Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
iii
PREFACE
This manual is about reducing the costs involved in small-scale pumped irrigation schemes.
Too often, schemes are designed and constructed with thought given only to the immediate cost
of constructing the scheme and of buying and installing equipment. Little or no attention is
given to operating costs, with the result that some schemes may well be cheap to install but very
costly to run. When water is pumped, every litre has a real cost because of the energy needed.
If more water is pumped than is needed or is pumped inefficiently, then operating costs can rise
significantly because of the additional energy which is wasted.
Ways of approaching scheme design and equipment selection are described so as to take
account of the operating costs. Simple examples are used to show how this can be done, and
how true comparisons can be made between different designs. Guidelines are given, based on
experience in many developing countries, so that sound practical choices can be made.
The manual is not just for those starting a new scheme. It is also for those who wish to
evaluate and improve existing schemes, and practical ways of reducing operating costs by
improving the efficiency of water use and pumping are described.
The readership envisioned is that group of people with some practical experience in
small-scale irrigation but who have little or no technical or engineering knowledge and wish to
be able to advise farmers on appropriate equipment selection and its proper and efficient use.
Although not numbered in the same series as the FAO/ILRI Irrigation Water Management
Training Manuals, this particular publication is seen as being complementary to that series,
and, as a consequence, numerous cross-references are made in the text to the various volumes
of the Training Manuals series.
The text is substantially the work of Dr Melvyn Kay, of Silsoe College, UK, with additional
technical input from N. Hatcho of the Land and Water Development Division, FAO, Rome.
The text was edited and prepared by Thorgeir Lawrence for publication by FAO.
Any comments on the text as it stands and any suggestions for potential improvements
that could be included in subsequent editions are welcomed, and should be addressed to:
Water Resources, Development and Management Service , AGLW
FAO
Viale delle Terme di Caracalla
I-00100 ROMA,
Italy
iv
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1
Small-scale irrigation
1.2
Problems
1.3
Solutions
1.4
Making choices
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4. CASE STUDY - 1
Introduction
4.1 Options available
4.2 Scheme water demand
4.3 Peak power and energy demand
4.4 Overall costs
4.5 Conclusions
4.6 Guidelines
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5. CASE STUDY - 2
5.1 Options available
5.2 Scheme water demand
5.3 Overall power and energy demand
5.4 Overall costs
5.5 Conclusions
5.6 Guidelines
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ANNEX 79
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Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1
SMALL-SCALE IRRIGATION
PROBLEMS
Introduction
1.3
SOLUTIONS
This manual describes ways of approaching scheme design and equipment selection which
take account of both investment and operating costs, and, in particular, emphasise the significance
of energy costs.
Some basic concepts need to be understood about water flow, energy and power, and, for
those who have little or no knowledge of these, they are described in Chapter 2.
In Chapter 3 the basic components of an irrigation scheme are described together with ways
of choosing between different pumps, distribution systems and methods of irrigation. There
may be many different ways of irrigating a farm and a basis for comparison and selection is
needed. Cost is often the dominant factor. Thus the idea of cost effectiveness is introduced,
showing that both capital costs and operating costs must be considered when selecting equipment,
and that the one affects the other. This is demonstrated in Chapters 4 and 5, where two contrasting
case studies show how the principles and practices of Chapter 3 can be applied.
Many small-scale irrigation schemes are already in operation, and one question here might
be how to get the best results from what is already there. Chapter 6 examines ways of looking
at existing schemes to determine energy use and operating costs, and to find ways of reducing
them through improved efficiency of equipment and water use.
1.4
MAKING CHOICES
Much of this manual is about the process of design the process of making logical choices
between systems of irrigation and equipment (Figure 1). It is important to realize at the outset
that there is unlikely to be just one ideal choice; there may be many alternatives, any one of
which might be quite appropriate. The job of the designer is to present the options available in
relation to good irrigation practice, water availability, equipment, its reliability and cost. The
farmer can then choose the system which he or she feels is most appropriate.
The design process
A preliminary design is usually done first. This is often done quickly in order to establish the
options available. Once a choice has been made, work then proceeds to a detailed design
which details every nut and bolt to be purchased and every canal and structure to be constructed.
To undertake a preliminary design, basic information is needed about the land and crops to
be irrigated. However, accurate details about land areas and crops may not be necessary at this
stage. To understand this it is important to realize what preliminary design is about. It is to
establish the maximum capacity or size of the system to be constructed and the choices available
to the farmer. The system capacity must be enough to satisfy the maximum amount of water
needed by the crops, and there are simple ways of assessing this without detailed knowledge of
the cropping. Clearly the answer will not be exact but great accuracy is not needed at this stage.
Remember that when a scheme is operating it will run for most of the time at well below its
maximum capacity. It may only run at full capacity for a very short period when the crops are
maturing and need most water. It is very much like designing and using a car. It may be
designed to operate at a maximum speed of 150 km/h, but most drivers would travel well below
this speed and only use the maximum speed occasionally. Thus whether the maximum speed is
150 or 160 km/h is not really very critical to the overall use of the car if it otherwise meets all
the demands made upon it by the driver. If the actual maximum performance is less than
150 km/h, then the car will still get there it will just take a little longer. In the same way the
capacity of an irrigation system need not be determined with great accuracy as long as the
capacity will meet most, if not all, of the operating demands that the farmer will make. If the
capacity falls a little short of demand then the difference can be made up by running the system
for a longer period.
A further aspect of design is considering How will the final cost of the scheme be affected
by the decisions made during the design process?. If, for example, the crop water requirement
is changed by 10%, or a channel is increased in size by 20%, does this significantly affect the
overall cost of the scheme? If it does, then this figure needs to be chosen with considerable
care. If it does not, then such accuracy is not needed. A good designer will concentrate on the
important factors which will have significant effects on the outcome. The inexperienced designer
will need to experiment a little to determine which are the critical factors in the design process.
A final aspect of design, which the inexperienced designer may not realize at first, is that
there are no formulae which can help with the initial decision making. For example, there is no
formula which would show that a pipe should be used instead of an open channel. This is a
matter of choice, which may eventually be decided by cost or some other constraint. The
designer would thus consider both options, prepare a preliminary design for each one, and then
see which was best. Several designs may be done in this way before the best one can be chosen.
In other words, the designer will often choose what seems to be appropriate and then set about
proving that the choices made are indeed the best. This is where an experienced designer can
be invaluable. On the basis of past experience of similar situations the designer may well be
able to greatly simplify the design process because he or she may have a very good idea of what
will be the best solution. Unfortunately, the inexperienced designer must go through a more
rigorous process to arrive at the best solution. This manual is to help the inexperienced designer,
and to try and pass on some of the experience of others in order to shorten and simplify the
design process.
Cost
Cost will be an important factor when making choices. In this manual typical costs are used to
demonstrate the selection process, but the reader must take great care when using conclusions
drawn from this because local costs may vary considerably from those shown. The reader is
thus encouraged to go through the design process using local costs and to make judgements
based on local solutions. Throughout the text the unit of currency used is the United States
dollar ($US).
Introduction
FIGURE 1
Making choices - the design process
Chapter 2
Some basic concepts
2.1
INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides a guide to some of the basic principles which affect energy needs in
small-scale irrigation. SI units the International Metric System are used throughout the
text. Reference is made to other units where appropriate, because it is an unfortunate fact of
life that many different systems are in use in irrigation, and sometimes it can be confusing and
lead to serious mistakes.
The fundamental units in the SI systems are:
Measurement
Length
Volume
Mass
Force
2.2
Unit
metre
cubic metre
kilogramme
newton
Symbol
m
m3
kg
N
PRESSURE
Pressure is a commonly used term, but it does have a special meaning in hydraulics. It describes
the force exerted by water on each square metre of some object submerged in water. It may be
the bottom of a tank, the side of a dam, or a pipeline.
Pressure is normally measured in kilonewtons per square metre (kN/m2). An alternative to
this in irrigation is the bar, where 1 bar is equal to 100 kN/m2. Pressure is calculated by:
Pressure (kN/m2) =
force (kN)
area (m2)
EXAMPLE 1
Calculate the pressure when a force of 10 kN is applied to an area of 2 m2.
- We know that Pressure = force / area, so P = 10 / 2 = 5 kN/m2.
If the area is increased to 4 m2, what will be the nre pressure?
- P = 10 / 4 = 2.5 kN/m2.
Thus the force has remained the same but the pressure is reduced by spreading the force over
A typical operating pressure for a sprinkler system is 3 bar pressure, or 300 kN/m2. This
means that every square metre of the inside of the pipes and pump has a uniform force of
300 kN acting on it. Other common units of pressure are kilogrammes-force per square
centimetre (kgf/cm2) and pounds-force per square inch (lbf/in2).
For conversion from one unit to another:
1 bar = 14.7 lbf/in2 = 1 kgf/cm2 = 100 kN/m2
Pressure measurement
Pressure in pipes can be measured using a
bourdon gauge (Figure 3). Inside the gauge is
a curved tube of oval section, which tries to
straighten out when the system is under
pressure. The tube is linked to a pointer which
moves across a graduated scale and indicates
pressure. Irrigators normally measure pressure
in the field using these gauges as they are robust
and simple to use.
FIGURE 3
Measuring pressure in a pipe
In this manual both the terms pressure and head are used to mean the same thing.
Importance of Pressure
Pressure is important to the successful operation of both sprinkler and trickle irrigation.
Sprinklers must be operated at the right pressure so that the water jet breaks up properly and a
uniform water application is achieved (Section 3.5.2.). The right pressure is also required in
trickle systems so that each emitter gives the same discharge throughout the scheme
(Section 3.5.3).
Atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure of the atmosphere around us, pressing down on our bodies
and the surface of the earth. Although air seems very light, when there is a large depth, as at the
earths surface, it creates a pressure of approximately 100 kN/m2. This is equivalent to l bar or
10 m head of water.
Atmospheric pressure = 100 kN/m2 = 1 bar = 10 m head of water
DISCHARGE
The speed at which water flows in a pipe or channel is called the velocity and is measured in
metres per second (m/s). The discharge is the volume of water flowing along the pipe or
channel each second, and is measured in cubic metres per second (m3/s). To understand this,
consider the case of water flowing in a 100 mm diameter pipe at a velocity of 1.5 m/s (Figure 4).
In one second the quantity of water moving past some point in the pipe will be equal to the
shaded volume shown. This volume is numerically equal to the water velocity multiplied by
the cross-sectional area of the pipe, i.e., 1.5 0.008 = 0.012 m3/s.
FIGURE 4
Calculating discharge
In general terms:
Discharge (m3/s) = cross-sectional area of pipe (m2) x velocity of water (m/s)
FIGURE 5
Measuring discharge
Figure 5-A
Figure 5-C
Figure 5-B
For most small irrigation systems the unit of discharge (m3/s) is much too large and so litres
per second (l/s) is very often used. The conversion is made by multiplying by 1000.
Discharge (l/s) = discharge (m3/s) x 1000
Discharge measurement
Discharge in a pipeline can be measured using a flow meter (Figure 5-A). The meter indicates
the volume of water passing through the pipeline. By noting the time for a given volume of
water to pass the discharge can be determined using the formula:
Discharge (m3/s) = volume of water (m3) / time (s)
A simple way of measuring discharge from a pipe or sprinkler is to catch the flow in a
bucket of known volume, measuring how long it takes to fill (Figure 5-C). The discharge is
calculated using the above formula. See Example 2.
Discharge in open channels can be measured using a weir or flume measuring structure
(Figure 5-B). If no measuring structure is available, a rough guide can be obtained by estimating
the velocity of flow using a float; measuring the cross-sectional area of the channel; and
multiplying the velocity and the area together. (See Training Manual 7: Canals)
EXAMPLE 2
A small plastic tube is connected to a sprinkler nozzle to collect water in a bucket. If the bucket
holds 5 litres and it takes 15 seconds to fill, calculate the sprinkler discharge.
Discharge = volume / time = 5 / 15 = 0.33 l/s
2.4
ENERGY
Energy is another word commonly used in everyday language, but in hydraulics and irrigation
it has a very specific meaning: Energy enables useful work to be done
People and animals require energy to do work. This is obtained by eating food and converting
it into useful energy for work through the muscles of the body.
In irrigation, energy is needed to lift or pump water. Water energy is supplied by a pumping
device driven by human or animal power, or a motor using solar, wind or fossil fuel energy.
Energy measurement
Energy is normally measured in units of watt-hours. One watt-hour is a very small amount of
energy and so engineers tend to use a larger unit, the kilowatt-hour (kWh) instead, where
1 kilowatt-hour = 1000 watt-hours.
Here are some examples of energy use which may be familiar to the reader and which will
provide some practical indication of energy use:
A farmer working in the field uses 0.2 - 0.3 kWh every day.
10
Energy sources
Energy comes from food, in the case of animals and people, and from fossil fuel, wind and
sunshine in the case of engines and motors.
Foods have energy values which our bodies convert into useful energy so that we can do
useful work. In the same way fossil fuels, wind and sunshine have energy which can be converted
into useful energy to pump water.
Table 1 gives some indication of energy values for typical foods, fossil fuels and energy
sources.
TABLE 1
Energy content of fuels and foods
Fuel or
food
Energy
Indicative
efficiency (1)
Maize
Wood
Diesel
Petrol
Wind
Solar
1 kWh/kg
4 kWh/kg
11 kWh/l
9 kWh/l
0.01-41 kWh/m2
1 kWh/m2
10%
10%
20%
10%
20%
5%
Comment
Changing energy
An important aspect of energy is that it can be changed from one form of energy to another.
People and animals can convert food into useful energy to drive their muscles (Figure 6). In a
typical pumping system powered by a diesel engine, the energy is changed several times before
it is usefully used by the water. Chemical energy contained within the fuel (diesel oil in this
case) is burnt in a diesel engine to produce mechanical energy. This is passed to the pump via
11
a drive shaft, and finally to the water. Thus the discharge, pressure or both can be increased. A
pump can be thought of as a device for putting additional energy into a water system.
The system of energy transfer is not perfect and energy losses occur through friction between
the moving parts and are usually lost as heat energy (the human body temperature rises when
work hard; an engine heats as fuel is burnt to provide power). Energy losses can be significant
in pumping systems, and so can be costly in terms of fuel use. This concept is discussed further
in Section 2.6.
Calculating energy requirement
The amount of energy needed to pump water depends on the volume of water to be pumped and
the head required and can be calculated using the formula:
Increasing either the volume of water or the head will directly increase the energy required
for pumping.
EXAMPLE 3
600 m3 of water is pumped each day to a tank 10 m above ground (Figure 7). Calculate the
amount of energy reguired to do this.
Water energy (kWh) = (600 x 10) / 367 = 16.3 kWh.
This is the energy required each day.
FIGURE 7
Illustration of the problem considered in Example 3
2.5
POWER
Power is often confused with the term energy. They are related, but they have different meanings.
Energy is the capacity to do useful work whereas power is the rate at which the energy is used.
12
Power is the rate of using energy and is commonly measured in kilowatts (kW). The
power needed to pump water is called water power.
Power (kW) =
energy (kWh)
time (h)
Another commonly used measure of power is horse power (HP). As it is not part of the
metric units system it will not be used in this manual. However, if comparison is needed the
relationship is 1 kW = 1.36 HP.
EXAMPLE 4
In Example 3 it was calculated that the water energy required each day to lift 600 m3 of water
through 10 m was 16.3 kWh. Calculate the water power needed to do this.
To calculate water power from water energy it is necessary to know the time over which pumping
takes place.
An air conditioner may have a power rating of 3 kW. This means that it uses 3 kWh of
energy every hour. In 24 hours it will consume 72 kWh (3 kW 24 h) of energy at the rate of
3 kW every hour. Thus, power is describing the rate at which the energy is used. The greater
the energy use rate the greater is the power need (Figure 8).
FIGURE 8
Relationship between rate of energy use and power
Another way of calculating power and energy is to use the pump discharge rather than
the volume of water to be pumped.
Water power (kW) = 9.81 x discharge (m3/s) x head (m)
In this case the water power required can be calculated by first using the formula:
Figure 9 is a graph of this formula and from which water power can be obtained.
Energy can then be calculated from power. It is the amount of power used in a given
time period and so:
13
FIGURE 9
Graph relating flow, static head and power
Example 5 demonstrates this approach and shows that the results are the same whichever
method is used to calculate power and energy.
EXAMPLE 5
Referring to Example 4, if 600 m3 of water is pumped 10 m each day, calculate the water power
and energy required, using the pump discharge approach if pumping is for only 6 h/day.
Discharge (m3/s) = volume (m3) / time (s) = 600 / (6 x 3600) = 0.028 m3/s.
Using the above equations:
Water power (kW) = 9.81 x discharge (m3/s) x head (m) = 9.81 x 0.028 x 10 = 2.7 kW.
Water energy (kWh) = water power (kW) x operating time (h) = 2.7 x 6 = 16.3 kWh.
These answers are the same as those obtained in the previous example, thus demonstrating
that water power and energy can be calculated using either approach.
2.6
EFFICIENCY
When pumping irrigation water it is not enough just to meet the water power and energy
requirements. Additional energy and power must be provided because losses occur in transferring
fuel energy to water energy via the power unit and pump. The losses in the system are caused
by friction and water turbulence and are usually expressed as efficiency. This can be expressed
both in terms of energy use and of power use.
14
This provides an overall indication of the way energy is used. It would usually be assessed on
a seasonal or annual basis.
Power use efficiency
Pumping plant power efficiency (%) = (water power / power input) x 100
This provides an assessment of the efficiency with which power is converted from the fuel to
the water, but only at the moment of measurement. The efficiency may vary over time,
particularly if there is wear in the engine and pump.
A system with no friction would have an efficiency of 100% and all the energy and
power input would be transferred to the water. However, this is not the case in real life and
there are always friction losses in all the components of the power unit and pump. This is
discussed more fully in Section 3.3.5.
Sometimes efficiencies can be very low without pump users being aware of the problem.
This can result in excessive energy use and high pumping costs. This is an important aspect of
pumping and is discussed more fully in Chapter 5.
For the purposes of this manual, the efficiencies of energy and power use are assumed to
be the same. In practice this may not be the case. A seasonal assessment of energy use efficiency
may not always give the same value as power use efficiency measured only once or twice
during the season. Note that, in calculations using efficiencies, we always use the decimal
form [(efficiency in %) / 100] of the value.
15
Chapter 3
Choosing a new irrigation system
3.1
INTRODUCTION
Choosing a new irrigation system is about choosing the various components which make up the
system. In this chapter the main components are listed, and guidance is given in how to choose,
for preliminary design purposes, between the various options and component configurations
available.
Figure 10 illustrates the process of preliminary design and the decisions to be made.
Each part of the process is described in this chapter.
FIGURE 10
Choosing irrigation system components
Small-scale pumped irrigation systems are made up of the following components (Figure 11):
Water source;
Pump and power unit;
Distribution system; and
Method of irrigation.
16
FIGURE 11
Components of a typical irrigation scheme
17
The water source, the distribution system and the method of irrigation determine
the energy demand.
The pump and power unit provide the energy supply.
Water source
The water source may be a river or lake (surface water) or a shallow well or borehole
(groundwater). In some cases, water can be abstracted from rivers by gravity, but in many
cases pumping will be needed. In the case of groundwater abstraction, pumping is essential.
(See also Training Manual 6: Scheme irrigation water needs and supply.)
The amount of water abstracted and the height through which it must be lifted from the
river or borehole add to the energy demand.
Pump and power unit
The pump may be driven by a power unit such as a diesel or petrol engine, or an electric motor.
In some special cases solar or wind power, or even hand or animal power, may be used to
provide the power source for the pump, but they are not so common and are generally limited
to very small irrigated plots. In this manual the primary concern is with the use of pumps
driven by diesel or petrol engines, as these are usually the main sources of energy supply
available to most small-scale farmers.
Distribution system
The distribution system conveys water from the pump to the fields and may consist of pipes or
open channels. Some systems are a combination of both. The choice of distribution system has
a significant effect on the energy demand.
Method of irrigation
The method of irrigation may be surface, sprinkler or trickle irrigation. This may also affect
the choice of distribution system and is also significant in determining the energy demand.
Surface irrigation may be supplied by either pipe or open channel systems. Sprinkler and
trickle irrigation systems would normally use piped distribution systems. (See also Training
Manual 5: Irrigation Methods.)
Typical systems
The most common combinations of components for an irrigation system are:
surface irrigation.
surface irrigation.
sprinkler or trickle irrigation.
The first system is the most common for small-scale irrigation, although the advantages of
the second are now being more fully realized. Sprinkle, and especially trickle, irrigation are
growing in importance in some areas where soils are very sandy and water is scarce, or energy
costs are high, or both, but surface irrigation is the dominant method and is likely to remain so
in many countries for the foreseeable future.
18
3.2
WATER SOURCES
A pump is a machine which changes fuel energy into useful water energy and needs a petrol or
diesel engine or an electric motor to drive it. In special circumstances it may also be possible to
use wind or solar energy. For surface irrigation the pump lifts water from a river or groundwater
into a channel or pipe system. For sprinkler and trickle irrigation the pump provides the energy
for the pressure and discharge needed to distribute water in the pipes to the sprinklers and
emitters, in addition to the energy needed to lift water from the source.
3.3.1 Pump types
Although there are many types of pumps and water lifting devices, many are unsuited to irrigation
use. The most commonly used types are the axial flow (or propeller) pump, the radial flow (or
centrifugal) pump, and the mixed flow pump. These are looked at in detail below.
Axial flow pump
An axial flow pump consists of a propeller hence its alternative name housed inside a
tube which is located below the water level (Figure 12). The tube acts as the discharge pipe,
and the power unit turns the propeller by means of a long shaft running down the middle of the
19
FIGURE 12
Typical axial flow pump
pipe and this lifts the water up the pipe. This pump is very efficient for lifting large volumes of
water at low pressure and is ideally suited to lifting water from a river or lake to provide surface
irrigation water to a farm with open channel distribution. However, these pumps tend to be
very expensive because of the high cost of materials, particularly the drive shaft and bearings to
support the shafted propeller. For this reason there are no small axial flow pumps manufactured
of a size suitable for the small farm of 1 - 2 ha. They tend only to be used on larger farms and
for communal schemes, where several small farms are irrigated from the same pump. They are
particularly suited to paddy rice schemes because of the large volumes of water usually needed
for this crop.
Radial flow (centrifugal) pump
Centrifugal pumps are the most common type of pump used on small schemes because they are
much cheaper than axial pumps to buy and maintain. Small pump sets are often readily available
in most developing countries (Figure 13). They are best suited to sprinkler and trickle irrigation,
where a higher pressure is needed than for surface irrigation.
To understand how a centrifugal pump works, consider first how centrifugal forces occur.
Most readers will at some time have spun a bucket of water around at arms length and observed
that no water falls from the bucket even when it is upside down (Figure 13). Water is held in
the bucket by the centrifugal forces created by spinning the bucket. A centrifugal pump makes
use of this idea and can be thought of as many buckets all spinning around together. The
buckets are replaced by an impeller with blades or vanes which spin at high speed inside the
pump casing (Figure 13). Water is drawn into the pump from the source of supply through a
20
FIGURE 13
Radial flow (centrifugal) pump
21
short length of inlet pipe called the suction pipe. As the impeller spins, water is thrown outwards
and is collected by the pump casing and guided towards the outlet. This is called the delivery.
Some pumps have very simple impellers with
straight vanes. These tend to be inefficient because
TABLE 2
they create a lot of turbulence in the flow and hence A guide to selecting centrifugal pumps
energy losses. However they are cheap to make and
are used in cases where efficiency is not important.
Pump size (mm)
Discharge (l/s)
Most irrigation pumps have curved vanes so that the
0-5
25
water enters and leaves the impeller smoothly. This
5 - 15
50
means lower energy losses and higher energy use
15 - 25
75
efficiency. Some impellers have side plates and are
25 - 35
100
called closed impellers. When there is debris in the
35 - 50
125
water open impellers are used to reduce the risk of
blockage.
Centrifugal pumps can be classified into two
types: volute pumps, and turbine (diffuser) pumps. The main difference between them is that
the turbine type has diffuser vanes, which provide diverging passages to direct the water flow.
Centrifugal pumps are often described by the diameter of the delivery connection pipe,
e.g., a 50 mm pump. Table 2 is a guide to selecting centrifugal pump sizes for different flow
ranges.
FIGURE 14
Typical mixed flow pump
Mixed flow
This pump is a mixture of the axial flow and the centrifugal pump and has the advantage of
combining the best features of both pump types (Figure 14). Mixed flow pumps are more
efficient at pumping larger quantities of water than centrifugal pumps and are more efficient at
pumping to higher pressures than axial flow pumps.
They can also operate as submersible pumps, i.e., being completely below the source
water surface.
22
FIGURE 15-A
Pump characteristics: discharge - head
FIGURE 15-B
Pump characteristics: discharge - power
FIGURE 15-C
Pump characteristics: discharge - efficiency
23
Power
All pumps need power to rotate the impeller. The amount of power needed depends on the
speed of the pump and the discharge that is required. The faster the pump rotates, the more
power is needed.
For axial flow pumps there is a very large power demand as the pump is starting because
there is a lot of water and a heavy pump impeller to get moving. Once the pump is under way
the power demand drops to its normal running level.
Centrifugal pumps behave quite differently. The power demand is very low when starting,
but as the discharge increases the power also gradually increases.
Mixed flow pumps operate in between these two contrasting conditions and have a more
uniform power demand over the discharge range.
Efficiency
The concept of efficiency was first developed in Section 2.6. It measures how well the mechanical energy and power from the power unit is converted into water energy and power in the
pump. The pump power efficiency is calculated by:
Pump power efficiency (%) = (water power output / actual power output) x 100
The efficiency generally increases to some maximum value and then falls again over the
discharge range. The maximum efficiency is usually between 30 - 80% and there is only a
limited range of discharges and heads over which the pumps operate at maximum efficiency.
Outside this range the pump will be less efficient and so more power and energy will be needed
to operate the system. Smaller pumps tend to operate at lower efficiencies than larger ones
because they have more friction to overcome relative to their size.
3.3.3 Pump selection
There are many pumps on the market and the designer must try to select a pump which will
provide the discharge and head needed for the scheme while the pump is operating within its
maximum efficiency range.
Table 3 indicates the range of good operating conditions for different pump types.
TABLE 3
Pump selection for small-scale schemes
Irrigation system
Surface irrigation
- open channel distribution
- pipe distribution
- deep tube well
Sprinkler system
Trickle system
Pressure or Head
(bar)
(m)
0.5
1.0
>2.0
2-6
1-2
5
10
>20
2 - 60
10 - 20
Discharge
(l/s)
any
any
any
any
any
discharge
discharge
discharge
discharge
discharge
Pump type
axial1 or mixed
axial1 or mixed
mixed or centrifugal
centrifugal
centrifugal
Note: 1. The ideal pump type, but not usually available for small-scale farming.
A large number of irrigation schemes use surface irrigation and open channel distribution
pumping from shallow water supplies. This situation is ideal for axial flow pumps but
unfortunately few, if any, pumps are available at a reasonable price for the small discharges
24
FIGURE 16
Pump selection based on head and discharge parameters
required on many farms. The only alternative is to use centrifugal pumps instead and accept
that they will run at well below their peak efficiency (Figure 16).
For sprinkler and trickle irrigation much higher pressures are needed and so centrifugal
pumps are ideally suited to this use and will operate more efficiently.
A typical example of pump selection using the data supplied by a manufacturer would be
as follows:
EXAMPLE 6
A centrifugal pump is required for a small sprinkler irrigation system. The discharge required is
12 l/s, at a pressure of 2 bar. Using the information supplied by the manufacturer (see Figure 17),
determine the pump efficiency.
If the same pump was to be used to pump water into an open channel and the pressure needed
for this was only 1 bar, show what effect this would have on the pump discharge and the efficiency.
From Figure 17, the efficiency of the pump at a discharge of 12 l/s and pressure of 2 bar (20 m of
head) is 52%. This is within the high efficiency zone of the pump.
If the pressure required was only 1 bar (10 m of head) the discharge would increase to 18 l/s, but
at the much reduced efficiency of only 12%.
Thus, using an inappropriate pump for the surface irrigation option has a significant effect on the
efficiency of pumping.
25
FIGURE 17
Manufacturers data for a centrifugal pump
Diesel engines tend to be heavier and more robust than petrol engines and are more
expensive to buy. However, they are also more efficient to run and if operated and maintained
properly they have a longer working life and are more reliable than petrol. In some countries
petrol-driven pumps have needed replacing after only 3 years of operation. Diesel pumps
operating in similar conditions could be expected to last at least 6 years. However, it must not
be forgotten that engine life is not just measured in years, it is measured in hours of operation
and its useful life depends on how well it is operated and serviced. There are cases in developing
countries where diesel pumps have been in continual use for 30 years and more.
A diesel-engined pump can be up to four times as heavy as a petrol-engined pump of
equivalent power, and so if portability is important a petrol pump may be the answer.
Electric motors
Electric motors are very efficient in energy use (75 - 85%) and can be used to drive all sizes and
types of pumps. The main drawback is the reliance on a power supply which is beyond the
control of the farmer, and which in many places is unreliable. Inevitably electrical power
supplies usually fail when they are most needed. Heavy demands occur when crops are needing
most water and so a power failure over several days can have disastrous consequences for a
crop. When using trickle irrigation on light sandy soils, serious crop losses may well occur
after only a few days without power.
26
3.3.5 Efficiency
The efficiency of power units and pumps is very variable, and few data are available on actual
field performance of small-scale irrigation pumping installations. The data that are available
indicate that efficiencies are very low, in the range 0.5 to 8%, and that such poor levels are quite
common.
Many of the common causes of low efficiency can be corrected at little cost once the
problem is identified, but unfortunately it is easy to run an inefficient pumping system without
even realizing it. Any shortfall in output is simply made up by running the system for longer
than would otherwise be necessary.
Pumping efficiencies are likely to be much higher for sprinkler and trickle systems as the
head needs of these systems are more favourable to the hydraulic characteristics of centrifugal
pumps.
Figure 18 shows the main components of a small pumping system and the poor efficiencies
that can commonly occur. The main reasons for inefficiency are listed below. Note that improved
efficiency can be achieved by rectifying the common faults.
FIGURE 18
Efficiency of components of pumping plant
Fuel efficiency 90-100%. Fuel is often spilt or leaks from tanks, or from joints in the
fuel pipeline.
27
Power unit to pump transmission If the engine and pump are direct coupled, then
transmission efficiency nears 100%.
Pump efficiency A pump running at optimum head and speed has an efficiency of between
40% and 80%. Many pumps are not run at optimum head and speed, and so their efficiency
could be much lower. This is particularly true for small pumps where the frictional
losses are a higher proportion of the total power requirement.
The overall efficiency of the pumping system can be found by multiplying together the
efficiencies of each component:
Pumping plant efficiency (%)
= fuel efficiency x power unit efficiency x transmission efficiency x pump efficiency x 100
Note that in any calculation of this type the decimal equivalent of the percentage is used,
i.e., an efficiency of 10% becomes 0.1 in the calculation, 20% becomes 0.2, and so on.
Taking the worst and best possible combinations of all the above efficiencies provides
some indication of the most likely range of overall efficiencies:
EXAMPLE 7
Worst condition = 0.9 x 0.1 x 0.9 x 0.4 x 100 = 3%
Best condition = 1.0 x 0.35 x 1.0 x 0.8 x 100 = 28%
This implies that the worst likely efficiency is around 3%. Even this seems good when
compared to the actual field measurements of 0.5% referred to earlier in this section!
Although an efficiency of 30% might be expected from a centrifugal pump operating a
sprinkler or trickle system, it is unlikely to reach this level of efficiency for surface irrigation.
The best that can be achieved would be around 10%.
Peak power demand
The water power and overall efficiency of the pumping plant are used to calculate the overall
power demand.
Overall power demand = water power (kW) / pumping plant efficiency
EXAMPLE 8
A small diesel-driven pump delivers a discharge of 2 l/s when lifting water 3 m from a river.
Calculate the peak power demand when the overall efficiency of pump and power unit is 10%.
Peak power demand = (9.81 x 0.002 x 3) / 0.1 = 0.59 kW
Note that the discharge of 2 l/s must be divided by 1000 to convert it into 3m
/s.
28
FIGURE 19
Suction lift limitations
Pump suction
An aspect of using centrifugal and mixed flow pumps which is not always fully understood,
and which can seriously impair efficiency, is the suction side of the pump.
In cases of shallow groundwater or surface water pumping, the pump is located above
the water surface and water has to be sucked up a short length of pipe into the pump, as shown
in Figure 19. The difference in height between the water surface and the pump is called the
suction lift.
When a pump is operating it draws in water in much the same way as a person sucks
water up through a drinking straw. There is a limit to how high water can be lifted in this way
and it depends on atmospheric pressure (Section 2.2). At sea level this is approximately 10 m
head of water. Sucking creates a low pressure in the drinking straw and the outside pressure of
the atmosphere pushes down on the water surface and forces water up the straw. As atmospheric
pressure is the driving force, this puts a practical limit on the height to which water can be lifted
in this way.
Ideally it should be possible to lift water 10 m, but because of friction losses in the pipe
and pump a practical limit is 7 m. Even at this level many pumps will have difficulty sucking
water. Considerable energy will be needed to suck the water and the pump operator may have
difficulty keeping the pump primed (i.e., keeping the pump and suction pipes full of water
when starting the pump). For this reason, pumps should be located so that the suction lift is less
than 3 m if possible. If the depth to the water is greater than 3 m, then a small shelf can be
excavated and the pump located nearer to the water surface (Figure 19).
Note that these rules only apply when operating in areas close to sea level. Here the
atmospheric pressure is approximately 10 m head of water. For schemes operating at higher
altitudes in mountainous regions the atmospheric pressure may be much lower than 10 m and
so the suction lift will need to be reduced well below 3 m to ensure proper pump operation.
However, not all pumps suffer from suction lift limitations. Pumps designed to work
below the water surface submersible pumps have no such problems.
An example of the effects of variations in suction lift on pump discharge is given by the
case of a small centrifugal pump, which delivered 6.5 l/s when operating at 3 m suction. When
the suction lift was increased to 8 m the discharge dropped to 1.2 l/s a loss in flow of 5.3 l/
29
s, or a loss of 85% of the original discharge! Thus, at the greater suction lift the pump would
have to be operated considerably longer to meet water demand, and at such a low flow rate the
pump may be well away from its best operating efficiency. This example was cited by Wagner
and Lanoix1 (1969).
3.4
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
The distribution system conveys water from the pump to the fields. This may be by open
channels or through pipes. The choice of distribution system affects both the power and energy
requirements.
3.4.1 Open channels
The most common method of distribution is through open channels, which may be lined or
unlined. Channel design affects the energy demand of the system in three ways:
by determining the energy requirement to lift water from its source into the channels;
by influencing energy losses resulting from friction between the water and the canal; and
by influencing the extent of any additional energy required to pump water which is lost
through seepage, canal breaches and misuse.
Water will only flow downhill in open channels and so the layout of canals should ensure
that the highest point in the canal system is near to the pump and water source. In this way
water will then flow downhill under the force of gravity and out onto the fields. Sufficient
power must be provided in this case to lift water from its source into the channels (Figure 20).
The head required is determined by the difference in level between the water source and the
water level in the channel. The water level in the channel at the source must be high enough to
ensure an adequate flow of water to the field, and must include adequate head to allow effective
flow from the channel to the field.
FIGURE 20
Energy demand for open channel distribution
Large water losses can easily occur in open channels. This may be due to seepage
through the bed and sides of a channel. However, open channels, particularly unlined ones, are
prone to breaching, whereupon considerable amounts of water can be lost. They are also easily
1 Wagner, E.G. & Lanoix, J.N. 1969. Water Supply for Rural Areas and Small Communities. Geneva:
World Health Organization.
30
misused. Channels may be left open, particularly when control gates are not working properly,
and water runs to waste. These features of open channels mean that considerable amounts of
water may be pumped which are wasted, using additional energy and fuel for which there is no
benefit in terms of additional crops.
Of course channels can be lined to reduce seepage, but this requires additional capital
expenditure. A choice must then be made between the additional cost of lining and the cost of
pumping the water which would be lost through seepage. This involves a comparison between
capital expenditure and operating costs, which is discussed later in Section 3.8.3.
Lining canals can often seem an attractive way of reducing seepage losses. It can also
reduce maintenance costs and improve irrigation system distribution efficiency. However, if
linings are to be successful they must be constructed with great care. A concrete lining, for
example, needs to be well vibrated as it is poured so as to be impermeable, and must be placed
on channel beds and banks that have been well compacted. If settlement occurs after construction
and the lining cracks, then not only will seepage losses be high but the cost of the specialist
repairs will also be significant.
Water losses in channels for typical irrigation schemes expressed in terms of efficiency
are shown in Table 4.
FIGURE 21
Channel design: dimensions and drop structures
Channel hydraulics
Most irrigation channels excavated in the natural soil are trapezoidal in shape and slope downhill
away from the water source. Channels usually follow the natural ground slope but if the land is
steep, then drop (or fall) structures may be needed to avoid serious erosion problems (Figure
21). Channels with longitudinal bed slopes of less than 1:1000 will usually avoid serious
erosion problems, but a minimum slope of greater than 1:5000 is needed to discourage siltation
and plant growth problems.
Channels which are lined may be trapezoidal but can also be rectangular or semi-circular.
The main aspect of channel design is choosing the bed width and depth of flow. This can
present some difficulties because choosing a value for one affects the other. Thus channel
design is a little more complicated than pipe design because pipes are always circular and so
only one value is chosen the pipe diameter. The reader must look to other texts for the
detailed design of channels, but as guidelines:
31
Unlined channels are designed so that the velocity is low and the bed and sides are not
eroded by the water. For this reason, unlined channels tend to be wide and shallow, spreading
the flow over a large area to reduce the erosive power of the water.
Lined channels are expensive to construct. For this reason they tend to be narrow and deep
which ensures the minimum area of lining for a given channel carrying capacity. The velocity
also tends to be high, but this is not usually a problem as the channel is protected from
erosion by the lining.
3.4.2 Pipelines
Pipelines are often thought to be too expensive for many small irrigation schemes except when
sprinkler or trickle irrigation is used, as then the use of pipes is essential. However, expensive
is a relative word and does not convey a specific meaning. It may well be that when the full
operating advantages of pipes are considered they may be a viable alternative to open channels.
For small-scale surface irrigation schemes, recent research has shown many advantages
for piped distribution systems:
Very low distribution losses even less than lined channels, as it is much easier to close
off the flow in a pipe than in an open channel (See Table 4 for water losses in pipelines
expressed as an efficiency).
Less land area is taken up by buried pipes. Channels can take up 0.5-2% of the command
area.
Pipe systems can provide a more flexible and reliable system of supply.
Pipelines for surface irrigation usually operate at low pressures, typically around 0.5 bar
(5 m of head).
Pipelines are essential for the use of sprinkler and trickle irrigation, and they need to
operate at much higher pressures (typically 2 - 6 bar for sprinkler and 1 - 2 bar for trickle
systems) and need to be strong enough to withstand up to twice the working pressure. The
reason for this is that pressure surges which are much greater than the normal working pressure
can occur in pipes, and can cause bursts. It is thus important to install a pipe with the correct
pressure rating to avoid the expense of repair or even replacement of a complete system.
Energy is needed in pipe systems not only to pump water from the source to the pipe but
also to overcome the energy losses due to friction as water flows down the pipe (Figure 22). If
surface irrigation is used, then water can flow freely from the pipe into the field. If sprinkler or
trickle irrigation is used, then additional energy is needed to ensure the water sprays or drips
properly.
Predicting head losses in pipes is not an exact science, and it easy to make mistakes
when calculating them. In addition, losses can increase as the pipe ages and becomes rougher
inside through continued use. For these reasons the losses in the distribution system should be
kept low at the design stage by choosing pipe diameters that are large enough for friction to not
dominate the operation of the system at some later date. As a guideline, energy losses in the
pipes should be less than 30% of the total pumping head.
32
FIGURE 22
Pipe system and its energy demand
energy needed
to pressurize sprinklers
Pipeline hydraulics
Energy is lost when water flows along a pipe. This is due to friction between the flowing water
and the pipe wall. This energy loss means that the pressure near the pump will always be
greater than at the far end of the pipe. The change in pressure is called the hydraulic gradient
(Figure 23). Additional power and energy must be supplied by the pump to overcome that
friction so that sufficient water is still delivered to the scheme at the right pressures.
Energy loss in pipelines can be measured as a head loss in metres (m). It depends on the
following factors:
Discharge small changes in discharge can cause very large changes in head loss.
Pipe diameter small changes in pipe diameter can cause very large changes in head loss.
Pipe length changes in pipe length cause similar changes in head loss. Increasing a pipe
length from 100 m to 200 m will double the head loss.
33
FIGURE 23
Hydraulic gradient
Different pipe materials have different friction characteristics. The example used in this
text is PVC. If other pipes are used, then values for friction head losses must be obtained
from the supplier.
The smallest diameter pipe may be the cheapest, but it is not always the best choice. Pressure
losses can be very high and so can the cost of providing the extra energy to overcome the
losses. It may be cheaper in the long term to use a larger pipe size, which may have a higher
capital cost but requires less energy in use and so has a much lower operating cost. This
issue is discussed in detail in Section 3.8.5.
Think long term when selecting pipes. Will more water be needed in the future? Will the
system be extended? If so, investment now in a larger pipe size may save high energy costs
later when trying to pump an increased discharge down a pipe which is too small. A common
problem across the world is that farmers install pipelines which are too small. Many regret
the decision later when they see the potential for irrigation and wish to expand their system.
It is not necessary to use a pipe size which is the same diameter as the pump delivery pipe.
For example, a 50 mm diameter pump does not mean the farmer must use a 50 mm diameter
34
FIGURE 24
Nomograph relating pipe diameter, discharge, head loss and velocity
pipe. The diameter is selected according to the above guidelines and if it is different from
the pump diameter then a special section of pipe with a varying diameter (a reducer) is
simply used to connect the pump to the pipeline.
It is important to see what pipe sizes and pumps are available in the local market and to
design around this equipment. This may not always give the most efficient system from an
energy use point of view but it will mean that local support for servicing, maintenance and
repair will be available. Such an advantage may far outweigh any fuel efficiency use issues.
35
EXAMPLE 9
An irrigation scheme uses a 100 mm diameter pipeline, 130 m long, to deliver a discharge of 8 l/s.
Determine the head loss.
From Figure 24:
When discharge is 8 l/s through a pipe of 100 mm , head loss is 10 m/km.
Therefore, over 130 m [= 0.13 km] head loss will be 10 x 0.13 = 1.3 m.
What will be the increase in head loss is the discharge is increased to 16 l/s?
From Figure 24:
When discharge is 16 l/s through a pipe of 100 mm , head loss is 37 m/km.
Therefore, over 130 m [= 0.13 km] head loss will be 37 x 0.13 = 4.8 m.
The increase in head loss is 4.8 - 1.3 = 3.5 m.
Increasing discharge causes a large increase in head loss.
Determine the change in head loss if a pipe of 80 mm is used to deliver the same discharge [8 l/s]
over the same distance [130 m].
FromFigure 24:
When discharge is 8 l/s through a pipe of 80 mm , head loss is 29 m/km.
Therefore, over 130 m [= 0.13 km] head loss will be 29 x 0.13 = 3.8 m.
Difference is 3.8 - 1.3 = 2.5 m, i.e. anincrease in head loss.
A decrease in pipe diameter causes an increase head loss.
Determine the change in head loss if the 100 mm pipe is used to deliver the same discharge [8 l/
s] over twice the distance [260 m].
FromFigure 24:
When discharge is 8 l/s through a pipe of 100 mm , head loss is 10 m/km.
Therefore, over 260 m [= 0.26 km] head loss will be 10 x 0.26 = 2.6 m.
Difference is 2.6 - 1.3 = 1.3 m, anincrease in head loss.
An increase in pipe length causes a corresponding increase in head loss.
Earth canals
Scheme size (ha)
Large: >2 000 ha
Medium: 200 - 2 000 ha
Small: <200 ha
sand
loam
clay
60
70
80
70
75
85
80
85
90
Lined canals
Pipes
95
95
95
95
95
95
36
FIGURE 25
Basin, forder and furrow irrigation
3.5
37
METHODS OF IRRIGATION
There are three methods of irrigation commonly used on small schemes (See also Training
Manual 5: Irrigation Methods):
Surface irrigation
Sprinkler irrigation
Trickle irrigation
TABLE 5
Typical field application efficiencies
for irrigation methods
Irrigation
method
Efficiency (%)
Surface
Sprinkler
Trickle
60
75
90
1. Kay, M. 1986. Surface Irrigation: Systems and Practice. Cranfield, UK: Cranfield Press.
38
An individual rotary impact sprinkler produces a circular wetting pattern with poor
uniformity. To obtain good uniformity, several sprinklers are always operated close together
so that the patterns overlap.
Pressure is an important factor in successful sprinkler operation. Typical operating
pressures range from 2 to 6 bar, and so energy requirements can be much greater than for
surface irrigation. If sprinklers are working at the pressure recommended by the manufacturer
then the distribution will be good. If the pressure is above or below this value then the distribution
will be adversely affected. The most common problem is when pressure is too low and this
happens when pump and pipes wear, increasing friction and so reducing pressure.
Typical data for rotary impact sprinklers are shown in Table 6.
It is usually assumed that sprinkler irrigation is more efficient than surface irrigation.
Potentially this is the case, but it largely depends on how well the system is operated and
maintained. If pipe seals leak or burst, and if sprinklers are left running for longer than necessary,
then wastage is inevitable. For design purposes, a field application efficiency of 75% is generally
used.
Traditional sprinkler irrigation is not so well suited to small farms. Typical spacings for
sprinklers are 18 m 18 m, and so they are not so flexible and adaptable to the multitude of
small plots usually found on many farms. An alternative which may be more applicable to
39
TABLE 6
Typical sprinkler data
Nozzle
diameter
(mm)
4
5
6
8
10
Pressure
(bar)
Diameter of
wetted circle
(m)
3.0
3.0
3.0
4.0
4.5
29
32
35
43
48
Flow
(m3/h)
1.02
1.67
2.44
4.96
8.13
18 x 18 m
18 x 24 m
24 x 24 m
3.2
5.2
7.5
15.3
25.1
..
3.8
5.7
11.4
18.9
..
..
4.2
8.6
14.0
small farms is the use of smaller sprinklers connected to the mainline by flexible hoses (Figure
27). This is often called a hose-pull system. These sprinklers have great flexibility in operation
and are easily re-located around the farm.
For fuller details of the methods, their design and management the reader should refer to
standard text books and other publications3.
FIGURE 27
Hose-pull sprinkler system
40
FIGURE 28
Trickle irrigation
Trickle irrigation is potentially a very efficient method of applying water to crops. Field
application efficiency can be as high as 90%, but like any other method it relies very much on
the skill of the irrigator to achieve this. Field measurements on trickle systems have shown
application efficiencies as low as 25%. This was the result of poor system management rather
than design. The farmers had not fully understood the concept of partial wetting of the root
zone and so they wasted a lot of water trying to wet up the entire area.
Because of the potentially higher efficiency and the operating pressure of only 1-2 bar
this method can use less energy than sprinkler irrigation and in some cases less than surface
irrigation.
Trickle irrigation is very adaptable to small-scale irrigation. It can be ideal for small
plots of trees and row crops requiring different amounts of water. Trickle laterals may also be
moved from one crop row to another to reduce the cost of the system.
Many claims are made about trickle irrigation, such as that it saves irrigation water,
increases yield, etc., but care should be taken in accepting such claims. Crops need a certain
amount of water to grow (Section 3.6.1) and generally they are not aware of where the water is
coming from. If it comes from surface flooding, sprinkling or trickle, it makes little difference
to the plants they respond to water. The saving in water comes from the efficiency with
which the water can be applied and it is here that trickle has a distinct advantage. Some yield
increases have been shown with trickle and this may be due to the favourable soil water conditions
and the nutrients added to the water.
For further detailed information reference should be made to specialist publications1.
3.5.4 Selecting an irrigation method
The selection of an appropriate irrigation method depends on a wide range of technical, economic
and social factors. The main features which would be considered are summarized in Table 7.
1. Such as: FAO. 1980. Localized irrigation. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper, 36.
41
TABLE 7
Factors affecting selection of irrigation method
Irrigation
method
Surface
- basin
- border
- furrow
Sprinkler
Trickle
Crop suitability
Soils
Labour1
Energy
demand
All
All except paddy rice
All except paddy rice and sown or drilled crops
All except paddy rice
Row crops; orchards
Clay, loam
Clay, loam
Clay, loam
Loam, sand
All soils
0.5 - 1.5
1.0 - 3.0
2.0 - 4.0
1.5 - 3.0
0.2 - 0.5
Low
Low
Low
High
Medium
3.6
SYSTEM CAPACITY
An irrigation scheme must be capable of supplying the water needed to grow the crops. In
other words the supply of water must be equal to the demand. The capacity to supply the
required amount of water is called system capacity.
The demand for irrigation water varies considerably throughout the growing season.
For most crops only small amounts are needed in the early stages of crop growth but then
demand rises to a peak as the crop matures. An exception to this is flooded rice when large
quantities of water are needed at the beginning of the season to flood the field. This initial
water demand may even exceed the peak water demand when the crop matures.
Design criteria
To design a scheme for such conditions the designer needs to know (Figure 29):
The maximum discharge required to satisfy the peak water requirements of the scheme, i.e.,
the peak scheme water demand. This is the rate at which water must flow to meet the peak
demand. It will determine the size of the pump and the distribution system and the power
needed for the scheme. The pipes or channels must be large enough to carry this discharge
and the pump and power unit must be powerful enough to deliver the discharge at the
pressure required. It is useful at this point to consider the possibility of future extensions to
the scheme. If this is a possibility, then the designer may oversize the current scheme to
allow for this.
The volume of water required over the season, i.e., the seasonal scheme water demand.
This is the total amount of water needed over the growing season and the designer must be
satisfied that there is enough water available to meet the total water demand for growing the
crops. From this the energy demand for pumping over the growing season can be determined.
System capacity depends on the following:
crop type,
stage of growth, and
climatic conditions;
Field application efficiency; and
Distribution efficiency.
42
FIGURE 29
Peak and seasonal scheme water demands
These factors vary from day to day throughout the growing season and from one season to
another and so this is the reason why the designer is first interested in the maximum daily
demand for water so that a large enough system can be provided. The following explains how
the peak scheme water demand and the seasonal scheme water demand are determined for the
purposes of design.
3.6.1 Crop water requirements
This is the amount of water needed to grow a crop, and can be determined in several ways.
There may be local data available from extension services or research stations, and these are
commonly used as a basis for design.
Another approach is to calculate crop water requirements using information about the
crop, the stage of growth and the rate of evapotranspiration of water from the crop. For details
of this calculation procedure the reader should refer to FAO and other publications1.
1.
43
TABLE 8
Indicative values for crop water needs and
growing periods
Crop
Cereals
Vegetables
Rice (paddy)
Crop duration
(days)
Need1 (mm)
120-140
90-120
90-120
450-650
400-600
800-1500
If the number of days over which the crop grows the crop duration is known, then the
average crop water requirement per day can be calculated:
3
Average crop water requirement (m3/d/ha) = Seasonal crop water requirement (m /ha)
Length of crop duration (days)
Crop water requirement can vary considerably throughout the growing season and the peak
requirement can be at least double the average value calculated above. It is the peak water
demand which the system must be capable of supplying, and so it is this value which must be
used to design the system.
Thus one way of estimating the peak crop water requirement is:
Peak crop water requirement (m3/d/ha) = average crop water requirement (m3/d/ha) x 2
A discharge in m3/d/ha is not a very convenient unit to use for design purposes. A more
common unit is l/s/ha, calculated by:
Peak crop water requirement (l/s/ha) = peak crop water requirement (m3/d/ha) x 0.012
If no information is available on the crops, then assume peak crop water requirement to
be assume 1 l/s/ha for vegetables and cereals and 1.5 l/s/ha for paddy rice.
Peak crop water requirement = 1.0 l/s/ha for vegetables and cereals
(as a working assumption) = 1.5 l/s/ha for paddy rice
44
EXAMPLE 10
Calculate the peak crop water requirement for a vegetable crop in m3/d/ha and in l/s/ha, using the
indicative values given in Table 8.
From Table 8:
Seasonal crop water requirement for vegetables = 400 mm = 400 x 10 = 4000 m3/ha;
Crop duration = 120 days.
Average crop water requirement = 4000 / 120 = 33 m3/d/ha.
Peak daily crop water requirement = 33 x 2 = 66 m3/d/ha.
Converting this to l/s/ha:
- Peak daily crop water requirement = 66 x 0.012 = 0.79 l/s/ha
This discharge in l/s/ha is called the duty. The value assumes that 1 ha of land is being
irrigated and the system will be running 24 hours every day to meet the water demand. In
practice the irrigated area may be more (or less) than 1 ha, and pumping systems are not normally
run 24 hours a day, and may only operate during the day or for a few hours each day. To take
account of areas more (or less) than 1 ha and for different hours of operation, use the following
equation to calculate peak scheme water demand:
Peak scheme water demand =
Note that peak scheme water demand is now expressed as a discharge in l/s and not as a
duty in l/s/ha. Note that to change l/s to m3/s, divide by 1000.
EXAMPLE 11
Continuing Example 10, calculate the peak scheme water demand in both l/s and m3/s for an irrigation
system where the irrigation area is 0.5 ha and pumping will take place for 10 hours each day during
the peak demand period. Surface irrigation will be used, with unlined canals on a sandy soil.
- From the previous example, peak crop water requirement = 0.79 l/s/ha.
- From Tables 4 and 5, distribution efficiency = 0.8, and field application efficiency = 0.6.
Thus, peak scheme water demand (duty) = - 0.79 / (0.6 x 0.8) = 1.65 l/s/ha
and peak scheme water demand - (1.65 x 24 x 0.5) / 10 = 1.98 l/s, say 2 l/s [=0.002 m3/s].
45
Continuing Example 12, calculate the seasonal scheme water demand in m3.
From a previous calculation, the seasonal crop water requirement = 4000 m3//ha.
Seasonal scheme watger demand = (4000 x 0.5) / (0.6 x 0.8) = 4166 m3.
3.7
Peak power demand is determined using the equation developed in Section 3.3.5, namely:
Overall power demand (kW) =
This formula is useful when calculating the maximum daily energy use based on the
peak scheme water demand. It is not so suitable for calculating seasonal energy use because
the demand for water may vary considerably from week to week. The demand is low at first
and then builds up to a peak as the crop matures. The pump will still deliver water at the same
power (i.e., same discharge and pressure) and so the hours of operation are varied in order for
the required volume of water to be provided at each stage of crop growth.
Thus, to calculate overall seasonal energy demand the total hours of operation throughout
the season (or year) would need to be known.
Another way of approaching this is to work from the total amount of water to be pumped
in a season (or year) using the equation developed in Section 2.4.
Water energy =
The volume of water is the seasonal scheme water demand (Section 3.6.3). Allowing for he
efficiency of the pumping plant gives the overall energy need as follows:
46
EXAMPLE 12
Continuing Example 12, a small diesel pump working at an efficiency of 10% delivers 2 l/s [= 0.002
m3/s] to irrigate 0.5 ha of vegetables from a shallow well 5 m deep. Maximum daily pumping is for 10
hours. Calculate the peak power required to do this, the daily energy use, and the seasonal energy
demand over the season.
Peak power demand (kW) = (9.81 x 0.002 x 5) / 0.10 = 0.98 kW
Energy demand per day = 0.98 x 10 = 9.8 kWh.
For seasonal energy demand an assessment of the seasonal scheme water demand must first be
made:
Seasonal crop water requirement = 400 mm
Seasonal crop water requirement (m3) = crop water requirement (mm) x 10
= 400 x 10 = 4000 m3/ha.
Allowing for field application efficiency (60%) and distribution efficiency (80%):
3
Seasonal scheme water demand = (4000 x 0.5) / (0.6 x 0.8) = 4 166 m
Overall seasonal energy demand =volume of water (m3) x head (m)
367 x pumping plant efficiency
= (4 166 x 5) / (367 x 0.1) = 568 kWh.
From the power of the pump and the seasonal energy requirement it is possible to calculate the
average number of hours that the pump must operate daily:
Crop duration = 120 days
Average daily hours of pumping = overall seasonal energy demand (kWh)
crop duration (days) x power (kW)
This can be compared to the maximum daily pumping of 10 hours, and indicates that there are
considerable periods when the hours of pumping will be well below the maximum.
3.8
COSTS
The selection of an irrigation system cannot be done without considering the cost. The designer
will try to select the least costly system or one which meets the farmers requirements at a cost
that can be recovered from the sale of the produce from the scheme. In other words it must be
financially worthwhile to irrigate.
The system capacity, the choice of technology and its management and maintenance,
determine the overall cost of the scheme. This is not just the cost of constructing the system
and buying pumps and irrigation equipment (capital cost) but also the cost of running the
system over many years (operating costs).
The idea of cost-effectiveness is an important one. Although the choice of irrigation
system should involve both capital and operating costs, sometimes the choice is not an easy
one. Capital costs are easily identified sums of money which must be paid out when installing
a scheme. Operating costs are much less clear and are spread over many years, and so there is
a tendency for farmers to choose a scheme based only on a minimum or acceptable capital cost.
They may also lack the immediate cash to invest in the more expensive systems which could
save them money in operating costs in the longer term.
Even choosing capital equipment can create difficulties. Should a farmer, for example,
buy a cheap pump which may only last a few years or buy a more robust but more expensive
model which may provide good service for many years?
Faced with a choice of using pipes or open earth canals, a farmer may opt for canals as
they are cheaper to construct. But they do require regular maintenance; they are prone to
seepage problems; and are difficult to manage efficiently. Pipes, on the other hand, may be
more expensive to buy but they will need little maintenance; there should be no loss of water;
and they are easier to manage.
47
For sprinkler or trickle irrigation, a farmer may prefer to buy small diameter pipes because
they are cheaper than larger ones. What may not be considered is the increase in power required
to pump water along smaller pipes because of increased friction, and the resulting, and often
considerable, rise in energy use and hence the energy cost. This additional energy cost over a
few years of operation may well be far greater than the cost of installing larger diameter pipes.
We now come to the key question that this manual has been gradually leading up to:
How can the designer reconcile all these issues and come forward with sensible advice
for the farmer?
The following method is the one that is normally used to make real cost comparisons between
systems, but it must be stressed that it may not always provide the right answer. There are some
very practical considerations which may influence the farmers final choice of equipment.
One other point to bear in mind is that both capital and operating costs will vary a great
deal from country to country. They will depend on the cost and availability of materials and
labour, and taxes or duties imposed by countries on manufactured and imported goods. Hence
it is not possible to provide a universally applicable list of costings in this manual and from
which the designer could choose. Such costings must be prepared locally to suit local
circumstances. However, there are broad guidelines, and they are given.
3.8.1 Capital cost
This is the cost of constructing the irrigation
scheme to the point where it is ready for use.
It may include pumps; pipes and field equipment; construction of open channels; and land
preparation such as bush clearance and
levelling.
TABLE 9
Useful life of irrigation system components
Item
Petrol-engined pump
Diesel-engined pump
Electrically-driven pump
Pipelines
- on the surface
- buried
Sprinkler and trickle equipment
Open channels
- unlined
- lined
Years
4
10
10
Energy
Labour
These costs are incurred regularly throughout the useful life of the scheme and so a time
period needs to be set over which the costs can be assessed. Usually the operation of a scheme
is similar from one season or year to the next and so a common approach is to consider costs on
the basis of one cropping season or over a full year as a suitable period.
48
Energy
This is the cost of providing fuel to operate the irrigation system. In some cases it can be the
most important of the operating costs, and needs to be considered most carefully at the design
stage (see Chapter 4).
If diesel or petrol is the main fuel used, then the cost per litre can be determined from the
local market. The scarcity of such fuels must also be considered. If there are occasional
shortages, particularly at peak pumping periods, then the farmer may have to pay a higher price
than normal.
Electricity, if available, will be costed at each unit of energy consumed, i.e., in kWh.
The energy cost is calculated from the seasonal energy demand (Section 3.7), the fuel
consumption of the engine (Table 1), and the cost of fuel, using the formula:
Seasonal energy cost ($)
= seasonal energy demand (kWh) x fuel consumption (l/kW) x cost of fuel ($/l)
EXAMPLE 14
Continuing Example 13, if the cost of diesel fuel is $ 0.35/l, and the fuel consumption is 0.09 l/kWh,
calculate the seasonal energy cost.
Seasonal energy demand is 568 kWh (from Example 13).
Overall seasonal energy cost = 568 x 0.09 x 0.35 = $ 18
Petrol-engined pump
Diesel-engined pump
Electrically driven pump
Pipelines, sprinkler and
trickle equipment
Unlined channels
10%
5%
1%
2%
10%
Labour
Labour is needed to operate irrigation systems, including
such jobs as pump operation and the day-to-day irrigation
49
of plots. The labour required will vary from system to system. Surface irrigation tends to be
more labour intensive than sprinkler or trickle irrigation. As in the case of scheme maintenance,
a farmer and his family may provide the labour and so it is not something to be paid out for in
cash.
3.8.3 Overall cost
When a suitable irrigation system has been selected and a capital cost determined, the operating
costs can then be calculated. From this the overall cost can be found, which is the sum of the
capital cost and the operating cost.
Overall cost = capital cost + operating cost
The designer may then consider other suitable systems to see what effect they have on
the overall cost of the scheme. From this process the designer, with the farmer, can investigate
different ways of irrigating and select the most appropriate system at the right level of overall
cost.
Adding capital costs to operating costs to determine the overall cost is not just a matter of
simple addition.
The capital cost is easily determined and is fixed at the time of purchasing the equipment,
but how can the life of the equipment be taken into account? How can a petrol-engined pump
with a relatively low cost, but lasting only 4 years, be compared with a diesel-engined pump
costing much more, but lasting 10 years?
Operating costs can also be easily assessed for the coming year because the cost of fuel
and spare parts will be known, but prices change from year to year, and may be quite different
in 4-5 years time. Also, how many years of operation should be considered when trying to
compare a capital investment now with possible savings in operating costs in the future?
Comparing different costs
There are several ways in which both capital and operating costs can be combined for comparison,
but one simple approach is to use the idea of Equivalent Annual Cost (EAC).
In order to use the EAC method, the interest rate (sometimes called the discount rate) on
money invested locally in the bank must be known, as this affects the overall costs of systems.
This rate is usually published by the bank on a regular basis. The reason for this is that the
value of money changes each year and this needs to be taken into account when making decisions
about costs over several years. For example, $ 100 invested in the bank now at an interest rate
of 8% will have a value of $ 108 in one years time. Conversely, if $ 100 needs to be spent in
one years time then its present value this year would be $ 93 this being the amount that
would have to be invested now to produce $ 100 in one years time. It is called the Present
Value (PV). For $ 100 to be spent in two years time, the present value would be $ 86.
EAC is a way of adjusting the probable costs of items to the stream of equal amounts of
payment over a certain period (equivalent annual cost) so that they can properly be compared
with each other.
EAC Method
The EAC method works in a slightly different way to the idea of Present Value. Rather than
converting future running costs to present values, it converts initial capital costs to an equivalent
50
annual cost over the useful life of the equipment, by multiplying the capital cost by a factor
the Capital Recovery Factor (CRF) which permits one to calculate the equal installments
necessary to repay a loan over a given period at a stated interest rate. To this is added the
annual operating cost. This is done for each alternative option or system and the one which
shows the lowest EAC is the cheapest solution. CRF values are based on bank interest rates
and are listed in Table 11 for different interest rates and years of useful life.
TABLE 11
Capital recovery factors (CRF)
Interest
rate %
Years
2
.538
.367
.282
.231
.545
.374
.289
.237
.553
.381
.295
.244
.561
.388
.302
.250
10
15
20
.197
.173
.203
.179
.155
.141
.130
.096
.080
.161
.147
.136
.103
.087
.210
..216
.186
.167
.153
.142
.110
.094
..192
.174
.160
.149
.117
.102
.568
.395
.309
.257
.223
.199
.181
.167
.156
.124
.110
10
.576
.402
.315
.264
.230
.205
.187
.174
.163
.131
.117
11
.584
.409
.322
.271
.238
.212
.194
.181
.170
.139
.126
12
.592
.416
.329
.277
.243
.219
.201
.188
.177
.147
.134
13
.599
.424
.336
.284
.250
.226
.208
.195
.184
.155
.142
14
.607
.431
.343
.291
.257
.233
.216
.202
.192
.163
.151
15
.615
.438
.350
.298
.264
.240
.223
.210
.199
.171
.160
Example 15 and the Case Studies of Chapters 4 and 5 show how this method is used in
practice.
EXAMPLE 15
Two pumps - one petrol driven and the other diesel driven - are being considered for an irrigation
scheme. Based on the information given below, determine which is the cheaper pump to buy and
operate.
Diesel-engined pump
Petrol-engined pump
Capital cost ($)
2000
500
Useful life expectancy (years)
10
4
Annual operating costs ($)
100
300
Interest rate (%)
6
6
First calculate the EAC for the diesel pump:
EAC of capital cost = CRF x capital cost.
From Table 11: CRF = 0.136. Therefore EAC = 0.136 x 2000 = $ 272
To find the full EAC the annual operating cost must be added to this:
Full EAC = 272 + 100 = $ 372.
Similarly for the petrol pump:
EAC of capital cost = CRF x capital cost.
From Table 11: CRF = 0.289. Therefore EAC = 0.289 x 500 = $ 145
To find the full EAC the annual operating cost must be added to this:
Full EAC = 145 + 300 = $ 445.
Comparing the EAC of both pumps as calculated in Example 15, the diesel-engined
pump would be the cheaper solution, even though it has the higher capital cost. However, this
51
is not the complete picture, as changes in both the interest rate and the life of the pump can
affect things quite significantly.
Changing interest rate
Using the figures for the diesel and petrol pumps to calculate the EAC values for different
interest rates allows us to see how this would affect the choice of pump.
Table 12 is a tabulation of the above
calculations repeated for different discount
rates.
The interest rate clearly has a significant effect on choice of pump. If interest
rates are low then the more expensive capital equipment with relatively low operating
cost is favoured. If they are high then it
may be more cost effective to choose a less
durable pump with a lower capital cost and
a relatively high operating cost.
TABLE 12
EAC values for pumps at various discount rates
Interest
rate (%)
6
12
15
Diesel
Petrol
372
454
498
445
465
475
Choice
diesel
diesel
petrol
TABLE 13
EAC values for pumps for different life
expectancies
Petrol pump
Diesel pump
Life
(years)
EAC
(%)
Life
(years)
EAC
(%)
2
4
6
572
445
401
6
8
10
506
422
372
To summarize:
At a low interest rate: invest in low capital cost equipment with high operating cost.
At a high interest rate: invest in high capital cost equipment with low operating cost.
Extending the useful life of equipment reduces overall costs and may influence equipment
selection
What about other equipment?
The above example was applied only to pump selection, simply to demonstrate the principle
and the process of calculation. Clearly there are many other components that together make an
irrigation system (pipes, canals, structures, etc.,) and these would all need to be taken into
account when comparing the overall costs of different scheme.
The EAC for each scheme option would be determined in total and this would form the
basis for comparison. In Chapters 4 and 5 there are examples of how this process is applied to
a scheme as a whole. In the Annex, a simple program for calculating EACs for the various
options is provided for those with access to a computer and Lotus 1-2-3 software.
52
Distribution
system
Unlined channels
100 mm dia. pipe
75 mm dia. pipe
50 mm dia. pipe
40 mm dia. pipe
30 mm dia. pipe
Seasonal scheme
water demand (m3)
Head (m)
Seasonal energy
demand (kWh)
Seasonal energy
cost ($)
4166
3360
3360
3360
3360
3360
5.00
5.06
5.11
6.10
9.50
16.80
568
463
468
558
869
1538
18
15
15
18
27
48
The results demonstrate that there are savings in energy to be made by changing from an
unlined channel to a pipe system. However, remember that this does not take account of the
capital cost of the pipe and so it is difficult at this stage to say which will be cheaper overall.
What is clear, though, is the dramatic rise in energy cost as the pipe diameter is reduced in size.
Note the significant difference in energy cost between 50 and 40 mm and between 40 and
30 mm diameter pipes. The extra energy cost here over several years of pumping may well
make it worthwhile to buy the larger pipe.
Changing the irrigation method
The effects on seasonal energy use of changing the irrigation method can also be calculated
using the procedures described. However, a direct comparison between the methods solely on
the basis of seasonal energy use does not in itself have any significant meaning and must be
considered in the context of the scheme as a whole. This is done in Chapters 4 and 5, where two
contrasting case studies are examined. The reasons for this are as follows:
Each irrigation method has a different level of field application efficiency, which means
different volumes of water will be pumped.
All three methods will require significantly different pressures. Sprinkler irrigation requires
much higher pressures than surface irrigation and so may require more energy. Trickle
53
FIGURE 31
Relationship between pipe size and seasonal energy cost
irrigation may require less energy than surface irrigation because of the greatly improved
potential efficiency of water use.
Pumping plant efficiency may also be different. If a centrifugal pump is used it is better
suited to the pressure and discharge requirements of a sprinkler or trickle system than a
surface system and so it is likely that it will operate at a higher efficiency.
All these factors have a direct influence on energy use. Some increase energy use whilst
others reduce it. The amount of increase or decrease largely depends on the numbers chosen.
For example, sprinklers may operate between 2.5 and 4.0 bar pressure and centrifugal pump
efficiency may vary between 10 and 30%. Choosing one set of numbers for surface irrigation
and other sets for sprinkler and trickle would not allow any meaningful comparison to be made.
The choice between methods can only really be considered on a cost basis in the context of the
whole scheme (Chapters 4 and 5).
3.8.5 Some general conclusions
A detailed analysis involving both capital and operating costs of each option available can be
carried out to determine the most cost-effective solution. However, this has been done many
times by others and from this some conclusions can be drawn which are generally applicable to
small-scale irrigation.
Mains electricity, if it is available, can usually provide the cheapest method of pumping for
farms of all sizes.
Petrol pumps are normally cheaper to buy and operate for small farms of 0 - 2 ha).
Diesel pumps are normally more cost effective for farms larger than 2 ha.
Individual farms in many countries are much less than 2 ha. Diesels can be made cost
effective by grouping a number of small farms together to share a common irrigation system.
54
A detailed analysis of the cost of buying and operating pumping systems was made in an
FAO (1986) publication, Water Lifting Devices1. The reader is referred to this document for
further detailed reading.
3.8.6 Some practical considerations
Availability of equipment
In practice the designer may not always have the full range of choice of pumping systems, pipe
sizes, etc. For example, if only 75 mm petrol pumps are available on the local market there is
little point in specifying a 50 mm pump. The 50 mm pump may be the most cost-effective
choice on paper, but the availability of pumps and spares may be the deciding factor.
Availability of money
The availability of cash may well determine what the farmer can afford to buy and this may not
always be the most cost effective in the long term.
If the farmer has access to good credit or is receiving a cash grant from an agency to
build an irrigation system, then the best type of scheme to buy would be one which requires a
high capital cost and low operating costs.
If, on the other hand, the farmer is buying from his own resources or has to borrow
money at very high interest rates, then the best scheme might be one with a low capital cost
(that the farmer can afford to buy) involving higher operating costs. In this way the farmer will
avoid a large debt during construction and will be able to pay the operating costs from revenue
from the scheme.
Availability of labour
On many small farms the farmer and his family provide the labour for operating the irrigation
system and no direct cash payment is made for outside help. In this case the cost of labour may
not be included in the operating cost calculations. However, in some cases the farmer and
some members of his family may have employment elsewhere and have to hire labour for
irrigation. In this case the cost of the labour would need to be included. This can be a significant
cost and may well have an influence on the EAC values and the choice of system, particularly
as some systems are more labour intensive than others.
55
Chapter 4
Case study - 1
A small vegetable farm using surface water
or shallow groundwater
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter and the next the principles and processes described in Chapter 3 are brought
together to show how they can be applied to two typical small-scale irrigation schemes. The
two examples that have been chosen are:
a small farm growing vegetables and using surface water or shallow groundwater, which is
considered in this chapter, and
a group scheme of several small farms growing paddy rice and using deep groundwater,
which is considered in the next chapter.
Alternative methods of irrigation and distribution will be considered to show how choices
can be made and how this selection is influenced by energy costs.
4.1
OPTIONS AVAILABLE
A farmer visits the local extension office and indicates an interest in irrigating vegetables in the
dry season. The farm size is 0.5 ha, the soil is a sandy loam, and at this stage the farmer has
only a vague idea of the cropping pattern but wishes to get the best returns from the market
place in terms of expenditure on the scheme. There is a river nearby and the local groundwater
is only 2 m below ground level, and this source of water supply is assumed to be adequate.
There are several possible design options. The main ones are:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Several more combinations could be added to these by choosing lined or unlined canals, or
different pump motors , diesel, electric or petrol. These are not considered here but would all
be part of the design process.
The design follows the general steps in Figure 1, and the more detailed steps in Figure 10.
Case Study - 1
56
4.2
The first step is to establish how much water is needed for the scheme. Two estimates are
needed:
- Peak crop scheme water demand (l/s) - to determine the size of the system; and
- Seasonal scheme water demand (m3) - to determine the amount of water needed over the
season.
The procedure for calculating both of these values is given in Section 3.6.
Assumptions!
As the farmer is not sure about the crops to be grown and their timing assume a peak crop water
requirement of 1 l/s/ha.
To assess the seasonal crop water requirement assume an average seasonal crop water requirement
for vegetables of 500 mm.
Seasonal crop water requirement (m3/ha) = 10 x seasonal crop water requirement (mm)
= 10 x 500 = 5000 m/ha
Assume average crop duration is 110 days.
Check!
To check the peak crop water value of 1 l/s/ha use the seasonal crop water requirement as follows:
Average crop water requirement (m3/d/ha) =
Note that when more detailed information becomes available this figure can be refined, but at
present it is good enough for preliminary design.
Based on the above figures for crop water requirements, the scheme water demand can
be assessed by taking account of the efficiencies of the distribution system and the method of
irrigation. Different demands will result from using different systems and methods. Table 15
uses the various values of efficiency taken from Chapter 3 to show the effect of these on the
peak scheme water demand and on the seasonal scheme water demand.
TABLE 15
Calculating scheme water demand
Design
option
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Efficiency (%)
Peak daily
(l/s/ha)
[1]
Seasonal
(m3/ha)
[2]
Distribution
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
5000
5000
5000
5000
85
95
95
95
[3]
Irrigation
method
[4]
Peak
(l/s)
[5]
Seasonal
(m3)
[6]
60
60
75\90
3.9
3.5
2.8
2.3
4900
4385
3510
2925
Notes: Columns [3] and [4] are obtained from Tables 3 and 4 respectively. Columns [5] and [6] are from formulae
in Sections 3.6.2 and 3.6.3 respectively, where [5] = ([1] x 0.5 x 24) / ([3] x [4] x 6.0); and [6] = ([2] x 0.5) /
([3] x [4]). In the calculations, efficiency in % is expressed as the decimal equivalent, e.g., 85% is 0.85.
57
Assumptions!
- Assume that there will be a maximum of 6 hours of pumping each day.
- Assume that the entire area of 0.5 ha is under cropping.
Note that from Table 15 it can be seen that a lower peak scheme water demand and
seasonal scheme water demand is required for the sprinkle and trickle options than for the
surface irrigation. This may lead to lower energy requirements for pumping the water and
lower operating costs, but this may be offset by the higher capital costs of the system.
4.3
From the calculation of scheme water demand, an assessment can now be made of power and
energy demand (Section 3.7). The calculations are tabulated in Table 16.
Assumptions!
Assume that a small petrol-driven centrifugal pump will be used. This will not be very efficient for the
surface irrigation option, but there is unlikely to be an axial flow pump available. The centrifugal pump
should operate at a higher efficiency for the sprinkler and trickle irrigation (Figures 16 and 18).
Therefore assume efficiencies of - 10% for options (i) and (ii), surface irrigation; and
- 30% for options (iii), sprinkler, and (iv), trickle irrigation.
Assume the following factors which make up the total pumping head:
Option
Pressure loss in
distribution (m)
[2]
Operating application
pressure (m)
[3]
Total pumping
pressure (m)
[1] + [2] + [3]
i.
ii.
iii
iv.
2
2
2
2
0
1
6
2
0
0
30
10
2
3
38
14
Pressure losses in distribution are assumed to be 1 m for Option (ii) because of the low pressure
requirement, and 20% of operating pressure for options (iii) and (iv).
Fuel: assume that fuel consumption is 0.11 l/kWh, and fuel cost to be $ 0.35/l.
TABLE 16
Overall power and energy demands
Design option
Scheme water demand
- peak discharge (m3/s)
- volume (m3)
Pump
- efficiency (%)
- head (m)
Peak power demand (kW)
Energy demand (kWh)
Energy cost ($)
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
[1]
[2]
0.0039
4 900
0.0035
4 385
0.0028
3 510
0.0023
2 925
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
10
2
0.76
267
10
10
3
1.03
358
14
30
38
3.48
1211
47
30
14
1.05
372
14
Notes: Rows [1] and [2] are taken from Table 15, columns [5] and [6] respectively.
Rows [5] and [6] are calculated from formulae in Section 3.7, where [5] = (9.81 x [1] x [4]) / [3]; and [6] = ([2]
x [4]) / (367 x [3]).
Row [7] is calculated from the formula in Section 3.8.2, where [7] = [6] x 0.11 x 0.35.
Efficiency in the calculations is expressed as the decimal equivalent, e.g., 10% is 0.1.
58
Case Study - 1
4.4
59
OVERALL COSTS
Both capital and operating costs are tabulated in Table 17 to calculate the Equivalent Annual
Cost (EAC) of each scheme in order to demonstrate which is the cheapest option.
4.5
CONCLUSIONS
Too many assumptions were made in the calculations which, if they were to be changed,
might affect the final answer.
Local practical and financial constraints may over-ride the calculation completely.
Changing assumptions
The answers obtained by calculations need to be tested by asking: What happens if --------?
. What happens if the pumping efficiency is lower than expected?
The assumed efficiency of pumping for Option (i) is 10%. In practice this may not be the case
and it could be as low as 3% or 1% (Section 3.3.5). The efficiencies of Options (ii), (iii) and
(iv) may be similar to those selected because the pump characteristics are more suited to pipe
systems. In this case a comparison of total EAC values would be as follows (See also Figure 32):
- In the example, the pumping efficiency for Option (i) was assumed to be 10%, and this gave
a Total EAC of $ 240. If the pumping efficiency is less than this , 3% , Total EAC becomes
$ 264. If efficiency is lower still, at only 1%, the Total EAC increases to $ 333.
- If water management practices are poor and the distribution efficiency dropped from 85%
to 75%, and field application efficiency from 60% to 50% for Option (i), then the total EAC
would further increase to $ 276 with 3% pumping plant efficiency.
Thus, if Option (i) were not operated as designed, which past experience indicates may very
well happen, then the overall cost of Option (i) could rise rapidly. Then Options (ii), (iii) and
(iv) become more attractive financially.
. What happens if the interest rate
changes?
The effect on cost is set out in the
accompanying table (See also Figure 33).
A change in interest rate would not affect
the decision as the cost of each option rises
60
Case Study - 1
61
as the interest rate increases. This is contrary to the outcome of the example given in Section
3.8.3 because the operating costs of Options (ii), (iii) and (iv) are generally higher than Option (i).
. What happens if the groundwater source is much deeper than expected?
The effect on EAC of increasing groundwater
depth is set out in the accompanying table,
where the original example, with a depth of
2 m, is compared to three greater depths (See
also Figure 34).
The costs of the different options are much
closer together as the depth to the water source
increases. This is because the increased depth
adds directly to the head and the energy for pumping. An increase in head from 2 to 17 m has
a significant effect on Options (i) and (ii), where pressure requirements are small, and only a
relatively small effect on Options (iii) and (iv), which operate at much higher pressures.
Case Study - 1
62
Equipment available (Section 3.8.6) may be limited so that an ideal choice cannot be made.
An example is the choice of a small centrifugal pump for surface irrigation in Option (i). It
is not the ideal pump but it is usually the only type available.
Availability of spare parts, good maintenance facilities and a regular supply of fuel.
The experience of local farmers and extension officers in irrigation. If people have the
experience, they may be able to take advantage of more technically advanced equipment
such as that needed for trickle or sprinkle irrigation. If not, then it is advisable to start with
surface irrigation, as that usually can be easily supported with the resources available.
The availability of money will influence what the farmer can afford to buy and when (Section
3.8.6).
What to choose?
What is clear from this example is that the choice between options is not a simple one. Too
much can depend on local costs and constraints, and some of these issues may be difficult to
resolve. There is no simple way of calculating the answer. All the above factors must be
reconciled in the process of choice.
A general comment that might be drawn from the example, though, is that Option (i),
which is the most common one chosen, will only be the best option if everything works as
planned. Experience in the field, however, indicates that it is unlikely to operate this way
without a great deal of effort, because of the complexities involved in water management (Section
3.5.1). Few designers set out to design for the very worst operating efficiencies and so Option
(i) invariably works out as the most attractive on paper, but may not always be so in practice.
Options (ii), (iii) and (iv), with piped distribution, will be much easier to manage and are
more likely to work as designed because water management skills are built into the design and
are not left to the farmer to decide.
4.6
GUIDELINES
The two case studies are treated together in Section 5.6 with regard to guidelines.
63
Chapter 5
Case study - 2
A group scheme for paddy rice irrigation,
using deep groundwater
5.1
OPTIONS AVAILABLE
A group of 15 farmers wish to develop an irrigation scheme for the production of 2 crops of
paddy rice each year. The total area to be irrigated is 19 ha, and water will be obtained from
groundwater, abstracted by pumping from a depth of 20 m.
Both diesel- and electrically-driven pumps are available, and so there are four main
options:
i.
Electric pump
ii.
iii.
iv.
This Case Study follows a similar path to Case Study , 1, and so much of the explanation
between steps is not repeated.
5.2
Scheme water demands for the four options are given in Table 18, based on the following
assumptions:
Assumptions!
Peak daily crop water requirement = 1.5 l/s/ha.
Assume seasonal water requirement for rice is 1 200 mm.
As two crops will be grown each year, annual water requirement = 2 400 mm, but
this is used as the seasonal crop water requirement in the calculation.
Seasonal crop water requirement (m3/ha) = 10 x seasonal water requirement (mm)
= 10 x 2 400 = 24 000 m3/ha.
Field application efficiency = 60%.
Distribution efficiency
- for open channels = 85%.
- for pipelines = 95%.
Hours of operation daily (maximum) = 18 hours.
64
Case Study - 2
65
66
Case Study - 2
5.5
67
CONCLUSIONS
Options (i) and (iii), involving electrically-driven pumps, are much cheaper to operate
than Options (ii) and (iv) that use diesel-engined pumps.
This is generally the case, as electric pumps operate much more efficiently than diesels.
However, much depends on the price of electricity, and there is also the problem of security
of energy supply. Is the electricity source reliable? If not, then the cost advantages mean
very little and the diesel option may be the best.
The energy cost is a much more significant part of the overall cost than was the case in
Case Study , 1. It ranges here from 73% to 84% of the total cost, depending on the option
chosen. Thus any savings in energy will result in significant cash savings.
The use of a piped distribution system costs only a little more than the open channel options,
and may well improve irrigation water use efficiency through simplifying irrigation water
management practices.
Changing assumptions
If some of the assumptions made in the calculations are changed, what happens?
. What happens if the efficiency of the diesel pump falls below 10%, or that of the electric
pump below 50%?
Design option
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
50
13 270
10
22 960
50
14 130
10
24 890
40
15 700
5
41 720
40
16 850
5
45 870
30
19 770
3
66 730
30
21 390
3
73 840
20
27 890
1
191 800
20
30 480
1
213 720
All the costs increase as efficiency levels drop, but the costs of the diesel options, (ii) and
(iv), rise much more rapidly than the electric options, (i) and (iii) (Figure 35).
A fall in efficiency from 50 to 40% increases the cost of the electric options by only 15%,
whereas a fall from 10 to 3% increases the cost of the diesel options by 160%!
. What happens if the groundwater source is much deeper than expected?
Design option
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
13 270
18 140
23 010
27 890
22 960
32 340
41 720
51 100
14 130
18 490
22 850
27 210
24 890
33 280
41 670
50 060
Case Study - 2
68
The figures given for the various EACs if groundwater is deeper than in the original example
show clearly that although all the options rise in cost for both diesel and electric pumping, the
use of a piped distribution (Options (iii) and (iv)) becomes more attractive economically as the
depth to groundwater increases (Figure 36).
Changes in the expected useful life period of the pump or of the distribution system, or
changes in the interest rate, all also affect the overall cost, but do not change the overall result
of the calculation.
Practical and financial constraints
As in Case Study , 1, any local practical or financial constraints may well over-ride the above
calculations completely. The availability of a reliable supply of electricity would be a great
asset to the farmers, but in many countries such power supply security may not exist.
This is not to say that the supply of diesel fuel is always reliable. This also can be in short
supply, with difficulties in delivery and on-farm storage. With shortages at critical times can
come cost increases, further increasing the operating costs.
What to choose?
There is a very clear choice between diesel and electric pumping, and the costs involved are
clearly very different.
Options (iii) and (iv), based on a pipe distribution system, also appear attractive, with little
increase in cost at the shallower pumping depths and a cost saving if deeper pumping is needed.
This means that, in this example, the reduction in maintenance costs and savings in energy for
the pipe systems outweigh the lower capital cost of the open channel systems.
FIGURE 37
Effect of increasing scheme size on capital and operating costs
69
5.6 GUIDELINES
The following general guidelines emerge from the two case studies chosen as examples.
When dealing with small farms, energy and other operating costs are not important issues.
It is the capital cost of the system and its useful life expectancy that dominate financial
decision making.
As schemes increase in size, energy costs become more dominant in the decision making
process (Figure 37).
Channel distribution with surface irrigation is usually the cheapest option when planning
a new scheme. However, it will only be the best option if it works as planned. Field
experience indicates that it too often does not work properly, as surface irrigation is very
difficult to manage efficiently.
Pipe distribution systems for surface irrigation should be considered as a serious option.
On larger schemes it may work out to be as cheap as canal distribution, and will simplify
water management practices.
Piped distribution, sprinkle and trickle irrigation are more likely to work as planned
because they are easier to manage.
Labour costs can have a significant effect on the choice of irrigation system. Whether to
include labour costs or not will depend on the availability of any employment opportunities
for the farming family away from the farm.
Operating efficiencies, both of the pumping plant and of water use, can have a significant
effect on energy use and hence on operating cost. The effect is very pronounced at low
levels of efficiency and when relatively large volumes of water are being pumped.
If electricity is available and reliable, then this will usually be the cheapest source of
energy for all sizes of irrigation schemes.
Although bank interest rate affects the Equivalent Annual Cost of scheme options it will
generally affect all the options in a similar manner and so is unlikely to influence the final
choice of system.
The results of the financial analysis are not the only factor to consider when making
choices between different systems. Practical physical (availability of equipment, spares,
and maintenance facilities) and financial (availability of credit) constraints may over-ride
the analysis.
70
Case Study - 2
71
Chapter 6
Improving existing schemes
6.1
INTRODUCTION
There are many thousands of small-scale irrigation schemes already in use and many of these
may be operating well below their potential, either through poor design or through poor operation
and maintenance.
This chapter shows what can be done to improve such schemes. It involves evaluating
scheme performance and comparing it with what can be reasonably expected of the scheme and
identifying aspects which are in need of improvement (Figure 38)
FIGURE 38
Evaluating irrigation scheme performance
72
performance can be identified. Such improvements can involve either changes in design and
equipment, or changes in the way the equipment is used. There are two main areas of potential
inefficiency in a scheme:
One of the major problems in irrigation is the proper management of the irrigation system.
This involves:
73
TABLE 21
Efficiency of surface irrigation methods
Basin
60
90
Irrigation method
Border
60
80
Furrow
60
90
subtract
10 - 20
5 - 10
10 - 20
10 - 15
...
subtract
10 - 20
5 - 10
10 - 20
10 - 15
...
subtract
10 - 20
5 - 10
10 - 20
10 - 15
20 - 40
Note: If common problems exist then the figures shown should be subtracted from the w ell-managed
efficiency value to give an indication of the actual efficiency that might actually be achieved
when the scheme is operating.
For small schemes this is not a problem, but where channels are several kilometres long
and serve several farmers, the management of water distribution becomes more difficult and
less efficient. In shared systems, farmers at the tail end of a scheme tend to get less water than
those at the head. This may be a result of mismanagement, the additional losses through seepage
in the distribution system, or both. This is a common problem, referred to as the top-ender
tail-ender problem.
The levels of efficiency referred to in Tables 4 and 5 are for well-managed systems.
Efficiencies can be much lower than these values when there are seepage problems, poor
maintenance and poor liaison among the farmers using the same system.
6.3
INEFFICIENT EQUIPMENT
This may be the result of poor design, for example the selection of pipes which are too small or
the wrong type of pump or power unit.
However, a lot of inefficiency is the result of poor operation and maintenance. It does
not seem to be a part of human nature to maintain equipment, but to run it until it stops, and then
fix it! It is thus difficult to instil in people the importance of regular maintenance for the
operating efficiency of equipment.
In Section 3.3.5 the factors which affect pumping efficiency are described. Improvements
can be made by rectifying the common faults. The efficiency that can be expected from a
diesel or petrol driven pump is about 28% at best and, at worst, 3%. Efficiency from an electric
pump will be much higher, at around 50%, but usually the electricity supply is not reliable
enough for irrigation.
Also in Section 3.3.5 are details of how the siting of pumps in relation to the water source
can affect efficiency. This is a common problem with surface water and shallow groundwater
pumping. Providing water is coming out of the pump, then everyone assumes it is satisfactorily
working. Little thought is given to the significant drop in efficiency that occurs when the
suction lift is greater than 3 m.
Remember that however well a scheme is designed, it is only as good as its operator.
Technology cannot compensate for a poorly trained operator and a poorly managed scheme.
74
6.4
EFFECT OF INEFFICIENCY
EVALUATING A SCHEME
FIGURE 39
System efficiency value ranges
75
This value is a combination of the distribution and the water application efficiency. Only if the
overall assessment is not satisfactory will it be necessary to go further to assess the two
components separately, using the relationships:
Water supply reaching the farm (fields) (m3) x 100
Water distribution efficiency (%) = Water supply from the source to the scheme (m3)
Typical values for efficiencies in good, well managed scheme are given in Tables 4 and 5, and
a graph showing how seasonal operating costs are reduced as efficiency improves is shown as
Figure 40.
FIGURE 40
The relationship between efficiency and seasonal operating costs
76
6.6
OBTAINING DATA
One of the main difficulties in making evaluations of this kind is having sufficient information
collected over a long enough time period to make meaningful assessments.
The approaches described below are ways around this problem because to set up extensive
data collection on most schemes may well place impossible burdens on farmers and local
extension staff.
6.6.1 Observing and questioning
A very effective evaluation can be made by just walking through a farm (or scheme) observing
what is happening and asking questions. This is the way good detectives set about solving
problems.
Observe the pumping unit in operation and check for problems such as vibration, noise or
smoky exhaust.
Ask the farmers if they think they are getting enough water. Those who share a supply and
are short of water will no doubt complain. There may be enough water supplied for
everyone, but it maybe shared out inequitably. Look out for the top-ender , tail-ender
problem.
Ask about the schedule used for each crop and the hours of pumping needed to irrigate.
Check the drainage system at the lowest part of the farm to see if water is flowing out. This
may be wastage. If the supply is shared then look to see from which farm the wastage is
coming.
Walk along the canals to look for signs of seepage or leakage at structures; weeds or debris
obstructing flow; or siltation.
For underground pipe systems, look for signs of leakage, such as wet patches on the soil
surface above the pipes; or for water still flowing in the pipes when all the outlets are
supposedly closed.
On paddy rice schemes check the depth of water in the fields to see if it conforms with good
practice for that stage of the crops growth.
On sprinkler and trickle systems, look to see if the operating pressure is as recommended by
the manufacturer. Also look for leakage from the pipes and for blockages in the sprinkler
nozzles and trickle emitters.
Particularly on shared schemes, check to see that gates are not left open when a farmer is not
irrigating and that farmers arrive and leave their farm in time with the water being supplied
to them.
6.6.2 Some basic data
If some basic measurements can be made, then a more detailed assessment can be carried out.
These may be measurements made on a brief visit to a farm (or scheme) or measurements made
over a much longer period of time. Clearly the longer the period of data collection the more
accurate the assessment will be.
The evaluator would determine:
Pump discharge. For a small pump this can be measured by catching the water in a large
bucket (Section 2.3). For a larger pump, a weir can be temporarily installed in the channel
just downstream of the pump or a flow meter installed in a pipe system.
77
Sprinkler or trickle discharge. For schemes of this type, the discharge can be measured at
the sprinkler or trickle emitter by catching water in a large bucket (Section 2.3).
Amount of fuel or electricity used in a season. This will help to determine whether the
inefficiency is in water distribution or in the pump.
Number of irrigation days in a season and the average number of hours of pumping each
day. These would be estimates obtained from the farmer in the absence of records. A
check on this would be to see how much fuel had been used during the season and to
calculate the number of running hours, based on fuel consumption, for comparison with
the farmers estimates.
Seasonal crop water requirements. A rough guide can be obtained from Table 8, but more
useful and accurate data may be available from local research stations.
The following example shows how both the water use efficiency and the pumping plant can be
evaluated.
EXAMPLE 16
A small irrigation scheme is growing vegetable crops in the dry season. Water is being pumped from
a river nearby and is distributed in an unlined open channel system, and surface irrigation is used for
field application.
Evaluate the water use and pumping plant efficiencies of the scheme using the following data:
Scheme design:
Irrigated area = 2 ha, with full cropping on entire area.
Seasonal crop water requirement = 500 mm.
Distribution system efficiency = 85%.
Field application efficiency = 60%.
Irrigation efficiency = 0.85 x 0.60 = 0.51 [=51%].
It uses a petrol-driven centrifugal pump, with a plant efficiency of 10% and fuel consumption
of 0.11 l/kWh.
Data collected from site:
Pump discharge = 13 l/s.
Number of irrigation days = 100 d.
Hours of daily pumping (average) = 6 h.
Pump suction lift = 4 m.
Seasonal cost of fuel = $ 285, at a cost of $ 0.35/l.
What can be expected?
If the scheme was performing as designed:
Crop water requirement (m3/ha) = 10 x crop water requirement (mm)
= 10 x 500 = 5 000 m3/ha.
Seasonal scheme water demand (m3) = crop water requirement (m3/ha) x cropped area (ha)
Irrigation efficiency
= (5 000 x 2) / 0.51 = 19 608 m3.
Seasonal energy demand =
78
EXAMPLE 16 (continued)
What actually happens?
Check the amount of water supplied to the scheme:
Seasonal scheme water supplied (m3) =
pump discharge (m3/s) x daily operating hours (h) x days of irrigation (d) x 3 600
= 0.013 x 6 x 100 x 3 600 = 28 080 m3.
The amount of water delivered is in excess of the requirement of 19 608 m3. Therefore the
actual irrigation efficiency, which is (5 000 x 2) / 28 080 = 0.36 [=36%], is much lower than
expected.
A detailed visual inspection of the scheme can now be made to locate where water is being
wasted.
To investigate how efficient the pump is, first calculate the amount of energy actually expended
in pumping 28 080 m3.
The actual energy supplied =
overall energy cost ($)
fuel consumption (l/kWh) x cost of fuel ($/l)
=
This figure confirms that the pump is operating below its expected efficiency of 10%.
The same calculation can be done by comparing the fuel cost actually spent with the fuel cost
expected. If we assume 10% pumping plant efficiency:
Expected seasonal energy requirement = (28 080 x 4) / (367 x 0.1) = 3 060 kWh.
Fuel cost expected = 3 060 x 0.11 x 0.35 = $ 118.
The expected cost of fuel is much less than the $ 285 actually spent on fuel. This means that
the pumping plant is also operating at a lower efficiency (calculated as (118 x 0.10) / 285 = 0.04
[=4%]) than expected.
This may be due to any , or many , of the reasons discussed in Section 3.3.5. One point to
consider, though, is the suction lift of the pump. This is looking critical at 4 m and may be
lowering the efficiency. If the pump was located within 3 m of the water surface then the pump
efficiency might improve.
79
Annex
Cost Comparison of Different System
Options
A Lotus 1-2-31 application
A.1 INTRODUCTION
This annex is to help those who have access to a computer with Lotus 1-2-3 software, and that
have some knowledge of spread-sheet operation.
The spread-sheet (see next page), when entered as a 1-2-3 program, can provide quick
calculation of total cost for 4 different options, in the same way as discussed in Chapters 4 and
5. The calculation used for this spread-sheet example is the case study in Chapter 4 (Table 17).
A.2 PROCEDURE FOR PROGRAM INPUT
To input the spread-sheet, just input all the text in the appropriate cells, except for equations in
shaded areas (columns C, D, E and F at rows 20, 21, 27, 32, 33, 46, 47, 50, 51, 52, 53, 55, 57
and 61). To input equations, type the formula as described in ( Equation in Lotus ), which is
also shaded, in appropriate rows in column C. The equation can be copied to D, E and F
columns by using the Copy command (/ Copy).
A.3 CALCULATION
Input appropriate values into cells where equation or text has not been entered. The calculation
is automatically performed.
To test What happens if ..... ?, just change the value you want to assess, e.g., interest
rate can be changed to 10% or 15% by inserting 10 or 15 instead of 5. The result is calculated
automatically.
A.4 GRAPHIC PRESENTATION ( STACK-BAR )
The calculated result can also be viewed graphically.
When the data input is finished, carry out the following steps, using the indicated Lotus
1-2-3 commands:
Step 1:
/ Graph X
(Select the range C, D, E and F-12 as X axis)
Step 2:
[/ Graph] A
(Select the range C, D, E and F-21 as A)
Step 3:
[/ Graph] B
(Select the range C, D, E and F-33 as B)
Step 4:
[/ Graph] C
(Select the range C, D, E and F-47 as C)
Step 5:
[/ Graph] D
(Select the range C, D, E and F-53 as D)
Step 6:
[/ Graph] Type Stack-Bar
Step 7:
[/ Graph] View
If you want to add the labour component to the graph, do Step 8 and repeat Step 7.
Step 8:
[/Graph] E
(Select the range C, D, E and F-59 as E)