
125
125
126
126
CONTENTS.
via
ARTS.
95, 96.
97.
98.
99.
PAGK8
Equation of a Diameter.
Conjugate Diameter
2
a"
a*
Co-ordinates of Extremities of
129
b*
130
...
Axes
100, 101.
131
133
Construction of Ellipse.
General Examples
Area
CHAPTER
of Ellipse.
Examples.
134
VIII.
THE HYPERBOLA.
102,103.
104, 105.
100, 107.
108.
109.
110.
111.
112,113.
114.
....
116, 117.
118.
119.
120.
121.
122.
123.
124.
125.
126, 127.
128.
129.
130.
131.
144
146
146
Supplemental Chords
Tangent, Sub-tangent
Tangent and Line through Point of Tangency and
150
149
Centre
115.
141
143
Method
Normal.
151
of constructing
Tangents
151
Sub-normal.
Examples
Angle between the Focal Radii
Condition that a Straight Line touch the Hyperbola.
Slope Equation of Tangent
Locus of intersection of Tangent and Perpendicular
through Focus
Locus of intersection of Perpendicular Tangents
Chord of Contact
Pole and Polars
Tangent
bisects
Conjugate Diameters
Conjugate Diameters lie in the same Quadrant
Co-ordinates of
Equation of Conjugate Diameter.
Extremities of Conjugate Diameter
2 =
a12
a2
b2
Parallelogram on a pair of Conjugate Diameters. Ex
...
150
b"
amples
Asymptotes
Asymptotes as Axes.
Vertex
152
154
155
155
155
156
156
156
157
157
158
159
160
Rhombus on
Co-ordinates of
162
CONTENTS.
ARTS.
132.
PAGES
.............
133.
134.
135.
....
Examples.
General Examples
CHAPTER
165
165
...
165
Asymptotes.
164
IX.
138.
First Transformation.
139.
Second Transformation
a = 0. c -
140, 141.
142.
143.
144.
145.
146.
.......
....
..........
Discussion
Signs of Constants
...........
Summary .............
..............
=
...........
............ .....
General Summary. Examples .........
..."
6-<4ac
62
62
4 ac
>
4 ac
CHAPTER
170
171
172
173
175
175
176
177
173
X.
148.
149.
150.
151.
152.
Definition
...........
......
............
................
188
190
1 91
193
194
155.
156.
.........
.....
The Limacon ............
The Lemniscate ...........
The Conchoid
196
198
JQQ
201
TRANSCENDENTAL EQUATIONS.
158.
The Curve
The Curve
159.
The, Cycloid
157.
...........
...........
........
of Sines
of
Tangents
203
204
206
CONTENTS.
PAGES
ARTS.
SPIRALS,
160.
Definition
161.
The
The
The
The
The
162.
163.
164.
165.
PART
208
Spiral of
Archimedes
208
210
212
213
Hyperbolic Spiral
Parabolic Spiral
Lituus
214
Examples
Logarithmic Spiral.
II.
CHAPTER
I.
CO-ORDINATES.
166.
167.
Projections
168, 169.
Length
of
Line
joining
170.
Angles. Examples
The Polar System
171.
Relation
217
219
Examples
Two
Points.
Directional
220
222
between Systems.
ordinates.
Examples
CHAPTER
Transformation of Co
223
II.
THE PLANE.
226
172.
Equation of Plane
173.
Normal Equation
174.
175.
176.
Traces.
177.
178.
179.
227
229
of Plane
.
Intercepts
229
.
three Variables.
230
231
232
Discussion.
233
Examples
CHAPTER
III.
236
237
CONTENTS.
xi
ARTS.
PAGES
182.
To
183.
184.
Planes
Line through One Point
Line through Two Points.
185.
Intersecting Lines
242
243
247
191-193.
Transformation of Co-ordinates
The Cone and its Sections
194, 195.
Definitions.
186, 187.
188.
189, 190.
find
Examples
246
Equation of a Conic.
CHAPTER
239
Examples
250
254
IV.
Examples
259
262
....
.
265
267
269
273
CO-ORDINATES.
PAST
CHAPTElt
I.
THE
relative
them
positions
to
New York
lines.
reference
axes, is called
ORIGIN.
The
lines
FIG.
1.
purpose.
CO-ORDINA TES.
are
called positive
abscissas
measured
those
3
to
the
left,
of
2,
(-
of
P (- x f
3,
of
P4
-y
(x
).
the X-axis, and to the right of the Y-axis the second angle
above the X-axis, and to the left of the Y-axis the third
;
is
angle is below the X-axis, and to the left of the Y-axis the
fourth angle is below the X-axis and to the right of the
;
Y-axis.
EXAMPLES.
1.
(2.
1,
(0, 1),
(-
1,
2), (3,
What
(-
4, 0), (0,
(0, 1),
3).
Ans.
Vl3,
Ans.
line
0),
5.
2,
- 4).
tices are,
4.
(-
1),
are,
3.
The commoji
joining them
is
5, 5,
V 13.
how
is
to the X-axis ?
Parallel, below.
how
is
the
9.
The base
X-axis and
the origin
its
vertex
ordinate
is
and how
is it
situated ?
Ans.
0).
If a point so
10.
The extremities
origin,
and mak
1,
(2, 1), (
2)
If
13.
Show
is
2,
bisected at
(0, 0).
is
distant
Vm +
2
?i
from
the origin.
15. Find from similar triangles the co-ordinates of the
middle point of the line joining (2, 4), (1, 1).
Ans.
($,$).
to 360
to
(=
in
oo
and direc
some given
to r, and all
r)
0, it is
is
called the
POLAR SYSTEM.
CO-ORDINA TES.
The point
is called the POLE
the line
X, the POLAR
Axis, or INITIAL LINE the distance r, the EADIUS VECTOR
;
the angle 0, the DIRECTIONAL or VECTORIAL
;
The
POLAR CO
ANGLE.
0,
(r, 0),
FIG.
(-)
to those
2.
considered as positive
(+) when measured from the
pole toward the extremity of the arc (0), and
negative (-)
when measured from the pole
away from the extremity of the
(r)
is
arc
(0).
points clear.
If r
2 inches and
this
method
of locating
=-2
inches and
45, then (- 2, 45) locates a
2 inches from the
pole, and on a line making an
angle of 45 with the initial line also but in this case the
point is on that portion of the
boundary line of the angle
which has been produced backward
the
point
If
=2
inches and 9
= - 45,
through
then (2,
pole.
- 45)
locates a
below
inches from the pole, and out on a line lying
point P 4 2
it.
with
45
of
the initial line, and making an angle
45 )
2,
45, then (
2 inches and 6
If r
the
to
pole),
locates a point P 2 directly opposite (with respect
the point
P4
=-
=-
- 45).
(2,
We
same
know
"),
geometry
circle are to
their sides;
have,
arc
_.
&
Let
ff
= unit
angle
~"arc
then arc
=r
(radius
of
measuring
circle).
_
Hence
= 360,
Hence,
circular unit
.
If
arc
-.
r 6
= arc
common
r
360
circular unit.
=2
TT
= 2irr.
circular unit.
= 2 X circular
360
TT
unit,
...
(1)
j
EXAMPLES.
an
What is the value in circular measure of
From (1) Art. 6, we have,
1.
= 30 X 12 = 2 circular unit.
30 = - circular unit.
TT
360
..
angle of 30 ?
CO-ORDINA TES.
2.
What
angles ?
1, 45, 60,
3.
What
3
90,,
4"
*
4"
4.
What
5.
is
8"
Ans.
(2,
(-
40),
4,
57, 17
45.".
90), (3,
135).,
^3,
(-
1,
180),
- 1, - *),
6.
2,
7.
The base of an equilateral
triangle (= a) coincides with
the initial line, and one of its vertices is at
the pole
re
quired the polar co-ordinates of the other two vertices.
;
(a>
8.
The polar
co-ordinates
of
a point
are ( 2,
\
same
point,
~\
4
()).
Give
using polar
co-ordinates.
Ans.
9.
a.,
8
10.
How
being ( 3,
is
-\
its
points
Ans.
Parallel.
13
4,
LOCL
CHAPTER
II.
LOCI.
7.
generatrix as
it
moves
is
the
path described by
its
equation.
law subject
to
is
locus.
FIG.
its
ordinate to
3.
its
and
is
The
1,
or y
Pi-
= x,
P^
The
Again
10
if
its
y~
1,
and the
8.
first,
line
P4 P 2
or y
x,
is
It will
called the
VARIABLE
or
GENERAL CO-ORDINATES
of the line.
we
The
by x and
of the moving
y, and the particular co-ordinates
point for any definite position of its path by these letters
with a dash or subscript or by the first letters of the
Thus (x ?/), (x lt yi), (a, ), (2, 2)
alphabet, or by numbers.
correspond to some particular position of the moving point.
;
EXAMPLES.
1.
algebraic expression.
Ans. That a point shall so
move
= 3x
-f-
is
the
3.
The sum
a quantity a is
point so moves that its ordinate
b
to
its
abscissa
a
; required the
quantity
always equal
of
the
law.
expression
algebraic
b.
Ans. y -\- a
\x
a
moving point
equation of
its
path
Ans.
x2
+y
==
a2
LOCI.
11
4.
^-2,*= -6.
2y--.|.
y
4 z2
z.
2 x 2 -f 3
2
?/
= 6.
if
= 2px.
a^f
5 y2
z2
= 18.
=a6
2
is
we
dental,
tities, is
We
shall
We
its
know
= 3x+2.
that the point where this locus cuts the Y-axis has
in the equa
0.
If, therefore, we make x
abscissa x
we
tion,
Mak-
t+T*
12
we
will have
successively equal to
1, 2, 3,
1,
2,
- 3,
f.
locus.
Drawing now
Now make
etc.
For
Values of x
Corresponding
2
3
"
"
_2
Values of y
5
8
11
FIG.
"
4.
LOCI.
13
We
line
and it is, as we shall see hereafter.
shall see also
that every equation of the first degree between two variables
The distances Oa and Ob
represents some straight line.
which the
EXAMPLES.
1.
I,-..-l_2*
Solving with respect to y
y=-2x +
The extremities
we
in order to simplify,
have,
2.
(1,0).
5.
6.
12.
2y
Is
cx
-cl
= 3x.
10.
i-
11.
-y=-3 y
_2x.
NOTE.
If a point is on a line,
the equation of the line.
its
Is (5, 4) ?
equation
Is (0,
co-ordinates
must
is
- 3) ?
satisfy
14
13.
Which
2
equation 3 x
(2, 1),
14.
+2y = 6?
2
(V2,
(0,V3),
0),
2x
1,
show by similar
11.
-2x = 3y
0), (2,
V3)
line
6.
y
16.
(- V2,
1, 3),
15.
(-
Discuss
= sx
a;,
= 5.
and y
-f-
saj
+ 4,
and
and
x*
+ y* =
y =
=t
16.
y,
we
Vie - X
have,
2-
The double sign before the radical shows us that for every
we assume for x there will be two values for y, equal
value
Making
= 0,
=
0,
y
we have y
"
"
=
=
_j_
-j-
4.
LOCI.
15
of
the locus
i.e.,
B,
A, A!.
Y
B
FIG.
Values of x
5.
Values of y
Corresponding
2
3
-1
-2
-3
-4
we
find
it
to be a circle.
This
we know
that the
sum
of the squares
16
the
abscissa
in the circle
is
We
= 4,
we have
?/,
144
9 x2
16
=
y =
"
Values of x
1
2
3
4
1
3
4
=
=
gives y
i.e.,
B,
off
-j-
these distances,
A,
Corresponding
"
4-4:.
Values of y
"
+2.6
((
_i_
"
we have
Fig. 6.
+2.9
"
-r-
2.6
"
"
2.9
"
"
"
-J-
we have
The form
LOCI.
17
symmetrical
FIG.
6.
is
curve,
called the ELLIPSE.
13.
Solving,
we have
We
18
Y-axis.
Making y
= 0,
we
find
Values of x
Corresponding
"
2
3
4
From
is
Values of y
2 and
+2.8
+ 3.4
+4
these data
we
-2
- 3.4
-4
-2.8
FK;.
This curve
14.
is
called the
7.
PARABOLA.
Hence
We see from the form of the equation that the locus must
be symmetrical with respect to both axes. Looking under
19
LOCI.
The
y.
3 or
3 will always give real
locus therefore extends infinitely in the
=i
Making x = 0,
we
find
and negative
-J-
abscissae
from the
Making y
= 0,
we
find
Value of
4
x.
(3, 0), (
-j-
hence, the
Corresponding.
Values of y
+
+ 2.6
+ 3.4
+ 1.7
+ 2.6
-6
4-3.4
1.7
5
6
-4
FIG.
This curve
is
called the
curve cuts
3, 0).
8.
HYPERBOLA.
and
"
"
"
- 1.7
- 2.6
- 3.4
- 1.7
-2.6
"
- 3.4
20
15.
We
RECTANGULAR equations
of equations whose loci were referred to rectangular
Let us now assume the POLAR equation
axes.
to the construction of the loci of
i.e.,
Assuming values
for
6 (1
cos 0)
it.
6,
we
we
Substituting these
Values of 6
Values of cos
1.
.86
.50
6
6
160
- .50
- .94
180
200
240
1.
.94
.50
270
(1
(1
(1
6 (1
30
90
r.
Values of r
60
120
from some
.86)
.50)
)
+ .50)
+ .94)
6 (1 + 1
6 (1 + .94)
6 (1 + .50)
6 (1 6
(1
6 (1
300
.50
6 (1 -- 50)
330
.86
6 (1
.86)
=
= .84
= 3.
= 6.
= 9.
= 11.64
= 12.
= 11.64
= 9.
= 6.
= 3.
= .84
as the
the initial line OX, and assume any point
a
series of lines, making the
draw
this
point
Through
pole.
assumed angles with the line OX, and lay off on them
the corresponding values of r.
Through these points, tra
the
have
we
required locus.
cing a smooth curve,
Draw
LOCI.
FIG.
and
its
9.
heart-like shape,
is
y
NOTE.
21
= log x.
transcendental .equation
ti-anscends the
&
the left
points
the other hand, as
every positive value of
x will give real values for
y, we see that the curve extends
the direction of the
infinitely
of the Y-axis.
If
y = 0,
On
positive abscissae
then
22
If
0,
then
2*
The
.-.
= log
.-.
co.
at a unit
locus, therefore, cuts the X-axis
distance on
Values of x
1
Corresponding
Values of y
"
"
"
"
.5
"
.25
FIG.
10.
its
name
LOCI.
23
17.
may
18.
is
to solve
into
it.
The question
is
immate
rial in
principle,
respect
of the variables
selected
it,
discussion.
EXAMPLES.
Construct the loci of the
following equations
1.
2.
+ l-0.
2jr-4
y
-.,
2
3.
2y
4.
4aj 2
10.
= 10.
+ 5s
-9 =-36.
2
5.
fi+4
6.
**+y-
7.
8.
35
?/
= ^ cos
= logy.
2
simpler
24
si.y^O.
x + 2 ax + a = 0.
x - a* = 0.
2
12
yi_9 = 0.
13.
7/
2 xy
+ x - 0.
2
14.
x*-x-6 = 0.
15.
or -j-
6 ==
+4x - 5
0.
16.
17.
x*-7x + l2 = 0.
18.
x2
0.
+ 7 z + 10 =
0.
to 0,
CHAPTER
25
III.
THE STRAIGHT
LINE.
FIG.
11.
=
PM
to OY and BN
to OX.
Then (OM, MP) = (x, y) are the co-ordinates of P.
From the figure PM = PN + OB = BNtan PEN +
and draw
||
||
BN = OM = x,
..
b,
but
26
Since equation (1) is true for any point of the line SC, it
true for every point of that line hence it is the equation of
the line. Equation (1) is called the SLOPE EQUATION OF THE
is
STRAIGHT LINE
COROLLARY
If
= tan
b =
in
sx
1.
(1),
is
we
have,
(2)
COR.
If s
2.
y
which
is,
as
it
we have
in (1),
=b
ought to
be, the
the X-axis.
COR.
3.
If
oo,
then
line
becomes
line
tive.
The
line
may
=-
sx
-{-
it
appears that
+b
be either positive or
may
first
angle
y =
sx
= sx
THE STRAIGHT
LINE.
27
EXAMPLES.
The equation of a
and intercepts.
1.
slope
line
Comparing with
we
y,
22
1
x H
(1)
Art.
Making y
Y-intercept.
is
2y
+x=3
required
its
have,
3
.
19,
we
and
= 3 = X-intercept.
find s
in
the
equation,
we have
3.
Construct the line 2 y -\- x
The points in which the line cuts the axes are
2.
O,
?V
and
(3,
3).
-*/
off
line
thus
~F-+fLay
off
OB =
draw
||
The
line
through
P and B
-*
For
locus.
tan
BAX.
.-.tan
BAX
is
y,
we
Or otherwise
have,
28
3.
we
have,
Lay
||
to
also
3.
off
OX
NP
||
BO = 5 = |
and make it = 2
to OY and make
straight line
BK
Draw
draw
it
1.
P and B
through
For
BAX =
Hence, in general,
s.
to the left of
BN
is
is fiositive
or negative.
lines
4.
Ans.
5.
&
= - 2, a = - -
1,
^^
x-
6.
* ==
- 12,
8.
~
3
+2x = 1 -
y.
9.
THE STRAIGHT
What
14.
29
= 3x +
11.
= - x + 2.
12.
1.
=2
a;
1.
\<^
2y
15.
LINE.
+ s-l = 0, 3^=2x + 2, y = - x -
I.
are
= 3,
l,
= 2,
= 0.
its
intercepts.
FIG.
Let S C be the
line.
Then OB
OA =
12.
= b = Y-intercept,
= X-intercept.
a line
sor
and
we have determined
/>.
to be
30
From
tan
GAB =
tan
AOB, we
BAX =
have,
= OB
OA
.-.-.--*.
a
This
is
called the
we
have,
SYMMETRICAL EQUATION
of the straight
line.
COR.
1.
If a
ni
rvt
\-
first
j-
and
If a
+, then
If
and
-f-
and
--
=1
is
then
----- *-
second angle.
then
If
angle.
=1
is
EXAMPLES.
1.
Construct
NOTE.
Y-axis.
1.
2 units on the
line.
THE STRAIGHT
LINE.
31
+ |=1.
2-
/v,
Q
o
7/
if
4.
i*^
*
^
^
57^ =
"Q
r>
-i
-
^^
AXV-~)C7^-
z--<r^-
K"
-f~V=l.
the
of
6.
r-IS-7.
3
s.
y
2
T ?.6 = _
+
i.
y-ix-2.
O
.
-J
O
J
5
10.
Write y
+ 6 in a symmetrical
."
7-
form.
1
1.
/-t
A
O*^"
/>
lines, to write
11.
+ 3z-7 = z + 2.
^^ = ~ 3
2y
23
13.
a?
12.
14
2?
x
43
_2x-l
32
of the perpendicular.
NOTE.
FIG
Let OS
Let
be-
the
line.
AOP =
triangles AOP and BOP, we
OA = -OP- OB = OP
OP = p, BOP
From
the
13.
==
7,
have
COS 7
COS
that
is,
7.
cos w
cos 7
+ y-b =
x cos
which
is
1,
we
+ y cos 7 = p
(1)
of
THE STRAIGHT
Since
90
This form
and
COR.
and the
COR.
NORMAL EQUATION
(1)
line
= 90,
If
2.
= 0, then
x =p
If
1.
is
called the
is
= sin hence
+ y sin = p
(2)
cos y
cos
cc
33
LINE.
then
y*=p
and the
If x
22.
line
cos
then x cos
COR.
Since
1.
p
it
is
evident that d
therefore, (x
the origin
is
-J-
-p =
is
_j_
If,
we have
+ y sin = p
=
x cos
d
y
x cos u
.-.
"
-\-
-J-
d.
sin
(1)
a point (x
y ) from the line
found
-\- y
by transposing the constant
term to the first member, and substituting for x and y the co
Let us. for example, find the
ordinates x y of the point.
distance of the point ( y~3, 9) from the line x cos 30
y sin
x cos a
=p
of
is
30
5.
From
(1)
= V3 cos 30
-f 9 sin 30
34
From
.*.
Fig.
sin= / =
-2
_L
t=
<2
|-
^b
+6
Vtt 2
line
J/
Hence
is
13 we have cos
whose equation
is
of the form -
+b=
?/)
from a
1.
VA + B
2
of the line
given in
is
general form.
its
(1).
EXAMPLES.
1.
line
= 5 and
equation of the
fall
of 30
line.
V3
Ans.
sc
+ =
//
line.
Ans.
3
What
is
(2.
Ans.
x -\-y
4) from the
From
(2,
5.
From
(3, 0)
to
6.
From
(0, 1)
to 2
7.
From
(a, c) to
5) to
1.
?/
=
- x = 2.
1.
SJT
= 2.
line
|
|
line
V2
i.
4.
10.
b.
^^
35
NOTE.
angles.
M
N>
FIG. H.
%
it
From
NP = OB = b.
==
,
the figure
From
||
||
PM = y, OM = a, NOX
then,
triangle
= MN + NP = MN + b
ONM, we
MN
sin
OM
sin
(1)
have,
NOM
MNO
sin
sin
we
drawn from
.M"N"
this equation in
have,
Sin
=
sin
(/?
"
x
)
+b
...
(2)
36
=
?/
0,
then
sin
sin (p
(3)
a)
COR.
2.
If b
=
y
and
=o
then
0,
(4)
COR.
3.
If
ft
and
/3
.
But tan
This
19
is
<t
=s
5.
= tan n x
y = sx
if
-J-
-\-
made
rectangular,
ft.
ft-
See Art.
(1).
Cor.
then
(5)
then
If
/3
= 90 and = 0, then
y = sx. See Art. 19, Cor.
ft
1.
EXAMPLES.
makes an
two units
making an angle
If the axes
ple above,
Ans.
of
=x
in the
-JL-
60
-f-
2.
exam
+ 2.
37
The
line.
Ans.
24.
is
y
y
=
f\
,/q
vo
Ax
in
y,
+ By + C
we
from which
If
(1)
finite or zero.
with
(2)
(1) Art.
have,
Comparing equation
is
A = 0,
it
then
was derived
?/
is
.19,
we
see that
whose Y-intercept
hence
(1),
the
it
equation
line.
= 0,
then x
= 0,
then y
=-
A
B
X)
38
25.
line
passing through
a given point.
Let (V, y
its
y = sx + b
which
in
and
...
equation must be
(1)
be determined.
b are to
equation
for the general co-ordinates x and
point on it are substituted
the
We
equation of condition.
have, therefore,
y.
=sx
But a straight
...
(2)
line
which
is
COR.
(1),
we have,
=s
3)
1.
If
0,
then
= SX
(4)
on the
the equation of a line passing through a point
Y-axis.
COR. 2. If y
0, then
is
y
is
=s
(x
(5)
the X-axis.
the equation of a line passing through a point on
COR.
3.
If
=
y
and y
= 0,
then
= sx
THE STRAIGHT
LINE.
39
EXAMPLES.
1.
the point
2.
2),
(1,
(2, 3).
What
X-axis ?
Ans. y
3.
angle of 45
1,
is its
3),
2 x
4.
and makes an
equation ?
Ans. y
=x
2.
4.
the point
with X-axis.
Ans.
y
26.
-b = ^.(x-a).
(x",
which
and
we
line passing
through
= sx + b
b are to
y")
is
(x",
V3
in
-b = ?L=JL
must be
(1)
be determined.
y
y"
is
=
=
8X
#t"
+
+
y ),
(2)
...
(3)
- y = s (x - x
- = s (x y"
)
x")
40
member by member, we
Dividing these,
tf-y"
Hence
-x"
^^
(x
(4)
OC
3C,
is
have,
~ xx
=
-y =
y
y",
which
is,
COR.
tf>
it
2.
is
or y
as
to the X-axis.
||
x",
which
>
0,
or x
||
to the Y-axis.
EXAMPLES.
2, 8)
required both
Given the two points (
1, 6). (
line
the
passing through
the slope and symmetrical equation of
1.
them.
Ans.
The
=(-
+ 4,
2 x
(-
2, 1),
|
3,
+|=
-4)
1.
(2, 0)
= 5 X + 11
oy = 8
-\4:X
(y + x = 2.
(
Ans.
Ans.
4.
?/
(1,4), (0,0)
Ans.
5.
6.
(-2,3),(-3,-l)
(0,2),(3,-1)
Ans.
= 4x-f-ll.
7.
7 y
2.
+ 2 x = 24.
(-3,0)
Ans. y
8.
+ =
(2,0),
= 0.
(-l,-3), (-2,4)
Ans.
(-2,4)
Ans.
= 4 x.
x
(5,2),
+ 7 x + 10 = 0.
line joining
FIG.
Let (x
i/),
(x",
y"}
41
15.
P,
P".
P"B
||
||
right
PC
P"C
Hence,
PT"
= AB = OB - OA = - x
- EC = if - y
=
x"
P"B
=L=
1.
If
- xY
fa"
x
and y
the origin, and we have
Con.
2
V*"
and
= 0,
2
y"
(y
r::~y lY
the point
...
from the
(l)
coincides with
(2)
origin.
EXAMPLES.
Given the points (2, 0), (
2, 3)
required the distance
between them also the equation of the line passing through
them.
Ans. L = 5, 47/-f3;r =6.
1.
42
2.
what
The
(2, 1)
1,
2)
(4,
5), (6,
(-
(0, 2),
Ans.
11.
What
is
Ans. Area
28.
To
(-
2,-l),
9.
(a,
ft),
10.
(-
2, 3),
(0, 1)
(2,
0)
d)
(c,
V5.
(-
a, 6).
2.
),
(a",
= \ \x
./iTicZ
8.
0)_
0)
vertices are
0)
V20.
1,
Ans.
6.
(-
3,
-_!)
^ws.
5.
3,
VlO.
Ans.
4.
7.
2)
Ans.
3.
(y"
")
(*
y")>
",
^Ae intersection
?
")
- /) +
f
*"
(y"
xf
"
(y
y")]-
equations.
Let
y
y
= sx
=s +6
-f- b,
and
a:
treating them,
we
pointfind
b
s b
sb
EXAMPLES.
1.
= 2x + 1
and 2 y
Ans.
= x - 4.
(-2, -3).
The equations
43
its vertices.
(MH-i,
\o
oj
Ans.
=
]
the intersection of 2 y
3x
-f-
line
-f-
Ans.
4.
What
the
x -f
2,
= 3 x -f 2,
Ans.
5.
x2
The equation
2
-f-
?/
= 4 x -|- 10.
lateral
10
is
+2x+2 =
and y
23 y
;c
+ 2 = 0, 3y
A*
and
a;
6.
whose equation is
required the length of the chord.
=x
-f-
Ans.
29. If
30 x
+ By -f C =
+By+C =
(1)
.
(2)
Ax -f By + C
+K
(A a;
+ B y +C =
)
...
(3)
it
variables.
is
since
44
From
(3)
we have y
2a
+ K(2y +
sc
2)=0
on
this line
hence 3
4-1 + K
K
we
(6
+ 2-2) =0
have,
or,
1 ==
given by their
lines
tivo
equations.
M,
Yrf
FIG.
Let
y
y
16.
= sx +- and
= sx+ V
/>.
be the equations of
s
SC and MN,
= tan
and
respectively
tan
then
45
the figures
=
.
(f
(f
-\-
a.
From trigonometry,
tan
.-.
cp
=
tan
= tan -
1 -f ss
COR.
1.
If s
=
<p
tan a
(2).
then
= tan -1
= 0.
.. qp
COR.
2.
If 1
+ =
ss
(f
/.
= tan
substituting;
Or,
.*,
cp
then
0,
= tan -
oo
.-.
g>
= 90
SCHOL.
= 90
.-.
= s = tan
tan a
.-.
+
(90
+ ss = 1 tan
1-1 = 0.
-{-
-f
tan
= -
cot
tan a
1 4- tan
tan
EXAMPLES.
1.
What
and 2y
is
+ 2cc + l=0?
= 90.
46
3.
(2,
Ans.
3x
y
Perpendicular to 2 ?/
(b)
= 0.
= 0.
3x
5=0.
2 y
= 8,
(5)
3y
-j-
2x
= 1.
+ y=
(a)
q>
Ans. (a) 3 x
4.
y -\-ox
(a) Parallel to 2
(b)
lines
vertices to
sides.
(c)
5.
The lengths
What
relation exists
y
y
y
y
6.
What
of the perpendiculars.
lines
= SX +
= SX 3.
= SX -\- 6.
= SX + m.
b.
y
y
= sx -[= sx
b.
-j- c.
,.
8.
2y-\-x
(,r
let fall
from the
= - V80.
= 4.
Ans.
B ty-j-C"
THE STRAIGHT
I
+ By + C) + m
(Ax
C")
LINE.
47
+ Wy -f
By
n (Af x
CO
(Afx
an identity, then the three lines meet in a point.
10.
+_C
"
VA + B
2
VA + B
GENERAL EXAMPLES.
1.
and cuts
when
2.
Prove
3
y
3.
a;
-f-
that
If
the
lines
=x
(1,
-{- 1,
(x
and
tremities of a line,
ordinates of
its
(x",
y"}
show that
=2x+2
and
0).
t~,
S-
1_2.
a rf the co
j
middle point.
a;
The equations
= 4,
(y
Ans.
lyo
^
5.
=x
,
JL
+4
4
q
O.
NOTE.
common
point.
and make
the X-axis coincide with one of the sides. Find the equations
of the sides and then find the equations of the
perpendiculars
;
at the
sides.
The point of intersection
of any two of these perpendiculars ought to
satisfy the equa
tion of the third.
48
6.
9.
other.
10.
at right angles.
11.
12.
bi
Ans. (x
The points
14.
1)2
15.
3) are equi-distant
points
(x",
at an angle
2), (
What
16.
2)
= (x -
2)
(y
Ans.
I)
=4
- 2) = 4
2
(y
2
.
(x, y).
(x
(1, 2) is
is
y"),
(3
1,
2)
3)
or,
whose
+ y = 4.
vertices are
- xj +
2
V<V
(y"
- yj + 2
-x
(x"
(y"
-y
cos
49
Ans.
cos (0
18.
What
the point
is
+|=
2 4
AnSt
2),
(1,
1.
whose equation
is
-\-
2x
1 ?
Ans.
- x
+_
One
4,
3),
= 1.
x + 1, and y =
3, or x
y
in the normal equation of a line, through
21. If p =
what point does the line pass, and what does its equation
Ans. (0, 0) y = s x.
become ?
;
22.
r sin
0),
of
= 2 a,
Show
24. What are the equations of the lines which pass through
the origin, and divide the line joining the points (0, 1), (1, 0),
into three equal parts.
2 y
x.
Ans. 2 x
?/,
25.
If (x
y ) and
(x",
y")
+ nx m + "/^divides the
m+n
m n
mx
"
y"
ii
ne
-\-
joining
n.
them
into
ratio
50
CHAPTER
IV.
TRANSFORMATION OF CO-ORDINATES.
IT frequently happens that the discussion of an
equa
and the deduction of the properties of the locus it
represents are greatly simplified by changing the position of
the axes to which the locus is
the
referred, thus
31.
tion,
simplifying
equation, or reducing
to
by which this is
OF CO-ORDINATES.
FIG.
The equation
when
axes
= sx
and
its
is
-f b
17.
and X.
If
we
refer
= sx
it
to the
TRANSFORMATION OF CO-ORDINATES.
we
If
refer
it
to
Y"
and
X",
51
simpler form
y"
it
Hence,
affects the
- 0.
The equation
NOTE.
of a locus
which
referred to rec
is
of
tangular co-ordinates is called the KECTANGULAR EQUATION
the locus when referred to polar co-ordinates, the equation is
called the POLAR EQUATION of the locus.
;
32.
FIG.
18.
and Y as axes,
be any plane locus referred to
be any point on that locus. Draw PB to OY
then from the figure, we have,
of P when referred
(OB, BP)
(x, y) for the co-ordinates
CM
Let
and
let
||
to
and
(O A, AP)
to
Y
DO
and
(OD,
origin.
co-ordinates of
P when
referred
(a,
b)
for the
co-ordinates
of
the
new
52
From
OB = OD
the figure
hence
-f
DB
x and y
=b
BP = BA
and
-\-
+ AP
CM
Q
expresses the relationship between
equation of th locus
the co-ordinates of every point on it if we substitute for
EXAMPLES.
1.
What
origin
is
removed
+1
3x
to (2, 3) ?
Ans. y
3.
The equation
of a curve
is
2
?/
2
-f x
(2,
origin
2) ?
What
is
2
?/
- 2 x* -
removed
to
(
The equation
of a circle
is
x*
2
?/
4.
taken at
+ y = 16.
+ 6x - 3 =
2y
1
?
)
Ans. 2
5.
is
-\-
Trans
x2
Ans.
4.
= 2.
4 x
4 y
-\-
= 3x
2
?/
=a
4 x2
when
1.
referred
does this
rectangular axes through the centre. What
left-hand
the
at
equation become when the origin is taken
to
TRANSFORMATION OF CO-ORDINATES.
33.
53
lar system to
an
D
FJG.
19.
||
O D, AL, PB
AF, O K to
||
From
the figure,
we
to the Y-axis,
the X-axis.
||
and
have,
OB = OD
PB = DO
+ O N + AF,
+ AN + PF.
and
OB = x, OD = a, O N == x cos 6, AF =
PB = y, DO = b, AN = x sin 0, PF =
But
hence, substituting,
we
cos
g>,
sin
<p
have,
=a+x
=
b
x
y
x
+ y cos
+ y sin
cos
sin
-}-
,^
q>
<p
COR.
1.
If a
= 0,
have,
and
= x! cos
= x sin B
= 0,
-f-
-f
y cos
y sin
<p
go
...
we
(2)
54
= 90 + 6, coincides with
2. If a = 0, b = 0, and
and the new axes X and Y are rectangular. Making these
substitutions, and recollecting that
COR.
we
g>
cos
(p
sin
(f
0,
and
9,
have,
=x
y = a
y sin 9 \
cos
+ ?/ cos
sin
,^
EXAMPLES.
tion
What
1.
1
required the equa
The equation of a line is y = x
axes
to
referred
when
making angles of
line
same
the
of
;
45 and 135
x.
Ans.
3.
when
-\A-
What
angle of 30
2 y
= (V3 -
1)
2.
TRANSFORMATION OF CO-ORDINATES.
34.
FIG.
Let
angle
55
(a, b)
g>
point on
it.
From
non-coincident.
20.
S the
initial line,
CM
Let
the figure,
and pole
we
making an
any
OB = OD
BP = DO
But
OB = x,
BP = y,
+ O F,
+ FP.
=
OD a, O F = O P cos PO F = r cos (B +
DO = FP = O P sin PO F = r sin (0 +
g>)
b,
<p)
hence, substituting,
we
=a
=
b
y
x
have,
-f-
-(-
r cos
qp))
+?
r sin (B
COR.
1.
usual to so take
it)
x
y
cp
= 0,
is
(it is
and
= a + r cos
= b + r sin
)
)
2.
the X-axis a
and the
initial
= 0, b = 0, and = 0.
g>
56
s-rcosfl)
(3)
= r sin 6
35.
system
1.
When
From
and
the pole
equations
adding
by division
tan
cc
we
Art. 34,
(3),
+y
2
;
and,
We
equations,
Vx +
2.
When
the pole
and
Vx + y
and when
From
a simi
equations (2) of the same article, we have, by
lar process,
= (x- ay +
tan. 6 = y^~~-
r*
x
cos
=x
sin0
=_y
,,
(y
also
b)
V(*
for the required equations.
ay
(y
TRANSFORMATION OF CO-ORDINATES.
57
EXAMPLES.
1.
The equation
2.
of a curve
is (x
+y
=a
= a.
(x
re
= a tan sec
^ws. o^ = a? y.
sec
4. r = a tan
= a y.
2
3.
;c
r2
=a
6.
sin 2
2
Ans.
5.
(x
a (cos
2
Ans. x 2
y
r ==
2
?/
=2a
scy.
sin 0)
=a
y}
(x
GENERAL EXAMPLES.
Construct each of the following
the origin to the point indicated, the
to the old, and reconstruct
parallel
1.
2.
3.
4.
= 3 x + 1 to (1, 2).
to (- 1, 2).
2 y - x - 2 =
_
i
=
to
4
(- 2, - 1).
y
y + x _f_i = o to (0, 2).
_|_
What do
referred to
5.
6.
7.
8.
= sx + b to d).
- 2).
y + 2 = to (2,
= mx to w).
y -4o; + c = 0to(d,0).
(c,
a;
?/
(Z,
10
"
11.
3 x2
+2y =
2
= 4 *(1
9 y2
6, (
0).
>>-
- 4x = 2
V2
12.
36
(3, 0).
/_ 2
58
What
13.
X-axis
is
Y-axis
is
15.
What
,y
=a
45
is
of a curve
is
2 px, the
=a
(1
-f-
2 cos 0)
required
rectangular equation, the origin and pole being
coincident and the X-axis coinciding with the initial line.
its
Ans.
-f
(x
2 ax) 2
a 2 (x 2
-f
).
Example
17.
16..
20.
asec 2 ?-.
2
cos 2
Ans. x 2
18.
19.
= a sin
r = aO.
0.
=a
2
.
21.
22.
r
r
= a sin 2 0.
-2r (cos + V3 sin
whose rectangular
= y (2 a - x).
4a x = y (2 a
x).
xs
loci
25.
26.
= a x - x\
x* -f y* = a*.
2
a*y
= 5.
6>)
THE CIRCLE.
CHAPTEE
59
V.
THE CIRCLE.
36.
THE
circle is a curve
fined
is
It
as to
geometry.
37.
circle
and
radius
its
to
deduce
its
equation.
Y
Let C
(^ $)
OX
then
circle,
PM
to
||
and
OY
let
and
be any
CN
^^
= (*(, &
MP) = (x, y)
(OA, AC)
(OM,
Draw CA and
)
||
to
60
Let CF
From
a.
CN
ON
NP
But
have,
+ NP = CP ... (1)
= (OM - OA) = -^,
= (MP - AC) = (y -^) and
=a
2
(a;
CP 2
(x
we
the figure,
-1^)
we
(1),
have,
-$) = a
2
(y
the circle
(2)
expresses the
circle.
If in (2)
we make x
a*
+ ,f
CC
or,
symmetrically,
=
=a
- 4-
= 0,
and y
.
=1
?/
have,
(3)
(4)
CL
we
(3).
See
Art. 11.
COR.
factor,
1.
we
If
we transpose x z
have,
2
?/
i.e.,
(a
+ x)
x)
(a
is
member and
LC
H
= x = a and y = 0.
a)
in (2) give
2
?/
=a
2
,
2
2
2 ax
reduction, x
y
(5)
for the equation of the circle when referred to rectangular
or, after
THE CIRCLE.
61
in
tion
of a
circle.
ax 2
which
is
+ ai/ + cx+dy+f=Q.
(1)
4 a2
the equation
may
d*
4 a2
4 a2
this with (2) of the preceding article,
Comparing
that
it is
we
see
d
~2~o
circles
62
Thus
EXAMPLES.
What
is
of the
the equation
circle
when
the origin
is
taken.
What
1.
At D,
Fig. 21 ?
Ans.
x2
2.
At K,
Fig. 21 ?
Ans.
x2
3.
At H,
Fig. 21 ?
Ans.
x2
+ f - 2 ay = 0.
+ if + 2 ay = 0.
+ if + 2 ax = 0.
Ans.
5.
a; a-t-
2 ,*
7.
+2
2 z2
X2
?/
2, 3),
= 4.
= 2.
= 3.
4) a
= 5.
+ 4a;-6y-3=0.
(-
^tns.
(1, 1),
= 0.
8x
?/
Ans.
(2,0),
_ 6 x = o.
(3, 0),
8.
xz
?/
4 x -f 8
?/
= 0.
.
9.
x 2 H-
10.
x2
11.
x2
2
12.
13.
x2
2
?/
mz
+^ +G=
2/
+ = m.
4* = + =c +^
cz +
=/
2
?/
?/
2/
7/
wy.
(2,
THE CIRCLE.
Write the equations of the
circles
63
whose
and whose
radii
centres are
14.
= 3,
18.
(0, 1).
x*+y -2y = 8.
15. a -2, (1, - 2).
19.
Ans. x + if -2x + 4 y + 1 =0.
20.
16. a = 5, (- 2, - 2).
+ y -f 4 + 4 = 17.
17. a = 4, (0, 0).
21.
= 16.
= m,
= 5,
(b, c).
Ans.
b, (c,
d).
^4rcs.
ic
The radius
of a circle
-\-
is
what
is its
24.
(2, i).
equation
x 2 -f
common
(2,
circle passing
?/
A;,
if it is
4ic=2?
Ans.
?/
concentric with x 2
23.
&).
cc
22.
(7,
a;
?/
cc
circles
1).
= 21.
which
through three
given points.
39.
circle.
B
FIG.
The equation
of the circle
(X
-XY+
22.
when
(y
referred to
_ y Y = a\
OY,
OX
is
64
To deduce the
curve, then
= (/,
= r cos
(00 O OB)
,
From
A=
the figure,
OB =
hence, substituting,
(
a;
we
=r
cos
AP = y = r sin
BO = y = r sin
(r sin
- / sin
+ sin
ff
2
.
- 2 r/ (cos
cos
is
i.e.,
^(cos
0,
0,
have,
r cos
r C os 6
a*
(1)
circle.
COR.
tre
OO P.
1.
If
COR.
2.
Tf
+/
= 0,
2 rr cos
and /
= a,
=a
2
.
= 2 a cos
= 0, and / = 0,
COR.
3.
If
0.
the pole
is
at the centre
and
40.
= a.
each other.
perpendicular
The supplemental chords of a
circle are
to
diameter and
pass through the extremities of any
other on the circumference.
which
intersect each
65
FIG.
23.
For a
line
through
y = s
Multiplying these,
if
(a, o),
We
wish to
we have
a).
(x
Since the lines must not only intersect, but intersect on the
circle
whose equation
this equation
above
is
must subsist
hence, dividing,
at the
(a)
we have
"1
or,
+ ss =
...
(1)
to each other.
66
41.
FIG.
to the circle.
24.
(#
),
P"
(x",
y").
(x
(x",
/"I
~~
y")
/2
).
).
we have
(x
+
y
x
x")
(*
x")
y,
_|_
y"
.x"
(y
y")
(y
If
point
when the
will approach
secant
;/
CS becomes
line
y")
"
it
becomes
upward about
P"
the
and
THE CIRCLE.
P
coincides with
in (3)
we
P",
x"
and
?/
?/";
hence, substituting
have,
y
or, after
67
y"
=-
(*
(*)
*")>
reduction,
+ yy _;..;..
"
a-x"
or,
(5)
symmetrically,
AT
its
value
we
have,
P".
make y
OT =
But
thus,
is
AT = OT - OA =
x"
x"
= an ~ x = V,//2
-2
sub-tangent
"2
The equation
24, is
of
any
y"
line
= s (x -
x")
...
circle.
line
perpen
P"
(x",
y")
Fig.
(1)
But
-f
s
88
= 0.
~
y"
hence,
we must have
=V
x"
68
Therefore, substituting in
y"
we
(1),
-*(*-
have,
(2)
*")
or, after
reduction,
yX
-X
"
y"
...
(3)
We
normal to
we
see
By methods
43.
to be
-x
x" .
- x )* + (y- y Y = *
- x ) + (y - y )
)
and that of the normal to be
- x ) -(x(y -y")
(x
(x"
(y"
- y } = a*
-y
Let the student deduce these equations.
x")
(x"
(y"
...
(1)
(2)
EXAMPLES.
1.
dy
What is
+f=
0,
Ans.
r2
+ (- cos
\a
2.
x2
What
is
+ f = 25
equation of
(3,
- sin
a
\r
J
What
+ /a = 0.
the
The value
4) ?
tangent ?
3.
the
at the point
-f
x 2 -f if =
sub-normal
is
?
--
Ans. y
= 6x
1.
THE CIRCLE.
What
4.
x2
circle
if
-f-
69
Ans.
cc
- 4 = 20
=8
?/
Sub-tangent
?/
+4 =
= 2.
cc
sub-normal
7.
?/
?/
8.
9.
10.
a?
-|-
11.
(6, c).
-j- ?/
12.
cc
).
7/
13.
+ =
line 2 y
x
2
required the equations of the tangents to the circle which are
parallel to the line.
?/
Ans
What
14.
x~
2
2/
f3*
{3*
+ 6y = 45.
+ 6y=-45.
2y
-f-
=2?
(3y- 6x^45.
- 3 y = 45.
x + y = 9
16 x
The point
1
2
(3, 6) lies outside of the circle
the
of
the
required
equations
tangents to the circle which
pass through this point.
X
3
Ans.
A
4
3x
15.
y
16.
70
What
17.
(x
2)
the
= 5 at
3)
(y
The equation
18.
the
is
x2
circle
-\-
y*
of one of
=9
is
of the other ?
?/
-f 3
.x
== 9.
19.
(x
x 2 + ?/ 2
4 x + 4 ?/ = 9
of
the
normal
at
the
the
point whose
required
equation
abscissa == 3, and whose ordinate is positive.
Ans. 4 x
y = 10.
The equation
20.
of a circle
is
Let (xu
this point
(x
V(a>!
-f-
(y
-xY+
<*?
- y y.
(y,
is
evidently
(1).
But
COR.
1.
If
=
d2
as
it
hence
(x,
-xy+
and y
= 0,
(2/1
then
= x^ + ^ - a
- yY - ^
(1)
...
(i)
becomes
2
.
(2)
ought.
45.
circles.
THE CIRCLE.
71
FIG.
Let
(x
\
+ (v
+ (y
x")
y/
\*/
(x
25.
}
/
y")
=a
=b
2
,
be the given
d2 =
d2 =
.:
6/1
y")
(x"
(y"
w iH
y")
y)
-f (y t
hence, reducing,
- x x,+2
-f-
(#15 2/i)
+ Vl - y + yi 2
x")
( Xl
2
(x,
by definition
2
-x )
(x,
y ) y,
2
a2
b
we
then from
a2
b2
a2
( Xl
x")
have,
2
x"
circles.
-y
2
y"
the second
member m, we
see that
(x"
-x )x+2
(y"
=m
(1)
But (xu 1/1) is any point on the radical axis hence every
It is, therefore, the re
point on that axis will satisfy (1).
;
quired equation.
COR.
then,
is
1.
If c
and
72
COR.
that
if
PA,
Fig. 25.
Let the student prove that the radical axis of any two
circles is perpendicular to the line joining their centres.
46.
circles in
tersect in
Let
= 0,
= 0,
and
c"
-c =
- =
_c =o
c"
(1)
...
(2)
"
(3)
It is
satisfy (1)
(2)
called
is
of the circles.
EXAMPLES.
Find the lengths of the tangents drawn to the following
circles
1.
(x
2)
(y
3)
16 from
(7, 2).
Ans.
2.
x>
(y
+ 2)
10 from
4.
5.
_ a y + if = 12 from
x 2_f2/ 2_2^+4?/-2 from
x + y = 25 from (6, 3).
VlO.
d=^/3.
(b, c).
(a-
(3, 0).
Ans.
(3, 1).
Ans.
V20.
THE CIRCLE.
6.
7>
g.
+y 2
x2
(3
a )2
+y
2 x
10 from
73
(5, 2).
= 3.
Ans. d
(^
6)2
4y
rom
c f
10 rom
f
(d,
/).
(0, 0).
9.
10.
13.
+_ y
3)2
| (x
(
x2
2
|X
_^_
*
|x
_|_ (
^2
4y
^2
_|_
_
_
2 y
3)2
0.
16
+- y = 16.
=
I) +
^s.
o.
-4?w.
= 2 y.
a?
a?
i-
= 0.
1 (x
= 0.
_9 _
2/
a?.
14.
= 9.
- 2 = 25.
2
16.
+ if - 4 x + 6 y - 3 =
-4* = 12.
=
6
| x
=
(.T +
= 9.
J
I) + f
(^
__ 2
4. 4 y = 10.
( ^2 + yj
x + if - k* =
-j= d.
//
(
x-
_j_
?/
_|_
y>
7.
7/
a,
18.
G,
^rcs.
(1,
3).
0.
x8 4-3^
.2
17.
-4w.
ft
?/
?H
-f-
//
I)-
74
47.
= sx + b
+ =
line
2
a2
must fulfil in order that it may touch the circle x
y~
In order that the line may touch the circle the perpendicu
lar let fall from the centre on the line must be equal to the
.
From
= bcosy =
p
r2 (1
hence,
is
we have
= VI
+ tan.
=r=
+s =b
2
(1)
the equation y
-==
sec y
= sx +
y = sx
b,
AVC
_j_
drawn from
(1) in
have
Vl +s
...
(2)
48. Two tangents are drawn from a point without the circle ;
the points oftangency.
required the equation of the chord joining
FIG.
26.
(x
let
PT",
P P,
be the
THE CIRCLE.
75
PP
/X
.
is
P"
y")
(#",
\yy^_
xx"
Since
on this
is
(a/, ?/)
the equation
must
satisfy
hence
The point
rt
(x",
1/1/ =
1
+ ^~
a
x"
2
aT
?/"),
it
is satisfied
P"
chord of a given
and P,
It
circle is revolved
is,
it is
the
therefore,
about one of
its
Let
P AB
(x
),
revolves.
AP BP
From
AB
X^X
?/!?/ =
-,
^"""^
Since
(a/,
y)
on this
is
a2
xx
hence
Cb
we have
line,
a"
-\
y y == l
1
%
Cf
/1
(1J
AB
is
76
is satisfied
(1).
But
(x lt
y-^)
is
hence
lies
on
the intersection of
hence (1)
position, cuts the circle
will be satisfied for the co-ordinates of the points of intersec
Equation
locus.
We
equation
we
sought.
The point P
(**
+& =
THE POLAR
1-1-21
(i
(x
y)
is
and the
of the point
called
line
THE POLE
PP"
(x>,
y>)
of the line
(^ + ^f
1\
is
PP"
called
THE CIRCLE.
77
the
principles here developed are perfectly general,
the
circle.
within
or
be
without^ on,
pole may
Let the student prove that the line joining the pole and the
centre is perpendicular to the polar.
As the
I.
co-ordinates, Chapter
50.
PI
The equation
of the polar to
xx
~a*
In order that
yu
But
f
(x
(x
) is
y^ may be on
(aj 1?
this line,
we must
have,
a2
^ _i_M
"
a2
a2
But
^~
a2
hence
the proposition.
51.
eters
of the
A pair
circle.
so related that
when
x2
Let
2
?/
ascertain
OY OX
,
a2
(1)
To
what
circle,
referred to
this equation
78
have
=x
=x
x
y
+y
+y
cos 9
r
sin
From
the
+ 2 x y cos
((f
FIG.
1,
we
cos 9
sin cp
equations of transformation.
values in (1) and reducing, we have,
for
Substituting these
+x =a
2
0)
2
.
(2)
28.
diameters
Now, in order that OY OX may be conjugate
the term containing x y in (2)
that
related
so
be
must
they
must disappear; hence the equation of condition,
,
- 6) =
= 90, 0*9-e
9
cos
...
(cp
are an infinite
perpen
number
of
THE CIRCLE.
79
EXAMPLES.
1.
-|-
_ y
f5
__
2.
=2x +b
?/
16
^7i.
3.
= sx
4.
_|-
The
y
V80.
-L,
=2?
-f if
Ans.
#2
5
3,
-L_
V7.
Ans.
^j
= 2x -
V80.
5.
From
6.
From
7.
From
8.
From
(4, 2)
(3,
to x
4) to or
(1, 5) to
+ if = 9.
+ if =
+
4x
+2y =
^4ws.
3x
+ 4 y = 8.
8.
=c
?/
Ans.
16.
Ans. x
(a, 6) to
cc
7/
9.
10.
Of
= 16.
2
.
v4?is.
What
5 y
-\-
9.
ax
by
-{-
=c
Of
(3,
4)
circle
circle
+ y- = 16 ?
cc
5 y
-,
16+16
x + if = 9 ?
^715. 3 x + 4 y = 9.
2
80
11.
Of
(a, b)
circle
x2
-\-
What
12.
Of 2 x
-f 3 y
= m?
y-
Ans.
ax
-f
Ans.
13.
Of ~
14.
Of y
2
-
= 25 ?
(10, 15).
circle
+ fg = 1 ?
= sx + 6
= m.
by
-\-
2 4 )>
Ans
(-^r>i
15.
(0,
GENERAL EXAMPLES.
1.
circle
which
Ans.
2.
line
sy
+#=
0.
2y
in
which two
lines
and the
[The points are common to the chord of contact
circle.]
THE CIRCLE.
4.
(4,
The centre
0)
required
of a circle
its
81
equation.
2
Ans.
(x
4)
is
at
+ y = 16.
2
+y =
6.
Given x 2
2
16 and (x
4 required the
if
5)
equation of the circle which has their common chord for a
diameter.
7.
9.
points
(-
(1, 2),
(-
2, 3),
circle
- 1).
1,
=-
12.
is
The
points
in the line
13.
circle
14.
The point
x2
ax
(4,
on a
whose centre
its
required
Ans. 2 x 2
2) is the
(3.
6) lie
circle
by
equation.
+2
2
?/
17 x
= 30.
-\- if-
Given
and
(1, 5)
=x
= 0.
x 2 -f y z
Ans.
?/
Show
pass through
2).
all
82
16.
Show
that
if
two points.
17.
= 8,
circle
whose sub-tangent
= 20.
x 1 -f y 2
Ans.
x2
Ans.
19.
ax 2
in
order
that
-f- ?/
the
= 16.
circles
+ aif + cx + dy + e = Q and ax + af + kx + ly + m =
may
be concentric.
Ans.
20.
k,
I.
2 r (cos
^/3 sin
0)
= 5.
Ans.
21.
moves that
60)
(2,
its
= 3.
extremities
22.
the base
Ans.
x2
-j-
&
a2
Ans.
circle.
n
24. Find the locus of the middle points of chords drawn
from the extremity of any diameter of the circle
THE PARABOLA.
CHAPTER
83
VI.
THE PARABOLA.
THE
in the
of the parabola.
53.
directrix.
Let
EC
be the focus.
OY
drawn
Let OX,
at the vertex
84
and draw
PA
||
(OA, AP)
From
to
||
(x,
FAP, we have
2
... (1)
generating the curve, we have
= AP = FP - FA
2
if
FP = BP = (AO
2
+ OD) =
FA = (AO - OF) =
2
or, after
reduction,
As equation
then
= 2 px
hence
(x
(x
OF)
OD = OF =
true for
is
(3)
(x
2
,
OF)
2
.
we have
(1),
+ OD) -
DF =p,
Let
+ OD)
we have
figure,
if
2
.
(2)
hence
(3)
of the parabola it
the equation of the curve.
any point
it is
is
COB. 1. If (x y ) and (x
are the co-ordinates of any
two points on the parabola, we have,
1
hence
2
?/
2
:
y"
\:x
y")
x"
para
=~
THE PARABOLA.
54.
85
FIG.
First Method.
Let
DR
directrix.
30.
let
be the
focus.
From F
FD on the directrix it
Take a triangular ruler ADC
and make its base and altitude coincide with the axis and
Attach one end of a string, whose
directrix, respectively.
the perpendicular
let fall
is AD, to
the other end to a pin fixed at F.
Place
the point of a pencil in the
loop formed by the string and
stretch it, keeping the point of the
pencil pressed against the
length
instance, that
FP = PD
when
the triangle
is
in the position
ADC
that
Second Method.
axis
and erect
86
With F
FP)
circle,
desired.
the parabola
is
2i
Making
= 2px
*
= 2^y* = 2 p
2 y = 2 p.
2
?/
we have
Hence
COR.
1.
i.e.,
any
= 2px,
(
we have
x:y:\y. 2p;
EXAMPLES.
Find the latus-rectum and write the equation of the parab
ola which contains the point
1.
5.
8,
?/-
Ans.
4.
What
is it
is
?/
x.
(_,
= b- x.
a
2).
-,?/=a
parabola x* =
Ans.
b*
8,
(a, I).
x.
(-2,4).
Ans.
How
3.
(2,4).
Ans.
S.
-x.
a
THE PARABOLA.
87
Ans. y
7.
The focus
of a parabola
what
is
is its
(a)
"
"
at 2 units
= 2 x.
equation
respect to the X-axis ?
"
"
"
(b)
Ans.
(a)
"
Y-axis?
= 8x,
(b)
x*
y.
12.
2
?/
10.
x2
11.
x2
= 6 y.
= - 10 y.
What
=6x
13.
x2
= Sx.
- 4 x.
if =
if
=4y
ration 3
Ans.
2.
What
(6, 9).
is
if
16.
x2
= 4 x and 2 y
Ans.
17.
18.
= 0.
(0, 0), (16, 8).
= 6 y and y x 1 = 0.
8 x and
y* =
+ 3 = 0.
=
= 8.
2x and x +
if
a:
?/
Ans.
19.
x*
20.
x2
= - 4 y and 3 x + 2 if = 6.
= 4 y and if = 4 x.
2
- 2).
88
56.
The equation
To
we have
FX
= + r cos
= r sin
0.
0.
(1),
we have
= p~ + 2pr cos
sin
= 1 cos 9
= p -\-2pr cos 9 + r cos 9 = (p + r cos 0)
r cos
r =p
2
9.
?-
But
sin
r2
.-.
.-.
2
,
9,
-\-
solving,
1
cos B
We
Let
= D A = DF -f FA = p + r cos 9
r=p + rvosO.
r =
cos 9
1
9 = 0, r = oo
e = 90, r = p.
9 = 180, r =
|
9 = 270, v = p.
9 = 360, r =
FP
i.e.,
Hence
COR.
*-
If
If
If
If
If
An
-,
1.
is
1,
is
Fig. 29,
or,
OY, OX,
(1)
Cor.
f = 2px
oo.
these results.
inspection of the figure will verify
THE PARABOLA.
89
57.
If
y")
(x",
y-y =
,~
parabola,
(-**)
",
(!)
Ou
OC-
Since (V,
?/),
(#",
y")
we have
y
2
/2
7/
= 2px
= 2X
...
(2)
3)
i.e.,
y"
time
2p
==
f
-x"
+y"
becomes
When
(x",
to the parabola (x
or,
y".
Making
y"},
=p(x+x")
2
y"
=2
...
becomes tangent
hence x
r
(x",
y")
we
px".
x",
have,
we have
(6)
58.
x"
the X-axis.
Sub-tangent
=2
x"
;
90
i.e.,
the sub-tangent
is
equal
to
of tangency.
59.
The preceding
(a;",
y")
FIG.
A
at
line joining
T and
P"
31.
P".
60.
The equation
= s(x-
y-y"
to the
P"
(#",
x")
y"}
Fig. 31,
(1)
,P
is
~7"
.__*:.
parabola.
P"N,
we have
P"T
THE PARABOLA.
Substituting this value of
-y"
=-
we have
s in (1),
^ (*
normal
91
(2)
*")
to the
parabola.
61.
Making y
we
Hence
to the
-\-
is
x"
x"
constant
= p.
and equal
semi-parameter FB.
62.
To
drawn
at the extremities of
and
yp
= plx
-yp=plx +
or, cancelling,
x+|
(1)
y=-*-f
(2)
COR.
that x
1.
Making y =
?.
in (1)
and
(2),
we
92
and the
same point.
latus-rectum
in the
The values
of the coefficients of
make
x in
angles of 45
FIG.
The equation
of the parabola
if = 2px
We
curve
is
Let
DY DX
referred to
(x
when
referred to
the figure,
OC
CP )
we
OY, OX,
is
(1).
this equation
as axes.
i/)
(OC,
From
32.
= (x,
y),
and (DC
then, Fig. 32
,
CP
have,
= DC - DO = DK + C M - DO;
(a*
tf).
THE PARABOLA.
93
but
DK = x
= r^C, C M = /cos 45 =
cos 45
V2
hence
V2
V2
- *T -
V2
?/
DPF, we
we
in (1),
(C
= MP - C K
..,
|
*
DO =|
-\
CP
have, also,
V2
p
--^=-- 5r
2
V2
JK
V2
We
-X-,
let
-^
2/
have,
2
DP = a
then from
(2)
have,
DF =p =
a cos 45
-^=-
V2<
by
2,
we
have,
x )2
(/
?/
or,
Adding 4
a?
ic
= 2a
2
a:
.-.
transposing, x
...
or,
is
a2
4- ?/)
= 4;ry,
<X+/-a)
(V
/+
a2
= 0.
?/ to
or
in (2)
+y
-[-
^x
2x *y *
yx
-J-
-+- ?/
a;
?/
=a
...
^
;
(3)
94
/EXAMPLES.
3.
x2
2
4.
v/
5.
x2
= 4 y at (- 2, 1).
= - 6 x at
6, ord
= 8 y at (abs +,
= 4 ax at (a, 2 a).
=
at (m, m).
= ^y at (abs +,
(
6.
?/
7.
8.
a;
9.
x*
y + 1 =
=3
Ans. 2 y +
^rcs. x + y = 2
Ans.
a;
oj
+).
2).
2.
12.
4.
??ia;
= 2py
at
(abs-,
\
p).
p8
12.
13.
= 16 x at (1, 4).
To x = - 10 y at (abs +, - 2).
mx at
To if =
m, m).
To x = 2 m?/ at ofo To
if
2
\
\
*
of a parabola is x* _L_ y
?
curve
the
of
are the co-ordinates of the vertex
14.
The equation
Ans.
-a, -- a
4
V4
I
= 4x
if
what
to the line,
(a) parallel
(b)
= +
+ + 1 = 0.
a;
THE PARABOLA.
95
the parabola ?
cal
Ans.
64.
The tangent
focal line
drawn
to the
= ^x;*.
5
>
to
y*
and
curve.
From
We
Fig. 31
we
have,
FT
= FO + OT =
4-
x".
have, also,
= DC = DO + OC = f +
FT =
FP"
.-.
The
triangle
x".
FP".
FP"T is
FP"T
65.
To find
= 2 px.
= sx + c must fulfil
- SC
(C8
- PY ~ C S
2 2
96
(1) shall
be zero
hence
c s
= 0,
= --
or, solving,
2^
(cs
is
fulfil in
parabola.
COR.
we
1.
= +
V = sx +
have,
c in
the equation
(2)
^-S
its slope.
The equation
I?
is
)
we must
hence
have,
= sx + L
=
(2)
+ ^-
(3)
or,
= 0,
=
is the
But x
equation of the required locus.
the perpendiculars from the
Y-axis
the
of
hence,
equation
for the
THE PARABOLA.
focus
to the
97
on the
tangents of a parabola intersect the tangents
Y-axis.
67.
To find
The equation
The equation
= 8X +
f-g
-l*-fA
...*
=-
we
(1),
|.
is
...(2)
Art. 65 (2),
(1)
of a perpendicular tangent
is,
have,
(3)
is
tangency.
Let (V,
>
?/)
2/")?
~)
y"
2/2/2
yy
r
yy
+X"\
+x
(x
of tangency
satisfy
or
=p(x
=P
=p
=p
(*
(x
+
+x
z ).
(x",
y"),
(x 2
2/ 2 )
must therefore
),
(1)
98
69.
(x,
with
2 px.
parabola if
The polar of a pole with regard to a given curve is the line
generated by the point of intersection of a pair of tangents
drawn to the curve at the points in which a secant line through
regard
to the
the pole intersects the curve as the secant line revolves about the
pole.
By
may
we may
of
parabola.
COR.
1.
If
we make,
is
in (1), (x
r
,
= | 0\
I
\z
(
we have
FIG.
33.
THE PARABOLA.
Since the equation
to retain the
is
99
form
let
axes,
It is
whose position and direction
be
the
whatever
that
obvious at the outset
position of
may
must be
-axis
Y
new
the
each
to
the axes relatively
other,
on the
must
be
new
the
and
the
to
origin
curve,
tangent
0, a
curve for, if in (2) we make x = 0, we have y =
;
follows.
The equations
(1),
-f-
q>
cos
<p)
Now,
+2
(1),
(b
sin
-f-
we have,
x
sin 2
(9
+2
(a)
sin
(b)
sin 2
(d)
= 0, then sin
and
(b sin
sin
g>
= 0.
2 pa = 0.
b sin
g>
sin
g>
q>
satisfied
= 0.
cos
<p
= 0.
= 2px,
that the
(d)
(a)
(1),
q>
cos 0) x -f b
2 pa
(3)
in order that this equation shall reduce to the same
form as
If
q>
g>.
?/
transformation are,
of
new
orisrin lies
on the curve.
then
hence
(c)
=2
shows
100
S
1!L^
If
cos
= tan
= P, then
<f
gp
But
(d) is satisfied.
the
is
57, (5),
<p
COR.
1.
Substituting
= cos =
that cos
we have,
1,
-^S-*sin* y
% =p
letting
or,
sin
we have
"
cp
= 2p x
(4)
y has two
for x,
OX
Y OX
drawn
parallel to
OY
and
line
which
is
assumed
;
hence,
therefore a
A DIAMETER of a curve
NOTE.
tem of parallel chords.
is
bisects
a sys
\l
71.
to
the focus
four times the distance from
that diameter cuts the curve.
Draw the focal line FO and the normal
to
O FN
Since
61.
O FT
Hence
is
normal
at
in the triangle
AO = FO
AO N =
<y>
and
sin 2
g>
= FO
NO A,
AO = AN cot v =
FO
2 sin
cp
AN = p,
FO A
2 sin
In the triangle
hence
cos
equal
O N, Fig. 33.
Art.
64, the angle
isosceles;
is
<r.
is
<JP
=p
sin
cp
cos
cp
(jp
cos
<JP.
Art.
THE PARABOLA.
.-.
FO =
2 sin 2
q>
i* -4
Sin*
2p = 4 FO
But
101
go
.-.
72.
and
The equation
of
= AO =
y
But from the triangle
b
the semi-parameter.
any diameter as
AO N,
= AX cot =
*L_
tan
is
Fig. 33,
is
we have,
<p
hence
OX
b.
CP
<:
(1)
FIG.
Let
(x
/),
P"
(x",
y")
FP";
then
34.
y"
n (_;*>... (1)
102
its
is
The equation
equation.
are
P"
of the tangents at
(V,
y")
0",
^-p(* +
y/ -*(*
Eliminating x from
(2)
and
2)
(
*")
3
>
(3) by subtraction,
we
have,
But
(see (1)
"
is
).
are parallel,
we
P"
P",
YT
have,
-y"
Substituting in (4)
it
becomes
Comparing
article,
we
this
EXAMPLES.
1.
y
J
=
2.
?/
What
=3x +
3.
Ans.
is
the line
the parameter of the parabola which
2 touches ?
is
to the parabola y
slope of a tangent
?
the
of
tangent
the equation
The
What
line
=8x?
6x
is
= 3 ^ _L
3.
The point
(1,
3) lies
4.^
^=
THE PARABOLA.
8 x
is
In the parabola y z
diameter whose equation
5.
what
is
W=
103
Ans.
136.
From
2
the point
8 x
5) tangents are drawn to ?/
required the equation of the chord joining the points of
Ans. 5 ?/
4^
8
0.
tangency.
7.
8.
What
(2,
the
are
2,
+ =
= 6x
2
?/
4) ?
Of (-
3)
1,
with regard to y 2
= 4*.
Ans.
10.
Of
(2, 2)
with regard to if
11.
Of
12.
(ay b)
with regard to y
?/
=x
Q.
2y
+ 2a; + 4 = 0.
= 4 x.
Ans.
+2=
x.
Ans.
2
2x
3y
2x
by
2 a
4,
= 0.
10)
to
Ans.
13.
of the line y
4,
=4
= 0.
= 4:,b=-.
5
required the pole
Ans.
Given
(i,i).
if-
GENERAL EXAMPLES.
1.
is
104
2.
points
2, 3).
Ans.
What
3.
(-
3 x2
which pass
(3, 4) ?
Ans.
Ans.
The parameter
5.
of a parabola
is
?/
8y
Y, and
f.
= 9x
which
is
16 a
0.
which
line
the
of
to
= 4 y.
is
line.
parallel to the given
2
4 x makes an angle of 45 with the
tangent to ?/
X-axis required the point of tangency.
Ans. (1,2).
6.
Show
that tangents
drawn
chord
7.
8.
Meet
9.
That a
focus
10.
11.
is
at right angles.
normals
12
+ cos 6
vectorial angle =
1
13.
pole, the
its polar.
normal
at one
THE PARABOLA.
In the parabola y 2
4 x what
chord which the point (2, 1) bisects ?
14.
is
105
the equation of the
Ans.
15.
The polar
of
any
point in a diameter
is
=2x
3.
parallel to the
The equation
of a chord of y*
10 x
is
=2x
Show
The base
of a triangle
b.
=2a
Show
19.
y-
Ans.
p
20.
angle
focal
cp
Ans.
-?-.
Show
tion of
two tangents
ola
is
23.
The equation
is y = a
diameter bisects.
24. The polars of all points on the latus-rectum meet the
axis of the parabola ?/ 2
2 px in the same point required the
co-ordinates of the point.
Ans.
106
CHAPTER
VII.
THE ELLIPSE.
74.
THE ellipse
that the
sum
is
line.
If
is
always
The
the
the given
given line and equidistant from its extremities, then
line is called the TRANSVERSE or MAJOR Axis of the ellipse.
75.
To deduce
the,
foci
and
FIG.
Let F, F! be the
OY
J_ to
AA
foci
at its
co-ordinate axes.
and
35.
AA
Draw
OX
as the
THE ELLIPSE.
Let
also
PD
Let
FF
AA =
V?/
From
the
+ (x
c)
mode
20F
201\
hence
and
FPD
Vy +
=2
=2a
Vy + (x - c) + V y +
/
and FjPD, we
have,,
(#-{- c)
we
(a)
have,
+ c) = 2 a
2
(x
(1)
and reducing,
clearing of radicals,
+ x -c
2
(if
and
a2
FP =
c,
r -f
or,
(x,
2a,
= /.
From
draw
OY.
to
FP
107
x2
a 2 (a 2
c )
...
(2)
As
hence
it is
Equation
(2)
elegant form.
2
?/
a2
by
we
b,
2
.-.
(= OB
which the
/2
).
Eepresenting
2
?
-b* ...
or,
have,
=a _
c = a
2
OB
i.e.,
a more
in (2)
(3)
symmetrically,
of ellipse
when
referred to
(4).
its
centre and
108
COR.
we make
If
1.
x -f y
which
is
COR.
=a
=a
2
the equation of a
circle.
we interchange a and
If
2.
we have,
in (4),
COR. 3. If (z y
we have from (4)
,
and
*L
(z",
(^
-z
we
b in (5),
have,
y")
- a/
are
(=2 a)
and
= -^ (a -
y"*
z"
x ) (a
(a
) (a
ordinates
the
of any two points on the
of
i.e., the squares
other as the rectangles of the segments in
ellipse are to each
hence, y
::
(a
y"
4.
= x a and y
and dropping accents,
^x 2
tf ,f
_|_
2 atfx
The
line
BB
Fig. 35,
x")
axis.
By making x
after reduction
76.
x"}
in
(4),
we have
(7)
is
called
the
CONJUGATE
or
and A
from the figure that
bisects all lines drawn through it and terminating
the point
the CENTRE of
is called
For this reason
in the curve.
MINOR
VERTICES of the
ellipse.
the points
It is evident
the ellipse.
The
is
~ ** - -?
ratio
called the
this ratio is
ECCENTRICITY
always
<
See
1.
(3)
of the ellipse.
of c
The value
F from
x
Art. 75
...
(1)
It is evident that
= i Va - b
2
the centre.
meas
THE ELLIPSE.
If a
=b
then
in (1),
If b
=1
in (1), then e
when
zero.
i.e.,
when
becomes unity.
77.
i.e.,
becomes
109
radii,
/, of a point on
r,
From equations
(a),
Art. 75,
= Vy +
we
ellipse, Art.
^_ ( a 2
a2
have,
cf
(x
the distance
is
x 2\
^2
we
75
(4),
&_ X 2
have,
a2
hence, substituting
*
o
2 ex
/
t/V -
2 ex
=
r
Similarly
we
78.
c-
,.-
See
ex.
(1) Art.
76 ... (1)
find
<Z-
a
hence
-(X
= a + ex
(2)
axis
and the
foci of
any
First Method.
verse axis
AA
it
110
By
FIG
may
be described.
It is
36.
CA
A C,
AC.
With F
as a centre
also with
and
as a
Third Method.
Lay
given.
will do)
off
KD
MX
a,
BB =
2 b be
(a piece of paper
== b.
Place the
THE ELLIPSE.
describe the
will
DKE
ellipse.
DK =
--
Ill
DL
lji
-a
_-
i.e.,
_
b
-//
DLH
figure
(x
and
and y being
An
for
instru
drawing
the ellipse.
79.
To find the
The
latus rectum or
parameter of an ellipse.
parameter of an ellipse is the double
or dinate passing through the focus.
The abscissas of the points in which the latus rectum
2
b
-JSubstituting either
pierces the ellipse are x
of these values on the equation of the ellipse
latus rectum, or
we have
Hence
a2
(a
vV
Latus rectum
(a
- b )) =
2
=2y=
a2
9 A2
...
a
(1)
2y:2b::b:a ;
hence
i.e.,
2y
2 b
::
2 a
EXAMPLES.
Find the semi-axes, the eccentricity,
of each of the following ellipses
1.
2.
3 x 2 -f 2 y 2
= 6.
^,^ = L
3.
4>
x2
4
+ 3 if = 2.
o __
6 =
2
2
3.2
112
60y
c
-\-
x-
a.
o.
The transverse
V
-^-
-f-
?i.
having given
the distance between the foci
ellipse
= 10
axis
x-
or
Ans.
25
10.
Sum
= 18
of the axes
difference of axes
36
Transverse axis
10
-4^
l.
= 6.
Ans.
11.
$-
l-
= 1.
= y2
the
transverse axis.
x*
A
12.
tween
Transverse axis
= 20
conjugate axis
distance be
foci.
Ans.
13.
=1
4y2
25
25
Conjugate axis
= 10
Ans.
-j-
= 50.
= 10.
^+
y*
= 25.
15.
Given the
ellipse 3
2
?/
X1
(--=3-1, and the abscissa of a
64
15
.-2
16.
Given the
ellipse
= V
THE ELLIPSE.
80.
113
FIG.
From
the figure,
i.e.,
and
pole,
37.
P
.
-\-
or,
reducing,
P FA)
From
(r, (9)
be
Art. 77
(ae
-f-
(1),
we have
r cos 0),
we have
,
*L
_
1
+ e cos
FP
We
r cos 0.
=a
(FP
(1)
OD = OF + FD
= ae
r
let
of the ellipse.
...
(2)
= / = a + ez
cos
for the polar equation of the ellipse, the left-hand focus being
taken as tlje pole.
114
COR. If
= a (1
= FA,
=
/ a (1 + = F A.
=a-a
r = a (1 - e
r
0,
0)
e)
= 90,
If
= (1 + = FA
= a (1 - = F A
FM
r = a (1 - e
ft
/
If
= 270,
If
= 360,
To deduce
e)
e)
/
81.
= a (1 - e) = FA,
= a (1 + = F A.
e)
chords of an ellipse.
Y
FIG. 38.
Let AP,
AP
The equation
If
= FM.
=
r
s (a;
r/).
THE ELLIPSE.
The equation
V =
Where
of a line through
s
(x
?/
= ss
a, 6) is
+ a).
we must have
115
a 2)
(x
(1)
Dividing
*- 5 (a ^^
(1)
or
(2),
ss
=-
ss
2)
we have
by
comes
= -
(3)
becomes
-a circle
and
(3)
be
1,
82.
Let
P"S
by simply making a
(x",
y"),
As
= b in those equations.
= i!_(V2
2
2/"
the ellipse.
we must have
to
= 4 (a- a-
AA
3/2}
2
*"
...
(3)
116
FIG.
39.
2/0
(/
r
hence
y
x
+ 2/0 =
P_
becomes
v^alue in (1) it
/
/,2
_|_
line
"
"-
x",
y"
(x",
(5)
P"
?/")
and
secant
hence, substituting,
,*;...
1
2
P"
xx
b
P (x y ) will approach
When this occurs the
i.e.,
a2
X)
or
-^-7T7
>-
hence
- i/\
-x
Substituting this
(4)
THE ELLIPSE.
COR.
If b
= a,
117
we have
_i_
yy
n
a*
for the equation of the tangent to the circle.
SCHOL. If we make x and y successively
tion of the tangent (5),
we have y
See Art. 41
and x
,,
hence
y"
IP
OT
d2
x
..
and x
These values
(6).
equa
= ^ for
x
the
"
y
,
in the
OT, Fig. 39
in the equation
2
2
*"
.
^~"
?/
Making y
.-.sub-tangent
= DT = ^1 -
we have
x"
COR. If
.
a*
~x
x
x"
b = a,
"*
ff
2
x"
rr<2
ellipse,
is
a.
118
84.
The equation
tx",
y"
.-.
t==
The
is
^7
a2
(x",
y")
is,
Art. 82,
y"
Multiplying,
But
(3)
Art. 81
...
i.e.,
ss
and
and
is
COR. If
parallel
to
then s = t
a diameter of the
t,
chord
85.
is
to
-.
chord
if one supplementary
ellipse, the other supplementary
i.e.,
drawn
The
methods
point.
First Method.
P",
Through
point.
until it meets the circle described
P"
of the ellipse
Join
at F.
(AA )
P"
and
in
F; draw
P"T
P"D
and produce
it
FT
THE ELLIPSE.
FIG.
P"
||
86.
from
RA
40.
Draw
Second Method.
centre, and
to
draw
AR
119
||
to
P"R
The equation
of
any
line
through
P"R
P"T
P".
to the ellipse.
P"
(x",
through the
drawn through
y"),
Fig. 39, is
S (X
y
(1).
In order that this line and the tangent at
shall
be perpendicular their slopes must satisfy the condition
?,"
X")
P"
We
+ S8 = o
(x" ,
y")
(2).
/==
"5-^
hence, the slope of the normal
is
s in (1),
normal
to
we have
the ellipse.
120
COR.
1.
If
then
b,
"
yx
which
xy"
normal
Making y
...
87.
we
(3)
ON = x
*x",
Sub-normal
COR.
If
1.
b,
then
circle
x".
EXAMPLES.
Deduce the polar equation of the ellipse, the pole being
with the X-axis.
the centre and the initial line coincident
1.
at
A
Ans.
-.
2
sin
+b
cos 2
the
of
following
Write the equation of the tangent to each
of the sub-tangent in each case.
value
the
and
give
ellipses,
2z
2.
El
3.
+ 4y = 38at
2
+ 2.
(1, 3).
Ans.
!.
+ 6 y = 19
18.
1,
An,.
4.
._l,
at (2,0).
0.
^ + 3^- 11
J/l
_
o
1,
at
(2,-
at (0,
1)
V)
4as
_ 3y . 11;i
THE ELLIPSE.
8.
9.
+ te - 2,
2
m +
2
?/
- V2 -
at (1,
at (afo
1,
+,
121
6).
.5).
+ 4 x = 39,
at
if
+2
= 44,
at
10.
11.
12.
^!_
13.
-+{
o
o
14.
^1
_|_
4-
ic
7/2
2
?/
-f- ?
1,
at (1,2).
at
^ ord
=mn
2
1,
2
,
ord negative).
ord
at
1?
ic
2,
1.
a,
15.
(3, 1).
).
_|_^
at (m, o).
2x
6
of a chord of an ellipse is y
the equation of the supplementary chord, the axes of
the ellipse being 6 and 4 ?
Ans. y
f
f x
16.
what
The equation
17.
is
j-
MID
= 1,
and
?/
re-
= 0;
(a)
= 1,
and the
line
required
The equation
"
(b)
(-
"
||
"1
to the line.
"
"
"
-{-
122
19.
The point
(4, 3) is
1G
+ 1P
1;
FIG.
41.
We
From
Art. 76
P"
(a;",
?/ ).
= OF = ae;
NF = OF OX = ae NF = OF + OX = ae +
NF NF
r
FP"
FP"
.-.
::
NF NF
::
P"F
hence
e?x"
But
P"F,
87, that
we have OF
.-.
Draw
(a
ex")
::
e*x"
(a
ex")
(a
FP"
ex")
= e (a - ex
= e (a +
+
ex")
ex")
P".
ff
and
(2)
THE ELLIPSE.
The normal,
P"F
into
cent sides.
therefore,
triangle
Hence
==
FP"jST
SCHOL.
123
1.
If
P"T
P"N.
be a tangent drawn at
P"C
FP"T
P",
we must have
between a
FP"N
and
the
the
angle
Hence,
right angle
(= FP"N).
tangent to the ellipse makes equal angles with the focal radii
for each of these angles is equal to the difference
drawn
to
SCHOL.
method
The
P"
P"
P"
at
P".
4 + y. =
a
If
= SX
O
a2
we obtain the
-f-
i.
= sx
as a secant
-\- C,
lr
sa 2 c
ab
Looking
at (1)
we
124
hence
sV
or
is
s*a
-f-
=c
0,
2
.
(2)
= SX -.
V*
+&
a2
drawn from
...
(2) in the
(3)
to
its
slope.
To find the
90.
gent
to
a tan
a
from focus as
and a perpendicular
the ellipse
to it
is
s (x
ae).
y
In order that this line shall be perpendicular to the tangent
its
SX
y
be
must
equation
J-
V* 2
= - i (x -
+b
ae)
(1),
(2)
and clearing
(2)
= Vs a + b
x = ae.
SX
-}-
-t-
2
.
or
THE ELLIPSE.
125
and
is
the perpen
diculars
This circle
known
is
ellipse.
The equation
= SX +
The equation
a2
+b
is
2
.
(1)
is
ceding
article,
we have
xz
+ ?/ = a
2
-f b
(3)
2
.
tangency.
Let
?2
(a:
P"
(*2>
their equations
(x" ,
hence,
x"
a2
x xz
a2
Hence
(x",
y")
and
~W_
y yz
(a; 2
y"),
126
regard
To find the equation of the polar of the pole (V, /), with
to
the ellipse
2
~
1--1
FIG.
42.
By
xx
a2
COR.
PI
(^i>
,y_y_
1.
b*
(V, /).
through
through
THE ELLIPSE.
127
The equation
axes
of the ellipse
when
is
we
x
y
=x
=x
having the
+ i/ cos
+ y sin y
cos
(p
sin
Substituting in
(1),
we
have
2
2
(a sin
2
2 (a sin
q>
q>)
(?)
q>
a- sin
sin
cp
-f b cos
cos y
Making the
co-efficient of
(3)
fulfil in
x y equal to zero in
order to be
(2),
we have
+6
cos 2 0) x 2 -f (a 2 sin 2
<p
+6
cos 2
<p)
=a6
2
... (4)
ing y
and x
= 0,
successively, in (4),
a2
sin 2
(p
-M
cos 2
+6
cos 2
<p
we have
128
r
which a and
have
(5). we
in
ft
From
a? sin
|72
2
ft
cos 2
= ^L
_
^2
2
ft
in
Substituting these values of the co-efficients
(4),
we
have,
after reduction,
= --7 2
tan 6 tan
(7)
<p
we
81,
Comparing this expression with (3)
same result was obtained for the supplementary chords of an
Art.
if
ellipse; hence, Fig. 40,
RP",
A R R A be
PR",
a pair of supplement
parallel
Again
to these chords, will be a pair of conjugate diameters.
we
see that the same relation
Art.
with
84,
(1)
comparing (7)
for a diameter and the tangent drawn at
ship was obtained
diameter and P"T
its
hence, Fig. 40, if P"R be a
:
extremity
be a tangent drawn at its extremity, then PR", drawn through
to RP".
the centre parallel to P"T, is the conjugate diameter
a
The equation of condition (7) being single equation con
;
taining two
there are
an
infinite
<r),
we may
the equation
in the ellipse
THE ELLIPSE.
129
95.
Let
P"R,
RP
R/P
We
wish
FIG.
The equation
P"
y"}
(*",
of the
wr"
By
tangent line
in/
yy
drawn through
_i
P R/
its
P"T,
is
xx
a2
hence
43.
is parallel to P"T
as that of the tangent,
xx
.
(1)
or
...
is
(2)
from
(2)
_
bV
2
?/
jr
1
s
then,
130
^=^=
since
i
;
DP"
y"
hence we have
-~x
a
y=
(3)
conjugate diameter.
96.
eter,
its
conjugate diameter
being given.
Let
Let
P"R
(x",
RT
and
y")
P".
Since
(x
of
P."
X"
y ) is on the
V2
o/2
Eliminating y and
we
in
a;
ellipse,
we have
also
find
co-ordinates of
97.
semi-conjugate diameters
on the semi-axes.
Let
P"
(x",
y"}
and
is
equivalent
f
(x
).
to the
THE ELLIPSE.
131
OP =
r
;
...
"
and
cc
=x +y
(1)
(2)
=~
and
hence
Adding
(1)
and
i/
2
x"
98.
hence,
_|_
P"R
The area
= 2a
),
is
+ -TT
//
==
-f
ft
(4)
PR
2ft
of the parallelogram
From
the figure
sin (180
),
to
Fig. 44, be
OP"TR
is
OP"TR
0) )
= afb
OP"
=a
sin
sin
(<p
P"OR
sin
(>
(9)
<9)
= area BB H H.
P"P.
P"P
(<p
area of
equivalent
OR X
.-.
gate diameters.
= a!
2_ = l
-f 6
conjugate diameters
on the axes.
Let
(3}
we have
(3),
70X
but
a2
(1)
132
c
Fm.
From
the triangles
OD P
sn
Hence
sin
44.
0DP",
we have
.y"
OF
(qp
Mb
ab
a fb
0)
sin
go
cos 6
cos
g>
sin
THE ELLIPSE.
133
we have
area
OP"TB
area
CTC
X 4 = 4 ab
= area BB H H.
;
i.e.,
T"
99.
the ellipse is
Let
(*
DP
DP"
/) and
Since
Since
P"
P"
(x",
(x
(x" ,
) is
y"}
y"}.
on the
is
ellipse,
on the
circle
we have
whose radius
is a,
we have
2
,
(since
oj
a;"
134
Similarly
we may prove
x1
x.2
::
that
b,
where
Xi is the abscissa of
is
The
100.
method
given.
From
axes OA,
radius
draw
OB
MN
||
OA
Since MJST
a point of the ellipse.
have
we
the
of
O,
triangle
is
BD
D N D R OM OR
::
i.
e.,
b
y"
is
101.
semi-major
ellipse is to the
axis.
FIG.
46.
area of
ellipse is
THE ELLIPSE.
Inscribe in the ellipse any polygon
its vertices draw the ordinates
from
135
AEE E E E A
2
ED^D^
/
,
and
producing
etc.
Joining
etc.,
APP^P^A
in
the circle.
(x",
(aj",
R R
Then
Area
Area RPD.R,
Area
hence
Hence
AreaRDD^
Area
We
2T
As
this
by
number
of trape
136
But these
the circle
area of ellipse
area of circle
COR.
hence
area of ellipse
TT
Since
a2
a2
TT
a 2 we have
,
area of ellipse
TT ab
TT ab
..
TT
is
=
:
TT
ab.
TT b*,
we
a mean proportional be
is
and
inscribed circles.
EXAMPLES.
1.
What must
be the value of
Ans.
= 5.
may
The semi-transverse
-\-
14
= 0?
Ans.
3.
What
~,2
x
_i_
whose inclination
drawn
,,,2
y
to X-axis
locus of
-4
a2
ellipse
= 45
=l
b
required
its
V24.
The
"*"
4.
is
an ellipse
equation.
Ans
=2.
THE ELLIPSE.
5.
frequired the
2
2/
137
(0,
8) to the ellipse
= i;
the
equation of
line
of
tangency.
*2
9.
What
= 9.
3/ 2
(5, 6)
0.
=1.
7.
Ans.
-e
10.
What
is
the pole of y
= 3x
-f-
1 with respect to
(-
11.
The
line 3
y
T2
_^L
5x
2
_i_
7/
iL
is
_i
12, 9).
a diameter of
+ 27 # = 0.
T 2
_-f JL.^1
16
make
What
is
^ and
^,
respectively,
?4
= 1?
10
.
TT
VlO.
138
The minor
14.
axis of an ellipse
is 10,
whose diameter
16
is
25.
Ans.
foci,
and the
area.
GENERAL EXAMPLES.
What
1.
(2, 4)
2.
(6.
The major
4) is
3.
The
lines
axis of
on the curve
tal chords
an
ellipse is
13
of an ellipse
4.
is
2, 4),
The minor
axis of an ellipse
is
12,
and the
sum
is
in
constant and
6.
of the ellipse
7.
What
foci
and
required
ellipse
from the
foci
The sub-tangent
of the ellipse.
axis
is
whose abscissa
;
is
is
=6
^L
+ ]_ =
l.
Show
THE ELLIPSE.
139
drawn
at the
A chord
11.
of the ellipse
H
16
"~9~
What
12.
diam
Show
axis in
Show
(&)
A system
on any diameter
is
at the base
^2
Ans.
140
18.
the base
Ans
19.
the ellipse produced with the perpendicular let fall from the
centre on the tangent drawn at the point in which the ordi
bW =
21.
moves that
its
extremities
line.
<p)
ellipse.
(a;",
y")
in terms
Ans.
- cos
a
24.
If
(a/, ?/),
(x",
?/ )
4-
y~
sin
<p
1.
90.
q>
THE HYPERBOLA.
CHAPTER
141
VIII.
THE HYPERBOLA.
THE hyperbola is the locus of a point so moving in a
the difference of its distance from two fixed points
that
plane
The fixed
is always constant and equal to a given line.
102.
103.
and
FIG.
Let F,
be the
OY 1 to AA
at its
foci,
and
47.
AA
Draw
OX
as the
142
PF
draw
Let
co-ordinate axes.
PF.
also
PD
||
OY.
= (x, y) are
=
AA 2 a, FF = 2 OF
the co-ordinates of P.
Let
== 2
OF =
FPD
=r
Draw
c,
FP =
and F P
r
.
From
r
= Vy +
2
From
the
and /
(x
mode
~c)
= Vy +
and
(x
F PD, we
+ c)
have
2
.
(a)
we have
= 2 a.
Hence, substituting,
Vy +
+ c) 2
or,
(x
V?/
(x
_a
(c*
- a if = a
x2
(c
c)
= 2a;
(1)
we have
a 2 ) ...
(2)
Let
This value in
or,
=b
a2
2
.
(3)
changing signs,
symmetrically,
4a~
b~
= l...(5)
Let
Cor.
1.
the
student
If b
discuss
a in
x2
(5),
if
this
when
referred to
its
centre
equation.
we have
a2
(6)
we
the
common hyperbola
same
relation to
ellipse.
THE HYPERBOLA.
COR.
If (V,
2.
143
y")
hence
= -*! (x -
2
:
?/"
a 2) and if 2
::
a) (x
(x
+ a)
-*i
a2
(35"*
a)
(x"
^)
(x"
-f a)
COR.
= x a and y
and dropping accents,
By making x
3.
after reducing
V-
x2
+ 2 ab x =
2
104.
From equation
b =
4-
...
=y
in
(4)
we have
(7)
we have
vr~
Y-axis,
we have
hyperbola.
The
ratio
Vet 2
-I-
62
-
1
a
>
e.
See
(3) Art.
103 ... (r
>
If b
=a
in (1),
we have
= V2
equilateral hyperbola.
144
From
we have
Hence, substituting
r
x2
\/
V a2
+x
a2
=
hence
Similarly,
we
106.
Tio
and
= ex
2
,
a ...
= ex + a
(1)
(2)
FIG.
First Method.
foci.
+c
find
axis
2 ex
48.
Take a straight-edge
THE HYPERBOLA.
145
one of
position indicated by the full lines, Fig. 48, and place the
Stretch
point of a pencil in the loop formed by the cord.
the cord, keeping the point of the pencil against the edge of
the ruler.
If
we now
the
branch.
AD
arc.
The
intersection
of
In this manner we
many
may determine as
may require.
Making x
we have
-j-
V&
.-.
in the
2y
2y:2b
i.e,
a
this equation,
we have
::b:a-,
the axes.
146
108.
and axes
is
a 2y 2
The equation
and axes
-+-
x2
ellipse
=ab
2
of the hyperbola
in the sign of b 2
2
its
centre
its
centre
when
referred to
is
expressions
referred to
when
If,
we have deduced
+ V
hyperbola.
Two
FIG.
Thus
49.
AA
which has
BB
BB
and
AA
THE HYPERBOLA.
axis
its
is
147
transverse axis
is
AA
and
*a1
=
b
(5),
(1)
We
has
It is obvious
gate.
BB
AA
AA
X-axis
a,
x to y and y to x
we have
in (1),
-...
COR.
Since
V^
+ u2 = V
The
its
+b
2
,
the
focal
distances
eccentricities of conjugate
not equal.
For
its
Vj
of
is
148
EXAMPLES.
and
the- latus-rectum
1.
2.
^1
2,2
4 X2
-^!
4
2
3.
?/
36
5.
3 y2
6.
a?/
1.
cc
bx*
12.
=-
aft.
16 x 2
= - 16.
7.
4 z2
4.
=_
16 y z
= - 64.
8.
- if = m.
-
ma?
TO.
foci
axis
= 12
axis
= 10
The transverse
9.
= 16.
10.
The transverse
parameter
8.
Ans.
25
11.
Semi-conjugate axis
=6
The equation
-L
36
64
X2
is
10,
x2
The transverse
axis
is
8,
.<
1.
3 if
3 yz
3?
-
Io
16
6.
+ 6 = 0.
14.
?/
2
of the conjugate hyperbola, x
Ans.
l.
= 10.
Ans.
12.
-=
20
-fID
is
THE HYPERBOLA.
15.
149
.2
10
,,2
jr
_i
is
double
ordinate.
l
16.
Vf Vj
to each
36
17.
is
=1
required the
and abscissa
positive.
18.
49 =
^~
=
+ $16
and
1.
16
1.
Let us take
Let (FP,
on the curve.
From
From
r = ex - a
=
OD OF + FD
r cos
x = ae
FP =
i.e.,
Fig. 47,
of
any point
we have
.
(1)
0.
-f-
(I
-^
e
...
cos
(2)
(2),
a-*
/ = *1
e cos
hand focus
we have
(3 )
pole.
150
If
COR.
0,
/
90,
=
=
If
If
ae2
-f-
= a ae = FA
= a + ae = F A.
semi-latus rectum.
= semi-latus rectum.
=
=
a
a
r = - a + ae = FA,
T = a -ae= - F A
b
= semi-latus rectum.
a 4- ae
r =
ae 2
= ISO
If $
270
ae
= semi-latus rectum.
=
a
aa
hence, the product of the slopes of any pair of supplementary
chords of an hyperbola is the same for every pair.
If
COR.
we have
b,
1, or, s
ss
1
,
S
.
tan
sum of
= cot
X-axis
is
equal
to
90.
112.
to
the hyperbola.
adopted in the
entirely analogous
or substituting
57
Arts.
41, 82,
circle, or ellipse, or parabola,
2
2
find
we
Art.
of
b for b in (5)
82,
By
to that
method
xx"
~a7"
yy"_
"
a)
THE HYPERBOLA.
151
113.
By
we
find
Sub-tangent
114.
The
hyperbola
(0,
x"
*-
"*
a*
.
y")
The
is,
^L
.*1
a2
y"
=
Comparing
a)
$...
tt
with
we
find
(2)
COR. If s = t, then s
t
if one
i.e.,
supplementary
chord of an hyperbola is parallel to a line drawn
through the
centre, then the other supplementary chord is
to the
;
parallel
152
FIG.
50.
||
||
tangent.
We
b"
method, we obtain
sub-normal
COR. If
we have
*/
%
$-
= a,
sub-normal
i.e.,
7/2
in the equilateral
x"
is
equal to
THE HYPERBOLA.
153
EXAMPLES.
Deduce the polar equation of the hyperbola, the pole
1.
^!__
a 2 sin 2
-\-
cos
3.
9 y2
2.
"I
._
= - 36,
1,
at
at
4 ^2
= _ 36j
= abj
5.
6.
a?/
7.
^1-J^ = 1,
at
~=T7T
4 x2
to 2
(4,
(5,
ord.
ord.
4 Ord
>
+).
+).
+)
at
at
at
(Vm,
0).
7^
case.
9.
x
6
The equation of a chord of an hyperbola is y
what is the equation of the supplemental chord, the
10.
= 4- x
Y-
=~
-f-
1,
and y
-x=
154
11.
One
of
z
?/2
_ if} x = _
16
Ans.
aj
Given the
12.
2x
hyperbola
What
is
if
T
is
118.
3
the
required
at the positive
end of
x2
which
3 if
normal
_16.
_
:
_,
"T
+ l = 0?
of the hyperbola
is bisected
in the
o
Making y
we have
112, (1),
= OT.
Fig. 50.
From
OF = OF = ae
OF - OT = FT = ae - -^ =
hence
OF
\
x
(ex"
+ OT = F T =ae + -^ = ~-a
FT F T
+ a.
JC
.-.
::
+ a);
**.
ex"
ex"
(ex"
a).
ex"
.-.
Hence
PT
::
::
ex"
ex"
+ a.
FFF
THE HYPERBOLA.
155
COR.
the tangent,
it
radii.
The
SCHOL.
method
of
Let
point.
FP FT
,
this
article
us
gives
Draw
The
P T drawn
line
of
principle
another
to bisect
the angle
it
line
= sx + c
must
may
^ K=l
a2
By
method similar
s
a2
to that
b
=c
employed in Art.
89,
we
find
2
.
(1)
= sx
sV -
4-
drawn from
...
(1) in
the
(2)
120.
To find the
to the
to it
tangent
as the point of tangency moves around the curve.
x 2 -f if
is
of a
a
from focus
a2
(1)
+if
=a
b*
(1)
156
Two
122.
without
tangency.
^_
a2
is
yy_
b
=i
(i)
with regard
to the
the pole (x
),
hyperbola
_-!...
is
123.
to the
(1,
124.
to
A pair
to be
conjugate
when they
are so
a
is
,,,2
%b
=1
(1)
a 2 sin
sin
tan 6 tan
or
2
b cos 9 cos
<p
q>
=~
a2
-
is
= 0,
(2)
COR.
parallel to
SCHOL.
drawn
From
hence
ss
= tan
= tan
we have
tan
<p.
we have
therefore,
THE HYPERBOLA.
From
157
we have
Art. 114
= il;
a2
hence
If,
tt
therefore,
= tan
= tan
we have
0,
= tan
<p
i.e.,
if one of
tan
125.
From
is
and
to
parallel
the centre.
tan
9?
2
.
a*
we
gate diameters
or both negative.
126.
FIG.
51.
158
Let
P"R"
be any diameter
then
B/,
centre
(P
P"
N)
P"
a2
xx"
or
y")
is
(#",
PB
is
yy"
"
7)2
^.^x
a
(2)
y"
^V
But
is
= cot
=1
P"OX
its
conju
gate diameter.
127.
To find the
diameter, the
of either extremity of a
co-ordinates
of one
co-ordinates
extremity of
its
conjugate
By
P"
y"),
(x",
The upper
the point
signs correspond to
we
(x
y)
find
the
}.
find
a2
2
.
(1)
THE HYPERBOLA.
b
COR. If a
b, then a
has equal conjugate diameters.
129.
i.e.,
conjugate diameters
on the axes.
By
159
is
to the
equivalent
rectangle constructed
4 a
Area
i.e.,
b sin
(g>
0)
= 4 ab
we can show
that
Fig. 51.
EXAMPLES.
The
1.
line
= 2 x + c touches
_
_
""
-i
the hyperbola
what
,y
is
the value of
c ?
Ans.
2.
10
its
Y-intercept
j
i
12
2 required
;
its
V32.
-L,
VI76
Ans.
_*!
has
2x
=
=
VlTO x
6
+ 2.
makes an
its equation.
2
are
drawn
to
the
9 x2
tangents
hyperbola 4 y
- 36 from the point (1, 2) required the
of
the
chord
equation
of contact.
;
4.
Two
Ans. 9 x
5.
What
focus ?
6.
What
is
is
the polar of
4 if
x2
(1,
7.
8 y
36.
right-hand
^5.
4?
to
=x
cc
?/
= 4.
in the hyperbola
.2
J/_
16
Ans.
160
8.
^ _ t.
= 2x
=1
6 of the hyperbola
-f-
10.
144
The point
(5,
^)
lies
on the hyperbola 9
if
16 x 2
130.
rectilinear asymptotes
of the hyperbola.
An ASYMPTOTE
of a curve
is
line
FIG.
52.
THE HYPERBOLA.
161
~ (^ -
...
lies
(i)
(ju
DD CO
AA
y
or,
squaring,
of the rectangle
-x,
a
2y"
7,2
x2
(2)
a/
r
D"
<y-z/)0/+2/)
y =
hence
D"P
2
;
(3)
y
y
As the points
P recede from the centre, 0, their ordi
nates D"]ST, P N increase and become infinite in value when
and P are at an infinite distance.
But as the ordinates
D",
D"
D"
D"
DD
infinite
diagonal
hence, the diagonals of the rectangle
constructed on the axes of the hyperbola are the
asymptotes of
;
the curve.
Therefore
= + * x and y = - - x
a
a
=
y =
i.e.,
45
-4-
x and
?/
make
angles of
162
COR.
3.
ti"
if/ie
its
p/ == _
y
hence,
we have
(4),
i,
-=
(1)
"P
asymp
we have
(4),
Y\"
"\v
+y
-jr~>
rectilinear asymptotes of
>
an hyperbola and of
its
con
to its rectilinear
asymptotes as axes.
FIG.
The equation
is
53.
of the hyperbola
when
referred to
OY, OX,
THE HYPERBOLA.
163
}.
y =
But from the triangle OAB, we have
x
i.e.,
hence, x
+y
(x
cos
(ij
-x
sin
B.
(x
-+-
Va^+ft
(x
or,
(9
+ 7/) 2
(y
we have
(1),
= -+
J__
34
= a* -f ^
2
,
(2)
is
ferred to
COR.
asymptotes as axes.
Multiplying (2) by sin 2 6
(1),
when
re
its
we may
the form
yx sin 2
that
is
therefore
^1A
+*
2
"
DP P H = ON. AH
area ODP P = area OMAN
8jn
rhombus con
164
132.
when
To deduce
FIG.
54.
By
y-Y = -^(*-*")
X
or,
...
(i)
symmetrically,
1^=2...
COR. If we make y
=2
OM =
x
But
x"
in (2),
x",
OT.
.-.
(2)
we have
Fig. 54.
OM = MT
.-.
TD
= TD
THE HYPERBOLA.
Since
133.
+ b\
= a +b
OT OT = a + b
4
2
or
x"y"
x"
a2
2 if
2
;
i.e.,
we have
is
?/")
(x",
165
(1)
and equal
to the
sum of
asymp
semi-axes.
From
134.
sm
ing through by
we
OT-^LfYl v
sin 20 =
n- J_ A 2
"f-^-
sin 2
(a
+b
sin
cos
0.
sin
-J
2
sin 2
arm OTT
i.e.,
(t
Va + b
OT or
hence
.-.
cos
Va +
= a&
is
equivalent
to
arm OAD B.
asymptotes
to
the hyperbola
135.
and
its
T.
Since
i.e.,
OL
is
LK = LH
LK = BL LH
a diameter,
we have
BL
B K = BH
hence
and
its
166
EXAMPLES.
What
1.
bola
,.2
f-gAns.
What
| x.
-J-
ing hyperbolas
_.
3.
3 ^2
2 ^2
Ans.
=_
y = -^ Vf x.
mx
Uy 2
7.
25
Ans.
What
is
8.
hyperbolas
8.
To xy
9.
To xy
=+
Ans.
Ans.
10.
To xy
11.
To xy
m, at
= - p,
1,
at
+ 10 x = 20.
= 3 x 12.
-\-
m).
2,
/
12 for which
Ans.
(4, 3).
an hyperbola
2x
"
64
256
THE HYPERBOLA.
167
14.
Prove that the product of the perpendiculars
from any point of the hyperbola on the
asymptotes
stant and
let fall
is
con
GENERAL EXAMPLES.
1.
10
The point
is
Am.
25
400
Assume
^_^/_ = 1
An*.
9
78
that the ratio of the sum of the focal radii of
any
point on the hyperbola to the abscissa of the point is con
stant and
2 e.
4.
Show
5.
fulfil
What
= sx
-f c
must
= 0.
in order to touch
-^
a
2
-2
b
1 at infinity
J ?
Ans.
_L_
Ans.
168
Show
9.
that
when
and
_
a
bolas.
10.
12.
16 y~
Show
14.
eral
that lines
equilateral
of the equilat
make equal
(a)
from the
17.
is
at the distance b
focus.
is
the sub-tangent
the sub-normal ?
that in the equilateral hyperbola the length of
the normal is equal to the distance of the point of contact
18.
Show
from the
19.
centre.
Show
chord of
the
THE HYPERBOLA.
20.
J^!
is
=1
12
which
169
(4, 2).
21.
J*L.
I*-
16
10
Show
22.
the tangents
tangent
23.
Show
24.
the
hyperbolas
^1
2
_ J/l =
If
25.
1,
b*
ll
- ^1 =
V2
a2
1 are parallel.
circle
(x,
y) of the
constructed on
(x,
If
(x
),
(x",
y")
<p
<p
90.
go
and
cp,
show
170
CHAPTER
IX.
+f=
whatever.
d, e, /are any constant quantities
this
which
loci
the
of
the
To investigate
equation
properties
of the constants as to
represents under all possible values
in
which
a, b,
c,
is
By + C = 0.
2
=
(Ax + B# + C)
_
_
Two
o.
yS.
2/2
Ax
-f
_j_
x2
7/2 _|_
xt
7/2
2
7/
=a
_ o.
= 2px.
0.
we
Straight line.
Two coincident straight lines.
straight lines.
Circle.
Two
imaginary straight
lines.
Parabola.
= a 2^ Ellipse.
_
=
crb
tfxay
Hyperbola.
= a 2j^ Hyperbola,
a 2^2 _
0,2^2 _|_
2^,2
#83.2
we
Comparing these equations with the general equation,
them may be deduced from it by making the
constants fulfil certain conditions as to sign and magnitude.
the lines which
We
therefore, prepared to expect that
see that all of
are,
two
variables.
equation.
is
to ensue
we
by
shall
this
171
DISCUSSION.
138. To show that the
locus represented by
a complete equa
+f=
=x
cos 6
sin 6
in
+bx
cos
+ V + d y + e x +/=
2
y>
y sin
+y
a y*
(2)
which
= a cos
= 2 (a
c = a sin
d! = d cos
e = d sin
a!
+ c sin
6
sin B cos
2
-\- c cos
e sin
-J- e cos
c)
cos
b sin
+ b (cos 6
+ 6 sin cos
2
sin 2 0)
I
(3)
Since
is
2 (a
c)
(a
sin 2
c)
or
cos 6
sin
tan
20
(cos
^
.
+b
-f b cos
number between
-f-
sin 2 0)
0,
(4)
(5)
GO
and
o>
is
the tan
gent of some angle, equation (5) will always give real value
for 20; hence the above transformation is
always possible.
Making
in (2),
a lf
for the
we
+ eV + d y + e x +f =
(1).
(6)
To
this
172
COR.
and
1.
c.
the equations in
we have
(3),
+a =c+a
(7)
= (c - a) cos 2 + b sin
Squaring
(4)
and
...
...
V(c
(7)
+ b*
a)
and
(8)
we have
(9)
we have
(9),
= i\ G + a- V(c - ay +Tj
= $ \c + a + V(c-a) + ^
(10)
COB.
and
To
2.
and
y=
...
Hence, the
2
i |( C
=-
of a
si#?is
(V
and
-(( -- 4 ac)
= 0,
.-.
)
.
(12)
ac.
<
+ * )h
2
<0
4
quantity b
The following cases present themselves
2
4 ac. The sign of the second
6
1.
2.
Multiplying (10)
we have
(11),
positive,
(11)
a and
= 4 ac. The
or c = 0.
member of (12)
are both positive, or both negative.
second
member
of (12)
becomes
zero,
is
.-.
a and
>
negative,
positive
.-.
negative and
c positive.
7
139.
173
y +
in
e"x
d"ij
which
d"
c"
/"
Since
=2an +d
= 2 c w -f e
= a + cm +
?i
rf w-
??t
+/
make
as to
+d =
and 2
-f e
m=
and
=
.
2 a
see
3)
we may make
in general,
We
i.e.,
give
(4)
a if +cV+/"
Equation
...
(5)
we
(5),
the variables
y).
a?,
</
is infinite
arise
CASE 1. a! == o.
Under this supposition equation
Hence
140.
(6),
Art. 138,
cV-MV + ^+/=0
...
becomes
(1)
174
Substituting in
C
V + dy + (2
2
Now,
make
i.e.,
we may
in general,
m+
we have
(1),
m + e ) x + c m* + d n + e m
= 0,
+f=Q
(2)
m + d w + e m +/=
2
we may make
m=
m
If d
mation
is
is
/_
4/c
4
rZ
x2
Or
2
COR.
and
f ,
If
-\-
= 0,
dy
jr
a
-^^...
0, (1)
c x*
or,
and
give
/Q\
(3)
becomes
+ e x+f=0
...
(4)
x,
CASE 2. c = o.
Under this supposition equation
141.
(6),
article,
we
find
r
n =
J*
d*
nyi
- 4 a!f
J_
4fcV
and,
if e
is
not zero,
we have
f=--,*
(of is
(2)
= 0)
142.
= 0,
equation
Summarizing the
175
becomes
(1)
we
aif
bxy
+ ex + dy + ex +/ =
2
a! if
+ cV +
x2
/"
= -
--
x.
= 0.
^-.
3.
^-.
of the
equations.
143.
tf
<
ac.
from consideration.
The first form becomes either
ay
or
which
c a
in
f"
may have
176
CASE
1.
If
f"
GASP:
2.
If
f"
equa
curves.
f"
has
If
circles.
equations (1) are equations of
the same sign as of and c then the equations represent imagi
a and
/"
nary
curves.
CASE
nary
4.
If/"
= 0, equations (1)
the origin.
straight lines passing through
Hence, when
z
<
ac, every
an imaginary curve,
between two variables represents an ellipse,
at the
a circle, or two imaginary straight lines intersecting
origin.
b
Under
= 4 ac.
either a
this supposition, Art. 138, Cor. 2,
form (1) of Art. 142 is excluded.
- 0,
or
hence,
(3)
we have
~~
(>
of the constants.
are not zero,
CASE 1. If d and c in the first form of (2)
not
are
of
zero, then
form
second
the
in
(2)
and if e and a
of parabolas.
equations (2) are equations
177
CASE
2.
CASE
3.
If
2
e"
<
4/b the
form of
first
(3)
represents two
lines.
imaginary
two imagi
If d 2
4/o/, the second form of (3) represents
lines.
nary
CASE 4. If e 2 = 4/c the first form of (3) represents one
<
2
4 ac, every equation of the second degree
Hence, when b
between two variables represents a parabola, two parallel straight
lines, two imaginary lines, or one straight line.
145.
l>
>
ac.
ay
-<fc
-y +
or
We
+/"
cV+/"
1.
If
=OJ
/r
0=v
If
CASE
still
equations
andJ=v/r,
equations of hyperbolas.
CASE
2.
If a
eral hyperbolas.
CASE 3. If f"
= 0,
178
Hence, ivhen
>
SUMMARY.
146.
elicited the
following facts
1. That the general equation of the second degree between
two variables represents, under every conceivable value of the
:
it,
of their limiting
When
When
When
4&c
<
it
4ac
an
ellipse,
an
represents
it
a parabola, an hyper
cases.
ellipse, or
a limiting
case.
case.
4.
4&c
>
if.
represents
an hyperbola,
or
a limiting
case.
EXAMPLES.
1.
-\-
2 xy
+3x
Sx
Sy
+ bxy + ex + dy -f ex +/ =
8x =
8y
3 if + 2 xy + 3 x
ay
Substituting
#>
_ 4 aCj
the
co-efficients
we have
4 ac
tf
the
in
=4-
2
ac.
b
hence
and the locus belongs to the ellipse
36
class
= -
(1)
characteristic
32
<4
(b)
To
xy shall disappear.
From
we have
tan 2
hence
tan
20
o
.-.
2(9
= 90
.-.
6>
=+
= 45
oc,
(2)
the
of
179
-j-
138,
and substitut
= i \c + a - V(c - a)- + = 2.
= i \c + a + V(c- a) + J=4.
= dcosO e sin = V2 (d e) =
= d sin + e cos = V^ (^ + e =
l>*\
d
e
these
being zero),
2 y2
8 V2.
in
values
0.
J-
(9
Substituting
Art.
(6),
+ 4 x - 8 ViT x =0
2
138,
...
we have (/
(3)
have
U.
2c
= an + cm
2
Hence/"
(3).
-f
cf
found above in
2 if
f"
8,
Art. 139,
+4x
= V2
(d)
Draw
X-axis.
curve
and
To
we have
+ %- = 1
or
+ em +/=
dn
and
we
...
0,
(4)
The semi-axes
2.
construct.
the axis
OX
See
Draw OY
when
(b).
is
given in
(3).
Constructing
180
the point
(c).
(V2,
Draw O
when
Y"
referred to
i-
See
0) we have the centre of the ellipse.
The equation of the curve
to OX" at
.
Y",
FIG.
55.
DISCUSSION.
If
in (1),
x
If
If
to the
If
= 0,
=-
in (1),
we have
in (3),
we have y
OD,
_|_0;
i.e.,
OC,
the ellipse
is
tangent
Y -axis.
in (3),
x
If
we have
x = o in
(4),
we have
0,
we have
y=
=1=2.
for the
X -intercepts
0, OB,
= 2 V2.
for the
Y"-intercepts
A,
OA
in (4),
we have
X -intercepts O B, O O,
for the
V2.
-j-
2.
181
0, class
aif
y
hence
bxy
+ ex
ajy 4-
4 ac
a?
dy
-f
2y
=4
+/ =
-f ex
1
= 0,
(1)
xy shall disappear.
From
we have
b
20=
tan
hence, substituting
tan 2
-1
= -45
...
...
(2)
(11)
(3)
we have
= \ c + a + V(e a)
= 2.
b*\
= d cos
= 2 ( V2) = V2.
e sin
e = d sin
+ e cos = - 2 (- 1 V2) = + V2.
Substituting these values in (1), Art. 140 (since a =
0),
we have
2 x - V2 y + V2^ - 1 =
(3)
2
-f-
d!
(c)
To
refer the
parabola
to
axis.
we have
m=-
^-7
= - V2 = - -35
e
4fc =
~~T^~~
4 d c
T~7^
4 V2
=-
nearly.
90 nearly.
J
182
is
= iV2.y
c>
(4)
Draw
OX
making an angle
OY 1 to OX
of -- 45
draw
and O
of the parabola
See (c). Draw O
parallel to
the axes
OY respectively. The equation of the parab
The curve can now
ola referred to these axes is given in (4).
be constructed by either of the methods given in Art. 54.
.
OX
X"
Y"
183
DISCUSSION.
If
If
If
we have
in (3),
we have
==
OD
Y -intercept OK,
.707.
we have
for the
- V2 + yio
Jj
X -intercepts OL, OL
- V2 - Vio
Z=
4
If
OD,
V2
in (3),
*/
for the
~=-
00
.4.
-l.
=-
in (1),
00,
y = 2.4
y
If
we have
in (1),
in (4),
?/
if
in (4),
_j_
-\-
bxy
ex 2
-f-
dy
2y + 6x
ex
-\-
f=
.
0.
= 0, classify
ay
0.
.
(1)
(xy
being wanting).
tan
6
.-.
i.e.,
the
new X-axis
26
= 0;
is
c-
= -5_ = Q
-3
(c)
to
its
centre
and
axes,
we
have,
hence
1,
m=
-.
t
/ =
hence
a n2
+cm +
2
f"
dn
=1
+em
/",
+/ = 1
we have
+9
184
To
(d)
in (5), Art.
construct.
FIG.
OX, and O
Y"
||
(%, 1),
is
and through
The equation
OY.
to
57.
given in
We
(3).
is
-.
it
draw O
of
the
X"
||
hyperbola
Laying
we
locate the
DISCUSSION.
If
y
If
we have
in (1),
= o in
(1),
= 3, y =
we have
OC,
00
OD,
OD
1.
+ V3
to
3- V3
If
in (3),
we have
= iVH^
2/
If
185
in (3),
we have
A,
OA
.-4
From
this data
the student
may
and the
hyperbola.
= 0,
b2
(a)
<4
(b)
ac
.-.
.-.
new X-axis
(m,w)=(-2,
(c)
x2
hence
class
-f-
is
to old X-axis.
||
2)and/"
= -9
=9
y-
(d)
and with 3 as a
(2,
With
2).
quired locus.
5.
2 xy
+x
b = 4 ac
= 45
2
(a)
(b)
.-.
new X-axis
We
...
= 0.
parabola class.
.-.
a!
= 0,
2x
i.e.,
c = 2, d = 0,
- 2^0;
= 1 and x =
inclined at an angle of
45
have also
when
...
(1)
new
referred to the
lines
OX OY
,
axes.
as the
new
axes of reference.
Equations
drawn
||
(1) are
to the
Y -axis
CM, C
it.
186
FIG.
58.
We may
hence
+ V2)
=x
V2
(y
-x- V2) =
and y
=x
-f-
V2
are
OX
CM, C
parallel lines
Classify, transform,
equations
6.
?/
2 xy
+x +2y
2 x -f 1
= 0.
y
7.
8.
if
ajy
x2
- 1 = 0.
4. 5
a-s
12 x
- 12 y = 0.
=x
1.
10.
2?/
4x
+ 2x -4?/2
+1
=0.
x2
_ 2 + 1 = 0.
x2
+ 2*+2 = 0.
187
2
7/
aj
(1, 0).
11.
2/
Imaginary
12.
ellipse.
+ x - 8 x + 16 = 0.
2
XT/
Parabola.
13.
2 xy -f x
if
+2x
= 0.
Parabola.
14.
4 ay
15.
?/
2x
0.
Hyperbola.
16.
2 or
+ 2 + 1 = 0.
?/
Two
intersecting lines.
- x + 2 y + 2 x - 4 = 0.
2
if
Equilateral hyperbola.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
+ x + 2 y + 1 = 0.
/ + 4 xy + 4 - 4 = 0.
2 XT/ + 2 x
2 y + 2 x = 0.
4
+ 4 x = 0.
if
x + 2 = 0.
2 jcy
2
?/
jcy
ic
2/
a;//
?/
188
CHAPTER
X.
We
This curve
ordinate
OP
TT
let fall
is
of the
from
its
as
T
be the point of tangency, and let P (x y )
be a point of the curve.
Let y 2 == px be the equation of the common parabola.
to the parabola
Since the equation of the tangent line T
Let
(x" ,
y")
is
Art. 57,
(6),
{r
(OM)
let
fall.
from the
189
FIG
Since
TT
is
*=*",
Combining
OY, we have
parallel to
(1)
and
(2)>
(2)
we have
But
_ V4j^_
hence
2p
Squaring and dropping accents, we have
that
is,
it
which was
was shown to
190
xl
= p% y
2.
reduction,
r
=p
tan
sec
sin 9 in (3),
we
have, after
(4)
SCHOL.
Solving
(3)
with respect to
y,
we have
An
X-axis;
(b)
infinitely
FIG.
60.
191
MPO
equation
is
x*~y...
NPO be this
Then OA (= x)
Let
is
we have
x8
(2)
curve.
(1)
and
(2),
= 2 a*.
The
THE
it.
CISSOID.
the chord
(OM )
of the circle
s
FIG.
61.
192
MN (equal to the
M on the diameter
MN
ordinate
let fall
through 0)
the origin 0.
It may also be defined as the locus generated by the inter
z
8 ax with the
section of a tangent to the parabola y
let fall on it from the origin as the point of
perpendicular
moves around the curve.
tangency
First Method.
ON = N T.
MN = M
ON M we have
lST
From
.-.
ONP,
NP ON M N ON
NP = y, ON = M N = VON N T =
ON = 2 a - x
:
But
oj,
V (2 -),
Hence
is
.y x
:
y.
::
V(2 a
x)
...
x 2 a
:
x.
(1)
The equation
Second Method.
parabola if
8 ax
is
+
.
SX
2a
s
The equation
so as to eliminate
s.
and per
we have
a Greek
It
"ivy."
193
in
is
PO^) =
0)
= OP = M K = OK - OM/.
OK = 2 a sec and OM = 2 a cos
r = 2 a (sec
cos 0),
r = 2 a tan 6 sin
From
we have
But
(r,
also r
hence
or
is
a particular case.
2.
SCHOL. Solving
(1)
with respect to
y,
we have
=
x
2 a
An
(b)
(c)
tote (SS
).
CD = 2 CA =
B draw BO
LR intersecting BO in R.
and
at
Then
LR
hence
HB =
2 a
The
HB = y, OH =
ig
PL _L
(since
- x).
similar triangles
:
::
give
x,
and
HT =
194
But
CD =
CT by
.-.
construction
hence
This value of
The
::
.-.
But
struction.
152.
HB = 2 HT
HT = HB
THE WITCH.
FIG.
62.
con
is
011
DP
195
DM
OA
DA
outer segment
It
may
to
is
to the
is
of the diameter.
of a point P
its foot
linear sine
DP
DM of an angle
from
at a distance
011
the
equal
1.
From
First Method.
DP =
y,
we have
(2
- x),
y:2a:: V(2 a
x)
x 2a
:
x.
is
Second Method.
Let
But a
(1
(1
+ cos
hence
or,
MCO =
then by definition
= 2 a \ //a ^ ~ cos ^
V a (1 + cos 0)
- cos 0) = a - a cos = OC DC = OD == x, and
= a + a cos = OC + DC = OD = 2 a - x
0)
u = 2a
== 2
?/
of generation,
DA = 2 a
hence
mode
::
But
the
DP OA DM DA
OA = 2 a, DM = VOD DA = Vx
a tan 2
squaring
= ~2 a
Hence
(a)
=t 2 a
the witch
is
x
J-~
V 2a
X-axis.
(b)
(6-)
x
x
SS
196
153.
OX.
As the
line
MBM
FERIOR BRANCH.
(= OB)
is
called the
the DIRECTRIX
1.
Let
(x, y),
PP P
and the
and
let
AO P, be any
OA = a.
The equation
of the circle
The equation
of the line
Making y
= sx
OP
Let
whose centre
AO P
197
b,
at
is
= OB =
(x
0) is
is
(1)
we have
in (1),
00
But
00 =
hence
a
= b-
(2)
so as to eliminate
(1)
(2),
*V-(P-tf)
is
We
triangles
Draw AT
ATP and O SP
||
PS:SO
e
2/)
(3)
simple way:
<>
PT
to
are similar,
::PT:
TA
||
we have
Hence
_
tician
198
2.
To deduce
From
the figure
the pole)
(AP,
PAB)
But
AP =
hence
is
ACT
= a sec
and
0)
(>-,
OP
-t
initial line,
x,
we have
An
Y-axis.
(b)
(c)
That y
That y
= b and y =
= gives x =
b are the
-J-
tote.
If
(d)
comes a
(e)
then
cc
-t
V&
2/
i.e.,
the conchoid be
circle.
If b
(/)
0,
oo,
>
If b
a,
a,
disappears.
(g)
If b
<
a,
is
a) is isolated]
branch, and the point
(o,
its
co-ordinates
though entirely separated from the curve,
satisfy the equation.
superior
i.e.,
still
directrix in
then
CKA =
PCX.
199
FIG.
64.
of the conchoid
We
might have used the superior branch for the same pur
pose.
155.
THE LIMACON.
FIG.
65.
200
equal to | POX.
1. To deduce the polar equation.
Let
be the pole, and OX the initial
point of the curve, and let
(OP,
From
the triangle
POX)
::
Let
line.
be any
then
(r, 0).
OCP
sin
sin f
::
a sin
TT
Hence
POC, we have
OP OC
i.e.,
OC
<9
sin
sin 1
OPC
0.
From Trigonometry
= 3 sin \
r =
sin
hence
=
is
4 sin 3 \ = (3
a (3
4 sin 2 ^ 0),
+ 2 cos 0)
a (1
4 sin 2 \
0)
sin^ 0;
(1)
To deduce
From
we have
Art. 35,
r
cos
ax
Vx
x
or
- ^) =
4-
?/
(*
+y
SCHOL.
1.
From
the triangle
ODA, we have
OD = OA cos =
From
hence
2 a cos
OP = a + 2 cos 6
OP - OD = DP = a
.
(1)
0.
...
(2)
201
ODA
If 6
2.
If B
If 6
If
156.
= 0, r = 3 a = OB.
= 90, r = a = OM.
= 180, r = - a = OC
= 270, r = a = OM
THE LEMXISCATA.
The lemniscata
is
FIG.
1.
66.
Since
(a",
?/ ) is a
The equation
1,
==
a2
(1)
TP
is,
a 2 ... (2)
Art. 112,
we
202
rr
OP
pendicular
is
is
,*.
0)
we
x"
and
find
.r
-+ ff
we have
(1),
(x
2
or
(x
T/
=a
(x
2
.
7/ )
(4)
This curve was invented by James Bernouilli. It is quadto the square constructed on the
rable, its area being equal
semi-transverse axis
OA.
2.
These values in
2
(4) give
+ sin
=a
6
\r (cos
r4
therefore
r2
or
is
=^
0)J
2
r cos 2
a 2 cos 2
(9
\r* (cos
sin
2
<9)};
0,
...
(5)
<
opposite signs.
If
45, cos 2
If 6
45
and
If $
If
= cos 90 =
(9
<135
.-.
0.
.-.
.-.
r is imaginary.
=i
0.
a.
is
to both axes.
symmetrical with respect
203
TRANSCENDENTAL EQUATIONS.
157.
THE CURVE OF
= sin
SINES.
name from
its
its
equation
x,
as a curve
FIG.
To construct the
6?.
Value of x
30
=5=
Corresponding
.52
60
90
^=
=^=
1.04
1.56
120
= i5 = 2.08
6
Value of y
.50
.87
1.00
.87
210
Corresponding
Value of y
=~- = 2.60
6
= = 3.14
= 3.66
=
.50
TT
.50
240
~=
4.18
270
= 4.70
1.00
300
= i^ =
-.87
5.22
330
360
= 5.75
=
= 2 = 6.28
.50
TT
a smooth curve
points and tracing
As x may have
locus.
the
have
required
through them, we
of the
the
and
GO
equation
to
yet satisfy
any value from
Constructing
these
158.
FIG.
68.
= tan
its
name from
its
205
equation.
x.
Value of x
y.
Tabulating,
Corresponding
we
have,
Value of y
"
30
.57
"
.52
60
1.04
1.56
1.73
"
90
oo
120
= 4-^ = 2.08
"
= 5 - = 2.60
"
1-73
150
.57
180
210
= = 8.14
= 3.66
=
"
TT
.57
"
240
= 4.18
==
1.73
"
270
= 4.70
oo
"
300
330
360
= 5.22
^=
2
TT
"
5.75
6.28
1.73
.57
"
206
159.
THE CYCLOID.
OM
of the cycloid.
1.
To deduce the rectangular equation, the origin
being
taken at the left-hand vertex of tJie curve.
Let P be any point on the curve, and the angle
which the
of the circle,
=2
ButOA = ayOB
CK =
a cos 6
AB
and
through
Let LB, the diameter
AP
= CB
CK.
=a AB = PK = a sin AP = y, CB = a,
0,
0,
hence, substituting,
=a9
y = a
x
0.
a.
OA = OB
Then
PCB
a sin
a cos
we have
...
(1)
Eliminating
=a
207
V2 ay
cos"
- ^2 ay -if
y
.
vers"
(2)
When
(b)
or 4
TT
a, or 6
TT
a,
or etc.
When
= 0;
vers"
=2
but a vers" 1
TT
a,
and M.
of points such as
(c)
=a
0,
=2
a,
=a
vers"
TT
OB
but
We
=
=
These values in
x
y
But
H,
(1)
=
HK =
+
+
above give
= a (0
= a
a sin
TT)
,\
a cos
Hence
=
= H
hence
x = a 6
-\-
a sin
= a (COS ff -
vers"
,.-.
1) }
-+V
2 ay
2
?/
(5)
The
usually attributed to Galileo.
With the exception of the conic sections no known curve
The fol
possesses so many useful and beautiful properties.
invention of this curve
is
208
1.
2.
3.
HDB = a
= 3 HDB = 3
OPHM = 4 HB = 8 a.
Area OPHDB O
area
Area of cycloid OHMO
Perimeter
TT
TT
a2
5.
point
body rolling
down
it
path whatever.
SPIRALS.
160. The SPIRAL is a transcendental curve generated by a
point revolving about some fixed point, and receding from it
in obedience to some fixed law.
FIG.
70.
is
called
209
is
always constant.
From
the definition,
we have
=c
r = c
hence
is
(1)
To construct the
spiral.
45
(1)
the correspond
Values of r
Corresponding
=^
^c
90=^
4
135
= ^L
180
=<*
270
^
=^
360
=2
225
_^ c
4
3*
..
T"
number
=
=
gives r
oo
Since
2 TT gives r
the measuring circle.
=2
IT c,
OA (=
IT
c)
is
the radius of
210
162.
THE HYPERBOLIC
This curve
SPIRAL.
From
is
the definition
r
we have
c,
or
for the equation of the spiral.
FIG.
71.
To
we have
Values of
Corresponding
Values of r
oc
45
=Z
"
r,
135=
180
211
Values of r
Corresponding
7T
7T
"
7T
7T
225
TT
4
270
OTT
=-TT
"
315
GTT
=-TT
"
360
TTT
"
TT
oo
an
infinite
number
it.
c is
SCHOL.
(OP,
POA) =
(r, 0).
With
as a centre
i.e.,
the arc of any circle between the initial line and the
measuring
circle.
212
r*
or,
(1)
FIG.
To construct the
Values of
45
72.
spiral.
Corresponding
Values of r
!T
4
90
2*
4
135
^
4
180
7T
((
V2 C7T
V3c
Corresponding
225
270
= ^T
3i5
= IJL
360
=2
213
Values of r
-JV5C
4
7C7T
oo
00
=
=
=
=
THE LITUUS
or
its
164.
r2
TRUMPET.
equation
c,
FIG.
73.
214
If
0,
if
The Logarithmic
165.
This spiral
the ratio of
vector
oo
is
is
its
oo,
an asymptote to
initial line as
0.
its infinite
/SJjiraZ.
Hence
equal to unity.
or passing to equivalent
r
a*
(1)
To construct
the spiral.
r
is
Let a
2,
then
= 29
we wish
to construct.
base),
we have
215
Values of r
Corresponding
= 57.3
2 = 114. 6
3 = 171.9
4 = 229. 2
1
2
4
"
16
"
CO
<
- 1
= - 57.3
.5
-2=-114.6
- 3 = - 171.9
_ 4 = - 229. 2
.25
.125
.062
oo
will
be the
required locus.
Since
a, it
Since
number
oo
the spiral makes an infinite
gives r
of revolutions without the circle whose radius
1.
GO
OA =
Since 6
r =
GO gives
0, the spiral
of revolutions within the circle
number
makes an
OA
infinite
before reaching
its pole.
EXAMPLES.
1.
X
= ~rp*
2.
What
is
pole being at
Ans.
= 2 a cos -
0.
3
3.
cata
Let
is
OF
= OF = a Vf
Fig. 66.
Show
216
6.
7.
= tan
= cos
2/
a;
8.
is
12.
y.
a3
=x
axy.
x.
13.
jcl -j-
= sec*.
14.
4 + |r =
y?
a2
= sin y.
15.
= cot x.
16.
1.
l.
&3
sin 2
0.
<?/
sin 2
9.
10.
= cosec
= 3x ~ l
20.
a?
=a
sin 3 -
Q
2
?/
-4- a-?/
18.
r 2 sin 2
20
1.
o
2
1 rv
-|
19.
1.
= -1 1
~T~ Sill
C
.
sin
96 a 2 ;/2
+ 100 ciV
J- V(ic
21.
x3
no
.
17.
ic.
Show
asymptotes
Ex. 20.
that y
of the
6 a) (a
^ x are
locus
x^
+ 6 a)
or
(x
8 a) (x
+ 8 a).
PART
II.
CHAPTER
CO-ORDINATES.
I.
determined when
we know its distance and direction from three planes which
intersect each other, these distances being measured on
166. The position of a point in space
lines
it
is
is
Although
drawn from the point parallel to the planes.
immaterial in principle what angle these planes make
intersection,
of convenience
them
at right
PLANES inter
OY, OZ be the
the ORIGIN of
CO-ORDINATES.
- XYZ.
Let P be any point in the right triedral angle
the
we
know
lengths
Then P is completely determined when
and directions of the three lines PA, PB, PC let fall from
this point on the planes.
As the planes form with each other eight right triedral
which satisfy
angles, there are evidently seven other points
the condition of being at these distances from the co-ordi
nate planes.
The ambiguity
is
217
218
Assuming distances
to the right of
YOZ as positive,
distances
4-Z
A/
-Y
-X
4-X
Assuming distances
XOY
6o*;e
as positive, distances
will be negative.
in front
Assuming distances
o/XOZ
as positive, distances ^o
AP, CP, respectively) the co-orc?ithe FIRST ANGLE, we have the follow
other seven
XY
plane, to left
of XZ plane, (- x y z ) P 2
THIRD ANGLE, above XY plane, to
r
of XZ plane, (- x - y z ) P 8
YZ
plane, in front
left
YZ
plane, in rear
CO-ORDINATES.
219
XY plane, to right YZ
P
y
(x
below XY plane, to right YZ
plane, in
XZ
rear of
plane,
front of
XZ
FIFTH ANGLE,
plane, (x
XY
PS-
plane, to left
YZ
plane,
in
plane, in front
P6
)
y
plane, (
SEVENTH ANGLE, below
plane, to left YZ plane, in
f
z ) P7
x
rear of XZ plane, (
y
EIGHTH ANGLE, below
plane, to right YZ plane, in rear
of
XZ
XY
of
XZ
plane, (x
XY
- P
i/,
8.
EXAMPLES.
1.
(1, 2,
3),
(-
1, 3,
2),
(-
1,
2,
4), (3,
2, 1).
2.
State the exact position with reference to the co-ordi
nate axes (or planes) of the following points
:
(0, 0, 2),
- 1,
- 1),
0), (0,
(5, 1,
3.
(0),
(1, 1,
0,
1),
(1,
2,
3),
(0,
0,
2),
((4,
1,
1,
2,
2),
1).
In which negative
ordinates positive ?
The
Thus
The projection
XY
220
P"
FIG.
76.
Let
Let
V"
(z",
y" ,
*"}
P"C
P")
||
||
||
||
P"M.
Hence
= NO =
but
=
...
(P"C
CO- OR DINA TE S.
= 0,
COR. If x
0, if
with the origin and
...
= 0,
2
V*"
221
2
y"
2
s"
...
coincides
(3)
point.
(x, y, z),
Fig. 75, be
the line
OP = L will be
POX, POY, POZ = a, fa y,
point, then
any
Let
respectively.
OM, ON, OR
Since
on X, Y,
Z, respectively,
y
z
OP
we have
= L cos u
= L cos
= L cos y
ft
...
(1)
COR.
+y + =L
x* + y + * = L
x*
but
hence
That
cos u -f cos
is,
the
/? -f-
(1),
we have
2
-f- cos
(cos
Art. 168 (3)
cos 2 /
ft
-f cos
y)
(2)
space line
is equal to
unity.
SCHOL. The directional angles of
any line, as P
Fig. 76,
are the same as those which the line makes
with three lines
drawn through 1J/ to X, Y, Z. The
on
projections of P
- x f if tf, z
three such lines are
Art. 168; hence
P",
||
x"
x"
y"
"
P"
x = L COS a
- y = L cos
z = L cos
ft
"
_^
"1
...
(3)
222
EXAMPLES.
Required the length of the
points
1.
(-
(1, 2, 3),
(3,
- 2,
following
Ans.
5.
(0, 4, 1),
V27.
(-
2,
1,
^ws.
6.
1, 0).
Ans.
7.
joining the
V14.
^tws.
3.
4.
2, 1, 1),
Ans.
2.
lines
(1,
-/5.
-2).
V38.
Ans.
5.
(2, 4,
3)
7.
What
9.
Two
What
is
If (x
10.
Vf
and
and
show that
(a;",
y",
z")
extremities of a line
x"
+
2
y"
z
"z"\
z"
2-J
The angle which the line joining the point and the
makes with a plane passing through the fixed
the line join
and
2d, The angle which the projection of
point
line in the
fixed
a
with
makes
that
on
the
plane
points
ing
1st,
fixed point
;
plane.
CO-ORDINA TES.
FIG.
223
77.
Let
be the fixed point and P the point whose
position we
wish to determine. Join O and P, and let XOY be
any plane
passing through 0. Let OX be a given line of the plane
XOY. Draw PB 1 to XOY and pass the plane PBO through
PB and OP. The intersection OB of this plane with XOY
will be the projection of
BOX
(go)
ANGLES,
the distance r
The point
terms of
called the
RADIUS VECTOR
P,
its
is
<p),
is
of the point.
said to be expressed in
It is evident
<P,
and
may
all
to 360 to
and
by giving all values from
values from
to oo to r that every point in
space
be located.
224
OY
Draw
BA
||
to
From
From
OB =
From
(x,
BOP, we have
sin
6.
ABO, we have
= OB
r cos
cos
.:
cp.
= r cos
y
y
x
cos
cp.
we have
= OB sin
= r cos 6 sin
qo,
= r cos 6 cos
=
r cos 9 sin
y
z = r sin
Henee
co-ordinate axes.
=r
the triangle
But
the triangle
z
let
OY
(p.
cp
cp
...
(1)
y,
r,
and
cp
from
(1) in
terms of x and
r= Vx + if +
= tan+
= tan2
(9
to
225
CO-ORDINA TES.
EXAMPLES.
Find the polar co-ordinates of the following points
1.
2.
3.
(2,1,1).
(V3,
1,
(10,2,8).
4.
2 V3).
(3,
1, 4).
(5,
7.
30, 60).
(6,=,
9.
10.
+ ^2 + = a
z + sx + ty - c = 0.
X2
Ans. r
,2
sin
+ 5 cos
(1, 2,
12.
(4,
(-
1, 3, 2).
and
15. If (V, /,
)
the point
space points, show that
(z",
mx"
g>
cos
-f
sin
a.
qo
1, 2),
cos
+ nx
14.
1,
")
+ ny
m+w
them
(2,
my"
7wT+ %
y",
13.
into
+ nz
m+n
mz"
226
CHAPTER
II.
THE PLANE.
To deduce the equation of the plane.
Let us assume as the basis of the operation the following
172.
property
If on a perpendicular to a plane two points equidistant from
the plane be taken, then every point in the plane is equidistant
:
from
in the plane
is
un
FIG.
Let
it
ABC
in E.
Draw
be any plane.
Produce
OR
until
OR 1
to
RR = OR = p.
and R
from
Every point
Let
ON, MN,
MR
in
(x, y,*,)
the co-ordinates
THE PLANE.
of
R =
d,
e,
From
Then from
/, respectively.
PR
==
- xY + (e-
(d
OF =
2
xs
227
(3),
+f+*
we have
yY + (/- zY
we have
2
5
- xY + (e-
yY
+ (/- *) = x + y + *
2
2
-
dx
/1X
(1)
...
173.
pendicular
to it
from
the origin
and
the
per
the perpendicular.
Let
/8,
and
169, (1)
MR
= 2p cos
e = 2^ cos
(3
cc
cos
?/
cos
Since
(1),
1?
(1)
Art. 172,
+ z cos 7 = p
^8
and remembering
we h ave
Equation
OR = 2p = V^ +
cos
...
cos 7
2p
+/
(2) is
called the
(2)
NORMAL
2
,
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
.SOLID
228
we have
(2),
e
~
1.
If
we have
in (2),
+ y cos + z cos y =
x cos
ft
(4)
COR.
2.
= 90,
If
y cos
is
= 0,
cos
(3
+ z cos 7
hence
=p
(5)
If
x cos
+ z cos 7 = p
(6)
to the XZ-plane.
J_
x cos
is
COR.
3.
= 90
If
cos
?/
and
1L
.--cos
=p
/?
(7)
to the XY-plane.
(3
= 90,
...
then
(8)
is
to
YZ
XY.
Similarly,
we
find
= --*
cos
(10)
COS
for the equations of planes
to
||
XZ
and
YZ
respectively.
||
to
THE PLANE.
COR.
If
4.
and
in (8), (9),
...
229
(10),
then
(11)
respectively.
174.
in
its
tercepts.
OB =
OA
OC
b,
OE (=p)
Since
c.
the right
is
tri
angles
COS
...
0080=|
COS 7
(a)
=
J
Substituting these
reducing,
we have
*
a
values
+ -|b + *c = 1
normal
the
in
and
(1)
175.
equation
is
called the
SYM
three vari
the
-f
By
-f
C*
=D
(1)
VA +
2
degree between
ABC
Ax
first
B2
+C
-2
2
A2
VA ~+ B + ni
C
^/A22
~"~
+B +C
2
T^22
*
y*
VA
-|-
B2
+C
VA + B + C
2
2
,
230
Comparing
(2)
with
(3)
expressed
points,
equation of a plane.
FIG.
ABC
Let
Ax
79.
let its
+ By + C2 = D.
1.
equation be
traces
The
have
Ax
+ By + Cz = D |
z
Ax
Ax
/<
Ax
+ B^ =
D<
Trace
011
XY (AB)
.(1)
+ By + C = D |
Cz
=D
")
Ax + Cs = D
I
.
j>
r
,
Q,,
__
j)^
Trace on
X Z (AC)
Trace on YZ (BC)
(2)
... (3)
THE PLANE.
231
To find the
2.
we have
their equations,
A*
+ By + C* = D
(4)
-nL
y-Q
-D
.
._ 00
COR.
If
the
=
cept = OB
oo
(5)
(6)
Ace
we have
+O=D
(7)
a perpendic
(7) and (2) are the same equations; hence,
ular plane and its trace on the plane to ivhich it is perpendic
ular have the same equation.
But
cos 7
177. If x cos a. -j- y cos ft -|p be the normal equa
a plane, then x cos u -\- y cos (3 -j- z cos 7
p -^ d is the
tion of
the proposition.
COR. If (V, ?/,
-]-
-|-
if COS
(3
COS 7
(1)
232
is its
the origin
=-
cos
a
hence
+ cos
cos 2
These values in
(1)
cos
+ cos
j8
cos 7
P;
^& + %
v
-~ -
1-
give
from a plane
_A^Vy
+ Cz:_-^
+B +C
(3)
What
is
(3)?
178.
To find
Let (V, y
),
(x",
y" ,
*"),
we seek
(*"
is
y",
which A, B,
C,
")
that of a plane,
Ax + By + Cz = D
in
it
must be
(1)
imposed.
the co
Since the plane is to contain the three given points,
its
equation hence,
ordinates of each of these must satisfy
the following equations of condition
;.
Ax
Ax"
Ax
+ B// + C.~ = D
=D
+ B/ +
= D.
C
+ By +
C,~"
"
"
"
THE PLANE.
B,
in terms of
233
these values in
D
A=
contain
AT>,
Substituting in
= B D,
(1),
= CD be
we have
A Daj + B D?/ + C Vz = D.
A a + B y + C s = 1 ...
...
is
(2)
179.
every equation of
the
first
elicited the
fact that
Let
=/(,
y)
1)
Since
be any equation between the three variables (x, y, z).
x and y are independent, we may give them an infinite number
For every pair of values thus assumed there is a
of values.
These values in (1) give the corre
point on the XY plane.
sponding value or values of z, which, laid off on the perpen
dicular erected at the point in the XY plane, will locate one
may
hence
(1)
must represent
If
-/(*,
q>
y)
(x, y)
(2)
234
If
=f(x,y)
=
=
<P
(^ y)
(x, y}
taneous.
letiveen
three
EXAMPLES.
Find
4.
11.
the traces
and intercepts
The
from
directional cosines of a perpendicular let fall
of the
required the equation
the origin on a plane are |
o
o o |;
== 4.
plane, the length of the perpendicular
,
An,
5+^ + f-l.
12.
1,2,3.
13.
2,
14-
1,
15.
3.
i,,
-
1,
-2.
"
4.
of
the equation of the plane, the equations
?
4
z
x
4
and
3 y
-jwhose traces are x
4.
z
3 ?/
a
16.
What
is
+ =
THE PLANE.
The
17.
plane x
235
XY
XY plane.
Ans.
f.
(-
18.
(1, 2, 3),
19.
20.
21.
1, 2,
((-
1, 0, 2).
!,-!,-
1).
(2, 1, 3),
planes
25. .x cos
26.
27.
+ y cos
60
+
x
+ ^2 + 3 z = 4.
+z
60
3y
= 9.
cos 45
8.
--- + - =
325
28.
1.
point
(3, 2, 2)
30.
2x
3y
+z=
2
qo
o<6.
31.
1
,
~\-
cc
+2y
= ~.
o.
33. If s, s
represent the sides of the triangle formed by
the traces of a plane, and a, b. c represent the intercepts,
2
2
2
s
2 (a 2 -f b 2
s
c ).
show that s 2
s"
"
236
CHAPTEE
III.
THE STRAIGHT
180.
To deduce
LINE.
The
number
to
237
PBM
its
x
in which s = tan
= sz
-j-
ZBP
Let P B
be the plane which projects the line on YZ,
then its equation will be
in
y=t*+b,
which t
tan ZB P and b
OA.
But the two planes determine the line
x
=
y
hence
= sz + a
= sz
= tz
0,
then
origin.
to the Z-axis.
Since equations (1) express the relation
existing
between the co-ordinates of every point on the space line, if
we eliminate Z from these equations we obtain the immediate
COR.
||
3.
XY
trace on
its
on
XY
XY.
hence, eliminating,
tx
is
we have
= bs
at
(4)
for the equation of the
projection of the line
sy
on XY.
have found, Art. 169, Schol., for the length of a
joining two points the expression
181.
line
We
T.-^-y _
COS a
y"
-j/
COS
(3
*"-:.
COS 7
238
L and
Eliminating
ordinates of
letting
cos
cos
for the
182.
z"
x",
y",
(=
x, y, z)
To find where a
x-jx
cos 7
(3
SYMMETRICAL EQUATION
be the co
of a straight line.
of
its
Let
1.
==
__
The equation
of the
line.
"f
XY-plane
is
Hence
= sz
y =
t-Z
-j-
-\-
(a, b, 0)
The equation
of the
XZ-plane
is
y-o.
Combining
x
y
= sz
=
tz
-{-
-f-
hence
<),
s
is
b y are
simultaneous
we have
183.
pont.
Let
(x
239
a given
is
a)
= te + b
y
in
ft
>
it is
must be
y ,z
) its
equations
this point
hence
= sz + a
= tz + b \
f
,n\
As the
group (2) from the first in group (1) and the second in group
(2) from the second in group (1), we have
x = s (z
z
- y = (Z - Z
,,
|
}
point.
184.
line
given points.
Let
(x
As the
fl
),
(x
y",
z")
...
in
As
it is
to be determined.
to pass through (x
= sz
= tz
(i)
),
we must have
240
As
it is
to pass
x"
y"
through
=
=
sz"
tz"
(#",
+
+b
y",
z"),
we must have
also
(3)
two points
-y =
(z
-*
Eliminating
-y"
and
s (Z
t
(z
and
(2)
_
-
4)
(3),
we have
z")
z")
between
from
"
,j
) j
t
j
and
(4)
(5),
we have
EXAMPLES.
1.
Given the
line
the projection on
x
^
= z 1
=4^ _ 3
*?
-4-
)
r
XY.
Ans.
2.
How
2x
5.
the axes ?
x=2\ y=0\
?/
= 0)
a;
x=-z-l)
2x
Given
(2, 1,
2), (3, 0, 2)
241
required
(a)
(7>)
(c)
co-ordinate
planes.
1,
- 1).
9.
11.
of 45
lines
The
(2,
10. (1,
1,
(-
2),
*v
t*/
/y>
y
12.
The
2, 4, 3)
13.
(-
15.
= -4- - V 3 +
V3
1,
- 2) ?
3)
Assume two
(3,
0,
1),
NOTE.
them
is
1, 3, 2), (3, 2,
14.
- 3).
and 30
-2,
1,
line
which
the plane
lies in
(1,
2,
2)
which
-\-
in
2 y
which the
z
= 4.
line
^
y
+2^ = 3
z + 2 = 0)
242
18.
+ y = 3.
19.
line
20.
planes cross ?
z
2y
2, x
185.
To find the
equations.
Let
- =
1.
= sz + a )
y-. + ft|
Mld
s z
y-^ +
a \
f
ft
;
intersection is com
of
the
Since
be the given equations.
point
mon to both lines, its co-ordinates must satisfy their equations.
Hence these equations are simultaneous. But we observe that
there are four equations and only three unknown quantities
the lines
hence, in order that these equations may consist (and
a certain relationship must exist between the con
;
intersect),
We
thus obtain
(s
s ) (b
&
(t
(a
-a =
)
for the required equation of condition that the two lines shall
If this condition is satisfied for any pair of as
intersect.
lines the lines will intersect, and we obtain the
co-ordinates of this point by treating any three of the four
which represent them as simultaneous. So treating
sumed
equations
the first, second, and third
we
obtain
a
^>
a
s
We
a
s
would lead
to
we
243
so
intersected.
tiuo
lines,
Let
= sz
-f-
given by their
which the
lines
FIG.
.
Let
OB
and
OC
angle sought.
Let
81.
cp
Then
(= BOG)
be this angle.
lines
is
the
244
0",
",
y"
P"
Let
OF - I/,
From
OP"==
the triangle
But Art.
+ TL
IfO
j
P
P
OP".
ff>
and
(x"
//2
x"*+
cos
=L
L"
Substituting in
cos
<f
(1),
(*"
- *r
we have
~
<p
Ov
T~^T"
169, (1)
x
x"
y"*
But Art.
/-i\
(2)
=x +y +*
=
+^
- xj + (if - yj +
L"
-Lr
L.
2L07-
L2
P"
we have
OP",
COS
and
L",
z")
y",
(x",
= cos
cos
cos
cos
/?
=L
=
"
L"
(2),
cos
y"
+ cos
/3
cos
/3"
+ cos y
=
+ cos
"
cos
cos
187.
To ymd ^e
^3
cos y
cos
L"
y"
)3",
we have
"
cos
=L
=
?/
",
cos
)8"
+ cos
awr/Ze ^//-ic/i
^<?o
cos
=
y"
cos
y"
(3)
(4)
each
space Zmes maA;e with
the projections
other in terms of functions of the angles which
axes.
the lines make with the co-ordinate
of
be, as
of the lines
in the preceding article, the equations
(x, y
),
= sz
=
I/ 2
Eliminating,
we
a point on the
is
Fig. 81,
first line,
2
x"
+y +z\
2
find
and since
have
vi
r/
P"
(x
x"
y"
is
y",
")
=s
= M,
=x +
L"
+s +
2
_~
vi
+ *+T
we
z"
Since
we have
"
vi + s +
245
"
y"
-f-
^ //2
Hence,
Vl +
s*
L/
we have
_
Vl +
2
.9
in
equation
Vl + s
(3),
/2
Art. 186,
12
and
246
COB.
1.
If
<f>
= 0,
are parallel
the lines
and equation
(1)
becomes
i
T= =4J^===.
we have
and
Performing the operations indicated, transposing
have
we
lecting,
each separately
equal to zero unless
<
s?
t,
col
st
=s
(2)
The first
lines.
are the conditions for parallelism of space
in
lines
two
space are
two of these conditions show that if
are
their projections on the co-ordinate planes
parallel, then
conse
mere
a
is
s
third condition
t)
parallel
also.
The
(sf
and
quence of the other two,
may
other,
and equation
(1)
becomes
1
hence
is
+ ss +
=
+ ** +
it
3
>
188.
of the angle which the
the co-ordinate axes is the complement
to which that axis is
line makes with the co-ordinate plane
the complements of
p, y
if we let
ft y be
perpendicular
,
respectively,
we have
co-ordinate planes.
which a space
line
247
TRANSFORMATION OF CO-ORDINATES.
189. To find the equations of transformation from one
system of co-ordinates to a parallel system, the origin being
changed.
FIG.
82.
OL
||
to
OZ and
meeting
XOY
in B,
A K,
B and L. Draw BE
Y draw LX to BE
||
||
||
y,
z)
are the
(O
A A B B P) =
,
(a;
are the
new
co-ordinates of
the point P.
(OX, XL, LO )
new origin
From the figure
.
(a, b, c)
248
OA = ON + O A AB
,
hence
-f-
==
NL + A B BP = LO + B P
,
=b
-\- ?/,
=c+z
the same.
FIG.
OZ
83.
OX OY OZ
,
the
new.
Let u
OZ
Let
OZ
OX
u",
fi",
f be
OY
respectively.
Let
OZ
ft,
respectively.
"
",
f"
OZ makes
respectively.
Let
CM.
Draw PB and PB
249
to
in
Draw B
OY
to
||
(OA
then
A B B P) =
(x
y, z)
(x,
new
are the
co-ordinates of the
point P.
From
P,
on the X-axis
and
let fall
figure,
BT>,
AL
we have
OA = OL + LD + DA
and DA are the projections of OA A B and
PB respectively on the X-axis, and each, therefore, is equal
to the line whose projection it is into the cosine of the
angle
which that line makes with the X-axis. (See Art. 169 (1) .)
LD
But OL,
OL = OA
=x
i.e., OL
cos
.-.
cos
LD = A B cos
DA = B P cos
LD = y cos
DA = z cos
,
"
",
Similarly
=
=
x
y
z = x
cos
"
</
p+y
n"
-f z COS a
p +
-f if cos f + z
cos y
cos
cos
f
cos
"
p"
...
(1)
Y"
cos 2
"
Con.
1.
we must have
cos
cos
cos
cos
"
cos
"
"
2)
the
new axes
to be rectangular also
in addition to equation
(2) the following condi
See Art. 186, Cor.
:
-f cos /? cos
cos
cos
"
y"
"
we suppose
tional equations
cos
"
If
).
2
-f cos /
cos 2
$"
cos 2
(2)
=1
+
p
cos
=1
+
+
cos
+ cos
+
f=1
cos 2
+
+
p
cos p
/3"
+ cos f cos =
+ cos f cos =
+ cos f cos y =
7"
p"
cos
/"
"
/?
(3)
"
250
a plane.
We wish to show that every such section is an ellipse, a
Art.
or one of their limiting cases.
parabola, an hyperbola,
146.
192.
FIG.
Let
any element
Draw DP
PK
to
||
84.
the element
OZ,
as
||
KB
generated by revolving
Let P be any point on
= c and OEC = 6.
and
intersecting OZ in D; draw
XY-plane
and K producing it to
to OY, and join
CE
to
conic surface.
let
OC
||
circle in E.
50.-00_tan..
DP
OE
.(1)
of P.
But
z,
and
251
DP = OK = Vz +
2
hence,
z
i.e.,
is
(c
z)
= tan
=
(x
+ if)
tan
2
.
(2)
193.
intersection of
a right
cir
cular cone
GALA
Let
X OX,
BPB
the
We
<p.
OX as axes.
Draw PD to OY PL and DK
referred to
OY,
||
(x, y, z)
||
to
OZ
then
252
= (x
OX
P when referred
OY.
From
OD cos
KL =
the figure
PL = KD = OD sin
DP,
qp,
OK =
go.
i.e.,
= x s m Vi
z
V>
=x
cos V-
accents,
2
?/
tan
l9
+x
cos 2
+2 casing
tan
<p(tan
(1)
value from
to
equation
oo,
(1)
to 90 and to c every
can be made to represent every
COR.
1.
Comparing
(1)
= tan.
= cos
with
(1),
Art. 138.
we
made by
find
2
(JP
(tan
tan
2
g>)
4 ac
<
IP =.
Case
and
1.
>
>
If 6
hence,
and
>
We
<p
this
(0, 0)
>
<p.
ellipse.
4 ac
hence
it is
>
an
<
0,
supposition in
;
ac.
= 0,
cp
equation
that
CASE
c
2.
.-.
qp
and
2
?/
which
is
tan
6>
=c
2
,
a circle.
is
Hence the
This supposition in
g>.
= 4c.
Z>
(9
If
+x
the intersection
is,
becomes
(1)
if tan
From
0.
tan
2
<9
253
is
a parabola,
i.e.,
= =
If
The
<
>
If 6
Hence the
ac.
<
q>
and
c
if-
intersection
then
tan
(1)
=x
is
0,
>
.-.
and
>
we have
(1),
gives a
(2)
intersection
inter
<
an hyperbola.
becomes
cos 2
(tan
9)
tan
<p
0)
\\
it
equation of
with the equation of the conic
tan
which
(b)
is
Plane
||
such a plane.
or
7/
tan
2
which, since b
values of n.
(c)
Plane
a plane.
tion
a;
\\
all values of m.
Let x = n be the equation of
Combining with (2), Art. 192, we have
to
YZ-plane.
>
to
z?
+ 2 cz + n
ac, is
tan
XZ-plane. Let y
z2
tan
(4)
Combining with
2
...
= p be
+ 2 c +^
tan
all
we have
c
(5)
254
which, since
values of p 2
2
>
ac, is
all
Hence, in
all
intersection is
NOTE.
Equations
(3),
(4),
(5)
of
case
on the
tions of the projections of the curves of intersection
the
But
are
projection of any
parallel.
planes to which they
to the given
curve
a
is
a
on
equal
parallel plane
plane curve
the conclusions of case 4 are true for the
curve
hence
curves themselves.
195.
conic.
FIG.
OY
THE STRAIGHT
Draw FO
Draw PL
to
||
FP =
definition
From
but
FL
DP =
2
e*x
2
.
These values
in (1) give
e
or, after
a constant.
FPL, FP == FL + PL 2 ;...(!)
2
(OL - OF) = (x - p)\ LP 2 = f- and FP 2
triangle
2
255
J_ to
= p.
By
LINE.
x2
reduction,
y-
-p)
(x
-e
(1
x2
+ if
- 2px + p* =
(2)
COR.
Comparing
a
hence
CASE
1.
(2)
4 ac
with
1, b
(1),
= 0,
4
c
2
e )
(1
we
Art. 138,
and
= (1
= 4 (e~
find
e ),
1)
(3)
i.e.,
not
zero.
If e
an
<
1, b
2
<
ellipse.
= 1,
If e
ac.;
= 4 ac
hence equation
(2) is the
hence equation
equation of
the equation of a
(2) is
parabola.
If e
>
1, 6
2
>
4 ac
hence equation
(2) is the
equation of
an hyperbola.
CASE
2.
is
on the fixed
^2
line, i.e.,
= 0.
In this case
f+
If e
<
1,
(1
e )
(4)
secting at origin.
If
= l,
equation
(4)
represents
one
X-axis).
If e
>
1,
equation
(4) represents
two straight
lines inter
Hence, equation
iting cases.
256
GENERAL EXAMPLES.
Find the point of intersection of the
2
x =
1
x = 2
1.
lines
2.
(1
_92
(3, 5, 1)
line
y~l-V}What
3.
g>
^|
=2z
?/=
is
What
-.+
Ans.
4.
_]_ 1 )
cos
is
3, 2,
90.
from
1)
the line
y
5.
= 4z
-\-
line
required
planes.
4y
2x
The equation of a surface is x -f y* +
_ 2 what does the equation become when the surface
2
6.
Qz
is
at
(1, 2, 3)
7.
Given the
the line on
XY
line
x
?
+
^
2
,
8.
Ans.
j~_
of
required the projection
co-ordinate planes.
off
__
in part, 2 y
on the Z and
+ = 4.
a-
axes by
^ x == 9
on Y^s
Ans.
?/
"
= -
_3o
6
.
9.
257
= 2z
= 2z-
10. What are the equations of the line which passes through
the origin and the point of intersection of the lines
What is
origin ? What
11.
on
= 3z\
from the
4)
its
projection
XY ?
12. A
What
13.
"1
make with
14.
which the
lines
line passes
angles with X, Y,
Z whose cosines
V2
are
and makes
(1, 2, 3)
1
?
res P ect
"
ively; required
(a) the
15.
The
directional cosines of
two
lines are
212 and
Xfrj
L
1,1. What
is
2i
Ans.
Cos
y>
3
-
+2 V2
b
16.
=2y
-\-
2.
What
on
YZ ?
is
of a line are x
=3z
and
258
XZ
17.
18.
(3,.
2, 1)
Given the
19.
line
lines
quired
of
(a) the value
line
* Z
^ _~3
at right angles.
[
and
**+_l\ }
x
y
\ J
re-
(c)
212
- -
required
o o
the co-ordi
the sines of the angles which the line makes with
nate planes.
20.
The
21.
and
y
22.
2,
Find
is
1 )
line
two lines
perpendicular to the
^
Ans. x
11
&
the
angle
+ By + C* = D
and
included
between
Ax + By +
If
_^_
3z
j-
2 z\
=D
AA +
+B +
a
23.
j-
C"
coefficients of
planes given in
Example
22.
Ans.
AA + BB + CO - 0.
CHAPTER
259
IV.
EVERY equation
Washing
chapter
the nature of the surfaces represented
by equations of the
second degree involving three variables. The most
general
2
2
form of the equation of the second degree is Ax 2
By/ -f- Cz
Gx
+ Hy +
Iz
+K=
(1)
where
of transformation are
(Art. 190)
=X
y = x
z =x
X
z COS a
+ y COS
cos p + / cos $ + z cos
cos f + if cos / +
cos f
COS
"
a"
-f-
"
ft
AV* + By + C V + DVv/ + E
+ TV + K =
(2).
2
W+
F yV
+ GV + Hy
260
+ cos
cos 2
cos 2
COS 2 a
If
ft
2
4- cos
2
4- COS
"
"
ft"
2
4- cos
/J"
able, the
2
4- cos
y"
2
4- COS
I.
= 1.
=
1.
/"
also rectangular,
which
desir
is
relations
cos a cos
"
-j-
cos a
cos
cos
"
cos
u"
cos
cos
ft
+ cos
"
/?
4- cos
cos
ft"
4- cos
ft"
"
ft
cos
f cos
f=
4- cos y cos
"
/?
-4-
f"
f cos
cos
y"
0.
= 0.
= 0.
AV
or,
4-
By
4-
CV
4-
GV + Hy 4- IV 4- K = 0,
omitting accents,
Ax 2
In order
By 4 Cs
to make a
2
4-
+ GJB + Hy + I
Equation
a 4- #
(3) will
(b
+ //)
(3)
>
=b +y
r
,
f-
4- %
become
Y +B
(a 4- x
K=
4-
(b
+ y Y + C (c + * )* + G
+K=
4- I (c 4- *
(a
+x 4
)
0.
2
2
2
4- B&
Developing, omitting accents, and placing A
HZ
Ic
4- Ga
L, the equation takes the form
Ax 2 4- B// 2 C,? 2 (2 Att 4- G) x 4- (2 B^ +H) y 4- (2 Cc +1 )z
+
+ L = 0.
In order
and
c,
now
+K=
+
2A
arbitrary, let us
= --1L_
2B
assume
= _ _JL or
b,
=
If these values of
a,
reduces to the form
b,
and
Cc
+I=
(4)
+ By + C* + L =
2
261
[A],
a form which will be set aside for further
examination.
It may be remarked that
equations (4) are of the first
degree, and will give only one value to each of the
quantities
a, b, and c, and there is therefore
only one position for the
new
origin.
If,
however, either A, B, or
become
distance.
be zero, then
a, b,
infinite,
Let us suppose
then assume 2 B6
assume 2 Aa
G
A=
0,
while
+ H = 0,
= 0.
or c will
to an infinite
and
c as
indicated, let us
This will give
equal to zero.
+ Cc + Ga + Hb + I C + K = 0,
a = - g + Co + Kb + Ic + K
B6 2
or
G
and the general equation will be reduced
to the form
2
By + C* a + G* =
.
(B),
We
And
IV*
+ C* + Hy + I* + K =
a
(C)
Lastly, two of the terms
involving the second powers of
the variables
may be wanting, and the equation
then
.
(1)
becomes
Cs 2
Gx
+ Hy 4. Iz + K =
(D)
262
A* 2 + By
2
2
By + C*
B?/
We
will
with the
+ C.?
+ Gx
+ Cz* + L =
+ Gx =
(B)
+ H// + I* + K + Hy + Iz + K =
first
(A)
in order,
(C)
(D)
beginning
Ax 2
+ B?/ +
2
C* 2
(A)
1.
A, B, and
2.
A, B, C, and L positive.
Two of the coefficients as
3.
positive,
and
negative in the
and
first
member.
positive,
C and L
negative,
negative.
Two
4.
and L
Ko
of the coefficients as
and
positive,
positive.
CASE 1.
Ax 2 + B?/ 2 + Cs 2 = L,
in which form all of the coefficients are
positive.
The equations
parallel respectively to the co-ordinate planes.
of these intersecting planes will be x
c.
Com
a, y
b, z
bining the equations of these planes with that of the surface,
we
When
"
"
=
y =
z =
x
Thus we
a,
b,
c,
By
Ax
Ax
2
2
+ C.? = L - Aa
+ Cz = L - IW
+ By = L - Cc
2
an
an
an
ellipse.
ellipse.
ellipse.
made
section
Aa
or a
>
<
by the
-j-
plane
=a
-~ and
imaginary
,
is
real
263
when
in the
contrary
case.
The
ft
<
=i=
<
Thus we
>
lar parallelepiped
When
sections
When
ft
>
is
-J-
=b
is
y
=c
-[-
>
real
when
real
when
is
i/
become
a
plane
section
i y ~7T
by the
an d imaginary when
V/~fT~>
The
c
made
section
or 4
points.
= 0, = 0,
and
by the co-ordinate planes
ft
By +
2
Ax
Ax
2
2
or
= 0,
C,-
we
L.
+ C,v = L.
By = L.
2
-f~
Vc
the
made
264
The surface
is
same transverse
axis,
If
we
we
shall
a, b,
and
have
b c
-f-
2 2
=L
becomes
2
-f-
a2b 2z 2
a 2b 2 c 2
usually given.
If
we suppose B
equation becomes
2~
is
of Z.
If
A=B
2
-j_ ?/
If
-(-
= 0,
then a
== C,
=a
2
,
=b=
c,
the axes 2
a sphere.
2
i/-^-,
265
CASE
tion
If
2.
Ax 2
Ax 2 + By 2 - Cz 2 = L,
C, and L are essentially
which A, B,
positive.
Cutting the surface by planes as before, the sections will be,
2
L
Aa 2 a hyperbola, having its
when x
Cz 2
a, ~By
in
when a
v/
when a
-j-
t/
V
but
A.
And when
>
<
-J-
.A.
When
b,
Ax 2
YZ pass through
Cz 2
=L
the origin.
When
values of
c,
Ax 2
+ B?/ =
2
+ Cc
2
,
all
c.
is
con
tinuous, or
The
= 0,
b = 0,
c = 0,
a
which gives By 2
Ax 2
Ax 2
"
Cz 2
Cz 2
+%
making successively
= L, a hyperbola.
= L,
= L, an ellipse.
.y*_
2
^L
*
sheet.
266
of variable
the Z-axis,
and whose
having the
but having
different transverse axes placed at right angles to each other.
FIG. B.
If
we suppose
A = B,
then will a
b,
A=B=
C,
we have x 2
+ if - ^ = a
z
,
the equilateral
one sheet.
hyperboloid of revolution of
a right cone having an
If L
0, the equation represents
B this base becomes a circle.
base and if
elliptical
A=
267
of one sheet.
2.
a,
Intersecting the surface as before we have, when x
Aa 2 a hyperbola having its transverse
L
QgZ
axis parallel to the axis of Z.
__
j>^2
When
its
ing
When
c
-j-
>
b,
Ax 2
Cz"
I/V C
c,
Ax 2
+ B// =
B6 2
-f
hyperbola hav
beyond those
-j-
i/
V
-J- t
<
Since the
V C
two
distinct
O
O
= 0,
which gives Az 2
= 0,
which gives Ax 2
The semi-axes
+ By =
2
of the
L, an imaginary ellipse.
section
first
V A
of
The distances 2
i/-^_X
I
are
i/
V
and
Jj
V/ B
i
and
And
!/_.
V
1)
and
i /
those
2 4/1*1. and 2 \/
T
are
1).
268
FIG. C.
and
Eepreseiiting the semi-axes by a, b,
form
the
to
reduced
the equation of the surface may be
of the surface.
5 + -?
If
we suppose
A=B
then a
c,
&,
duces to
re
A=B=
C, the equation
becomes
+f_^= _
x*
269
a*
= 0,
A=
hyper
2.
3.
4.
We
will
axes.
form,
.
(B)
B and C
positive
(2).
B, C, and
(3).
(1).
and
negative in the
first
mem
ber.
CASE
positive.
C and G negative.
The equation may be written
positive and
1.
B?/
in
which B,
+ O. = Gx
2
and
When
By
+O =
>
0,
<
B6 2
parabola with
its
axis
its
axis
When
c,
By
= Gx -
a parabola
with
The
and
When
When
origin.
making a
= 0, b = 0,
0.
a
b
= 0, By + C,? =
= 0. C.s = Ga;, a
2
0,
parabola with
270
When c, =
2
G#, a parabola with vertex at the origin.
0, B?/
Since every positive value of x gives a real section, and
every negative value of x an imaginary section, the surface
consists of a single sheet extending indefinitely and contin
dimensions
generated by the motion of an ellipse of variable
the
same
on
remains
whose centre
straight line,
constantly
FIG. D.
in the
2. If we suppose G to be positive
form
the
take
will
the
so that
equation
CASE
By
+C = 2
Go;,
first
member
271
when x
>
0,
and
real
when x
<
0.
in
1.
1,
co-ordinate plane of
If B = C, the
CASE
By
3.
YZ.
-C =
a
Gx.
by planes as before.
Gz 2 = Ga, a hyperbola with transverse
and in the
axis in the direction of the Y-axis when a
direction of the Z-axis when a
0.
When
= a,
By
>
<
When
b.
in the direction of
Gx
Cz 2
-\-
axis
surface
is
pal sections
+K=
XZ
repre
and
YZ
272
VA
\ /
FIG. E.
plane
XY
of the
the
of
proper,
ellipsoid
and the imaginary surface.
revolution, the
sphere, the
point,
2.
of
one
or
two
sheets,
273
with
their
The
3.
The
4.
hyper
bola, or parabola.
Surfaces of Revolution.
of revolution
may
Ri
FIG. F.
x2
of
= fz.
Let
AB,
the
let
the equa
274
PQR, and
let r
The value
circle.
We
will
have
of r2
= CP =
2
r2
(JD =fz.
we have
is the value
of x 2 in the equation of the
generatrix.
Hence, to find the
equation of the surface of revolution we have only to substi
2
tute x 2
if of the surface for x in the generatrix.
2
Surface of a Sphere.
Equation of generatrix x
Hence the equation of the surface of the sphere is
z2
K,.
Ellipsoid of Revolution.
Generatrix
Surface
JL_
x*
-f-
~^~
J!L
= 1,
1
-4-
a2
***-*-*
Paraboloid of Revolution.
x2
4:pz, the generatrix.
=
+ IT = 4=pz, the
Cone of revolution,
z = mx
x2
surface of revolution.
-+- j3
~T
Hence
or
the generatrix,
~~i^~
2 -
(x
if)
(z
ft)
is
275
EXAMPLES.
1.
9z
7/2
(^
3.
Of ^ 2
+ if = r- ?
Qf
if
+^
= 36 ?
+ =r ?
is
- 16 y = 144 ?
+ 8x = o?
2.
What
.2
-\-
,-
y"-
-(-
4 z2
Of
Of
= 25,
79>
axis of
4.
(0, 0, 5.)
5.
+ 4 y + 9 s = 36.
+ 4 y _ 9 # = 36
- 36.
x + 4y = 9
4 y + 9 2 = 36 x.
9z* = 36x.
2
x*
a;
14
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