Discourse=language description in terms of how it is used in various settings in

order to enact activities and identities. Language in context and in use. Concerns
itself in particular with the knowledge which users have at the level of text.
We draw on knowledge of texts/genres and then on world knowledge. We
combine knowledge of human relationships (stereotypes), texts+genres=
construct an interpretation.
Understanding syntax aand lexis is not enough for comprehension.
We do not draw on different kinds of knowledge in a linear or ordered way.
We understand language in an interactive way, drawing on different arreas of
knowledge, be it bottom-up or top-down in a rapid, dynamic process, depends on
the person, situation and genre.
MICRO LEVEL ASPECTS (lower-oder features)
-cohesion
-sentence
-word, concept
-element
MACRO LEVEL ASPECTS (higher-order features)
World
Society and culture
Context text and genre
Conceptual structures
Come to the CLICK OF COMPREHENSION
DISCOURSE
Stubbs: contentious views on discourse analysis. 3 key elements: AUTHENTIC
language, language ABOVE the level of sentence, CONTEXT. 1970s and 1980s.
Reaction to Chomsky, which contravened all the three precepts (grammar points:
sentence+ clause, invented language, decontextualized)
BLOMMAERT: The concept of context has been treated too uncritically, treating it
as a mere background. The discourse analysis should include all contextual
information more systematically.
Context is a selection of circumstances internally represented in the mind. Some
factors are consequently not even physical present at all. However, there must
be an appeal to a common context of shared knowledge (conversational
discourse: hesitation/other linguistic or non-linguistic features could help to
interpret, more problematic is written discourse
Problematic aspect: 1) beyond the sentence!
There are numerous examples of discourse composed of only one letter/word, but
are perfectly comprehensible. Discourse analysists prefer to study longer texts
and look at the relations between the parts of those texts.
2) spoken discourse: not always make use of complete
sentences

Therefore, Stubbs definition of discourse analysis should be amended as it can

include texts of any size, written or spoken, as long as they are authentic and
contextualised.
FINAL DEFINITION:
Discourse analysis deals with authentic texts, with language in context and
includes texts of all kinds and all sizes.
TEXT
Covers written and spoken discourse. Texts are cohesive, function as a unity.
Problematic: the P sign
HALLIDAY: Text= language doing some job in some context. Actual instances of
language, creative and mix genres for functional/communicative purposes vs.
genres=prototypes on which we draw when we interpret actual texts, similar to
schemas, frames and scripts.
INTERTEXTUALITY
The relationship between one text and other. It contains two aspects:
REFERENCING ASPECT (citation or reference to another text) + GENRE-MIXING
ASPECT (one text types merges with another one). More focus is put on the
product, not as much on the process. It is an intrinsic part of texts and a crucial
and integral part of the process of a texts creation and of its interpretation.
Intertextual knowledge is closely related to our genre knowledge.
The world has an impact on the language we use and choose.
Language=a social construct, it is constructed and learned socially as we grow
up. Discourse analysis assumes that language plays a crucial part of constructing
reality. The discourse can construct our sense of place, person or gender.
Critical Discourse Analysis impact is awareness of discourse used to gain and
maintain power.
Texts are to be analysed in terms of:
authenticity, any size or form: spoken/written, contexts, intertextual relations,
ideologies+ viewpoints, socio-political implications and consequences.
GENRE
SKEMP: Concepts group together to form mental models. They are like maps or
diagrams and are internalized into our psychology. Encountering real-world
examples, we abstract what is common about all of them and recognise them in
future.
Concept=a mental entity (ticket office)
Mental model= interconnected concepts, a conceptual structure. More complex
relationship between the various concepts
Abstraction=certain qualities of actual objects and events are internalised as
concepts
Roschs Prototype theory research=explain anomalies in human cognition (birds
fly, but penguins and ostriches dont)

Mental concepts=fuzzy (flexibility of various level of discourse) and not clear or

fixed, revolve around prototypes=clear-cut examples
Concepts combine in larger conceptual structures=mental models, these can be
representations of physical entities (railway station) or more abstract things
(management structure in a company)
SCHEMAS
clusters of mental concepts we draw on in order to interpret the world around us
and also to interpret language. Theres little empirical theory attached to schema
theory: metaphor of background knowledge. Schemas are well- integrated chunks
of knowledge about the world, events, people and actions.
We develop it through experience, allows us to interpret the world and share the
interpretation with others. Schema is more general association of ideas.
E.g book, pencil, teacher, learning, bell=school (schema) vs. schools structure
and organisation=mental model
SCRIPT=conventional, sequentially ordered information. With people around us
we share an understanding of how the sequence will unfold, which enables us to
cooperate. A makeup of scripts will differ from person to person and from culture
to culture, but there is certain consensus.
FRAME=non-sequentially ordered information
Mental schemas create expectations, help us predict what will happen in any new
situation and scripts help us to predict what will happen next. Both of them help
us to cooperate effectively in the real world and also impact on our
understanding and construction of texts.
TEXT AND GENRE SCHEMAS
We process language information in terms of:
-world knowledge: encyclopaedic knowledge+ previous knowledge f the
speaker/writer, help to construct a content schema for a text (+frames and
scripts)
-knowledge built up from the text so far
-previous experience of this type of text=text schema (content+ form schema)
GENRE SCHEMA=complements text schema, draws on typical contexts, forms,
functions, lexis, grammar etc. Forms part of our intertextual knowledge.
E.j: car advert
TEXTS=actual manifestation, visible or audible. Frequently it draw on our genre
knowledge or may deliberately undermines our genre expectations for humour or
other effects. They are free as they can borrow in a highly flexible and creative
way from the prototype
GENRE=ideal
Classifying and sorting genres: Unger discusses different criteria: situation
(number of speakers, social rank), mode (written/spoken), purpose. However,
natural hybridity of real texts! Genres are fuzzy, flexible may not be clearly
delineated in all their characteristics. This is because of being at the interface
between language system and society.

Paltridge: emphasis on the linguistic factors over social ones

S. Bax: distinguish
Martin: social or activity dimensions
Swales: genre comprises of communicative events, the members of which share
some set of communicate purposes. Function of genre governs its features (e.g
Barbecue sign: function=inform, instruct, its features= size of lettering, choice of
grammar+ lexis, location, vertical orientation). For brevity and speeds sake, a
genres function also governs the choice of lexis=jargon=language specific to a
particular occupational/ social group.
Narrative=sometimes a genre of its own, reporting of a sequence of events,
usually in the past
It is rather at a more general abstract level. Fairclough: pre-genres
Werlich: narrative, descriptive, expository, argumentative, instructional text types
Smith: narrative, description, argument, reports, and information discourse
modes
Grabe: macro genres=narrative and exposition at a superordinate level
Bhatia: applied genre theory: relation between genres, texts, discourse
modes=generic values such as narration, description, explanation, persuasion.
Genre colonies
Genres
SMITH: DISCOURSE MODES=ways of using language, general modes of operating
with language, are at a more abstract level than genres and can enter in to
several genres in flexible ways Are abstract ways of expressing relationships
about the world. Differ from genres because they dont have a specific social
function in themselves, they are building blocks used in genres.
STYLE=the general way in which language is used in any written or spoken text,
mainly in terms of formality and informality. Depends on the context:
social/physical occasion
REGISTER=specialized vocabulary and preferred syntactic and rhetorical devices,
used by socioprofessional groups for special purposes
JARGON=refers specifically to lexis, connected with professional domains:
medical, legal, cookery
GENRES=have structure, beginning and end= recognizable structural layout
vs. STLYE= more general way of talking and writing, varies according to the
occasion and situation, continuum of formal-informal
TEXT TYPE= category of problem-solution, description, discussion, cause-andeffect, compare-and-contrast texts
Texts in more formal settings might follow a particular genre closely, whereas
other texts might draw more flexibly on a variety of genres-hybridity.
DISCOURSE MODES
Narrative, description, report, information, description, argument. Can be
distinguished in terms of their relation to the world+ linguistic features. Focus is
more on written texts than on spoken ones. Interactive mode is included

(technology, synchronous written communication closely resembling spoken

interaction). Question, two-way dialogue (instructing too)= DIALOGIC= imply a
dialogue
Narrative, Description and Report=temporal, situations located in the world.
Narrative=events are related to each other in time, sequenced, time adverbials
Reports: Speech time, text progresses back and forth
Description: static, events and states, depends on lexical information
Information and Argument= atemporal, cognitive/mental
Information: general statives
Argument=general statives+ abstract entities
1) NARRATIVE MODE
Sequenced, time adverbials, the same participants that have causal/other
consequential relation, particular lexical+ syntactical patterns (past tense verbs,
finite verb forms, time adverbials: suddenly, then, so, reference: pronouns=coreference, advance dynamically, events+ states are referred to previous events
and times in the text.
Structure: discourse signals (beginnings+ end)
Parts of speech: time adverbials
Cohesion
World knowledge
+typical story structure=established setting which seems to be stable, then an
event that upsets the stable situation, hard to overcome, success and happy
ending= mental script being largely subconscious but powerful in shaping our
expectations of stories.
Narrative structure:
ARISTOTLE effectiveness for tragic drama (stable beginning/setting, disruption,
return to stability)
TODOROV compares the structure of a story with the grammatical structure of a
sentence
(Setting-disruption-recognition-effort-return to equilibrium) these stages=mental
scripts.
Many genres also begin in medias res, to hook the reader/viewer into the story.
Joke=grim equilibrium. Humour=overturning. First we have to know the script
and then appreciate how a genre or text adheres to or diverges from it.
The third and fourth elements are crucial to successful narratives.

Hola como te va Urka. Hey si te escribo es porque mis sentimientos no son nada de lo que eran antes, ya
entend no te preocupes y tu tranquila, no dramas ni nada, solo saludo y ya, porque que eres importante en mi
vida, lo eres en el sentido de que moviste mucho mi destino, espero algn da me consideres de nuevo un
compa, bueno un amigo, Un gran saludo desde Guadalajara