Running head: Learning Disabilities: Elementary Learners Difficulties in Reading, Writing, and

Spelling

Brandee D. Stanton
Chicago State University
Learning Disabilities: Elementary Students Difficulties in Reading, Writing, and
Spelling

Running head: Learning Disabilities: Elementary Learners Difficulties in Reading, Writing, and

Spelling

Introduction to Learning Disabilities

In 1963, Samuel Kirk proposed the term learning disabilities to describe students
who have problems learning but posses a relatively normal level of intelligence as
opposed to terms such as slow learner or perceptually disabled. Parents of these
children embraced the term and a few years later, it was officially recognized by the
federal government and professionals.
(Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2010)
According to the reauthorized Individuals with Disabilities Act (2004), the criteria for
determining the existence of a specific learning disability reads,
The child does not achieve adequately for the childs age or to meet Stateapproved grade-level standards in one or more of the following areas, when
provided with learning experiences and instruction appropriate for the childs age
or State-approved gradelevel standards: oral expression, listening
comprehension, written expression, Basic reading skills, reading fluency skills,
reading comprehension, mathematics calculation, mathematics problem solving.
(IDEA Regulations: Identification of Specific Learning Disabilities, October 4,
2006)
Prevalence
About fifty percent of all special education students within public schools are learning
disabled. (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2010) The federal government has been
keeping data on the prevalence of learning disabilities since 1977 and the size of the
category has more than doubled. Possible causes for the apparent increase in the
prevalence of learning disabilities among students is over identification, sociocultural
changes. (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2010) Some teachers are quick to label or refer
children for special education because they may display behavior that they feel falls
within the scope of special education. Increasing academic standards and the increased
need for literacy in society are sociocultural changes that may predispose students to
develop learning disabilities.
Gender Differences
In reference to gender differences among students identified as learning disabled, the
ratio of boys to girls is three to one. Some possible explanations are that males are more
likely to exhibit biological abnormalities and vulnerabilities or a bias exists to refer
males for special education services due to problematic behavior more so than academic
problems. (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2010)
Genetic and Biological Factors
Genetic factors play a role in the basis of learning disabilities, which has been
investigated via familiarity and heritability studies. Familiarity studies examine the
extent to which the learning disability occurs within a single family. The downside to
this method is that some learning disabilities are passed down from parents to children
via parental methods of child rearing. Heritability studies examine whether learning

Running head: Learning Disabilities: Elementary Learners Difficulties in Reading, Writing, and

Spelling

disabilities are inherited by studying identical and fraternal twins, and thus is a favored
method for assessing genetic factors of learning disabilities. Unfortunately, there is no
single consensus among geneticists which states that a single gene causes this condition.
In regards to biological factors, organic brain injury, dysfunction, or maturational delay
of the neurological system during early development can cause learning disabilities.
(Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2010)
Environmental Factors
A variety of environmental factors exist that may contribute to the development
of learning disabilities. Teratogens are substances such as drugs (pharmaceutical and/or
recreational), chemicals and toxins that can cause malformations, abnormalities, or
defects in a developing fetus. (Rathus, 2002; Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2010)
Students who come from low socioeconomic backgrounds may experience a wide range
of obstacles due to the nature of their status. Premature and low-weight births due to
lack of pre-natal care are medical factors that may affect cognitive development in
children. Inadequate diets are poor nutrition are more likely for students of low
socioeconomic status, especially in impoverished neighborhoods that lack access to
fresh, healthy foods choices. Some children may be exposed to lead via deteriorating
paint if they reside in older housing.
Academic characteristics of student with reading learning disabilities.
Characteristics of students with learning disabilities display difficulties in a
academic achievement and cognitive processes. There exists a discrepancy in
achievement when compared to peers of the same age. Interestingly, the intelligence of
students with learning disabilities ranges from average to above average levels, but there
is a gap between their academic performance and measured intelligence.
Academically, some special education students can exhibit problems in reading,
writing and spelling. They have difficulty with word knowledge and recognition, which
makes reading difficult. As cited by Berry (2006), they also struggle with components of
text construction and mechanical skills like handwriting and spelling. Other students
have spelling skill deficiencies, demonstrated by omitting letters in words. Omission or
incorrect use of basic punctuation is common as well. These deficiencies have been
linked to problems in written composition. (Berninger, et al. 2008)
Recall is retrieval or reconstruction of learned material, which may also be
problematic for special education students. Recognition is the ability to remember
events or objects experienced before. (Moreno, 2010; Rathus, 2002) Its essential that
students convert short term memory to long term memory for future success in higher
level learning. Information in present in long term memory takes less time to recall,
which allows more time to apply the information to the problem at hand. Since
characteristics of learning are defined by psychology, teaching strategies often originate
from the fields of cognitive and behavioral psychology; a few will be discussed below.

Running head: Learning Disabilities: Elementary Learners Difficulties in Reading, Writing, and

Spelling

Academic and administrative teaching strategies for special and general

educators and related service personnel
Dyslexia is a severe disability of reading and writing. (Hallahan, Kauffman, &
Pullen, 2010; Berninger, et al. 2008) Research has demonstrated that morphological
spelling treatment showed greater gains than orthographic treatment when students
were asked to spell pseudo words. Orthographic spelling treatment showed more gains
for students in grade four to six. Phonological spelling treatment using pseudo words
improved spelling, oral repetition, and reading rate. It was also suggested that oral
oriented tasks possible enhances attention and engagement of students because they are
removed from the previous emotional and academic frustrations of dealing with written
words. However, according to triple word theory phonological, orthographic and
morphological awareness are necessary in learning to read and spell words.
Mnemonic devices are strategies to improve memory by encoding information in
a meaningful way. (Moreno, 2010) It is a system where items are recalled as a block of
information or related set by using acronyms, songs, or phrases as symbols. (Rathus,
2002) Use of mnemonics can be applied to lists of related words, formulas, or
procedures and are especially useful for students with learning disabilities. (Moreno
2010) For example, the mnemonic, PAT helps students remember to identify the
purpose, audience, and topic when preparing to write in response to an assessment
prompt.
Dysgraphia is a severe graphomotor writing disability. A repetition or drill and
practice activity, which is application of rote maintenance rehearsal, facilitates the
transfer of short to long term memory. Rathus (2002) commented Schoolchildren write
spelling words over and over to remember them which reinforces graphomotor skills.
Practicing a task until it becomes an automatic response, according to behaviorists,
reinforces learning. The students practiced their cursive handwriting with a worksheet
formatted like primary lined paper, to improve their penmanship.
For students that have problems in phonological and phonemic awareness,
reading will be difficult. Their inability to decode written words affects reading fluency,
and subsequently, reading comprehension. Academic and emotional frustrations with
reading difficulties causes some students to avoid the task altogether. Visual objects
such as pictures, illustrations, or cartoons can be used as motivators for reading.
However, variables must be considered when determining the effects of accessory
pictures on the subject material comprehension.
One variable is the setting; traditional (pictures interspersed or alongside the
text) or non-traditional (computer generated text formats, cartoons, and filmstrips).
The second variable is the grade level; elementary students benefit from accessory
pictures less than university level students. Other variables are the types of picture used
such as line drawings, shaded drawings, or photographs, and whether they are depicted
in color or black and white.

Running head: Learning Disabilities: Elementary Learners Difficulties in Reading, Writing, and

Spelling

Within the past decade, technology-amplified learning has flooded the classroom
setting and research is being done to determine its effectiveness. Some studies indicate
that images may cause students to depend on external help to recall information. Some
research has shown that dynamic, media-based visualizations are just as good as static
visuals with regards to reading comprehension. Alternately, students that create their
own drawings (learner-produced drawings) can demonstrate the facilitation of learning
if the drawings are relevant to the texts content. However, other research data has
shown that results are ambiguous when it comes to whether pictures aid in reading
comprehension. The overall conclusion of such studies has a common theme;
visualization aids must be carefully designed and positioned so that it effectively
enhances learning, but students need to know how and when to use them. (Phillips, et
al. 2010)
Parental strategies for students with learning disabilities
One of the first and most important parental responsibilities of a student with
any type of disability is to become familiar with their rights which are protected by state
and federal law. Some of these rights include parental participation, written notice and
consent, examination of student records, confidentiality, request for mediation and due
process hearings. IDEA imposes these specific requirements and mandates to ensure
that parents are involved in the educational placement of their child. Activities that
parents should be involved in include attending meetings with personnel that
collaborate to develop the students Individualized Education Program (IEP).
McInerney (2006) discusses a cognitive-behavioral therapy strategy called
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), which is used to address the emotional
demands of being a parent of a child with learning disabilities. Psychologically, parents
can demonstrate several self-defeating attitudes related to denial versus acceptance, fear
versus active concern, anger versus rational statements, and guilt versus selfacceptance. Some parents of special education students are wary of professionals due to
previous negative experiences and may exhibit defensive and negative attitudes.
Reinforcing rational thoughts, the expression of reasonable emotions, and the teaching
of purposeful behaviors are some of the goals of this therapy. One of the first things
that special educators and related service personnel must do to ensure parents positively
engage in the intervention for their child is to establish a positive rapport. Once a
positive therapeutic relationship is established, the parent is more likely to openly
discuss fears, anxieties, or concerns about their child. Group counseling is productive,
especially if done using the Socratic Method, because it brings parents in similar
circumstances together in a non-judgmental and supportive environment.
Disputation is a technique that therapists use to persuade parents get rid of negative
thoughts about the demands of having a child with special needs; however it requires
gentle persistence on the part of the therapist. Unfortunately, in terms of service
delivery, implementation of therapeutic programs must consider the availability of
resources such as professional time for individualized or group consultations and the
realistic expectations desired from such a program.
Teachers can also benefit from participating in cognitive-behavioral therapy
program like REBT, also. Frustration, anxiety, and anger can cause self-defeating

Running head: Learning Disabilities: Elementary Learners Difficulties in Reading, Writing, and

Spelling

behaviors in special and general educators and other personnel also, which impairs the
development of positive discourse between all involved parties. Administration could
provide training for teachers and related personnel as a professional development
course. (McInerney, 2006)
Summary
Research based strategies are key to the effective teaching of students with
reading learning disabilities. Since the characteristics of learning disabled students
vary, cognitive and behavioral teaching strategies must match the needs of the student.
Parents, special educators, and related personnel can also benefit from strategies that
make them better prepared to deals with the special demands of a learning disabled
student.

Running head: Learning Disabilities: Elementary Learners Difficulties in Reading, Writing, and

Spelling

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Berninger, V.W., et al. (2008) Tier 3 specialized writing instruction for students with
dyslexia. Read Writ. 21. (95-125)
Berry, R. A. W. (2006) Teacher Talk during Whole-Class Lessons: Engagement
Strategies to Support the Verbal Participation of Students with Learning Disabilities.
Bui, Y. N. Schumaker, J.B. & Deshler, D.D. (2006). The Effects of a Strategic Writing
Program for Students with and without Learning Disabilities in Inclusive Fifth-Grade
Classes. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 21 (4), 244-260.
Hallahan, A., Kauffman, J., & Pullen, P. (2010). Exceptional Learners: An Introduction
to Special Education. (11th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon Publishing Company
Illinois State Board of Education. (October 2009) Notice of Procedural Safeguards for
Parents/Guardians of Students with Disabilities. http://www.isbe.net/speced/pdfs/nc_proc_sfgrds_34-57j.pdf
McInerney, J.F., McInerney, B.C.M. Working with the parents and teachers of
exceptional children. In Ellis, A. & Bernard, M.E. (Eds.). Rational emotive behavioral
approaches to childhood disorders: Theory, practice and research. (369-383)
New York: Springer Science + Business Media, Inc.
National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities. (June 2010) Comprehensive
Assessment and Evaluation of Students with Learning Disabilities. Retrieved from:
http://www.ldonline.org/about/partners/njcld#reports
Phillips, L.M., et al, Chapter 6 Visualizations and Reading Visualization in Mathematics,
Reading and Science Education,. Models and Modeling in Science Education 5(51-62)
Rathus. S. A. (2002). Psychology in the New Millennium. (8th ed.). Wadsworth
Publishing
U.S. Department of Education. IDEA Regulations: Identification of Specific Learning
Disabilities. Retrieved from:
http://idea.ed.gov/explore/view/p/%2Croot%2Cdynamic%2CTopicalBrief%2C23%2C