Analytic geometry

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Cartesian coordinates.

Geometry

Oxyrhynchus papyrus (P.Oxy. I 29) showing fragment of

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Analytic geometry, or analytical geometry has two different meanings in mathematics. The
modern and advanced meaning refers to the geometry of analytic varieties. This article focuses
on the classical and elementary meaning.
In classical mathematics, analytic geometry, also known as coordinate geometry, or Cartesian
geometry, is the study of geometry using a coordinate system and the principles of algebra and
analysis. This contrasts with the synthetic approach of Euclidean geometry, which treats certain
geometric notions as primitive, and uses deductive reasoning based on axioms and theorems to
derive truth. Analytic geometry is widely used in physics and engineering, and is the foundation
of most modern fields of geometry, including algebraic, differential, discrete, and computational
geometry.
Usually the Cartesian coordinate system is applied to manipulate equations for planes, straight
lines, and squares, often in two and sometimes in three dimensions. Geometrically, one studies
the Euclidean plane (2 dimensions) and Euclidean space (3 dimensions). As taught in school
books, analytic geometry can be explained more simply: it is concerned with defining and
representing geometrical shapes in a numerical way and extracting numerical information from
shapes' numerical definitions and representations. The numerical output, however, might also be
a vector or a shape. That the algebra of the real numbers can be employed to yield results about
the linear continuum of geometry relies on the CantorDedekind axiom.

Contents

1 History
2 Basic principles
o

2.1 Coordinates

2.2 Equations of curves

2.3 Distance and angle

2.4 Section of a line

2.5 Transformations

2.6 Intersections

2.7 Intercepts

3 Themes

4 Example

5 Modern analytic geometry

6 Notes

7 References

8 External links

History
The Greek mathematician Menaechmus solved problems and proved theorems by using a
method that had a strong resemblance to the use of coordinates and it has sometimes been
maintained that he had introduced analytic geometry.[1] Apollonius of Perga, in On Determinate
Section, dealt with problems in a manner that may be called an analytic geometry of one
dimension; with the question of finding points on a line that were in a ratio to the others.[2]
Apollonius in the Conics further developed a method that is so similar to analytic geometry that
his work is sometimes thought to have anticipated the work of Descartes by some 1800 years.
His application of reference lines, a diameter and a tangent is essentially no different than our
modern use of a coordinate frame, where the distances measured along the diameter from the
point of tangency are the abscissas, and the segments parallel to the tangent and intercepted
between the axis and the curve are the ordinates. He further developed relations between the
abscissas and the corresponding ordinates that are equivalent to rhetorical equations of curves.
However, although Apollonius came close to developing analytic geometry, he did not manage to
do so since he did not take into account negative magnitudes and in every case the coordinate
system was superimposed upon a given curve a posteriori instead of a priori. That is, equations
were determined by curves, but curves were not determined by equations. Coordinates, variables,
and equations were subsidiary notions applied to a specific geometric situation.[3]
The eleventh century Persian mathematician Omar Khayym saw a strong relationship between
geometry and algebra, and was moving in the right direction when he helped to close the gap
between numerical and geometric algebra[4] with his geometric solution of the general cubic
equations,[5] but the decisive step came later with Descartes.[4]
Analytic geometry has traditionally been attributed to Ren Descartes[4][6][7] Descartes made
significant progress with the methods in an essay entitled La Geometrie (Geometry), one of the
three accompanying essays (appendices) published in 1637 together with his Discourse on the
Method for Rightly Directing One's Reason and Searching for Truth in the Sciences, commonly
referred to as Discourse on Method. This work, written in his native French tongue, and its
philosophical principles, provided a foundation for Infinitesimal calculus in Europe. Initially the
work was not well received, due, in part, to the many gaps in arguments and complicated

equations. Only after the translation into Latin and the addition of commentary by van Schooten
in 1649 (and further work thereafter) did Descarte's masterpiece receive due recognition.[8]
Pierre Fermat also pioneered the development of analytic geometry. Although not published in
his lifetime, a manuscript form of Ad locos planos et solidos isagoge (Introduction to Plane and
Solid Loci) was circulating in Paris in 1637, just prior to the publication of Descartes' Discourse.
[9]
Clearly written and well received, the Introduction also laid the groundwork for analytical
geometry. The key difference between Fermat's and Descartes' treatments is a matter of
viewpoint. Fermat always started with an algebraic equation and then described the geometric
curve which satisfied it, while Descartes starts with geometric curves and produces their
equations as one of several properties of the curves.[8] As a consequence of this approach,
Descartes had to deal with more complicated equations and he had to develop the methods to
work with polynomial equations of higher degree.

Basic principles

Illustration of a Cartesian coordinate plane. Four points are marked and labeled with their
coordinates: (2,3) in green, (3,1) in red, (1.5,2.5) in blue, and the origin (0,0) in purple.

Coordinates
Main article: Coordinate systems
In analytic geometry, the plane is given a coordinate system, by which every point has a pair of
real number coordinates. The most common coordinate system to use is the Cartesian coordinate
system, where each point has an x-coordinate representing its horizontal position, and a ycoordinate representing its vertical position. These are typically written as an ordered pair (x, y).
This system can also be used for three-dimensional geometry, where every point in Euclidean
space is represented by an ordered triple of coordinates (x, y, z).

Other coordinate systems are possible. On the plane the most common alternative is polar
coordinates, where every point is represented by its radius r from the origin and its angle . In
three dimensions, common alternative coordinate systems include cylindrical coordinates and
spherical coordinates.

Equations of curves
In analytic geometry, any equation involving the coordinates specifies a subset of the plane,
namely the solution set for the equation. For example, the equation y = x corresponds to the set of
all the points on the plane whose x-coordinate and y-coordinate are equal. These points form a
line, and y = x is said to be the equation for this line. In general, linear equations involving x and
y specify lines, quadratic equations specify conic sections, and more complicated equations
describe more complicated figures.
Usually, a single equation corresponds to a curve on the plane. This is not always the case: the
trivial equation x = x specifies the entire plane, and the equation x2 + y2 = 0 specifies only the
single point (0, 0). In three dimensions, a single equation usually gives a surface, and a curve
must be specified as the intersection of two surfaces (see below), or as a system of parametric
equations. The equation x2 + y2 = r2 is the equation for any circle with a radius of r.

The distance formula on the plane follows from the Pythagorean theorem.

Distance and angle

In analytic geometry, geometric notions such as distance and angle measure are defined using
formulas. These definitions are designed to be consistent with the underlying Euclidean
geometry. For example, using Cartesian coordinates on the plane, the distance between two
points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is defined by the formula

which can be viewed as a version of the Pythagorean theorem. Similarly, the angle that a line
makes with the horizontal can be defined by the formula

where m is the slope of the line.

Section of a line
This section requires expansion. (November 2012)
This section does not cite any references or sources. (September 2011)
In Analytical Geometry a section of a line can be given by the formula where (c,d)&(e,f) are the
endpoints of the line & m:n is the ratio of division
S(a,b)=(nc+me/m+n, nd+mf/m+n)

Transformations
This section requires expansion. (December 2009)
Transformations are applied to parent functions to turn it into a new function with similar
characteristics. For example, the parent function y=1/x has a horizontal and a vertical asymptote,
and occupies the first and third quadrant, and all of its transformed forms have one horizontal
and vertical asymptote,and occupies either the 1st and 3rd or 2nd and 4th quadrant. In general, if
y = f(x), then it can be transformed into y = af(b(x k)) + h. In the new transformed function, a is
the factor that vertically stretches the function if it is greater than 1 or vertically compresses the
function if it is less than 1, and for negative a values, the function is reflected in the x-axis. The b
value compresses the graph of the function horizontally if greater than 1 and stretches the
function horizontally if less than 1, and like a, reflects the function in the y-axis when it is
negative. The k and h values introduce translations, h, vertical, and k horizontal. Positive h and k
values mean the function is translated to the positive end of its axis and negative meaning
translation towards the negative end.
Transformations can be applied to any geometric equation whether or not the equation represents
a function. Transformations can be considered as individual transactions or in combinations.
Suppose that R(x,y) is a relation in the xy plane. For example
x2 + y2 -1= 0
is the relation that describes the unit circle. The graph of R(x,y) is changed by standard
transformations as follows:
Changing x to x-h moves the graph to the right h units.
Changing y to y-k moves the graph up k units.

Changing x to x/b stretches the graph horizontally by a factor of b. (think of the x as being
dilated)
Changing y to y/a stretches the graph vertically.
Changing x to xcosA+ ysinA and changing y to -xsinA + ycosA rotates the graph by an angle A.
There are other standard transformation not typically studied in elementary analytic geometry
because the transformations change the shape of objects in ways not usually considered. Skewing
is an example of a transformation not usually considered. For more information, consult the
Wikipedia article on affine transformations.

Intersections
While this discussion is limited to the xy-plane, it can easily be extended to higher dimensions.
For two geometric objects P and Q represented by the relations P(x,y) and Q(x,y) the intersection
is the collection of all points (x,y) which are in both relations. For example, P might be the circle
with radius 1 and center (0,0): P = {(x,y) | x2+y2=1} and Q might be the circle with radius 1 and
center (1,0): Q = {(x,y) | (x-1)2+y2=1}. The intersection of these two circles is the collection of
points which make both equations true. Does the point (0,0) make both equations true? Using
(0,0) for (x,y), the equation for Q becomes (0-1)2+02=1 or (-1)2=1 which is true, so (0,0) is in the
relation Q. On the other hand, still using (0,0) for (x,y) the equation for P becomes (0)2+02=1 or
0=1 which is false. (0,0) is not in P so it is not in the intersection.
The intersection of P and Q can be found by solving the simultaneous equations:
x2+y2 = 1
(x-1)2+y2 = 1
Traditional methods include substitution and elimination.
Substitution: Solve the first equation for y in terms of x and then substitute the expression for y
into the second equation.
x2+y2 = 1
y2=1-x2 We then substitute this value for y2 into the other equation:
(x-1)2+(1-x2)=1 and proceed to solve for x:
x2 -2x +1 +1 -x2 =1
-2x = -1
x=

We next place this value of x in either of the original equations and solve for y:
2+y2 = 1
y2 =

So that our intersection has two points:

Elimination: Add (or subtract) a multiple of one equation to the other equation so that one of the
variables is eliminated. For our current example, If we subtract the first equation from the second
we get: (x-1)2-x2=0 The y2 in the first equation is subtracted from the y2 in the second equation
leaving no y term. y has been eliminated. We then solve the remaining equation for x, in the
same way as in the substitution method. x2 -2x +1 +1 -x2 =1 -2x = -1 x= We next place this
value of x in either of the original equations and solve for y: 2+y2 = 1
y2 =

So that our intersection has two points:

For conic sections, as many as 4 points might be in the intersection.

Intercepts
One type of intersection which is widely studied is the intersection of a geometric object with the
x and y coordinate axes.
The intersection of a geometric object and the y-axis is called the y-intercept of the object. The
intersection of a geometric object and the x-axis is called the x-intercept of the object.
For the line y=mx+b, the parameter b specifies the point where the line crosses the y axis.
Depending on the context, either b or the point (0,b) is called the y-intercept.

Themes
Important themes of analytical geometry are

vector space
definition of the plane

distance problems

the dot product, to get the angle of two vectors

the cross product, to get a perpendicular vector of two known vectors (and also their
spatial volume)

intersection problems

conic sections depending on the class, this may include rotation of coordinates and the
general quadratic problems
Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 +Dx + Ey + F = 0. If the Bxy term is considered, rotations are generally
used.

Many of these problems involve linear algebra.

Example
Here an example of a problem from the United States of America Mathematical Talent Search
that can be solved via analytic geometry:
Problem: In a convex pentagon
, the sides have lengths , , , , and , though not
necessarily in that order. Let , , , and be the midpoints of the sides
,
,
, and
, respectively. Let be the midpoint of segment
, and be the midpoint of segment
. The length of segment
is an integer. Find all possible values for the length of side
.
Solution: Without loss of generality, let
,

, and

Using the midpoint formula, the points

,
, and

, and

be located at

.
, ,

, and

are located at

Using the distance formula,

and

Since

has to be an integer,

(see modular arithmetic) so

Modern analytic geometry

Main article: Algebraic geometry
Further information: Complex geometry
An analytic variety is defined locally as the set of common solutions of several equations
involving analytic functions. It is analogous to the included concept of real or complex algebraic
variety. Any complex manifold is an analytic variety. Since analytic varieties may have singular
points, not all analytic varieties are manifolds.
Analytic geometry is essentially equivalent to real and complex Algebraic geometry, as has been
shown by Jean-Pierre Serre in his paper GAGA, the name of which is French for Algebraic
geometry and analytic geometry. Nevertheless, the two fields remain distinct, as the methods of
proof are quite different and algebraic geometry includes also geometry in finite characteristic.

Notes
1.

^ Boyer, Carl B. (1991). "The Age of Plato and Aristotle". A History of

Mathematics (Second Edition ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. pp. 9495. ISBN 0-47154397-7. "Menaechmus apparently derived these properties of the conic sections and
others as well. Since this material has a strong resemblance to the use of coordinates, as
illustrated above, it has sometimes been maintained that Menaechmus had analytic
geometry. Such a judgment is warranted only in part, for certainly Menaechmus was
unaware that any equation in two unknown quantities determines a curve. In fact, the
general concept of an equation in unknown quantities was alien to Greek thought. It was
shortcomings in algebraic notations that, more than anything else, operated against the
Greek achievement of a full-fledged coordinate geometry."
2.
^ Boyer, Carl B. (1991). "Apollonius of Perga". A History of Mathematics
(Second Edition ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. pp. 142. ISBN 0-471-54397-7. "The

Apollonian treatise On Determinate Section dealt with what might be called an analytic
geometry of one dimension. It considered the following general problem, using the
typical Greek algebraic analysis in geometric form: Given four points A, B, C, D on a
straight line, determine a fifth point P on it such that the rectangle on AP and CP is in a
given ratio to the rectangle on BP and DP. Here, too, the problem reduces easily to the
solution of a quadratic; and, as in other cases, Apollonius treated the question
exhaustively, including the limits of possibility and the number of solutions."
3.

^ Boyer, Carl B. (1991). "Apollonius of Perga". A History of Mathematics

(Second Edition ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. pp. 156. ISBN 0-471-54397-7. "The
method of Apollonius in the Conics in many respects are so similar to the modern
approach that his work sometimes is judged to be an analytic geometry anticipating that
of Descartes by 1800 years. The application of references lines in general, and of a
diameter and a tangent at its extremity in particular, is, of course, not essentially different
from the use fo a coordinate frame, whether rectangular or, more generally, oblique.
Distances measured along the diameter from the point of tangency are the abscissas, and
segments parallel to the tangent and intercepted between the axis and the curve are the
ordinates. The Apollonian relationship between these abscissas and the corresponding
ordinates are nothing more nor less than rhetorical forms of the equations of the curves.
However, Greek geometric algebra did not provide for negative magnitudes; moreover,
the coordinate system was in every case superimposed a posteriori upon a given curve in
order to study its properties. There appear to be no cases in ancient geometry in which a
coordinate frame of reference was laid down a priori for purposes of graphical
representation of an equation or relationship, whether symbolically or rhetorically
expressed. Of Greek geometry we may say that equations are determined by curves, but
not that curves are determined by equations. Coordinates, variables, and equations were
subsidiary notions derived from a specific geometric situation; [...] That Apollonius, the
greatest geometer of antiquity, failed to develop analytic geometry, was probably the
result of a poverty of curves rather than of thought. General methods are not necessary
when problems concern always one of a limited number of particular cases."

4.

^ a b c Boyer (1991). "The Arabic Hegemony". pp. 241242. "Omar Khayyam (ca.
10501123), the "tent-maker," wrote an Algebra that went beyond that of al-Khwarizmi
to include equations of third degree. Like his Arab predecessors, Omar Khayyam
provided for quadratic equations both arithmetic and geometric solutions; for general
cubic equations, he believed (mistakenly, as the sixteenth century later showed),
arithmetic solutions were impossible; hence he gave only geometric solutions. The
scheme of using intersecting conics to solve cubics had been used earlier by
Menaechmus, Archimedes, and Alhazan, but Omar Khayyam took the praiseworthy step
of generalizing the method to cover all third-degree equations (having positive roots). ..
For equations of higher degree than three, Omar Khayyam evidently did not envision
similar geometric methods, for space does not contain more than three dimensions, ...
One of the most fruitful contributions of Arabic eclecticism was the tendency to close the
gap between numerical and geometric algebra. The decisive step in this direction came
much later with Descartes, but Omar Khayyam was moving in this direction when he
wrote, "Whoever thinks algebra is a trick in obtaining unknowns has thought it in vain.

No attention should be paid to the fact that algebra and geometry are different in
appearance. Algebras are geometric facts which are proved.""
5.

^ Glen M. Cooper (2003). "Omar Khayyam, the Mathmetician", The Journal of

the American Oriental Society 123.

6.

^ Stillwell, John (2004). "Analytic Geometry". Mathematics and its History

(Second Edition ed.). Springer Science + Business Media Inc.. pp. 105. ISBN 0-38795336-1. "the two founders of analytic geometry, Fermat and Descartes, were both
strongly influenced by these developments."

7.

^ Cooke, Roger (1997). "The Calculus". The History of Mathematics: A Brief

Course. Wiley-Interscience. pp. 326. ISBN 0-471-18082-3. "The person who is popularly
credited with being the discoverer of analytic geometry was the philosopher Ren
Descartes (15961650), one of the most influential thinkers of the modern era."

8.

^ a b Katz 1998, pg. 442

9.

^ Katz 1998, pg. 436

References

Katz, Victor J. (1998), A History of Mathematics: An Introduction (2nd Ed.), Reading:

Addison Wesley Longman, ISBN 0-321-01618-1

External links

Coordinate Geometry topics with interactive animations

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Algebra
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article provides a broad overview of 'Algebra'. For other uses, see Algebra
(disambiguation). For practical instruction, see Algebra on Wikibooks.
"Algebraist" redirects here. For the novel by Iain M. Banks, see The Algebraist.
Look up algebra in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Three-dimensional right conoid surface plot, described by the elementary algebraic

trigonometrical equations
,

Algebra is related to mathematics, but for historical reasons, the word "algebra" has three
meanings[1] as a bare word, depending on the context. The word also constitutes various terms in
mathematics, showing more variation in the meaning. This article gives a broad overview of
them, including the history.
As a single word, "algebra" can mean[1]:

Use of letters and symbols to represent values and their relations, especially for solving
equations. This is also called "Elementary algebra". Historically, this was the meaning in
pure mathematics too, like seen in "fundamental theorem of algebra", but not now.
In modern pure mathematics,
o

a major branch of mathematics which studies relations and operations. It's

sometimes called abstract algebra, or "modern algebra" to distinguish it from
elementary algebra.

a mathematical structure as a "linear" ring, is also called "algebra," or sometimes

"algebra over a field", to distinguish it from its generalizations.

The adjective "algebraic" usually means relation to abstract algebra, as in "algebraic structure".
But in some cases it refers to equation solving, reflecting the evolution of the field.
Elementary algebra, often part of the curriculum in secondary education, introduces the concept
of variables representing numbers. Statements based on these variables are manipulated using the
rules of operations that apply to numbers, such as addition. This can be done for a variety of
reasons, including equation solving.
Algebra as a branch of mathematics is much broader than elementary algebra, studying what
happens, beyond arithmetics of normal numbers, when different rules of operations and relations
are used. It leads to constructions and concepts arising from them, including terms, polynomials,

equations. When the rules of addition and multiplication are generalized, their precise definitions
lead to the notions of algebraic structures such as groups, rings and fields, studied in the area of
mathematics called abstract algebra.
Algebra is one of the main branches of pure mathematics, together with geometry, analysis,
topology, combinatorics, and number theory.

Contents

1 History
2 Topics containing the word "algebra"

3 Elementary algebra

3.1 Polynomials

3.2 Teaching algebra

4 Abstract algebra
o

4.1 Groups

4.2 Rings and fields

5 See also

6 Notes

7 References

8 External links

History
Main articles: History of elementary algebra and Timeline of algebra
A page from Al-Khwrizm's al-Kitb al-mutas ar f h isb al-abr wa-l-muqbala
The roots of algebra can be traced to the ancient Babylonians,[2]who developed an advanced
arithmetical system with which they were able to do calculations in an algorithmic fashion. The
Babylonians developed formulas to calculate solutions for problems typically solved today by
using linear equations, quadratic equations, and indeterminate linear equations. By contrast, most
Egyptians of this era, as well as Greek and Chinese mathematics in the 1st millennium BC,
usually solved such equations by geometric methods, such as those described in the Rhind
Mathematical Papyrus, Euclid's Elements, and The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art. The
geometric work of the Greeks, typified in the Elements, provided the framework for generalizing
formulae beyond the solution of particular problems into more general systems of stating and

solving equations, though this would not be realized until the medieval Muslim mathematicians.
[citation needed]

By the time of Plato, Greek mathematics had undergone a drastic change. The Greeks created a
geometric algebra where terms were represented by sides of geometric objects, usually lines, that
had letters associated with them.[3] Diophantus (3rd century AD), sometimes called "the father of
algebra", was an Alexandrian Greek mathematician and the author of a series of books called
Arithmetica. These texts deal with solving algebraic equations.[4]
The word algebra comes from the Arabic language ( al-jabr "restoration") and much of its
methods from Arabic/Islamic mathematics. Earlier traditions discussed above had a direct
influence on Muhammad ibn Ms al-Khwrizm (c. 780850). He later wrote The
Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing, which established algebra as a
mathematical discipline that is independent of geometry and arithmetic.[5]
The Hellenistic mathematicians Hero of Alexandria and Diophantus [6] as well as Indian
mathematicians such as Brahmagupta continued the traditions of Egypt and Babylon, though
Diophantus' Arithmetica and Brahmagupta's Brahmasphutasiddhanta are on a higher level.[7] For
example, the first complete arithmetic solution (including zero and negative solutions) to
quadratic equations was described by Brahmagupta in his book Brahmasphutasiddhanta. Later,
Arabic and Muslim mathematicians developed algebraic methods to a much higher degree of
sophistication. Although Diophantus and the Babylonians used mostly special ad hoc methods to
solve equations, Al-Khwarizmi contribution was fundamental. He solved linear and quadratic
equations without algebraic symbolism, negative numbers or zero, thus he has to distinguish
several types of equations.[8]

In 1545, the Italian mathematician Girolamo Cardano published Ars magna -The great art, a 40chapter masterpiece in which he gave for the first time a method for solving the general quartic
equation.

The Greek mathematician Diophantus has traditionally been known as the "father of algebra" but
in more recent times there is much debate over whether al-Khwarizmi, who founded the
discipline of al-jabr, deserves that title instead.[9] Those who support Diophantus point to the fact
that the algebra found in Al-Jabr is slightly more elementary than the algebra found in
Arithmetica and that Arithmetica is syncopated while Al-Jabr is fully rhetorical.[10] Those who
support Al-Khwarizmi point to the fact that he introduced the methods of "reduction" and
"balancing" (the transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an equation, that is, the
cancellation of like terms on opposite sides of the equation) which the term al-jabr originally
referred to,[11] and that he gave an exhaustive explanation of solving quadratic equations,[12]
supported by geometric proofs, while treating algebra as an independent discipline in its own
right.[13] His algebra was also no longer concerned "with a series of problems to be resolved, but
an exposition which starts with primitive terms in which the combinations must give all possible
prototypes for equations, which henceforward explicitly constitute the true object of study". He
also studied an equation for its own sake and "in a generic manner, insofar as it does not simply
emerge in the course of solving a problem, but is specifically called on to define an infinite class
of problems".[14]
The Persian mathematician Omar Khayyam is credited with identifying the foundations of
algebraic geometry and found the general geometric solution of the cubic equation. Another
Persian mathematician, Sharaf al-Dn al-Ts, found algebraic and numerical solutions to various
cases of cubic equations.[15] He also developed the concept of a function.[16] The Indian
mathematicians Mahavira and Bhaskara II, the Persian mathematician Al-Karaji,[17] and the
Chinese mathematician Zhu Shijie, solved various cases of cubic, quartic, quintic and higherorder polynomial equations using numerical methods. In the 13th century, the solution of a cubic
equation by Fibonacci is representative of the beginning of a revival in European algebra. As the
Islamic world was declining, the European world was ascending. And it is here that algebra was
further developed.
Franois Vites work at the close of the 16th century marks the start of the classical discipline of
algebra. In 1637, Ren Descartes published La Gomtrie, inventing analytic geometry and
introducing modern algebraic notation. Another key event in the further development of algebra
was the general algebraic solution of the cubic and quartic equations, developed in the mid-16th
century. The idea of a determinant was developed by Japanese mathematician Kowa Seki in the
17th century, followed independently by Gottfried Leibniz ten years later, for the purpose of
solving systems of simultaneous linear equations using matrices. Gabriel Cramer also did some
work on matrices and determinants in the 18th century. Permutations were studied by Joseph
Lagrange in his 1770 paper Rflexions sur la rsolution algbrique des quations devoted to
solutions of algebraic equations, in which he introduced Lagrange resolvents. Paolo Ruffini was
the first person to develop the theory of permutation groups, and like his predecessors, also in the
context of solving algebraic equations.
Abstract algebra was developed in the 19th century, deriving from the interest in solving
equations, initially focusing on what is now called Galois theory, and on constructibility issues.
[18]
The "modern algebra" has deep nineteenth-century roots in the work, for example, of Richard
Dedekind and Leopold Kronecker and profound interconnections with other branches of
mathematics such as algebraic number theory and algebraic geometry.[19] George Peacock was

the founder of axiomatic thinking in arithmetic and algebra. Augustus De Morgan discovered
relation algebra in his Syllabus of a Proposed System of Logic. Josiah Willard Gibbs developed
an algebra of vectors in three-dimensional space, and Arthur Cayley developed an algebra of
matrices (this is a noncommutative algebra).[20]

Topics containing the word "algebra"

See also: algebra (disambiguation)
Elementary algebra, in which the properties of operations on the real number system are
recorded using symbols as "place holders" to denote constants and variables, and the
rules governing mathematical expressions and equations involving these symbols are
studied. This is usually taught at school under the title algebra (or intermediate algebra
and college algebra in subsequent years). University-level courses in group theory may
also be called elementary algebra.
Abstract algebra, sometimes also called modern algebra, in which algebraic structures
such as groups, rings and fields are axiomatically defined and investigated.

Linear algebra, in which the specific properties of vector spaces are studied (including
matrices). Linear algebra developed from the study of linear equations.

Universal algebra, in which properties common to all algebraic structures are studied.

Algebraic number theory, in which the properties of numbers are studied through
algebraic systems. Number theory inspired much of the original abstraction in algebra.

Algebraic geometry, a branch of geometry, in its primitive form specifying curves and
surfaces by solutions of polynomials equations.

Algebraic combinatorics, in which abstract algebraic methods are used to study

combinatorial questions.

Many mathematical structures are called algebras.

Algebra over a field or more generally Algebra over a ring.

Algebra over a field is not only the concern in abstract algebra, but its analytic structure
is also important in the field of functional analysis.
In measure theory,
o

Sigma-algebra

Algebra over a set

In category theory
o

F-algebra and F-coalgebra

T-algebra

In logic,

Relational algebra, in which a set of finitary relations that is closed under certain
operators.

Boolean algebra, a structure which consists of only two value, 0 and 1. See also
Boolean algebra (structure).

Heyting algebra

Elementary algebra
Main article: Elementary algebra

Algebraic expression notation: 1 - Power, 2 - Coefficient, 3 - term, 4 - operator, x y c - variables

Elementary algebra is the most basic form of algebra. It is taught to students who are presumed
to have no knowledge of mathematics beyond the basic principles of arithmetic. In arithmetic,
only numbers and their arithmetical operations (such as +, , , ) occur. In algebra, numbers are
often denoted by symbols (such as a, n, x, y or z). This is useful because:

It allows the general formulation of arithmetical laws (such as a + b = b + a for all a and
b), and thus is the first step to a systematic exploration of the properties of the real
number system.
It allows the reference to "unknown" numbers, the formulation of equations and the study
of how to solve these. (For instance, "Find a number x such that 3x + 1 = 10" or going a
bit further "Find a number x such that ax + b = c". This step leads to the conclusion that it
is not the nature of the specific numbers that allows us to solve it, but that of the
operations involved.)
It allows the formulation of functional relationships. (For instance, "If you sell x tickets,
then your profit will be 3x 10 dollars, or f(x) = 3x 10, where f is the function, and x is
the number to which the function is applied.")

Polynomials

The graph of a polynomial function of degree 3.

Main article: Polynomial
A polynomial is an expression that is constructed from one or more variables and constants,
using only the operations of addition, subtraction, and multiplication (where repeated
multiplication of the same variable is conventionally denoted as exponentiation with a constant
nonnegative integer exponent). For example, x2 + 2x 3 is a polynomial in the single variable x.
An important class of problems in algebra is factorization of polynomials, that is, expressing a
given polynomial as a product of other polynomials. The example polynomial above can be
factored as (x 1)(x + 3). A related class of problems is finding algebraic expressions for the
roots of a polynomial in a single variable.

Teaching algebra
See also: Mathematics education
It has been suggested that elementary algebra should be taught as young as eleven years old,[21]
though in recent years it is more common for public lessons to begin at the eighth grade level
(13 y.o.) in the United States.[22]
Since 1997, Virginia Tech and some other universities have begun using a personalized model of
teaching algebra that combines instant feedback from specialized computer software with oneon-one and small group tutoring, which has reduced costs and increased student achievement.[23]

Abstract algebra
Main articles: Abstract algebra and Algebraic structure
Abstract algebra extends the familiar concepts found in elementary algebra and arithmetic of
numbers to more general concepts. Here are listed fundamental concepts in abstract algebra.
Sets: Rather than just considering the different types of numbers, abstract algebra deals with the
more general concept of sets: a collection of all objects (called elements) selected by property,
specific for the set. All collections of the familiar types of numbers are sets. Other examples of

sets include the set of all two-by-two matrices, the set of all second-degree polynomials (ax2 + bx
+ c), the set of all two dimensional vectors in the plane, and the various finite groups such as the
cyclic groups which are the group of integers modulo n. Set theory is a branch of logic and not
technically a branch of algebra.
Binary operations: The notion of addition (+) is abstracted to give a binary operation, say.
The notion of binary operation is meaningless without the set on which the operation is defined.
For two elements a and b in a set S, a b is another element in the set; this condition is called
closure. Addition (+), subtraction (-), multiplication (), and division () can be binary
operations when defined on different sets, as is addition and multiplication of matrices, vectors,
and polynomials.
Identity elements: The numbers zero and one are abstracted to give the notion of an identity
element for an operation. Zero is the identity element for addition and one is the identity element
for multiplication. For a general binary operator the identity element e must satisfy a e = a
and e a = a. This holds for addition as a + 0 = a and 0 + a = a and multiplication a 1 = a and
1 a = a. Not all set and operator combinations have an identity element; for example, the
positive natural numbers (1, 2, 3, ...) have no identity element for addition.
Inverse elements: The negative numbers give rise to the concept of inverse elements. For
addition, the inverse of a is written a, and for multiplication the inverse is written a1. A general
two-sided inverse element a1 satisfies the property that a a1 = 1 and a1 a = 1 .
Associativity: Addition of integers has a property called associativity. That is, the grouping of
the numbers to be added does not affect the sum. For example: (2 + 3) + 4 = 2 + (3 + 4). In
general, this becomes (a b) c = a (b c). This property is shared by most binary
operations, but not subtraction or division or octonion multiplication.
Commutativity: Addition and multiplication of real numbers are both commutative. That is, the
order of the numbers does not affect the result. For example: 2 + 3 = 3 + 2. In general, this
becomes a b = b a. This property does not hold for all binary operations. For example,
matrix multiplication and quaternion multiplication are both non-commutative.

Groups
Main article: Group (mathematics)
See also: Group theory and Examples of groups
Combining the above concepts gives one of the most important structures in mathematics: a
group. A group is a combination of a set S and a single binary operation , defined in any way
you choose, but with the following properties:

An identity element e exists, such that for every member a of S, e a and a e are both
identical to a.
Every element has an inverse: for every member a of S, there exists a member a1 such
that a a1 and a1 a are both identical to the identity element.

The operation is associative: if a, b and c are members of S, then (a b) c is identical

to a (b c).

If a group is also commutativethat is, for any two members a and b of S, a b is identical to b
athen the group is said to be abelian.
For example, the set of integers under the operation of addition is a group. In this group, the
identity element is 0 and the inverse of any element a is its negation, a. The associativity
requirement is met, because for any integers a, b and c, (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
The nonzero rational numbers form a group under multiplication. Here, the identity element is 1,
since 1 a = a 1 = a for any rational number a. The inverse of a is 1/a, since a 1/a = 1.
The integers under the multiplication operation, however, do not form a group. This is because,
in general, the multiplicative inverse of an integer is not an integer. For example, 4 is an integer,
but its multiplicative inverse is , which is not an integer.
The theory of groups is studied in group theory. A major result in this theory is the classification
of finite simple groups, mostly published between about 1955 and 1983, which is thought to
classify all of the finite simple groups into roughly 30 basic types.
Examples

Operation +

(w/o
+
zero)

Closed
Identity

Yes
0

Yes
1

Yes
0

Rational numbers Q (also real R

and complex C numbers)

(w/o
(w/o
+

(w/o
zero)
zero)
zero)
Yes Yes Yes
Yes Yes
1
0
N/A
1
N/A

Inverse

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

1/a

N/A

Associative Yes
Commutati
Yes
ve

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

No

Yes
Yes
0
1
0, 2, 1,
N/A, 1, 2,
respectivel respectivel
y
y
Yes
Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

No

Yes

Set:

Structure

Natural
numbers N

Integers Z

Integers modulo 3: Z3
= {0, 1, 2}
+

abelia
abelia
abelia
monoi monoi
monoi
quasigrou
quasigrou abelian
n
n
n
d
d
d
p
p
group
group
group
group

(w/o
zero)

Yes
abelian
group (Z2)

Semigroups, quasigroups, and monoids are structures similar to groups, but more general. They
comprise a set and a closed binary operation, but do not necessarily satisfy the other conditions.
A semigroup has an associative binary operation, but might not have an identity element. A
monoid is a semigroup which does have an identity but might not have an inverse for every
element. A quasigroup satisfies a requirement that any element can be turned into any other by a
unique pre- or post-operation; however the binary operation might not be associative.

All groups are monoids, and all monoids are semigroups.

Rings and fields

Main articles: ring (mathematics) and field (mathematics)
See also: Ring theory, Glossary of ring theory, Field theory (mathematics), and glossary of field
theory
Groups just have one binary operation. To fully explain the behaviour of the different types of
numbers, structures with two operators need to be studied. The most important of these are rings,
and fields.
A ring has two binary operations (+) and (), with distributive over +. Under the first operator
(+) it forms an abelian group. Under the second operator () it is associative, but it does not need
to have identity, or inverse, so division is not required. The additive (+) identity element is
written as 0 and the additive inverse of a is written as a.
Distributivity generalises the distributive law for numbers, and specifies the order in which the
operators should be applied, (called the precedence). For the integers (a + b) c = a c + b c
and c (a + b) = c a + c b, and is said to be distributive over +.
The integers are an example of a ring. The integers have additional properties which make it an
integral domain.
A field is a ring with the additional property that all the elements excluding 0 form an abelian
group under . The multiplicative () identity is written as 1 and the multiplicative inverse of a
is written as a1.
The rational numbers, the real numbers and the complex numbers are all examples of fields.

See also
Algebra portal

Outline of algebra
Outline of linear algebra

Notes
^ a b There is another definition of the word "algebra" in the field of universal
algebra.
2.
^ Struik, Dirk J. (1987). A Concise History of Mathematics. New York: Dover
Publications. ISBN 0486602559.
1.

3.

^ (Boyer 1991, "Europe in the Middle Ages" p. 258) "In the arithmetical theorems
in Euclid's Elements VII-IX, numbers had been represented by line segments to which
letters had been had been attached, and the geometric proofs in al-Khwarizmi's Algebra
made use of lettered diagrams; but all coefficients in the equations used in the Algebra
are specific numbers, whether represented by numerals or written out in words. The idea
of generality is implied in al-Khwarizmi's exposition, but he had no scheme for
expressing algebraically the general propositions that are so readily available in
geometry."

4.

^ Cajori, Florian (2010). A History of Elementary Mathematics With Hints on

Methods of Teaching. p. 34. ISBN 1-4460-2221-8.

5.

^ Roshdi Rashed (November 2009), Al Khwarizmi: The Beginnings of Algebra,

Saqi Books, ISBN 0-86356-430-5

6.

^ Diophantus, Father of Algebra

7.

^ History of Algebra

8.

^ Josef W. Meri (2004). Medieval Islamic Civilization. Psychology Press. p. 31.

ISBN 978-0-415-96690-0. Retrieved 25 November 2012.

9.

^ Boyer, Carl B. (1991). A History of Mathematics (Second ed.). Wiley. pp. 178,
181. ISBN 0471543977.

10.

^ Boyer, Carl B. (1991). A History of Mathematics (Second ed.). Wiley. p. 228.

ISBN 0471543977.

11.

^ (Boyer 1991, "The Arabic Hegemony" p. 229) "It is not certain just what the
terms al-jabr and muqabalah mean, but the usual interpretation is similar to that implied
in the translation above. The word al-jabr presumably meant something like "restoration"
or "completion" and seems to refer to the transposition of subtracted terms to the other
side of an equation; the word muqabalah is said to refer to "reduction" or "balancing"
that is, the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides of the equation."

12.

^ (Boyer 1991, "The Arabic Hegemony" p. 230) "The six cases of equations given
above exhaust all possibilities for linear and quadratic equations having positive root. So
systematic and exhaustive was al-Khwarizmi's exposition that his readers must have had
little difficulty in mastering the solutions."

13.

^ Gandz and Saloman (1936), The sources of al-Khwarizmi's algebra, Osiris i, p.

263277: "In a sense, Khwarizmi is more entitled to be called "the father of algebra" than
Diophantus because Khwarizmi is the first to teach algebra in an elementary form and for
its own sake, Diophantus is primarily concerned with the theory of numbers".

14.

^ Rashed, R.; Armstrong, Angela (1994), The Development of Arabic

Mathematics, Springer, pp. 112, ISBN 0-7923-2565-6, OCLC 29181926

15.

^ O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Sharaf al-Din al-Muzaffar al-Tusi",
MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews.

16.

^ Victor J. Katz, Bill Barton; Barton, Bill (October 2007), "Stages in the History
of Algebra with Implications for Teaching", Educational Studies in Mathematics
(Springer Netherlands) 66 (2): 185201 [192], doi:10.1007/s10649-006-9023-7

17.

^ (Boyer 1991, "The Arabic Hegemony" p. 239) "Abu'l Wefa was a capable
algebraist as well as a trigonometer. [...] His successor al-Karkhi evidently used this
translation to become an Arabic disciple of Diophantus but without Diophantine
analysis! [...] In particular, to al-Karkhi is attributed the first numerical solution of
equations of the form ax2n + bxn = c (only equations with positive roots were
considered),"

18.

^ "The Origins of Abstract Algebra". University of Hawaii Mathematics

Department.

19.

^ "The History of Algebra in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries".

Mathematical Sciences Research Institute.

20.

^ "The Collected Mathematical Papers".Cambridge University Press.

21.

^ "Hull's Algebra" (pdf). New York Times. July 16, 1904. Retrieved September 21,
2012.

22.

^ Quaid, Libby (September 22, 2008). "Kids misplaced in algebra" (Report).

Associated Press. Retrieved September 23, 2012.

23.

^ Hamilton, Reeve (7 September 2012). "THE TEXAS TRIBUNE; U.T.Arlington Adopts New Way to Tackle Algebra". The New York Times. Retrieved 10
September 2012.

References

Donald R. Hill, Islamic Science and Engineering (Edinburgh University Press, 1994).
Ziauddin Sardar, Jerry Ravetz, and Borin Van Loon, Introducing Mathematics (Totem
Books, 1999).

George Gheverghese Joseph, The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of

Mathematics (Penguin Books, 2000).

John J O'Connor and Edmund F Robertson, History Topics: Algebra Index. In MacTutor
History of Mathematics archive (University of St Andrews, 2005).

I.N. Herstein: Topics in Algebra. ISBN 0-471-02371-X

R.B.J.T. Allenby: Rings, Fields and Groups. ISBN 0-340-54440-6

L. Euler: Elements of Algebra, ISBN 978-1-899618-73-6

Asimov, Isaac (1961). Realm of Algebra. Houghton Mifflin.

External links
Wikibooks has more on the topic of: Algebra

Khan Academy: Conceptual videos and worked examples

4000 Years of Algebra, lecture by Robin Wilson, at Gresham College, October 17, 2007
(available for MP3 and MP4 download, as well as a text file).

Algebra entry by Vaughan Pratt in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

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