SCIENCE IN BUILDING DESIGN

Applying basic science concepts in building design can substantially improve the
quality of indoor climate. Further, for any sustainable development, efficient
utilization of energy is imperative.
This building design model describes a novel idea for energy efficient building
design for middle-income housing in hot humid climate.
(This design concept developed by Ms. Chitra Chidambaram and Ms. Subbalakshmi
was awarded the first prize in the Design Ideas Competition 1993 on Solar Efficient
Building Design jointly sponsored by HUDCO and Hari-Om Ashram Trust Nadiad,
Gujarat.)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

AN INTRODUCTION TO THERMAL COMFORT

AND ITS CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS. 3-5
DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION &COMPLIANCE6-11
THERMAL COMFORT IN UAFD SYSTEMS12-18
TASK/AMBIENT &CONDITIONING SYSTEMS 19-27
SCALING FACTOR. 28
THERMAL COMFORT IN CHENNAI 29

AN INTRODUCTION TO THERMAL
COMFORT

What is meant by thermal comfort?

To have "thermal comfort" means that a person wearing a normal amount of clothing
feels neither too cold nor too warm. Such comfort is important both for one's wellbeing and for productivity in office work, and can be achieved only when the air
temperature, humidity and air movement are within the specified range often referred
to as the "comfort zone".
While constructing buildings using thermal comfort ,following things are ensured:
There is:

Minimum exposure to radiation

Maximum circulation of air
Big plants surrounding the building which block the radiation but not air
Complete circulation of air along with efficient use of energy
Less input and more output

Where air movement is virtually absent and when relative humidity can be kept at
about 50%, the ambient temperature becomes the most critical and debated factor for
maintaining thermal comfort. Unfortunately, however, temperature preferences vary
greatly among individuals and there is no one temperature that can satisfy everyone.
Nevertheless, it is fair to say that an office which is too warm makes its occupants
feel tired; on the other hand, one that is too cold causes the occupants' attention to
drift, making them restless and easily distracted. Workers begin worrying about how
to get warm again.
Maintaining constant thermal conditions in the offices is important. Even minor
deviation from comfort may be stressful and lead to impaired performance and safety.
Conversely, workers already under stress are less tolerant of uncomfortable
conditions.

What temperature should an office be?

A general recommendation is that the temperature be held constant in the range of 2123C (69-73F). In summertime when outdoor temperatures are higher it is advisable
to keep air-conditioned offices slightly warmer to minimize the temperature
discrepancy between indoors and outdoors.

What humidity level and air velocity should an office be?

When relative humidity is kept at about 50%, office workers have fewer respiratory
problems (specifically in the winter) and generally feel better. Higher humidity makes
the office feels "stuffy". More important, it can contribute to the development of
bacterial and fungal growth (especially in sealed buildings).
Humidity lower then 50% causes discomfort by drying out the mucous membranes,
contributing to skin rashes, and causing some electrostatic disturbances to both office
equipment and their users.
Air velocities below 0.25 metres/second (or about 50 feet/minute) does not create any
significant distraction even in tasks requiring sustained attention.

Are there any standards on office temperatures?

Table 1 presents the values from the CSA International's Standard CAN/CSA Z41200 - "Office Ergonomics" which gives temperature and relative humidity
requirements for offices in Canada. These values are based on the American Society
of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Standard 55 "Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy". These values are
designed to meet the needs of 80% of individuals which means a few people will feel
uncomfortable even if these values are met. Additional measures may be required.
Table 1
Temperature and Humidity of an Office Environment
CSA Z412-00
Temperature
% Relative Humidity
20-23.5C
Heating Season
50%
68-75F
23-26C
Cooling Season
50%
73-79F
*Acceptable temperature for people with typical winter and summer clothing doing
secretary work at 50% relative humidity and mean air speed less than 0.15
metres/second (30 feet/minute).

In general, what temperature is 'right' for various activities?

Table 2 summarizes some typical responses to various temperatures.

Table 2
Temperature
F

78

25

Optimal for bathing, showering. Sleep is disturbed

75

24

People feel warm, lethargic and sleepy. Optimal for unclothed

people.

72

22

Most comfortable year-round indoor temperature for sedentary

people.

70

21

Optimum for performance of mental work.

64

18

Physically inactive people begin to shiver. Active people are

comfortable.

Climate profile
The project illustrates a novel building design for a middle-income group housing in a
coastal region (Chennai) with warm humid climate where summers are hot and
humid, rainy seasons warm and humid and with almost no winters.

Requirements
The best buildings in such a climate are those that
Have minimum exposed surfaces like external walls and exposed roofs to reduce
heat gain into buildings
Have maximum exposure to breezes and natural air currents that remove body
sweat and provide thermal comfort

DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND

COMPLIANCE

Building Design
The building is a three-floored structure to reduce requirement of steel in structure as
well as energy for operating lifts. The houses are of row housing types with common
shared walls between houses. There are common stairs and service shafts serving
every eight houses. All houses are identical and has the living zone (drawing, dining,
bedrooms) facing the incoming breeze, with overhanging balconies to cool the air
sufficiently. The service zone (kitchen, toilets, lobby and service balcony) has open
jalis to minimize cost on providing windows but still provide for good air circulation.
The two zones share a higher level (above lintel) horizontal duct, which opens into a
vertical service duct. The arrangement creates the necessary suction force and pulls
the air into the building.
Design Strategies
Stack floors one above the other (multi-storeyed)
Have common walls between rooms and houses
Provide large windows for air movement
6

 Ensure Cross ventilation

Shade windows to cool incoming air
A Novel Solution: Thermal Chimney
The service duct of the building serves as an exhaust duct using the chimney
principle. Air heated up by body heat and other heat sources within the building rises
up in rooms and through the continuous horizontal ducts running above the lintel of
the middle wall in every floor, opens into the chimney. Here, the glass top on a black
mesh traps solar radiation and adds heat to the rising air which speedily leaves the
chimney, thus creating a suction force for drawing outside air through the windows.
The balcony over the windows shades the walls and cools the incoming air.
Contradiction for design
To have Minimum external walls but provide for good cross ventilation.
Incorporating innovative technologies in buildings often results in innovative
adjustments to conventional building design, construction and operation. As a result
of research and experimentation, CBE has compiled a series of design guidelines
addressing parameters of UFAD systems that are relevant to decisions taken at a
project's design stage; and highlighted a number of construction issues facilitating an
efficient, cost-effective installation.
In addition, as with all new technologies, information is given regarding the special
attention that should be paid to compliance with existing standards and codes
regulating the building industry, such as those from ASHRAE relating to
HVACsystemsandapplications.
This section of the UFAD website presents information relevant to the design phases,
construction phases, relevant standards and codes, and additional background on
task/ambient conditioning (TAC) systems.

Construction Phase Guidelines

Underfloor air distribution (UFAD) systems
require good coordination between all building
trades throughout the design and construction
process. Shute (1995) provides an excellent list of
recommendations for the design and construction of
underfloor air distribution systems. McCarry (1995)
also describes some guidelines based on his
experiences with UFAD system installation. More
recently, Bauman (2003) discusses guidelines for a
well-coordinated construction sequence. Shown
below is a partial list of recommendations for
design and construction.
It is essential that the implications of the raised access floor be considered early in the
design process. The concrete slab surface must be sealed to reduce dust, and the under
floor plenum and floor panels must be thoroughly cleaned both during installation of
the access floor and again before occupancy.The height of the access floor and the
placement of the 0.6 m x 0.6 m (2 ft x 2 ft) raised floor pedestal grid is critical with
respect to locating all under floor service installations.
It is important to lay out under floor equipment requiring regular maintenance to be
located in accessible areas, such as corridors, not underneath furniture and partitions.
In partitioned office spaces, offset the partition grid from the floor grid so that
partitions do not cover joints between floor panels, thereby preventing access to the
underfloor plenum on both sides of the partition.
Consider dead load allowance and seismic bracing of the access floor.
Determine areas in the building with no access floor and allow for transitions to areas
with access flooring.
In pressurized underfloor air distribution systems, greater care must be taken during
construction to seal the underfloor plenum to prevent uncontrolled air leakage.
Designers must consider that fan rooms or access for HVAC distribution will be
required at more frequent intervals than with conventional air distribution systems.
If called for, return airshafts must be designed between the ceiling and the underfloor
plenum, usually around columns or other permanent building elements. The main
structural slab, the traditional working platform, will not be available continuously
during construction, and therefore a well-coordinated construction sequence is
necessary (see Shute 1995).

Standards and Codes

Since UFAD technology is relatively new to the building industry, its characteristics
may require consideration of unfamiliar code requirements and, in fact, may be in
conflict with the provisions of some existing standards and codes. Applicable
standards and codes should be looked at carefully; revisions and exceptions that are
more compatible with UFAD technology may be forthcoming as additional research
results are obtained.
Listed below are brief discussions of the applicable building standards and codes that
have important provisions related to the design, installation, and operation of UFAD
systems.
1. ASHRAE Standard 55-2004: Thermal Environmental
Conditions for Human Occupancy [ASHRAE 2004]
Earlier versions of Standard 55 were based on the assumption of a well-mixed and
uniformly conditioned environment. UFAD systems, however, usually involve
greater variability of thermal conditions over both space and time. The effect of
providing occupant-control has not been fully taken into account, although it is well
established that occupants will tolerate greater fluctuations in environmental
conditions if they have control over them. The rather strict air velocity limitations that
were specified in the previous version of Standard 55 were incompatible with the
increased local air velocities that are possible with UFAD and task/ambient
conditioning (TAC) systems. ASHRAE Standard 55-1992 was revised to allow
higher air velocities than the previous version of the standard, if the occupant has
control over the local air speed. Figure 3 in Standard 55-1992 was added to show the
air speed required to offset increases in temperature above those allowed in the
summer comfort zone. For example, Figure 3 indicates that at equal air and radiant
temperatures (tr - ta = 0), a local air speed of 0.8 m/s (160 fpm) can offset a
temperature rise of about 2.6C (4.7F) for a primarily sedentary building occupant
wearing 0.5clo.
Standard 55-1992 also specifies allowable air speeds as a function of air temperature
and turbulence intensity with the objective of avoiding unwanted drafts when the
occupant has no direct local control. As discussed by Fountain and Arens (1993), the
draft avoidance limits are solidly based on laboratory data for temperatures below
23C (73.5F). At warmer temperatures, however, occupants will desire additional
cooling, and increased air movement (and turbulence) is an easy way of achieving
such direct occupant cooling. Standard 55-92 allows these velocity limits based on
turbulence intensity level to be exceeded if the occupant has control over the local air
speed.
2. ASHRAE Standard 62-2001: Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality
[ASHRAE2001]
Standard 62-01 provides guidelines for the determination of ventilation rates that will
maintain acceptable indoor air quality. Currently under continuous maintenance, the
revised version of Standard 62 is expected to allow some adjustment in ventilation
9

rates based on the ventilation effectiveness of the air distribution system. Mixing-type
air distribution systems can at best achieve a perfectly mixed space, defined to have a
ventilation effectiveness, or an air change effectiveness (ACE) of 1.0, as determined
in accordance with ASHRAE Standard 129 (see below). By definition, mixing-type
systems cannot provide preferential ventilation (ACE > 1), in which some credit
could be obtained for improved ventilation effectiveness at the breathing level in the
space. In the new version of Standard 62, guidance will be given on how to determine
an adjusted minimum outside air ventilation rate. This rate would be calculated by
dividing the ACE for mixing systems (1.0) by the ACE for the particular system
under consideration. If a UFAD system can be shown (through measurement or other
prescribed method) to provide an ACE greater than 1.0, then a reduced
ventilationratecouldbeimplemented.
Standard 62 sets minimum ventilation rates for office space and conference rooms at
9.4 L/s (20 cfm) per person and reception areas at 7.1 L/s (15 cfm) per person. In the
design and operation of a UFAD or TAC system containing a large number of
occupant-controlled supply modules, some means must be provided to ensure that
minimum ventilation rates are maintained, even when people choose to turn off
their local air supply.
3. ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2001: Energy Standard for Buildings Except LowRise Residential Buildings [ASHRAE 2001]
ASHRAE Standard 90.1 describes requirements for the energy efficient design of
new buildings intended for human occupancy. In the standard, the prescriptive criteria
for zone controls states that there can be no simultaneous operation of heating and
cooling systems to the same zone. Some of the unique aspects of UFAD and TAC
systems may be in conflict with this requirement. For example, if occupants have
control of supply air temperature for heating or cooling from their local diffusers,
situations may occur in which some people are requesting heating and others are
requesting cooling at the same time within the same zone. In another example, with
underfloor air distribution using a precooled structural slab, if there is a call for
heating (i.e., in the early morning hours of the perimeter zone), this may require local
reheating of the cooled underfloor supply air to satisfy the heating demand. These and
other relevant situations should be carefully considered as there are exceptions to the
criteria described in Standard 90.1, and perhaps subtle differences in the operation of
UFAD and TAC systems compared to aconventional overhead air distribution
system.
4. ASHRAE Standard 113-1990: Method of Testing for Room Air Diffusion
[ASHRAE1990]
ASHRAE Standard 113-90 is the only currently available building standard for
evaluating the air diffusion performance of an air distribution system. The current
version of Standard 113, however, is based on the assumption of a single uniformly
mixed indoor environment, as provided by a conventional overhead air distribution
system. This assumption is not necessarily appropriate for evaluating the performance
10

of UFAD and TAC systems that deliver conditioned air directly into the occupied
zone of the building through supply outlets that are in close proximity to and under
the control of the building occupants. UFAD and TAC systems therefore not only
provide for thermal nonuniformities in the space, but may actually encourage them.
Efforts are now underway to revise Standard 113 to include new methods of
performance evaluation that are applicable to air distribution systems that deliver air
directly into the occupied zone of the building, including UFAD,TAC, and
displacement ventilation systems.
5.ASHRAE Standard 129-1997: Measuring Air Change
Effectiveness [ASHRAE1997]
ASHRAE Standard 129-97 describes a test method for evaluating an air distribution
system's ability to provide required levels of ventilation air to the building occupants.
The results of the tests may be used to determine compliance with ASHRAE Standard
62. The possibility of taking credit for the enhanced ventilation effectiveness
provided at breathing level by UFAD and TAC systems is now being investigated.
6. Title 24: CEC Second Generation Nonresidential Standards [California
EnergyCommission2001]
Although the current version of Title 24 does not specifically address underfloor air
distribution, if enough supporting energy- and cost-saving data can be obtained,
underfloor systems could be added to the subsequent revision (3-year cycle).
7.UniformBuildingCodeandLocalFireCodes
The combustibility of cabling (power, data, communication) contained in supply air
plenums in UFAD systems is an important consideration. In general, applicable codes
state that placing wires and cables in an air supply plenum is not a problem as long as
they are contained in conduit, or are rated to be non-combustible. Local fire codes
often place restrictions on the size of open supply air plenums without any smoke
breaks in the form of partitions separating the plenum into smaller zones. Typically,
these fire codes limit the total area (e.g., less than 280 m2 [3,000 ft2]) and horizontal
dimension in one direction (e.g., less than 9 m [30 ft]) of an unobstructed underfloor
air supply plenum.

11

THERMAL COMFORT IN UFAD SYSTEMS

UFAD Systems
Background
Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) technology has changed little
since variable-air volume systems were first introduced 30 years ago. For the vast
majority of buildings, it is still standard practice to provide a single uniform
thermal and ventilation environment within each building zone, offering little
chance of satisfying the environmental needs and preferences of individual
occupants (unless, of course, they happen to have a private office with a
thermostat). As a result, the quality of the indoor environment (i.e., thermal
comfort and indoor air quality) continues to be one of the primary concerns
among workers who occupy these buildings. Several documented surveys of
building occupants have pointed out the high dissatisfaction with indoor
environmental conditions [e.g.1,2].

Figure1.Conventionaloverheadairdistributionsystem.
Recently, the Building Owners and Managers Association (BOMA), in
partnership with the Urban Land Institute (ULI), surveyed 1,829 office tenants in
the U.S. and Canada [3]. In the survey, office tenants were asked to rate the
importance of 53 building features and amenities, and to report how satisfied
12

they are with their current office space for those same categories. The following
quotes from the report demonstrate the importance of indoor
environmentalqualityandpersonalcontrol.
The most important features, amenities, and services to the responding tenants
are related to the comfort and quality of indoor air, the acoustics, and the quality
of the building managements service. Tenants ability to control the temperature
in their suite is the only feature to show up on both the list of most important
features (96%) and the list of items where tenants are least satisfied (65%). To
make an immediate and positive impact on tenants perception of a building,
landlords and managers could focus on temperature-related functions by updating
HVAC systems so that tenants can control the temperature in their suite or by
helping tenants make better use of their existing system.
Under floor air distribution (UFAD) systems deliver conditioned air to a
relatively large number of supply air locations within the building, often in close
proximity to the building occupants. By delivering air directly into the occupied
zone of the building (at floor level or as part of the furniture), UFAD systems
provide an opportunity for individuals to have some amount of control over
their local environment.

Figure2.Under floor air distribution system

Thermal Comfort Standards

Current comfort standards, ASHRAE Standard 55-1992 [4] and ISO Standard
7730 [5], specify a comfort zone, representing the optimal range and
combinations of thermal factors (air temperature, radiant temperature, air
13

velocity, humidity) and personal factors (clothing and activity level) with which
at least 80% of the building occupants are expected to express satisfaction. These
standards are based on a large number of laboratory studies in which subjects
(primarily university students) were asked to evaluate their comfort in steadystate environments over which they had little or no control. The standards were
developed for mechanically conditioned buildings typically having overhead air
distribution systems designed to maintain uniform temperature and ventilation
conditions throughout the occupied space.
Given the high value placed on the quality of indoor environments, it is rather
astonishing that a building HVAC system can be considered in compliance with
thermal comfort standards, and yet provide a thermal environment with which up
to 20% of the building population will be dissatisfied. This is, however, exactly
the case in the conventional "one-size-fits-all" approach to environmental control
in buildings. The primary scientific justification for this seemingly low level of
occupant satisfaction is clearly revealed in the large body of thermal comfort
research on human subjects in a laboratory setting. These tests, which form the
basis for the ASHRAE Standard 55 comfort zone, demonstrate that on average at
least 10% of a large population of subjects will express dissatisfaction with their
thermal environment, even when exposed to the same uniform thermal
environment considered acceptable by the majority of the population. In practice,
the standard uses a 20% dissatisfaction rating by adding an additional safety
factor of 10% dissatisfaction that might arise from locally occurring non uniform
thermal conditions in the space (e.g., stratification, draft, radiant asymmetry).
Furthermore, there is an ongoing debate about the degree of relevance of
laboratory-based research for occupants in real buildings, where the range of
individual thermal preferences will likely be even greater (see discussion below).
The bottom line is that no matter how well controlled an HVAC system is in a
building using overhead air distribution, there may be a surprisingly large
number of occupants who will not be satisfied with the thermalenvironment.
Air velocity is one of the six main factors affecting human thermal comfort.
Because of its important influence on skin temperature, skin wetted ness,
convective and evaporative heat loss, and thermal sensation, it has always been
incorporated into thermal comfort standards. In ASHRAE Standard 55, there are
two recommendations for allowable air velocities in terms of (1) minimizing
draft risk and (2) providing desirable occupant cooling [6]. The elimination of
draft is addressed by placing rather stringent limits on the allowable mean air
speed as a function of air temperature and turbulence intensity (defined as the
standard deviation of fluctuating velocities divided by their mean for the
measuring period). As an example, the draft risk data (representing 15%
dissatisfaction curves) for a turbulence intensity of 40% (typical of indoor office
environments) would restrict the mean air speed to 0.12 m/s (24 fpm) at 20C
(68F) and 0.2 m/s (40 fpm) at 26C (78.8F). These extremely low velocity
14

limits taken by themselves would make it very difficult for UFAD systems to be
considered acceptable due to the higher local air velocities that are possible when
air is introduced directly into the occupied zone. The draft risk data are based
solidly on laboratory research conducted over the lower end of the comfort zone
temperature range (23C [73.5F] and below), but are represented as
extrapolations to conditions where data were not collected at higher temperatures.
Although it is still under debate, the draft risk velocity limits in Standard 55
appear to be most suitable for eliminating undesirable air movement under cooler
(heating mode) environmental conditions, a more frequent situation in European
climates.
In warmer climates, such as those frequently found in the U.S., air motion is
often considered as highly desirable for both comfort (cool breeze for relief) and
air quality (preventing stagnant air) reasons. ASHRAE Standard 55 allows local
air velocities to be higher than the low values specified for draft avoidance if the
affected occupant has individual control over these velocities. By allowing
personal control of the local thermal environment, UFAD systems satisfy the
requirements for higher allowable air velocities contained in Standard 55 and
have the potential to satisfy all occupants.
PersonalControl
One of the greatest potential improvements of UFAD systems over conventional
overhead systems is in the area of occupant thermal comfort, in that individual
preferences can be accommodated. In todays work environment, there can be
significant variations in individual comfort preferences due to differences in
clothing, activity level (metabolic rate), and individual preferences. In terms of
clothing variations, if a person reduced their level of clothing from a business suit
(0.9 clo) to slacks and a short-sleeved shirt (0.5 clo), the room temperature could
be increased by approximately 2C (4F) and still maintain equivalent comfort.
As an example of the variations in activity level that commonly occur, a person
walking continuously around in an office (1.7 met) will experience an effective
temperature of the environment that is approximately 2 to 3C (3 to 5F) warmer
than that for a person sitting quietly at their desk (1.0 met), depending on
clothing level.
How much control is needed? Considering the magnitude of variations described
above, a range of control up to 3C (5F) is probably enough for most
applications. Recent laboratory tests have shown that commercially available fanpowered supply outlets provide personal cooling control of equivalent wholebody temperature over a sizable range: up to 7C (13F) of sensible cooling for
desktop-mounted outlets (Figure 3) and up to 5C (9F) of sensible cooling for
floor-based outlets (Figure 4) [7, 8]. This amount of control is clearly more than
enough to allow individual thermal preferences to beaccommodated.

15

Figure 3. Whole-body cooling rates, EHT (C), for two desktop jet diffusers
blowing air toward a person seated in front of desk. Results applicable to average
room temperatures of 22-26C (72-79F), room-supply temperature differences
of 0-7C (0-13F), and supply volumes of 9.4-71 L/s (20-150 cfm).
Figure 4. Whole-body cooling rates, EHT (C), for fan-powered floor jet
diffuser (consisting of four grills mounted in one floor panel) blowing air toward
a person seated approximately 1 m (3 ft) to the side. Results applicable to average
room temperatures of 22-26C (72-79F), room-supply temperature differences
of 0-7C (0-13F), and supply volumes of 23.6-85 L/s (50-180cfm).

16

The tests described in refs. 7 and 8 were conducted using an advanced thermal
manikin to measure the rate of heat loss from a person under realistic conditions.
The manikin was dressed in typical clothing and it maintained a constant skin
temperature distribution that was characteristic of a person in thermal neutrality
at all times. Whole-body rates of heat loss from the manikin are represented in
terms of an Equivalent Homogeneous Temperature (EHT). EHT is defined as the
temperature of a uniform space, in which all surface temperatures are equal to air
temperature, there is no air movement other that the self-convection of the
manikin, and the rate of heat loss would be the same as was actually measured. In
Figures 3 and 4, a value of EHT = -3C (-5F) is the same amount of cooling
that would be obtained by walking out of one room with homogeneous
temperature and still-air conditions into a second cooler room, also with
homogeneous temperature and still-air conditions, but maintained 3C (5F)
cooler than the first room.
The sensible cooling results shown in Figure 3 indicate that desktop fan-powered
jet diffusers can achieve a 3C (5F) cooling rate at a flow rate of only about 2535 L/s (50-75 cfm), depending on room-supply temperature difference. Since the
desktop diffusers deliver air directly toward the front of the person, it is the air
speed that is the most important cooling mechanism; the room-supply
temperature difference has a relatively small effect. A velocity measurement
taken in front of the chest of the manikin in direct line with the focused air jet
was 0.85 m/s (170 fpm) at a supply volume of 35 L/s (75cfm).
17

The floor jet diffuser (Figure 4) is not quite as effective since it is mounted to the
side of the person and requires a higher flow rate of about 40-70 L/s (85-150
cfm), depending on temperature difference. In this case the room-supply
temperature difference plays a relatively more important role in determining the
cooling rate. For the floor diffuser, a velocity measurement taken near the left
arm of the manikin in direct line with the focused air jet was 0.28 m/s (55
fpm) at a supply volume of 43 L/s(90cfm).
Swirl diffusers have not been tested under these same test conditions, but they
will not provide as much direct occupant cooling as the jet-type diffusers
described above will. Swirl diffusers are designed to provide rapid mixing with
the room air and thus minimize any high velocity air movement, except within a
small imaginary cylinder (approximately 1.2 m (4 ft) high and 0.6 m (2 ft) in
diameter) directly above the floor diffuser. Unless an occupant chooses to move
within this cylinder, often referred to as the clear zone, room air velocities will be
less than 0.25 m/s (50 fpm).
In addition to sensible cooling, evaporative cooling rates caused by air motion
over a person with wet skin can be significant. For a person having a typical skin
wettedness of 0.20 (this corresponds to a person having wet skin over 20% of
their skin surface area), evaporative heat loss can more than double the sensible
whole-body cooling rates shown in Figures 3 and 4.
As further support for the benefits of providing personal control, recent field
research has found that building occupants who have no individual control
capabilities are twice as sensitive to changes in temperature compared to
occupants who do have individual thermal control [9, 10]. What this indicates is
that people who know they have control are more tolerant of temperature
variations, making it easier to satisfy their comfort preferences. This important
topic is now the subject of a new ASHRAE-sponsored research project (1161RP) being conducted by the Center for the Built Environment [11].

18

TASK/AMBIENT CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

TAC SYSTEMS ,THEIR BENEFITS AND THEIR LIMITATIONS

Introduction
Definition
Zoning
Benefits
Limitations

Previously published as "Task/Ambient Conditioning Systems" Fred S.

Bauman, P.E., and Edward A. Arens, Ph.D. 1996. Center for the Built
Environment, University of California, Berkeley CA.

Introduction
During recent years an increasing amount of attention has been paid to air distribution
systems that individually condition the immediate environments of office workers
within their workstations. As with task/ambient lighting systems, the controls for the
'task' components of these systems are partially or entirely decentralized and under
the control of the occupants. Typically, the occupant has control over the speed and
direction, and in some cases the temperature, of the incoming air supply. Variously
called 'task/ambient conditioning,' 'localized thermal distribution,' and 'personalized
air conditioning' systems, these systems have been most commonly installed in openplan office buildings in which they provide supply air and (in some cases) radiant
heating directly into workstations. A large majority of these systems have included a
raised access floor system through which underfloor air distribution is used to deliver
conditioned air to the space through floor grills, or in conjunction with the
workstation furniture and partitions.
The purpose of this document is to present and discuss engineering and application
guidelines and recommendations that encourage the intelligent design, installation,
and operation of task/ambient conditioning (TAC) systems in commercial buildings.
The development of these guidelines is based on a compilation of available
information, including:
TAC system design experience described in the literature
Laboratory experiments on several TAC systems
Field studies of TAC systems installed and operated in buildings
Computer simulations of whole-building energy use with and without TAC
systems
A survey of heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) engineers and
manufacturers about TAC systems
Results of the Workshop on Task/Ambient Conditioning Systems in
Commercial Buildings, May 4-5, 1995, held in San Francisco, California
[Bauman 1995].

19

Definition
A task/ambient conditioning (TAC) system is defined as any space conditioning
system that allows thermal conditions in small, localized zones (e.g., regularly
occupied work locations) to be individually controlled by building occupants, while
still automatically maintaining acceptable environmental conditions in the ambient
space of the building (e.g., corridors, open-use space, and other areas outside of
regularly occupied work space). TAC systems are generally configured as air
distribution systems that have a relatively large number of supply locations within the
building, many in close proximity to the building occupants, as compared to a
conventionalceiling-basedairdistributionsystem.
Although not a requirement, the design of a majority of TAC systems has involved
the use of underfloor air distribution in which supply air from a conventional air
handling plant is delivered to the plenum under a raised access floor where it is
allowed to flow freely through the plenum to the supply locations.
There are a number of different system configurations possible, the two most
commonareshownbelow:

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of a TAC system with zero or low pressure under floor
plenum.

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Under individual control or thermostatic control, the supply air is delivered from the
underfloor plenum into the occupied space through a variety of fan-powered supply
outlets located at floor level or as part of the workstation furniture. Because the air is
supplied directly into the occupied zone (up to 1.8 m [6 ft] height),supply outlet
temperatures are generally maintained above 17 to 18C (63 to 64F) to avoid
uncomfortably cool conditions for the nearby occupants.
Individual office workers can control their local thermal environment over a
relatively wide range (typically by adjusting the volume and trajectory of the supply
air entering the space), giving them the opportunity to fine-tune the thermal
conditions in their workstation to their personal comfort preferences. Different supply
outlet configurations may be used depending on the conditioning requirements for a
particular zone of the building, as discussed below.
Air is returned from the room at ceiling level (e.g., through recessed lighting fixtures,
as shown) producing an overall floor-to-ceiling air flow pattern that takes advantage
of the natural buoyancy produced by heat sources in the office and more efficiently
removes heat loads and contaminants from the space.
Typically in this low-pressure plenum configuration, the volume of air delivered
through the supply outlets to the space exceeds the primary air supply volume
(negative plenum pressure) provided by the air handling unit (AHU). A certain
amount of return air is recirculated and mixed with the primary air to produce the
desired supply air temperature entering the space.
Figure 2 shows a configuration more commonly used in office buildings for reasons
of cost and simplicity - a TAC system with pressurized plenum. Although offering
less individual comfort control to occupants, this configuration maintains the same
flexibility and energy saving benefits associated with the first example.
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Whilesimilarinmostrespects.
A major difference for this system is that the AHU maintains the underfloor plenum
at a slight positive pressure, eliminating the need for most fan-assisted supply outlets.
In this case, the pressurized underfloor plenum forces supply air through floor-level
diffusers that are designed to provide rapid mixing with the room air.

Figure 2. Schematic diagram

pressurizedunderfloorplenum

of

task/ambient

conditioning

system

with

Office workers have limited control of the amount of air being delivered through the
floor diffusers by adjusting a volume control damper. This type of TAC system is
sometimes referred to as a localized ventilation system, as it provides conditioned air
to the space through many localized supply outlets, but does not allow for true task
conditioning, or individual control.
Zoning
The additional heating and cooling loads of perimeter zones can be handled by
installing fan-powered terminal (VAV) boxes with reheat (electric or hot water) in the
underfloor plenum, as shown in figure 1. Alternatively, heating requirements can be
22

handled by an above-floor radiation or convector unit located under the window sill
and served by hot water or electric heat, as in figure 2.
For interior zones with high occupancy (e.g., workstations), two possible supply
outlet configurations are shown in figure 1. In one case, the occupant can control the
direction and rate of air delivery from a fan-powered floor diffuser that is positioned
near the occupants work location. In the other arrangement, the same fan-powered
floor unit can be connected to the partitions forming the workstation. Supply air
passes up through the partition and can be delivered through adjustable grills at
different locations above the desktop level, as shown. For interior zones with low
occupancy (e.g., corridors and open-use space), thermostatically controlled fanpowered floor diffusers can be used to control conditionsinthisambientspace.
In figure 2, zoning control is handled by partitioning the underfloor plenum to
correspond to the building zones having unique load requirements (e.g., the perimeter
zone is shown). Separately controlled supply air feeder ducts must deliver air to each
of the partitioned underfloor zones. Differences in cooling requirements between
interior open plan office zones (with high or low occupancy rates) can be controlled
by using higher capacity floor diffusers, or by placing a greater number of floor
diffusers in the areas with high occupancy and increasedheatloaddensity.

Benefits
In addition to the benefits of underfloor systems described in our Technology
Overview (see 'How Does It Work?'), TAC systems offer the following advantages:

Improved thermal comfort for individual occupants.

By allowing personal control of the local thermal environment, TAC systems have
the potential to satisfy all occupants, including those out of thermal equilibrium with
their surrounding ambient environment, as compared to the 80% satisfaction quota
targeted in practice by existing thermal comfort standards such as ASHRAE 1992,
and ISO 1984.
Improved air movement and ventilation effectiveness; cleaner

environment:
Some amount of improvement over conventional uniformly-mixed systems is
expected by delivering the fresh supply air near the occupant and at floor or
desktoplevel.

Reduced building energy use

In TAC systems using fan-powered local supply units, the additional energy use
associated with the small fans and their electric motors can be at least partially, if not
completely, offset by shutting off equipment in unoccupied workstations using
occupancy sensors and by reductions in central fan energy use due to the reduced
static pressure in the floor supply plenum[1].
Lower life-cycle building costs

23

Any increase in first costs for TAC systems utilizing raised access flooring, in
comparison to those for a conventional system, can be minimized and in some cases
completely offset by savings in installation costs for ductwork and electrical services,
as well as from downsizing of some mechanical-equipment.
With the improved thermal comfort and individual control provided by TAC systems,
occupant complaints requiring response by facility staff can be minimized.
Underfloor TAC systems using raised access flooring provide maximum flexibility
and significantly lower costs associated with reconfiguring building services and thus
reduce life-cycle costs substantially.

Improved occupant satisfaction and the potential to increase

worker productivity:
TAC systems have the potential to increase the satisfaction and productivity of
occupants as a result of their having the ability to individually control their workspace
environments, significant as salary costs typically make up at least 90% of all costs
(including construction, operation, and maintenance) overthelifetimeofabuilding.

Limitations
There exist some issues (both real and perceived) that limit the current application of
task/ambient conditioning technology. These are summarized:
New and unfamiliar technology:
For the majority of U.S. building owners, developers, architects, engineers, and
equipment manufacturers, TAC systems still represent a relatively new and
unfamiliar technology. The decision to select a TAC system will initially require
changes in common practice, including new procedures and skills in the design,
construction, and operation of such systems. This situation creates some amount of
perceived risk to designers and building owners. A designer may incur added up-front
costs associated with selling the idea of TAC technology to the client. Utility
incentive programs could help to compensate designers of energy-efficient TAC
systems for any higher first costs duringthedesignphaseofaproject.
Perceived higher costs:
An industry survey found the perceived higher cost of TAC systems to be one of the
two top reasons that TAC technology is not used more widely by the industry today
[2]. Many designers immediately eliminate underfloor TAC systems from
consideration out of concern for higher first costs of the raised access flooring.
However, as described above, there are many factors associated with raised access
floor systems that contribute to reduced life-cycle costs in comparison to traditional
air distribution systems. In TAC systems using fan-powered supply diffusers, the
additional cost of installing and maintaining these many small units must be balanced
against the benefits of providing personal environmental control (reduced occupant
complaints) and reducing the size of other system components(e.g.,centralfan).
Limited applicability to retrofit construction:
The installation of TAC systems and the advantages that they offer are most easily
achieved in new construction. Some of the key system features are not always
24

suitable for retrofit applications (e.g., access floors cannot be installed in existing
buildings with limited floor-to-floor heights). Due to the tremendous size of the
existing building stock, retrofit construction will play a dominant role in the future for
the building industry. To gain greater acceptance, interest, and market-share, TAC
systems and approaches that can be more widely applied to retrofit
installationsareneeded.
Lack of information and design guidelines:
Although in recent years there have been an increased number of publications on
TAC technology, evident from our Bibliography (see our 'What Is known?'), there
still does not exist a set of standardized design guidelines for use by the industry.
Designers having experience with TAC systems have largely developed guidelines of
their own. The intent of this guide is to address this lack of information describing
TAC technology. In addition, as more installations are completed and performance
data become available, the benefits of well-designed TAC systems should become
apparent and greater acceptance and application ofTACtechnologywillresult.
Potential for higher building energy use:
As with any space conditioning system, a poorly designed and operated TAC system
has the potential to use more energy than that used by a well-designed conventional
system approach. System control issues can be very important in this regard and are
discussed further in the full version of this paper, under Controls and Operation; the
section concludes with a list of relevant topics in need of future research to improve
the overall system performance of TAC systems. Energy Use discusses the ways in
which TAC systems can impact overall building energy use. For example, the energy
use of TAC systems using large numbers of small local fans may increase due to the
relatively poor fan motor efficiencies in these units. One of the main objectives of this
document is to provide guidance for the proper implementation of TAC systems to
avoid unnecessarily high-energy use.
Limited availability of TAC products:
Only a few manufacturers currently offer TAC products (discussed in the full version
of this paper under TAC Equipment). As mentioned earlier, the Japanese have been
quite active in developing TAC technology during recent years leading to a greater
variety of advanced TAC products offered by several of the Japanese construction
companies (e.g., partition-based supply outlets, remote controllers for occupant use,
packaged air handling units configured to fit within a 'service wall') [3]. Additional
products are still needed, however, to stimulate the market and address alternative
promising design configurations.
Lack of standardized method for performance evaluation:
Existing building standards, such as ASHRAE Standard 55-92 [ASHRAE 1992] for
thermal comfort and ASHRAE Standard 113-90 [ASHRAE 1990] for room air
diffusion, are based on the assumption of a single uniformly-mixed indoor
environment. These standards are not necessarily directly applicable to TAC systems
that not only provide for thermal non-uniformities, but actually may encourage them.
Efforts are now underway to revise these standards in part to ensure compatibility
with TAC systems.
25

Cold feet and draft discomfort:

Underfloor TAC systems are perceived by some to produce a cold floor, and because
of the close proximity of supply outlets to the occupants, the increased possibility of
excessive draft. These conditions are primarily indicative of a poorly designed and
operated underfloor system. Typical underfloor mixed air temperatures are above
17C (63F) and nearly all office installations are carpeted so that cold floors are not
a problem. Individually controlled supply diffusers allow occupants to adjust the local
airflow to match their personal preference s and avoid undesirable drafts.

26

SCALING FACTOR
Scope and constraints of study through the Model
This model is built to a scale of 1:20 by the school children of VIII grade under their
life skill activities as a project to demonstrate their acquired skills in carpentry,
painting and electrical works. It demonstrates the spatial plan of the building with the
chimney, horizontal duct on the inner wall and the large windows on the living side of
the houses. It also shows the directed airflow through the chimneys. However, the
scale factors may not permit an actual working air -flow pattern. To counteract scale
effects on area (1:400) and volume (1:8000) to some extent, an exhaust fan is fitted
on top of the chimney to demonstrate the suction force. But the speed of even this 9V
fan disperses the air in all directions making it difficult to notice the air leaving the
chimney through the exhaust.
(20x60x10)x m
(1x3x.5)x m, exhaust fan b/c, it enhances the flow of air, b/c due to the scale
down factor, situation varies from original

27

THERMAL COMFORT IN CHENNAI

HVAC systems - Heating, Ventilation and Air-conditioning systems cool the

place according to the occupancy or vary the temperature. The system should be
intelligent enough to sense the number of occupants in a particular area to throw air
accordingly, through the air-conditioning ducts.
Lighting controls light up the place optimally so that a person can work comfortably.
Elevator controls: High speed lifts, which can carry people to the tallest point in the
building without the user feeling any fatigue.
Air-conditioning: The working of the cooling system is made intelligent to sense the
number of occupants so as to the cool the place.For example, if two people are sitting
in a fully air-conditioned hall designed for 50 people, the air-conditioning should
adjust accordingly.

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THERMAL COMFORT
AN EASY SOLUTION TO OUR
PROBLEMS

29