^

TH

RI A

MOTVS CORPORVM
COELESTIVM
IN

SECTIONIBVS CONICIS SOLEM AMBIENTIVM

A V C T O R B

CAROLO FRIDERICO GAVSS.

THEORY
OF THE

MOTION OF THE HEAVENLY BODIES MOVING ABOUT

THE SUN IN CONIC SECTIONS:
A TBAN8LATI0N OF

GAUSS'S "THEORIA MOTUS."

WITH AN APPENDIX.

BY

CHARLES HENRY DAVIS,

COMMANDER UNITED STATES NAVY, SUPERINTENDENT OF THE AMERICAN EPHEMERIS AND NAUTICAL ALHANAO.

LITTLE,

BOSTON:
BROWN AND COMPANY.
185

7.

Published

under

the

Authority

of

the

Navy Department by

Smithsonian Institution.

36-6-

the

Nautical

Almanac and

TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.

In

a pamphlet, entitled The Computation of an Orbit from Three Complete

1852,

Observations,

was

published, under the authority of the

of the American Ephemeris

and Nautical Almanac, the

the use

Navy Department, for

object of which was to

excerpt

from various parts of Gauss's Theoria Motus, and to arrange in proper order the numerous details which combine to form

Appendix containing the

mefall einer

this

complicated problem.

results of Professor

To

these were added an

Encke's investigations, Ueber den Ausnah-

doppelten Bahnbestimmung- aus denselben drei geocentrischen Oertern

{Ab-

handlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1848), and also Professor Peirce's
(Graphic

Delineations of the Curves showing geometrically the roots of Gauss's Equa-

tion IV. Article 141.

was completed,

After this pamphlet

the opinion

that a complete translation of the Theoria

the

work (now become very

This

undertaking has

which has
ifs

signified

sonian

is

and

costly)

particularly

also of

to

Astronomers generally, to

meet

whom

a standard and permanent authority.

is

encouraged

by the

Smithsonian

Institution,

high estimate of the importance of the work, by contributing to

And by

publication.

Translation

its

been

rare

scientific friends

Motus should be undertaken, not only

wants of the American Ephemeris, but those

this

was expressed by

the authority of Hon.

J.

C. Dobbin, Secretary of the

printed by the joint contributions of the Nautical

Almanac and

Navy,

this

the Smith-

Institution.

The notation of Gauss has been

has been

made

as nearly

graphical accuracy.

littlral

strictly

as possible.

All the errata tliat

adhered to throughout, and the translation

No

secure typopains have been spared to

have been

noticixl in

Zacii's Monatliche

Corrc-

spondcnz, the Berliner Astronomischcs Jahrbuch, and the Astronomische Nachrichtru, have
(V)

TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.

VI

been corrected, and in addition to these a considerable number, a

list

of which will be

found in Gould's Astronomical Journal, that were discovered by Professor Chauvenet

who

of the United States Naval Academy,

has examined the formulas of the

body of

the work with great care, not only by comparison with the original, but by independent
verification.

The

Chapel

North Carolina, and by Mr. Runkle and Professor Winlock of

Hill,

Almanac

proof-sheets

have also been carefully read by Professor Phillips, of

office.

The Appendix contains

the

results

of the investigations of Professor

Professor Peirce, from the Appendix of the pamphlet above referred

ters

Nautical

tl;ie

which,

it

is

to,

Encke and

and other mat-

hoped, will be found interesting and useful to the practical computer,

among which

are several valuable tables

LeVerribr's

Annales

de

U Observatoire

Table

Imperial

for the

de

Motion

Paris,

in a Parabola

Bessel's

and

from

Posselt's

Tables for Ellipses and Hyperbolas closely resembling the Parabola, and a convenient

Table by Professor Hubbard

for facilitating the

use of Gauss's formulas for Ellipses and

Hyperbolas of which the eccentricities are nearly equal to unity.

And

in the

form of

notes on their appropriate articles, useful formulas by Bessel, Nicolai, Encke, Gauss,

and Peirce, and a summary of the formulas

with the accompanying Table, from

quemste Methode die

Bahn

eines

for

computing the

orbit

Olbers's Abhandlung" ueber die

Cometen zu berechnen.

Weimar, 1847.

of a

leichteste

Comet,

und

be-

CONTENTS.
Page

i^

Preface

FIRST BOOK.
GENEEAL RELATIONS BETWEEN THE QUANTITIES BY WHICH THE MOTIONS
OF HEAVENLY BODIES ABOUT THE SUN ARE DEFINED.

Second Section.
Third Section.
Fourth Section.
First Section.

.....
.....
......

Relations pertaining simply to position in the Orbit

Relations pertaining simply to Position in Space

54

Relations between Several Places in Orbit

Relations between Several Places in Space

100
153

SECOND BOOK.
INVESTIGATION OF THE ORBITS OF HEAVENLY BODIES FROM GEOCENTRIC
OBSERVATIONS.

Determination
Section. Determination

First Section.

Second

are Complete

Third

of an Orbit from

Observations whatever

Fourth

.161

Four Observations, of which Two only

..............

Section. Determination
Section. On

Three Complete Observations

of an Orbit from

number

of an Orbit satisfying as nearly as possible any

.

234

of

.2^9

the Determination of Orbits, taking into account the Perturbations

274

Appendix

279

Tables

329
(yii)

OAHBRIDG E
PBIKTID BT ALLEN AND FABNHAM.
:

PREFACE.

After the laws of planetary motion were discovered, the genius of Kepler

was not without resources

tion of individual

for deriving

from observations the elements of mo-

Tycho Brake, by

planets.

whom

practical

astronomy had

been carried to a degree of perfection before unknown, had observed

planets

much

through a long

series

of years with the

greatest

care,

all

the

and with so

perseverance, that there remained to Kepler, the most worthy inheritor

only of selecting what might

of such a repository, the

trouble

to

The mean motions of the

any

special

purpose.

planets

seem suited

already

deter-

mined with great precision by means of very ancient observations diminished

not a

little this labor.

Astronomers who, subsequently to Kepler, endeavored to determine

more accurately the

better

observations,

problem was
slightly to

orbits of the planets

enjoyed

no longer

to

the

correct those already

with the aid of more recent or

same or even greater

deduce

still

elements

wholly

For the

facilities.

unknown,

but

only

known, and to define them within narrower

limits.

The

principle of universal gravitation discovered

b

by the

illustrious

Newton
(ix)

PREFACE.

X
opened a

field

least those the

must

entirely

new, and showed that

all

the heavenly bodies, at

motions of which are regulated by the attraction of the sun,

necessarily,

conform

same

the

to

by which Kepler had found the

five

laws, with a slight modification

planets to be governed.

only,

Kepler, rely-

ing upon the evidence of observations, had announced that the orbit of every

an

is

planet

ellipse, in

which the areas are described uniformly about the

sun occupying one focus of the

ellipse,

and in such a manner that

in differ-

ent ellipses the times of revolution are in the sesquialteral ratio of the semi-

On

axes-major.

the

other

gravitation, demonstrated

universal

present one form

las

h priori that

must move

attractive force of the sun

from the

hand, Newton, starting

to us, namely,

all

bodies controlled

in conic sections, of

ellipses,

while

be bodies encountering the

may

that the sun

velocity;

of the

force

possible,

provided

sun with the requisite

same body describes

in different

sun are proportional to those times;

and

about the sun by different bodies, in

equal times, are

in elliptic

which the planets

must always occupy one focus of the conic section;

that the areas which the

ratio of the

by the

the remaining forms, parabo-

and hyperbolas, must be regarded as being equally

there

of

principle

finally, that

times

the
in

areas

the

about the
described

subduplicate

semiparameters of the orbits: the latter of these laws, identical

motion with the

last

law of Kepler, extends

to the parabolic

and

hyperbolic motion, to which Kepler's law cannot be applied, because the revolutions

became

are wanting.

clue

was now discovered by following which

it

possible to enter the hitherto inaccessible labyrinth of the motions of

the comets.
orbits

The

And

this

were parabolas,

was

so successful that the single hypothesis, that their

sufficed to explain the

had been accurately observed.

motions of

all

the comets which

Thus the system of universal gravitation had

PKEFACE.

paved the way to new and most

comets,

brilliant

triumphs

in

and the

analysis;

up to that time wholly unmanageable, or soon breaking from the

which they seemed to be subjected, having now submitted to

restraints to
control,

Xi

enemies to guests, moved

and being transformed from

on in

the

out by the calculus, scrupulously conforming to the same eter-

paths marked

nal laws that govern the planets.

In determining the parabolic orbits of comets from observation,

greater than

ties arose far

from

principally

this

the elliptic orbits

in determining

source, that

comets, seen for

difficul-

of planets, and

a brief interval, did not

afford a choice of observations particularly suited to a given object:

but the

geometer was compelled to employ those which happened to be furnished

him, so that

it

to

make

The

great

became necessary

applied in planetary calculations.

use

of special methods seldom

Newton

ter of his age, did not disguise the difficulty of the

been expected, he came out of

labored

course, but

with

various

little

to be- desired at the present time.

The

success, of

truth,

difficulty is

the conic

however,

lected, differ

of the

the

orbit.

focus;

should be

while

conic

as

geome-

might have

Since the time

on the same problem,

such a manner as to leave but

overlooked that in this problem the

by the knowledge of one element of

major-axis

parabolic

infinitely greater variety.

it

be

is

For,

among themselves only by

vertex from the

why

to

very fortunately lessened

section, since

assumption

not

is

zealously

in

still

problem:

also the victor.

this contest

many geometers have

of Newton,

himself, the first

put equal to infinity by the very

all

the

parabolas,

if

position

is

neg-

greater or less distance of the

sections, generally considered,

There existed, in point of

fact,

no

admit of

sufficient reason

taken for granted that the paths of comets are exactly

PREFACE.

Xii

parabolic:

on the contrary,

must be regarded

it

as

in

the

highest degree

improbable that nature should ever have favored such an hypothesis.

in

an

the

was known, that the phenomena of a heavenly body moving

it

nevertheless,

ellipse or

hyperbola, the major-axis of which

parameter, differs very

little

parabola of which the vertex

is

the axis to the

parameter

and

very great relatively to

near the perihelion from the motion in a

at

the

since,

same distance from the focus; and

ratio of

moreover, experience had shown that

between the observed motion and the

motion computed in the

parabolic

remained differences scarcely ever greater than those which might

orbit, there

be

is

more inconsiderable the greater the

that this difference becomes the

safely

Since,

attributed

most cases)

to

errors

of observation

(errors

astronomers have thought proper to

considerable

quite

retain

the

factorily what, if any, are the

differences

from a parabola.

and

parabola,

very properly, because there are no means whatever of ascertaining

We

in

satis-

must except

the celebrated comet of Halley, which, describing a very elongated ellipse and

frequently observed at

time

return to the perihelion, revealed to us

its

its

periodic

but then the major-axis being thus known, the computation of the

maining elements

is

to

be considered as hardly more

nation of the parabolic orbit.

And we must

difficult

than

tlie

re-

determi-

not omit to mention that astrono-

mers, in the case of some other comets observed for a somewhat longer time,

have attempted to determine the deviation from a parabola.

However,

all

the methods either proposed or used for this object, rest

upon the assumption
that the variation from
referred to, the parabola

idea of the
tion

several

depending on

a parabola
itself,

is

inconsiderable, and hence in the trials

previously computed, furnished an approximate

elements (except the major-axis, or the time of revoluit),

to

be corrected

by only

slight changes.

Besides,

it

Xm

PREFACE.

must be acknowledged, that the whole of these

any thing with

case to settle

1770

is

certainty,

hardly served in any

trials

comet of the year

perhaps, the

if,

excepted.

As soon

as

it

was ascertained that the motion of the new

not be reconciled with the parabolic hypothesis, astrono-

ered in 1781, could

mers undertook to adapt a

and very easy

planet, discov-

calculation.

circular

By

orbit

to

it,

which

is

a matter of simple

a happy accident the orbit of this planet had

but a small eccentricity, in consequence of which the elements resulting from

the circular hypothesis sufl&ced at least for an approximation on which could

be based the determination of the

elliptic

elements.

rence of several other very favorable circumstances.

There was

a-

concur-

For, the slow motion of

the planet, and the very small inclination of the orbit to the plane of the
ecliptic,

not only rendered the

calculations

much more

simple,

and allowed

the use of special methods not suited to other cases; but they removed

the

apprehension, lest the planet, lost in the rays of the sun, should subsequently
elude the search of observers, (an apprehension which some astronomers might

have

felt,

especially

if

its

had been

light

less brilliant);

so that

the more

accurate determination of the orbit might be safely deferred, until a selection

could be

made from

seemed best
Thus, in

fitted for

observations

more frequent and more remote, such

as

the end in view.

every case in which

it

was necessary

to

deduce the orbits of

heavenly bodies from observations, there existed advantages not to be despised,

suggesting,

or

at

any

rate

permitting,

the

application

of

special

methods; of which advantages the chief one was, that by means of h3rpothetical

assumptions an approximate knowledge of some elements could be

PREFACE.

xiv
obtained

Notwithstanding

computation of the

the

before

this, it

elements was

elliptic

commenced.

seems somewhat strange that the general problem,

To determine

the

orbit

observations

not

embracing a great period of time, and not allowing a

from

with a view to the

of a heavenly body, withovi

application of special methods,

to the beginning of the present century;

in a

manner worthy of

to mathematicians

practice

by

its

its

were not apparent.

An

any hypothetical assumption,

selection

was almost wholly neglected up

or, at least,

importance; since

difficulty

it

not treated by any one

commended

assuredly

and elegance, even

if

itself

great utility in

its

opinion had universally prevailed that a

complete determination from observations embracing a short interval of time

was impossible,

an

ill-founded

the orbit of a heavenly body

observations

opinion,

may be

for

it

now

is

clearly

shown

that

determined quite nearly from good

embracing only a few days; and

this

without any hypothetical

assumption.

Some
engaged

ideas occurred to
at

me

in the

month of September of the year 1801,

the time on a very different subject, which

seemed

the solution of the great problem of which I have spoken.

cumstances

we not

unfrequently, for fear of being too

an attractive investigation,
tively considered,
neglect.

And

suffer the

Under such

much

led

associations of ideas, which,

might have proved most

fruitful

to point to
cir-

away by

more

in results, to be lost

atten-

from

the same fate might have befallen these conceptions, had they

not happily occurred at the most propitious

and encouragement that could have been

the report of the

new

planet, discovered

moment

selected.

on the

for their preservation

For just about

first

this

time

day of January of that

year with the telescope at Palermo, was the subject of universal conversation;

PREFACE.

XV

and soon afterwards the observations made by that distinguished astronomer

PiAZZi

from the above date to the eleventh of February were published.

where in the annals of astronomy do we meet with

and a greater one could hardly be imagined,
value of this problem, than in this

crisis

after the

proximate knowledge of

its

orbit

strikingly, the

and urgent necessity, when

of nearly a year, rested

lapse

an opportunity,

showing most

for

of discovering in the heavens this planetary atom,

stars

so great

all

among innumerable
upon a

solely

practical value

of

my

hope
small

sufficiently ap-

be based upon these very few observa-

to

Could I ever have found a more seasonable opportunity to

tions.

No-

conceptions, than

now

test the

employing them for the de-

in

termination of the orbit of the planet Ceres, which

during these forty-one

days had described

degrees,

geocentric

must be looked

lapse of a year

from that in which

it

was

last

arc of only three

This

first

new

first

clear

night,

by the numbers deduced from

when
it,

re-

Three other new planets, subsequently

stored the fugitive to observation.

discovered, furnished

the

method

application of the

was made in the month of October, 1801, and the

the planet was sought for* as directed

after

of the heavens very remote

for in a region

seen

and

opportunities for examining

and verifying the

effi-

ciency and generality of the method.

Several astronomers wished
calculations

things

immediately

other

to publish the

second

the

occupations, the desire

some subsequent
of this

after

me

would

*By

raise

discovery

of treating the

period, and, especially, the

investigation

methods employed in these

subject

but

more

many

fully at

hope that a further prosecution

various parts of the

de Zach, December

of Ceres

7,

1801.

solution to a greater

PREFACE.

Xvi

prevented

degree of generality, simplicity, and elegance,

I

the time with these friendly solicitations.

employed have undergone

any

so

many and

trace of resemblance remains

Ceres was

my

would be foreign to
which these

investigations

instances, particularly

when

pressed.

But

I have

given

in

this

many

narrate

been

in

earlier

first

orbit of

Although
the

all

still,

steps
in

it

by

several

importance than

methods ought not to be wholly sup-

work, besides the solutions of the principal problems,

things which,

during the long time I

upon the motions of the heavenly bodies

me

as

worthy of

or

more

detail

of more

gaged

especially

work.

this

gradually perfected,

the problem was one

have thought that the

usual, I

For, the methods

between the method in which the

purpose, to

have

in this ex-

such great changes, that scarcely

computed, and the form given in

first

complying at

was not disappointed

and have no cause to regret the delay.

pectation,

my

attention, either

in

conic

have been ensections,

struck

on account of their analytical elegance,

on account of their

practical

utility.

But

in every case

have devoted greater care both to the subjects and methods which are

peculiar to myself, touching lightly and so far only as the connection seemed
to require,

on those previously known.

The whole work

is

divided into two

veloped the relations between

the

In the First Book are de-

parts.

quantities

on which the motion of the

heavenly bodies about the sun, according to the laws of Kepler, depends;
the two

first

considered,

sections comprise

those relations

and the third and fourth

between several places are considered.

of the

common

methods, and

greatly preferable to

them

also,

in

those

sections

The two

and more

in practice if I

which one place only

in

which the

latter contain

is

relations

an explanation

particularly, of other methods,

am

not mistaken, by means of

PREFACE,

Xvii

which we pass from the known elements to the phenomena; the former treat
of

many most

important problems which prepare the

Since these very

cesses.

phenomena

result

from a certain

to

inverse

artificial

and

prointri-

of this texture must be thor-

elements, the nature

cate complication of the

way

oughly examined before we can undertake with hope of success to disentangle

the threads and to resolve
in the First

the

fabric into its constituent parts.

Book, the means and appliances are provided, by means of which,

in the second, this difficult task

therefore, consists in

this,

that

is

accomplished

The more important problems

examples, taken, wherever

In this

way

not only

is

the

the chief part of the labor,

means should be properly

these

gether, should be suitably arranged,

priate

Accordingly,

collected

to-

and directed to the proposed end.

are, for the

it

was

possible,

efficacy of the

and their use more clearly shown, but

most

part, illustrated

from

actual

methods more

also, care, I

by appro-

observations.

fully established

hope, has been taken that

these subinexperienced computers should not be deterred from the study of

jects,

which undoubtedly constitute the richest and most attractive part of

theoi'etical

astronomy.

GoTTiNGEN, March

28, 1809.

FIRST BOOK.
GENERAL RELATIONS BETWEEN THOSE QUANTITIES BY WHICH THE
MOTIONS OF HEAVENLY BODIES ABOUT THE SUN ARE DEFINED.

FIEST SECTION.
RELATIONS PERTAJNING SIMPLY TO POSITION IN THE ORBIT.

1.

work we

motions of the heavenly bodies so far only

force of the sun.
All the secondary
the
attractive
as they are controlled by
planets are therefore excluded from our plan, the perturbations which the
In this

shall consider the

primary planets exert upon each other are excluded, as is also all motion of
rotation.
We regard the moving bodies themselves as mathematical points, and

we assume

that all motions are performed in obedience to the following laws,

which are to be received as the basis of

all

discussion in this work.

I.

The motion of every heavenly body takes

place

in

plane in which the centre of the sun is situated.

II. The path described by a body is a conic section having
centre of the sun.

The motion

the

its

same fixed

focus in the

such that the areas of the spaces described

about the sun in different intervals of time are proportional to those intervals.
III.

in this path

is

the times and spaces are expressed in numbers, any space whatever divided by the time in which it is described gives a constant quotient.

Accordingly,

if

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

[BoOK

I.

IV. For different bodies moving about the sun, the squares of these quotients
are in the compound ratio of the parameters of their orbits, and of the sum of the

masses of the sun and the moving bodies.

Denoting, therefore, the parameter of the orbit in which the body moves by
the mass of this body by ^ (the mass of the sun being put =1), the area it
2jt?,
describes about the sun in the time
for all

Since then

heavenly bodies.

by

i(/,

it is

then

wn_|_

will

be a constant

of no importance which body

we

use

number, we will derive it from the motion of the earth, the

mean distance of which from the sun we shall adopt for the unit of distance the

for determining this

always be our unit of time. Denoting, moreover, by n the

day
ratio of the circumference of the circle to the diameter, the area of the entire

mean

solar

will

put

= i^,

after to

sidereal

if

by

be n ^p, which must therefore be

understood the sidereal year; whence, our constant becomes

by the earth

ellipse described

^ is

In order to ascertain the numerical value of

be denoted by

year

will evidently

k,

we

will put, according to the latest determination, the

^=365.2563835, the mass of the

or

this constant, here-

earth,

or

^=i

z=

0.0000028192, whence results

0.7981798684

log27r
Compl.

logzJ

Compl.

log.

7.4374021852

v/(l+rt

9.9999993878

8.2355814414

log ^

Jc=

0.01720209895.

2.

The laws above

stated

from those discovered by our own Kepler

that they are given in a form applicable to all kinds

differ

no other respect than this,

of conic sections, and that the action of

in

depends the factor

\J

{l-\-^),

is

the.

moving body on the

taken into account.

If

we

sun,

on which

regard these laws as

phenomena derived from innumerable and indubitable observations, geometry

shows what action ought in consequence to be exerted upon bodies moving about

to position in the orbit.

Sect. 1.]

the sun, in order that these

phenomena may be

In this

continually produced.

found that the action of the sun upon the bodies moving about it is
exerted just as if an attractive force, the intensity of which is reciprocally

way

it is

proportional to the square of the distance, should urge the bodies towards the
centre of the sun. If now, on the other hand, we set out with the assumption of

such an attractive

force, the

phenomena

are

deduced from

as

it

necessary
to
here
have
recited
these
laws, the conmerely
consequences.
nection of which with the principle of gravitation it will be the less necessary to
It is sufficient

dwell upon in this place, since

Newton have treated

that most perfect

authors subsequently to the eminent

several

this subject,

and among them the

work the Mecanique

illustrious

La

manner

Celeste, in such a

Place, in

as to leave

nothing further to be desired.

3.

Inquiries into the motions of the heavenly bodies, so far as they take place in

by no means demand a complete theory of this class of curves

general equation rather, on which all others can be based, will answer

conic sections,

but a single
our purpose.

And

appears to be particularly advantageous to select that one

to which, while investigating the curve described according to the law of attracIf we determine any place
tion, we are conducted as a characteristic equation.
of a body in

its

it

by the

orbit

distances x, y, from

two right

lines

drawn

in the

plane of the orbit intersecting each other at right angles in the centre of the
sun, that is, in one of the foci of the curve, and further, if we denote the distance
of the body from the sun by r
(always positive), we shall have between r, x, y,
the linear Q<\Vi2ii\on r -\- a x
=. y ,
which cc, (^, y represent constant quan-\- (i y
tities, / being from the nature of the case always positive.
By changing the

position of the right lines to which x,y, are referred, this position being essentially
arbitrary, provided only the lines continue to intersect each other at right angles,

the form of the equation and also the value of / will not be
changed, but the
values of a and (i will vary, and it is
that the
be so determined
plain

that

(-i

shall

become =:

, y, respectively e.p,

0,

and

position

a, at least, not negative.

may
way by

In this

our equation takes the form r-{-ex=^p.

The

putting for

right line to

"

KELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

which the distances y are referred in

semi-parameter,

name

of

ellipse,

the

eccentricity ;

BoOK

this case, is called the line of

apsides,

finally the conic section

as e
parabola, or hyperlola, according

is

is

distinguished

is

1.

the

by the

than unity, equal to

less

unity, or greater than unity.

It

is

readily perceived that the position of the line of apsides

would be

determined by the conditions mentioned, with the exception of the single

in which case r is always =^p, whatever the
case where both a and were
are referred.
0, the
Accordingly, since we have e
right lines to which x, y,

fully

curve (which will be a

the class of ellipses, but

according to our definition to be assigned to

circle) is

has this peculiarity, that the position of the apsides

remains wholly arbitrary, if indeed we choose to extend that idea to such a case.
it

4.

Instead of the distance x let us introduce the angle

v,

contained between the

and a straight line drawn from the sun to the place of the body
{the radius vector), and this angle may commence at that part of the line of apsides
at which the distances x are positive, and may be supposed to increase in the

line of apsides

direction of the motion of the body.

our formula becomes

conclusions
I.

-j- e cos

V ',

way we have x-=r cos v, and

thus

from which immediately result the followint'

"
'

For v=.0, the value of the radius vector r becomes a minimum, that

j-^T^
II.

r=r-i
1

In this

this point is called the perihelion.

For opposite values of

v,

there are corresponding equal values of r

sequently the line of apsides divides the conic section into two equal parts.
in. In the ellipse, v increases continuously from t; =: 0, until it attains

maximum

is,

value,

decreases in the same

iii

pW(9?2, corresponding to

manner

corresponding to e;= 360.

as

it

had increased,

t^^lSO";

until

it

con-

its

after aphelion, it

reaches the perihelion,

That portion of the line of apsides terminated at one

extremity by the perihelion and at the other by the aphelion is called the major

am ;

hence the semi-axis major, called

tance of the middle point of the axis

be

the

orbit.

mean

also the

==

the

dis-

from the focus

will

distance,

[the centre of the ellipse)

=zea, denoting by a the semi-axis major.

On

IV.

the other hand, the aphelion in

parabola, but r
Z'

to position

Sect. 1.]

proper sense

its

increased indefinitely as v approaches

is

= + 180 the value of

becomes

infinite,

-|-

wanting in the
180.
For
180, or
is

which shows that the curve

is

not cut

by the line of apsides at a point opposite the perihelion. Wherefore, we cannot,

with strict propriety of language, speak of the major axis or of the centre of the
curve; but by an extension of the formulas found in the
established usage of analysis, an infinite value

the centre of the curve

Y.

-In

would

assigned to the major axis, and

if,

is

(180

which the cosine

;

according to the

placed at an infinite distance from the focus.

the hyperbola, lastly, v is confined within still narrower limits, in fact

between v=^

infinity

is

ellipse,

in

=-.

fiict,

t/^),

and

^>

= -(-(180

i/^),

For whilst v approaches

denoting by
these

v,

increases

to

the value of r

which shows that the hyperbola is not cut at all by a right

the line of apsides above or below by an angle 180
For
if.

result infinite,

line inclined to

limits,

one of these two limits should be taken for

the angle of

if

the values thus excluded, that

is

assigns to r a negative value.

The

to say,

from 180

if

right line inclined

line of apsides does not indeed cut the hyperbola,

to 180 -f-^^ our formula

by such an angle

but

to the

if

produced reversely,
meets the other branch of the hyperbola, which, as is known, is wholly separated from the first branch and is convex towards that focus, in which the sun is
situated.

But

in our investigation, which, as

we have

already said, rests upon the

taken positive, we shall pay no regard to that other branch

of the hyperbola in which no heavenly body could move, except one on which
the sun should, according to the same laws, exert not an attractive but a repulsive
assumption that r

is

Accordingly, the aphelion does not exist, properly speaking, in the hyperbola also ; that point of the reverse branch which lies in the line of apsides,

force.

and which corresponds to the values

ered as analogous to the aphelion.

z^

= 180, r=:

If now,

we

^,

might be consid-

choose after the manner of the

"

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

ellipse to call

the value of the expression --^

[BoOK

even here where

it

I.

becomes

major of the hyperbola, then this quantity indicates

the distance of the point just mentioned from the perihelion, and at the
In the
same time the position opposite to that which occurs in the ellipse.
negative, the

semi-axis

that is, the distance from the focus to the middle point between
same way ^^
these two points (the centre of the hyperbola), here obtains a negative value on
,

account of

its

opposite direction.

5.

We
parabola

between

call
is

the angle v the true anomaly of the moving body, which, in the
180 and -|- 180, in the hyperbola
confined within the limits

(180

i/^)

and -{-(180

but which in the

i/^),

ellipse

runs 'through

the whole circle in periods constantly renewed. Hitherto, the greater number of
astronomers have been accustomed to count the true anomaly in the ellipse not

from the perihelion but from the aphelion, contrary to the analogy of the parabola
and hyperbola, where, as the aphelion is wanting, it is necessary to begin from the
perihelion

we have

the less hesitation in restoring the analogy

among

all classes

of conic sections, that the most recent French astronomers have by their example
led the way.
It is frequently

= rxT^

expedient to change a

little

the form of the expression

the following forms will be especially observed

y.
l_|_g

V2esin^^w

V
e-\-'2ie(to^\v

V
(l-fe)cos2iv4-(l e)sin2iu*

Accordingly,

we have

in the parabola

2 cos^ \v^

in the hyperbola the following expression

r

is

particularly convenient,

jscostl;

2cos^(27-|-T/;)cos^(w

t/;)*

TO POSITION IN THE ORBIT.

oECT. 1.]

6.

Let us proceed now to the comparison of the motion with the time. Putting,
as in Art. 1, the space described about the sun in the time t=^^, the mass of the

1, we have ff
^, that of the sun being taken
moving body
/ct\/p^(^l-l-ij,\
The differential of the space
hrrdv, from which there results ^^t^psj {^-\- fA

=frrdiV, this integral being so taken that it will vanish for ^ =: 0. This integration must be treated differently for different kinds of conic sections, on which
^

account,

we shall now consider each

Since r
consists of

new

is

kind separately, beginning with the ELLIPSE.

determined from v by means of a fraction, the denominator of which

two terms, we

will

quantity in the place of

remove

this

For

v.

inconvenience by the introduction of a

this

purpose

we

will

put tan

hv^

^^ =

tan h E, by which the last formula for r in the preceding article

gives

Moreover we have

s^-e*

= r-\/ ir-t and consequently =

dz;

j^^

r:

hence

rrdv

= ^;f^=

PP

J l-gcos^)d.;

and integrating,

PP
^^

Jctslpsl{l-\-ii)=
{l

Accordingly,
2;

= ^=
0,

if
0,

we

eey (^gsin^) -[-Constant.

place the beginning of the time at the perihelion passage, where

and thus constant :=

0,

we

shall have,

= ,

by reason of ^^

^-.sin^=^-^%t^.
equation the auxiliary angle E, which is called the
must be expressed in parts of the radius. This angle, however,

In

this

in degrees, etc., if e

sin E and

^i"

eccentric

may

also expressed in the

ammaly,
be retained

same manner

these quantities will be expressed in seconds of arc if they are multiplied

by the

RELATIONS PERTAtNmG SIMPLY

I.

[BoOK

We

can dispense with the multiplication by the last quanthe quantity k expressed in seconds, and thus put,
tity, if we employ directly
instead of the value before given, Jc
3548'M8761, of which the logarithm

number 206264.81.

3.5500065746.

The quantity

expressed in this manner

mean anomaly, which therefore increases in the

day by the increment

the

7^

called the

ratio of the time,

muan

is

called the

and indeed every

daily motion.

We

denote

shall

mean anomaly by M.

Thus, then, at the perihelion, the true anomaly, the eccentric anomaly, and the
after that, the true anomaly increasing, the eccentric
mean anomaly are
;

and mean are augmented also, but in such a way that the eccentric continues to
be less than the true, and the mean less than the eccentric up to the aphelion,

where
the

all

three

become

perihelion, the

eccentric

is

= 180

but from this point to

always greater than the true, and the mean

at the

same time

greater than the eccentric, until in the perihelion

all

three become

= 360,

or,

0.
which amounts to the same thing, all are again
And, in general, it
answer to the true anomaly
evident that if the eccentric E and the mean

then the eccentric 360

360

The

V.

difference

M correspond the
between the true and mean anomalies, M,
and the mean 360

to

is

is
v,

true

called

the equation of the centre, which, consequently, is positive from the perihelion
to the aphelion, is negative from the aphelion to the perihelion, and at the

entire

and aphelion vanishes.

Since, therefore, v and
to 360 in the same time, the time of a
circle from

which

is

perihelion

also called the periodic time,

360 by the

mean

daily motion

is

run through an
single revolution,

obtained, expressed in days,

i

irom which

it is

by dividing

apparent, that for

dif-

ferent bodies revolving about the sun, the squares of the periodic times are pro-

portional to the cubes of the

mean

distances, so far as the masses of the bodies,

or rather the inequality of their masses, can be neglected.

to position in the orbit.

Sect. 1.]

8.

Let us now
radius vector

collect together those relations

which deserve particular

between the anomalies and the

which

attention, the derivation of

will

present no difficulties to any one moderately skilled in trigonometrical analysis.

Greater elegance is attained in most of these formulas by introducing in the

e.
This angle being denoted by g), we
place of e the angle the sine of which

have

ee)=^cos(p,

= cos(45 h^>)^^,
^(1_,)^ (45 + ^9) A ^L^ = tan(45''-i9),
=2
=2
sJ{l-{.e)-\-sJ{l
{l-\v/(l

y/(1 -j-^)

cos

cos i(f,

e)

The
\.

n.

following are the principal relations between

r=

a,

p,

e)

r, e, (p, v,

sin |

U,

^>.

M.

^
1 -)- ^ COS

= (l ecosE)

e
^^r, ET
+
^^
COS^=:-
1

cosv
j

-j- e COS

V.

\l{l

p=za cos^ (f

ni. r
1\T
IV.

e)

sj

sin^^r=y/Hl

sin

,
'

or cos V

= ^
cosJS^

:;

e cos -G

cos^)=sin^2;i/

hvK r^ ~^^

=imihv

.,

]~'
./,

VL cos^J'=v^Hl + cos^)=cos^z;v/r4-i^-

= C0S^Z;v/y

^^ "^^^ :=:
cos

Vn. tani^=tan^e;tan(45
VIII.

X.

ig))

= ^^^
iy 45)
roo^v a {cosUe) = 2 a cos {^U
45) cos (i
= i9sine;i/- = ^9 sin^w^^;-|-^) = cosl9sin^>t/- = cosl9sinJE^t/sin^='^^^^^^i^^^

IX.

a cos

q>

-{- i (p -\-

sin ^

(z;

-E')

sin

sin

XI. sin
XII.

^y\/
r^ r
V a(l
g)

Jf=^ esin^.
2

jE^

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

10

[BoOK

I.

9.

If a perpendicular let fall

from any point whatever of the

ellipse

upon the

extended in the opposite direction until it meets the circle

described with the radius a about the centre of the ellipse, then the inclination to

line of apsides is

the line of apsides of that radius which corresponds to the point of intersection

(understood in the same way as above, in the case of the true anomaly), will
be equal to the eccentric anomaly, as is inferred without difficulty from equation
IX. of the preceding article. Further, it is evident that r sin v is the distance of

any point of the

= a cosy

ellipse

sin U, will

from the

be greatest for

This greatest distance, which

In the focus of the

line of apsides, which, since

ellipse,

IJ=

90, that

is

cp

is

for

e;

=:

it

in the centre of the ellipse.

= a cos = -^ = ^ap,i^

that

VIII.

by equation

called the semi-axis minor.

90, this distance is evidently

=p,

or

equal the semi-parameter.

10.

The equations of
of the eccentric and

from the mean.

from the true

article 8

mean

comprise all that is requisite for the computation

anomalies from the true, or of the eccentric and true

Formula VII.
nevertheless

it

is

commonly employed

is

for the

for 'deriving the eccentric

most part preferable to make use of

equation X. for this purpose, especially when the eccentricity is not too great, in
which case
can be computed with greater accuracy by means of X. than of
VII.
Moreover, if X. is employed, the logarithm of sine
required in XII. is

had immediately by means of VIII.

sary to take it out from the tables;
from the tables in the

if

if,

VII. were

used,

it

would be

neces-

also

taken

therefore, this logarithm

is

method, a proof is at once obtained that the calculaTests and proofs of this sort are always to be
and
therefore
it will be an object of constant attention with us to
highly valued,
provide for them in all the methods delivered in this work, where indeed it can
latter

tion has been correctly made.

be conveniently done.
perfect illustration.

We

annex an example completely calculated

as a

more

to position in the orbit.

Sect. 1.]

Given

= 310

55' 29^^64,

cp

= U

12' r.87, log r

are required,

log sin

log cose;

....
....

9.3897262

9.8162877
9.2060139

Y>

= 0.3307640

11

p, a, E,

M,

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

12

[BoOK

I.

11.

The

inverse problem, celebrated under the title of Kepler's problem, that of

anomaly and the radius vector from the mean anomaly, is much
more frequently used. Astronomers are in the habit of putting the equation of
finding the true

the centre in the form of an infinite series proceeding according to the sines of the

angles

M,1M,'^M,

each one of the coefficients of these sines being a series

etc.,

extending to infinity according to the powers of the eccentricity. We have considered it the less necessary to dwell upon this formula for the equation of the
centre, which several authors have developed, because, in our opinion, it is by

no means

so well suited to practical use, especially should the eccentricity

not be

very small, as the indirect method, which, therefore, we will explain somewhat
more at length in that form which appears to us most convenient.
Equation XII.,

E=iM-\-emiE,

which

is

to

b'e

referred to the class of tran-

scendental equations, and admits of no solution by means of direct and complete

methods, must be solved by

is

beginning with any approximate value of ^, which

corrected by suitable methods repeated often enough to satisfy the preceding

equation, that

is,

trial,

either with all the accuracy the tables of sines admit, or at least

with sufficient accuracy for the end in view. If now, these corrections are introduced, not at random, but according to a s^fe and established rule, there is scarcely

any

essential distinction

series,

between such an indirect method and the solution by

except that in the former the

first

value of the

unknown quantity

is

in a

measure arbitrary, which is rather to be considered an advantage since a value

Let
suitably chosen allows the corrections to be made with remarkable rapidity.
us suppose

to be an approximate value of E,

rection to be added to

Let

e sin , in

and

computed by logarithms, and when

for the

change of

changes, without regard to

hardly necessary to remark

equal

number of

decimals.

Y in

e itself

^=

-f-

:r.

this is done, let the

be taken from the tables

change of a unit in the number

signs, be respectively X, \i, in which

also the variation of log e sin e for the

let these

in seconds the cor-

of such a value as will satisfy our equation

it,

seconds, be

change of the log sin

and x expressed

e sin

it is

both logarithms are presumed to contain an

Now, if approaches so near the correct value of
tjiat

to position

Sect. 1.]

the orbit.

in

that the changes of the logarithm of the sine from

the logarithm of the

uniform,

we may

number from

the upper sign belonging to the

third.

-\-a:;

and the changes of

to e-\-x,

to e sin (e -]- ^)j can be regarded as

e sin 8

evidently put

esm{e

second and

13

Whence,

= M-\-

-\- s:)

first

= esmeJ2~}

and fourth quadrants, and the lower to the

since

e sin (s -|- x),

we have x

= -^ {^-\-

^ sin

),

and the correct value of JEJ, or

s-\-x

= M-\-esms^ -^ {M-\-

the signs being determined

Finally,

it is

lii:Xz=zl:e cos

e,

by the above-mentioned

we

readily perceived that

and. therefore

alwaysjU,

I,

e sin e

),

condition.

have, without regard to the signs,

whence we

infer that in the first

and

quadrant M-\- e sin e lies between e and -\- x, and in the second and third,
e-\-x between and M-\- e sin e, which rule dispenses with paying attention to the
If the assumed value e differs too much from the truth to render the foresigns.

last

much more

going considerations admissible, at least a

by

this

times

suitable value will be

found

method, with which the same operation can be repeated, once, or several

should appear necessary. It is very apparent, that if the difference

of the first value e from the truth is regarded as a quantity of the first order, the
error of the new value would be referred to the second order, and if the operation
.if it

were further repeated,

Moreover, the

etc.

it

less

would be reduced

to the fourth order, the eighth order,

the eccentricity, the more rapidly will the successive

corrections converge.

12.

The approximate value of U, with which

to begin the calculation, will, in most

be obvious enough, particularly where the problem is to be solved for

of which some have been already found. In the absence
several values of

cases,

of other helps,

it is

at least evident that

eccentricity e being expressed in seconds,

must

fall

between

M and M^e,

(the

and the upper sign being used in the

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

14
first

and second quadrants, the lower

in the third

and

[BoOK

1.

fourth), wherefore, either

value increased or diminished by any estimate whatever, can be taken

It is hardly necessary to observe, that the first calcufor the first value of E.

M,

or

lation,

its

when

it is

commenced with a value having no

pretension to accuracy, does

*
not require to be strictly exact, and that the smaller tables are abundantly sufficient.
Moreover, for the sake of convenience, the values selected for e should be

such that their sines can be taken from the tables without interpolation ; as, for
example, values to minutes or exact tens of seconds, according as the tables

used proceed by differences of minutes or tens of seconds. Every one will be

able to determine without assistance the modifications these precepts undergo if
the angles are expressed according to the

new decimal

division.

13.

Example.

Let the

eccentricity be the

same

as in article 10.

Jf=33228'

There the log e in seconds is 4.7041513, therefore e

50600"
14 3'20".
Now since E here must be less than My let us in the first calculation put :=: 326,
then we have by the smaller tables
54''.77.

log e in seconds

hence

Sm e=

differing

28295

...

MA-emiB.
from

5135.
324 3720
1 22 40

4960''

Wherefore, the corrected value of

with which

we

..

19,

whence A

change of logarithm

= 0.32.

for a unit of the table

equal to lO seconds

4960''.

...

le?

....

whence

which

is

here

^= i.e.

Hence,

=: 1240" == 20'40".

^becomes 32437'20"

20'40"=32416'40",

repeat the calculation, making use of larger tables.

log sin

loge

4.70415

?4I

for

4.45171w;

....

change

9.74756 ?Z

log; sin e

9.7663058W

= 29.25

= 147

4.7041513

4.4704571W

* Such as those which the

illustrious

Lala.nde

fumishetl.

to position in the orbit.

Sect. 1.]
e sin

z=

29543''.18 =
....

M+esine
differing

from

324 16 31.59
8 .41.
29 25

This difference being multiplied by ^ZTT

corrected value of

12'23'a8

15

^11775

^ = 324 16' 3r.59 2^09

S^^^ 2

==::

'.09,

whence,

the

finally,

324 16' 29^60, which

is

exact

within 0".01.

14.

The equations of

8 furnish several methods for deriving the true

article

anomaly and the radius vector from the eccentric anomaly, the best of which we
will explain.

By

I.

common method

the

is

determined -by equation VII., and afterwards

the example of the preceding article treated in this

by equation

is

as follows, retaining for jt? the value given in article 10.

II.;

^^=:1628'14".75

logtan^^.
log tan

(45"

log tan I y

^v
V

9)

log
.

9.5082198??

9.8912427

9.6169771 w

9.3897262

....

logcosi^

=0.1735345

ecosz^

= 157 30'4r.50
= 315 1 23

0.3^4837

i^g^

.00

The

following

log (1

method

is

9.8496597
9.2393859

cos v)

0.0694959
0.3259878.

logr
II.

shorter if several places are to be computed,

which the constant logarithms of the quantities sj a{l -\- e), y/(l
be computed once for all. By equations V. and VI. we have

for

sm
sm^V)Jr
cos ^v\/ r=^ cos
from which

have

P sin

i v

and log

y/

il,

= ^, and then P by

U\/ a(l-^^

\/

this,

is

P =z ^,

e)

should

a(l-\-e)

r are easily determined.

= F cos Q=iB,

way

It is true in. general that if

we

obtained by means of the formula tan

or

by

P = ^^

it is

preferable to use

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

16

I.

Q is greater than cos Q ; the latter when cos Q is greater than

the
Commonly,
problems in which equations of this kind occur (such as

the former
sin Q.

[BoOK

when

sin

present themselves most frequently in this work), involve the condition that
should be a positive quantity ; in this case, the doubt whether Q should be taken

and 180, or between 180 and 360,

between

a condition does not exist, this decision

We

have in our example

log sin

i^

= 0.2453162.

at once removed.

But

if

such

to our judgment.

^^

9.4867632

log cos

0.2588593

logv/(l

\ogsla{l-{-e)

is left

is

9.9785434w

e)

0.1501020.

Hence

logmihvslr

9.7456225

logcos^t^V^r

0.128645472

9.9656515??

log cos

ie;

....

logv^r

To

ditious,

and

it;
It'
t'

= 9.616 9771
= 15730'4r.50
= 315 123.00
?2

0.1629939

0.3259878

logr
III.

whence, log tan

these methods
is

much

we add

a third which

is

almost equally easy and expe-

to be preferred to the former if the greatest accuracy should

be required. Thus, ris first determined by means of equation

V by X.
Below is our example treated in this manner.

loge

logcos^

9.3897262

logsin^

9.9094637

\ogsJ {l

eco^E)

III.,

log a

ecos^)
log(l
logr

9.7663366??

9.9517744

9.8145622w

0.1991544

log sin I y

0.4224389

\ogsm^v

9.9035488
0.3259877"

after that,

9.2991899

ecosU=z

and

^(z;
t;

9.0920395

U)
8.9066017w
^)= 43r33':24
= 15 6.48
.

J5^

v=zBU

123.02

Formula Vm., or XI., is very convenient for verifying the calculation, parThus ;
ticularly if V and r have been determined by the third method.

to position

Sect. 1.]

log|sm^
log cos

9M27S7Sn

....

the orbit.

in

17

logsmU\/^
log cos ^9

9.9865224

9.8145622^2

9.9966567

9.8493102^

....

logsinv

9.8112189?2

9.8493102W

+ ^)

log sin ^ (y

9.8112189?2

15.
Since, as

means of

we have

and

(p,

same manner

in the

mean anomaly

seen, the

as

completely determined by

is

by iW and

e;

(p,

it

evident, that if

is

all

these quantities are regarded as variable together, an equation of condition ought

to exist

between their

be superfluous.

By

differentiating

equation YII., article

first,

dE

dv

sin

8,

we

obtain

d_9_^

sin v

differentiating likewise equation XII.,

by

of which will not

differential variations, the investigation

cos

'
q)

becomes

it

dM-= (1 e cos^) d^ sin ^ cos 9 d 9.

If

we

eliminate djE^from these differential equations

-,

sin^(l

Tif

ecos^)
sin

or

by

^i

'

substituting for sin U, 1

we have
sin^(l

ecos^)\

cos

'

qp

-,

'

'

U, their values from equations VIII.,

e cos

III.,

dM=--^:^dv-'^^^^P^dcp,
a a cos
aa
cos-^

cp

or lastly, if

we

express both coefficients by means of v and

^"^'^

dJfz=

(1 -j- e cos

Inversely, if
this

form

we

consider

dv
or

qp

by introducing

e'

(2

dv

+ ecosi;)sint;cos> ^
(1 "I" ^ cos

vy

vy

as a function of the quantities

a a cos
rr

CD

T,,-

(2

^dJlz4--'^-^^^^
'

(p

e cos v) sin

cos

t;

M,

only,

'

(f,

'

the equation has

dcp,
* '
cp

instead of v

^^__oacosqp^jj^

aa
I

^2

ecosE ee)BmEd(t).

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

18

[BoOK

I.

16.

The

radius vector r

is

not fully determined by v and 9, or by

depends, besides these, upon

By

parts.

or a;

its differential,
therefore, will

differentiating equation II. of article 8,

dr
dp,

r :=-+-zi,

e sin

By

i'

-\-e cos V

av

we

M and

9,

but

consist of three

obtain

cos cp cos v ^
^ir^ cos v dcp.
'
l-\-e

putting here

= 2 tan

pa

cp
'

d op
>

(which follows from the differentiation of equation I.), and expressing, in conformity with the preceding article, d e> by means of d Jf and d 9, we have, after

making the proper

reductions,

= da a tan
dr

cp

-n^
sm d1 il[/

cos (p cos

t>

e;

d cp

= - dff-(~*tany sinejdJf ^cos^jcose^dy.

dr

which we developed in the preceding

and M, or rather dv, 6cp, and d M,
(p,

Finally, these formulas, as well as those

article, rest

upon the supposition that

are expressed in parts of the radius.

ations of the angles

v,

y,

v,

If,

and M, in seconds, we

we

choose to express the varimust either divide those parts of

therefore,

the formulas which contain

dVfd(p,ordM,\)y 206264.8, or multiply those which

contain d r, dp, d , by the same number.
Consequently, the formulas of the preceding article, which in this respect are homogeneous, will require no change.

17.

be satisfactory to add a few words concerning the investigation of the

In the first place, it is evident in itself that the difequation of the centre.

It will
greatest

ference between the eccentric and

where

a,

it

becomes

whence

2;

= 90

mean anomaly

(expressed in degrees, etc.)

-|- y,

is

maximum

for

^=

90**,

the radius vector at this point

and thus the whole equation of the centre =.(p

-\-e,

to position in the orbit.

Sect. 1.]

may

still

increase

^U JE)z=0

not a

is

which, nevertheless,

maximum

beyond

or for d

z>

^ d ^, where the eccentricity

evident that

and

we

jE' is

should have sin

a

9, e

=:

jE'

=
1

sin

^ =r

V'

cos

or cos

(p,

(1

tan^ ^

whole equation of the centre at

2 arc sin tan i

-\-

(p

cos^

C0S2;=:
e

by which formula

shall have,

r=
op

^5'

y/

is

tan ^

-|-

III.,

(p.

will follow

it

(p

COS^=
7-,

that

becomes

this point

2 sin ^

cos

(p sj

cp,

At

etc.

that point, finally, where

= dM, and

i/

COS

qo

1
e

n
(1

cos

qp

/
-f- ^Z cos
I

9)

"=

tan

iw

T-^f^
l-|-ycosg)^

can be determined with the greatest accuracy.

by equations

"^

being

X., XII.,

equation of the centre

= 2 arc

sin ^"/

y'

We

jE'

maximum, we must have dv

cos 9
hence we have

the whole equation of the centre

equations VIII.,

difference

= ^^,

0))

the second term being expressed in degrees,

so according to article 15,

where the

at that point

U z=z 90"* arc sin tan i

sin tan ^(p,

-|~

sin

we

clearly to be regarded

found, for which reason

is

hence again

found,

for

'

= a cos cos
manner cos = tan
= 90 arc

SO that the

sin

maximum whence we have by

In like

is

and

d^

dv
sin V

between

maximum

becomes a

difference

last

"With this assumption, since in general

as constant.

it is

between

here, since the difference

This

9.

19

^ ^^"
1-

cos

e sin

E.

qo

do not delay here for an expression of the greatest equation of the centre by

means of a

series

proceeding according to the powers of the eccentricities, which

have given.
As an example, we annex a view of the three
maxima which we have been considering, for Juno, of which the eccentricity,
several authors

according to the latest elements,

* It

is

not necessary to consider those

because they evidently

aphelion.

is

differ in the signs

assumed

= 0.2554996.

maxima which

lie

between the aphelion and perihelion,

only from those which are situated between the perihelion and

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

20

Maximum.

[Book

I.

to position in the orbit.

Sect. 1.]

But the Barkerian

admirable

work

is

tan^ ^

V,

title

most convenient, and

is also

the celebrated Olbers, [AbMndlung

of

Bahn

hequemste Methode die

under the

far the

by

21

eines

Cometen zu herechnen

iiber

annexed to the
die

Weimar, 1797.)

und

leicMeste

It contains,

of the mean motion, the value of the expression 75 tan i v -\-25

anomalies for every five minutes from

true

for all

to

If

180.

anomaly v is required, it will be

divide the mean motion, taken from the table with the argument

therefore the time corresponding to the true

necessary to

by

^>,

^, which

true

anomaly

is

quantity

is

called the

mean

computed from the time, the

to be
150/5;

be multiplied by
ing anomaly

-^

may

daily motion;

in order to get the

mean

be taken from the table.

mean motion and time taken

if

on the contrary the

latter expressed in

days will

motion, with which the correspondIt is further

evident that the same

negatively correspond to the negative value of the v

the same table therefore answers equally for negative and positive anomalies.
in the place of

jt?,

we

prefer to use the perihelion distance

5
/fci/2812
^

^p

q,

the

mean

daily

'

motion

is

expressed by

0.912279061, and

its

logarithm

is

in

which the constant factor ^\/ 2812.5

""~~

COS''

^V

20.

By

the differentiation of the equation

tan iv-\- i tan^

if all

the quantities

v, t,jp,

^v^2 ikp~^,

are regarded as variable,

TV

The anomaly v being found,

of
means
the
formula already given,
by

9.9601277069.

the radius vector will be determined

If

ATT^I n
irr^p

J-

we have

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

22

anomaly v are wanted in seconds, both parts

If the variations of the

dv must be expressed in this manner, that is, it

3548'M88 given in article 6. If, moreover, ip
formula will have the following form
T

diV

in

[BoOK

is

I.

also of

necessary to take for k the value

=q

is

introduced instead of jt?, the

^at
= hJ2q

Zkt

, ,

-^
rr

-,

rs-do',
^'

rr^2q

which are to be used the constant logarithms

logics/ 2

Moreover the

= 3.7005215724,

log 3 ^

y^

= 3.8766128315.

differentiation of the equation

2 cos^^ V

furnishes

dr

dp
-\-tSLTl^vdv,'
p
or by expressing dv by means of d^ and djt?,
r

By

substituting for

'Lrr

'

dr

/I

\p

its

value in

Arr

r \

v,

d r :=

^ cos

introduce q for

\^

k^piaxi^v ^
rr
djt?

is

changed into

'

r^p

we

"

the coefficient of

but the coefficient of dt becomes

or if

Skttan^v\
2rr^p J

From

7.

?;

d ji?

-|-

2r

'

this there results

d t,
^

p
r=cosvdq-\^-j-^at.
g

The

constant logarithm to be used here

is

log^

y^

= 8.0850664436.

21.

and JE would become imaginary quantities, to avoid

which, other auxiliary quantities must be introduced in the place of them. We
In the

HYPERBOLA, 9)

have already designated by

found the radius vector

^f

the angle of which the cosine

-,

and we have

Sect.

TO position in the orbit.

1.]

For

^>

the factors cos

0,

fraction

become

and the

first

^ {v

e cos

(r

if),

\p) cos

and cos

shall

limit 180

=1

in perihelion

to the

it

on the other hand

If;

to return to its other limit

amounts

in the denominator of this

-ij)),

equal, the second vanishes for the greatest positive value of

for the greatest negative value.

have w

(v -)- V)

i (v -\-

'

will increase to infinity as v approaches its

will decrease indefinitely as v

it

(180

v,

Putting, therefore,

cos ^{v-\-rp)

we

23

if)

is

supposed

so that reciprocal values of m, or,

same thing, values whose logarithms are complementary,

what
corre-

spond to opposite values of v.

This quotient u is very conveniently used in the hyperbola as an auxiliary
quantity ; the angle, the tangent of which is

tan^e^y/i^,
can be made to render the same service with almost equal elegance ; and in order
to preserve the analogy with the ellipse, we will denote this angle by ^ F.
In
this

way the

together, in
I.

following relations between the quantities

which we put a =

^,

so that l

v, r, u,

becomes a

F are

positive quantity.

J=jt? cotan^if

n. r

=z

1 -[- e cos w

2 cos

(w

pcosxp ^
if ) cos

(v -)-

V)

m. ia.niF=tmivi/~ = teLnivi3iniw = '^

^"^^

cosi(z;

-^

y"

By
VI.

cos^

(i/
^

,f)

r-tani# *^^(^^

A^l.\
~y' u^

-\- cos If cos

2cos^(y

If) cos

+*^)

^(v-}- If)

subtracting 1 from both sides of equation V.

c-)-cosv
1-f-ecosz;*

we

easily

get,

m.M'- = ^^i^^j^^^ = siniI'^<^

brought

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

24

In the same manner, by adding 1 to both

by VII. we should reproduce III.

dividing VI.

By

rsmv=p cotan if tan F=b tan

VIII.

= hp cotan
From
IX.

sides, it

If

ijj

tan

I.

becomes

the multiplication produces

)=z^l tan if (m

(m

[BoOK

the combination of the equations IL V. are easily derived

=,)^^h(2e

rcosvz=h{e

),

22.

By
we

the differentiation of the formula IV. (regarding

if

as a constant quantity)

get

= ^ (tan^(z;-|-Y) tan h{v

if

)jd2;

= '^d?;;

hence,

rrdiV=^
or

by

uf
tan 1/;
,

dM,'

substituting for r the value taken from X.

rrd2;

Jtanif (^e(l-|

jdw.

Afterwards by integrating in such a manner that the integral

periheHon,

it

may

vanish at the

becomes

frr^v^^hh tan if

(i e (m

The logarithm here

is

')

log

u)

=^kt\Jp^[l -\- fi)

the hyperbolic;

if

we wish

Brigg's system, or in general from the system of

= ^^ tan

if y/S y^

(1 -|- jtt).

to use the logarithm

which the modulus

from

I,

and

to position in the orbit.

Sect. 1.]

the mass

(which

fi

XI.
or

A,

to be indeterminable for a

body moving

neglected, the equation assumes the following form

is

hyperbola)

we can assume

25

log M

in

an

by introducing F,
X e tan

^ log tan (45 +

I J^)

?4'-

Supposing Brigg's logarithms to be used, we have

==:

log I

but a

9.6377843113,,

log

greater precision can be attained

little

11= 7.8733657527
by the immediate

application of the

hyperbolic logarithms. The hyperbolic logarithms of the tangents are found in

several collections of table's, in those, for example, which Schulze edited, and still

more extensively

in the

Magnus Canon

Triangvlor. Logarithmicus of

Benjamin Ursin,

Cologne, 1624, in which they proceed by tens of seconds.

Finally, formula XL shows that opposite values of t correspond to reciprocal
and v, on which account equal parts of the
values of u, or opposite values of

hyperbola, at equal distances from the perihelion on both sides, are described in

equal times.

23.
If

we

should wish to

make

time from the true anomaly,

of equation IV.

p by means

r,

of

Ikt

quantity

^,

its

use of the auxiliary quantity u for finding the

value

afterwards, formula
or r

most conveniently determined by means

gives directly, without a new calculation,

is

II.

by means of p.

Having found

which

is

analogous to the

u,

mean anomaly

formula XI. will give the

and

in the ellipse

denoted by N, from which will follow the elapsed time after the perihelion
Since the

made
its

first
-

."

accuracy,

XII.

term of N, that

i\^

'^

is

,^

niay,

by means of formula

will

be

transit.

VIII. be

the double computation of this quantity will answer for testing

or, if preferred,

N can be expressed without

^.tanifrsint;

2 cos 2 (^

"h

V^) COS

^{y

w)

Iqo

S^^^M^ii:^
cos ^{v-\-\i))'

w, as

follows

EELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

26
Example.

0.0333585.

Let e= 1.2618820,
Then the computation

or

for u,py

i^)

9.99417061

logcos^(e;4-i/^)

9.9450577)

\ogGosh{v

if/

logr

0.0333585

log 2 6

0.4020488

= 37
h,

N,

35' 0",

ty

is

[Book
v

= 18

51'

as follows:

hence, log u

0'',

log r

I.

TO POSITION IN THE ORBIT.

Sect. 1.]
will

come out greater

in the ratio 1

Our example treated according

log tan

....

^1/^

log tan ^v

to this

9.5318179

X,

than

method

is

if

27

Brigg's logarithms were used.

as follows

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

28

[Book

I.

26.
Example.
let

log

= 65.41236

and

the same values as in the preceding example,

r are required.

Using Briggs's logarithms

we have

6.9702758

iV^

iV=iXetan^ log tan (45

equation

2524'27".66, whence

log tan i I'

log tan

...

ii/^

log tan ^2;

672'59''.78.

Ht^

I
log f^

9.3530120

9.5318179

by formula

-f- ^

^)

this it is

satisfied

is

by

III,

and thus

9.8211941,

Hence, there

_^^''
1/
C. I02: cos He'

have,-

....

+f
w)\
.....

C. log cos

we

From

whence iV'^ 0.06108514.

8.7859356,

seen that the

F=i

and

for e

1.8156598

if

XoglTclri
log

Ketaining

^ y

= 33"

31' 29".89,

and v

follows,

0.2137476)
nni^f^in^r
0.0145197 )

,.^

difference

.......
+

logtan(45
"r iJ^)
^
v
;

9.9725868

mnnoo^n
0.1992279
0.1992280

0.2008541.

logr

27.
If equation IV.

is

differentiated, considering m, v,

1//,

as variable at the

same

time, there results,

sin tp

2 cos ^{y

By

d V -j-

sin V

cos

t/;)

-^

d 1/;
(v -j-

r tan \p

differential variations of the quantities m,

/1

diN

T J

r sin w

i^
'

/n

1 \

1/^,

1\ J

or
,

rsinw

dii/.
-^=T-dM4-7
bu
k
bcosip
'

'

iV^
I

'

i/;

relation

becomes,
(mm

,
*

^ cos

manner equation XL, the

differentiating in like

dJV

1/;)

l)sint|^

between the

to position in the orbit.

Sect. 1.]

29

Hence, by eliminating d m by means of the preceding equation we obtain

dN^
-T-

or

rr

=Tn

/-I

=
db

r\ rsinv

(1+

O.V-{-

-)t

rd^,

+ p/
~^W
P
bbtanw
p\sinv
=z.^di\^ (1 + i-)^-

V
v:=

b tan
-.
-,

Xrr

W -^r
-aJV
-ajy

/^

(--I(\r

/-i

1.7-

^
-\

sin v tan

'

-ip

'

cost/^
^

di//.

28.

By

differentiating equation X., all the quantities

variables,

by

r, h, e, u,

being regarded as

substituting

dsin
e-= 2^ aw,
lO

CDs' \p

-.

'

'

and eliminating du with the help of the equation between diV, du,

dif, given in

the preceding article, there results.

The

coefficient of

diV

the coefficient of d

u (sin
is

i{J

?//,

is

transformed, by means of equation VIII., into

by

.-;

but

substituting from equation lY.,

sin 2^)

sin

(1//

v),

(sin

ijj

-\- sin v)

sin (ip -\- v),

changed into
h sin xp cos v
cos^

SO that

far,

moreover, as iV

is

T J

5 sin w

-db-\-^.
A sin
'

'
I//

T ,7p cos v
diV^+^^-:
sm
,

-,

dw.

'

1/;

expressed by means of d

i^,

shall

^,

'

ip

considered a function of b and

which value being substituted, we

article,

sin

ij)

we have

=
dr
So

p cos v

have d r, and
if.

t,

we have

d ?; in the preceding
Finally, we have here to repeat our
also

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

30

[BoOK

previous injunction, that, if the variations of the angles v and

be expressed, not in parts of the radius, but in seconds, either

must be divided by 206264.8, or

multiplied by this number.
taining d

^',

1//,

all

1.

are conceived to

v^

all

the terms con-

the remaining terms must be

29.
Since the

quantities

auxiliary

M, employed

9, E^

in

the

ellipse

obtain

imaginary values in the hyperbola, it will not be out of place to investigate their
connection with the real quantities of which we have made use we add therefore
:

the principal relations, in which

sm

op
^

= =

we

denote by

the imaginary quantity ^

cos

t/i

= y/^ = ^Y/J^=:^tan|t//
tan(45
tan 9 = cotan (45 9) tan (45 9) =
^9))

COS

(p

=i tan

9 = 90 +
tan i
-;

xj)

log (sin

U=itan iF =

=-=

SinjQr

^ cotan ^

U-\'

cos 9)

= 90

log tan (45

':pll
h

tan

iU=.

cotan F.

or

8mF =

tan

cotan^=

F= -5^

^cotan

^^ Han iF =

or
J.

rr

cosF

T7

= cosF
1

(m W

^wt

1)

uu-\-l
2

iF= log (cos E-\-i sin E) = log -,

or

^=nogM=nog(45-f- hF)
Tir

rr

The logarithms

rr

ie(uu

1)

in these formulas are hyperbolic.

^)

1.

to position

Sect. 1.]

in

the

orbit.

31

30.

nometrical

tables

we

take out from logarithmic and trigoadmit of absolute precision, but are all to a certain extent

Since none of the numbers which

approximate only, the results of all calculations performed by the aid of these
numbers can only be approximately true. In most cases, indeed, the common
tables, which are exact to the seventh place of decimals, that is, never deviate

from the truth either in excess or defect beyond half of an unit in the seventh
so that the unavoidable errors
figure, furnish more than the requisite accuracy,
are evidently of no consequence

nevertheless

cases the effect of the errors of the tables

is

it

so

may

happen, that in special

augmented that we may be

obliged to reject a method, otherwise the best, and substitute another in

Cases of this kind can occur in those computations which

we have

its

place.

just explained;

be foreign to our purpose to introduce here some

inquiries concerning the degree of precision allowed in these computations by
the common tables.
Although this is not the place for a thorough examination

on which account,

it

will not

of this subject, which

is

of the greatest importance to the practical computer, yet

conduct the investigation sufficiently far for our own object, from which
point it may be further perfected and extended to other operations by any one

we

will

requiring

it.

31.

Any

logarithm, sine, tangent,

etc.

whatever,

any irrational
an error which may amount

(or, in

general,

quantity whatever taken from the tables,) is liable to

to a half unit in the last figure
we will designate this limit of error by w, which
:

therefore

is

in the

common

tables

= 0.00000005.

If now, the logarithm,

etc.,

cannot be taken directly from the tables, but must be obtained by means of interpolation, this error may be slightly increased from two causes. In the first place, it is
usual to take for the proportional part,
is

when (regarding the

not an integer, the next greatest or least integer

perceived, this error

may

and

be increased to just within twice

last figure as unity) it

in this
its

way, it is easily
actual amount. But

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

32

[BoOK

I.

augmentation of the error, since there is no

one more than another decimal figure to the proporobjection to our affixing

we

shall

pay no attention
and

to this

very evident that, if the proportional part is exact, the interto a greater error than the logarithms given
polated logarithm is not liable
indeed as we are authorized to consider the changes
directly in the tables, so far

tional part,

it is

in the latter as uniform.

last

assumption

is

Thence

arises another increase of the error, that this

not rigorously true

but

this also

we

pretermit, because the

second and higher differences (especially where the superior tables

computed by Taylor are used for trigonometrical functions) is evidently of no
if it should happen to turn
importance, and may readily be taken into account,
effect of the

out a

little

In

too great.

able error of the tables

all cases,

w,

therefore,

we

will

put the

assuming that the argument (that

maximum
is,

the

unavoid-

number the

with
logarithm of which, or the angle the sine etc. of which, is sought) is given
But if the argument itself is only approximately known, and
strict accuracy.
the variation oi' of the logarithm, etc. (which may ]be defined by the method of
differentials) is

then the

amount

supposed to correspond to the greatest error to which

maximum

to

error of the logarithm,

computed by means of the

it is

liable,

tables,

can

-\- o)\

Inversely, if the

argument corresponding

to a given logarithm

is

computed

by the help of the tables, the greatest error is equal to that change in the argument which corresponds to the variation to in the logarithm, if the latter is corthe variation w -|- w' in the logarectly given, or to that which corresponds to
the logarithm can be erroneous to the extent of co'. It will hardly be
necessary to remark that w and cu' must be affected by the same sign.

rithm,

if

If several quantities, correct within certain limits only, are

the greatest error of the

errors affected

sum

will

by the same sign

added together,

be equal to the sum of the greatest individual

wherefore, in the subtraction also of quantities
error of the difference will be equ^l to the

approximately correct, the greatest

sum of the

quantity not strictly

same

In the multiplication or division of a

in the
correct, the maximum error is increased or diminished

greatest individual errors.

ratio as the quantity itself.

to position in the orbit.

Sect. 1.]

33

32.

Let us proceed now to the application of these principles to the most useful
of the operations above explained.
T.

If

article
elliptic

(p

and

are supposed to be exactly given in using the formula VII.,

computing the true anomaly from the eccentric anomaly in the

the error (o maybe
motion, then in log tan (45
^(p) and log tan ^ J5',

8,

for

committed, and thus in the difference

= log tan

^ v, the error

therefore the

greatest error in the determination of the angle I v will be

3

3tod|^w
d log tan i

to

sin w
'

21

modulus of the logarithms used in this

which the true anomaly v is liable, expressed

The

I denoting the

calculation.

therefore, to

in seconds, becomes

^-^^ 206265 == 0'W12 sin

if

t;,

Brigg's logarithms to seven places of decimals are employed, so that

be assured of the value ofv within O'^OT

used, the error
II.

If e cos

may amount

is

error,

we may

smaller tables to five places only, are

if

to 7'M2.

computed by means of logarithms, an error may be committed

to the extent of
3

CO e

cos -S
'

therefore the quantity

1
will

ecosK

or -

In computing, accordingly, the logarithm of this

amount to [1 -\-d)it), denoting by d the quantity

be liable to the same error.

quantity, the error

may

3
1

e cos

e cos JiJ

taken positively the possible error in log r goes up to the same limit, log a being
assumed to be correctly given. If the eccentricity is small, the quantity d is
:

always confined within narrow limits; but when e differs but little from 1,
1
e cos
remains very small as long as
is small
consequently, d may
5

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

34
increase to an

amount not

to be neglected

3 (a

r)

sin

mean anomaly,
^(psinU U

the log l/ -

- to that of
(f

determination of the angles v

clearly

v-\-e)
ee

when

'

the error (1

is

liable to the error

+J

to
^^'j

^ or

w inay be

neglected.

^ -[- i

(J) to,

and

so the log

hence the greatest possible error in the

-|-<^)

computation of the true from

X., article 8, for the

In the use of formula

III.

the

more

still

also,

e (cos

which formula shows

I.

for this reason formula III., article 8,

The quantity d may be expressed thus

suitable in this case.

is less

[BoOK

is

or expressed in seconds, if seven places of decimals are employed,

(o'aee

When

+ o';o24 d) tsm^v u).

not great, d and tan

U)

be small quantities,
on account of which, this method admits of greater accuracy than that which
we have considered in I. the latter, on the other hand, will be preferable
the eccentricity

is

^ [v

will

when

very great and approaches nearly to unity, where d and

acquire very considerable values. It will always be easy to

the eccentricity

is

tan ^ (v

decide,

by means of our

JE)

may

formulas, which of the two methods

IV. In the determination of the

of formula XII., article

8,

mean anomaly from

the erTor of the quantity

of logarithms, and therefore of the anomaly

itself,

X~>^
3

which limit of error

seconds.

Hence

it is

be determined from

is

ft)

may

even

if

the equation

E e sin ^=

which the tables admit.

il[f

U, computed

by the help

to

wanted expressed in
the inverse problem where -C is to
if

be erroneous by the quantity

^^'f^ ^^ 206265''=^^^^-.
^

the eccentric by means

M, may amount

by 206265''

readily inferred, that in

trial,

to be preferred.

e sin

to be multiplied

M by

e sin

is

206265';

should be satisfied with

all

the accuracy

TO POSITION IN THE ORBIT.

Sect. 1.]

35

The true anomaly therefore computed from the mean may be incorrect in
two ways, if we consider the mean as given accurately; first, on account pf the
error committed in the computation of v from E, which, as
slight

importance

be erroneous.

second, because the value of the eccentric

The

effect

the error committed in

3

CO

e sin

J^

dv

206265''
if
e,

large

into

j-^,
0) e

e.

anomaly

itself

is

of

may

which product becomes

sin w

206265'^

when

= /\

^^"^+ 2
1

^^ ^i" ^ ^ \

ee

q// '

{\*7\2

This error, always small for small values of

e differs

following table, which exhibits the

for certain values of

seen,

of the latter cause will be expressed by the product of

seven places of decimals are used.

may become very

we have

but

little

maximum

from unity,

as

is

shown by the

value of the preceding expression

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

36
rithms, assuming e
liable, to

and m or

F to

and

be known exactly, the

the error
5

has been computed in the form

;Le(M

first

part will be

l)ea>

(mm

2m
if it

I.

[BoOK

l)(M-f-l)
2m

'

or to the error
8 (mm-{-1)

if

computed

in the

e CD

form

Hew X-;
2m
=

or to the error 3

e co

tan

F if computed

the error committed in logX or log4

expressed also
the error

is

by 5

w tan F,

the least of

all

tan F, provided we neglect

In the first case the error can be

in the
^.

in the second

form 1

by

^, whence

it is

apparent that

in the third case, but will be greater in the first or

> 2 or < or according as +^>' 36 52' or <[ 36

But, in any case, the second part of N will be liable to the error w.

second, according as w or

VII.
trial,

On

2,

the other hand,

it

is

evident that

w or

if

is

derived from

52'.

N by

u would be liable to the error

(o)

+5e

tan -F)

0)

-T-^,

or to
,

according as the

terms

first

F, however,

is

3 ecu

dM

-v

term in the value of iV is used separated into

is

factors, or into

liable to the error

(to

The upper

1^

+3e

tu

tan -^)

J2^

signs serve after perihelion, the lower before perihelion.

substituted here for

the determination of

v,

-^

or for

which therefore

t-t^,

will

Now

if

the efiect of this error appears in

be

TO POSITION IN THE ORBIT.

Sect. 1.]

55tani/;(l

+ 3etani^)(

bhtanxp

(1 -\-S e

secF) m

Xrr

Xrr
if

37

the auxiliary quantity u has been employed

'

on the other hand,

if

has been

used, this effect becomes,

b b tan Ui {1

3 e tan F)

a)

0)

Xrr
If the error

206265'^

is

It is

X \

(1 -{- e cos
tan^ifj

vy

e sin

r (1 -j- e cos v)
tan^ti;

be expressed in seconds, it is necessary to apply the factor

evident that this error can only be considerable when i/^ is a small
to

angle, or e a little greater than

1.

The following are the

third expression, for certain values of

e,

if

greatest values of thia

seven places of decimals are employed

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

38

[BoOK

I.

33.

The methods above

from the time and

treated, both for the determination of the true

anomaly

time from the true anomaly,* do

of
all the precision that might be required in those conic sections of
not admit
the
which
eccentricity differs but little from unity, that is, in ellipses and hyperfor the determination of the

which approach very near to the parabola; indeed, unavoidable

bolas

errors,

increasing as the orbit tends to resemble the parabola,

may at length exceed all

constructed
to
more
than
seven
Larger tables,
figures would undoubtedly
diminish this uncertainty, but they would not remove it, nor would they prevent

limits.

its

surpassing

all limits

as soon as the orbit approached too near the parabola.

Moreover, the methods given above become in this case very troublesome, since a
part of them require the use of indirect trials frequently repeated, of which

even greater if we work with the larger tables. It certainly,

therefore, will not be superfluous, to furnish a peculiar method by means of
which the uncertainty in this case may be avoided, and sufficient precision may
the tediousness

is

be obtained with the help of^he

common

tables.

34.

The common method, by which

rests

upon the following

eccentricity,

'p

principles.

it is

usual to

In the

remedy these inconveniences,

ellipse or

hyperbola of which

e is

the

the semi-parameter, and therefore the perihelion distance

anomaly v correspond to the time t after the perihelion; in the

=: 2 $-, or the perihelion distance
q, let
parabola of which the semi-parameter
the true anomaly w correspond to the same time, supposing in each case the

let the true

mass

\i

to be either neglected or equal.

It is evident that

we then have

Since the time contains the factor a* or

J^, the greater the values of a
the more the error in

Mot JTwill be increased.

= ^ ee
,

or

J=
e^

to position

Sect. 1.]

J
the integrals

commencing from
r

J
Denoting r-^- by

a,

(1-f ecosv)2*

(i

the

in

and w

or

0,

2dw

(l-\-e)hv

6,

39

+ cosw)2 \r'\^^y

(1 -|-ecosf)^y/2

tan i v hy

orbit.

(l-\-coswy

the former integral

is

found to be

(!_[_).

y/

(^_^|^3(i_2a)__^^5(2a_3a)_|_i^7(3c,a_43)_etc.),
From this equation it is easy to determine w
2 i^ -\- item^ i w.
and also by a and w by means of infinite series instead of a may

the latter, tan

by a and

v,

be introduced,

t^

if

preferred,
2 a

\-\- a

Since evidently for a

following form

0,

or

(^

r=: 0,

we have v=^w,

these series will have the

w=:v + dv'-[-ddv"-]- d^v"' + etc.

vz=^w-\-dw' ~\-ddw"-\- d^w'"

where
^

v"^ v"\ etc. will

v',

be functions of

v,

and

w', iv',

etc.

w", functions of

a very small quantity, these series converge rapidly,

is

the determination of

by the method

w from

we have

v,

or of v from w.

is

and few terms

iv.

When

suffice for

derived from w, or

iv

from

t^

explained above for the parabolic motion.

35.

Our Bessel has developed the

cients of the second series w', w",

structed with a single argument

and

10",

analytical expressions of the three first coeffiw'"-,

iv

and at the same time has added a table con-

for the

Von Zach Monatliche Correspondenz

numerical values of the two

vol.

XII., p.

197).

first

vf

table for the

w\ computed by Simpson, was already in existence, and was

annexed to the work of the illustrious Olbers above commended. By the use
first

coefficient

of this method, with the help of Bessel's table,

it

is

possible in

most cases to

determine the true anomaly from the time with sufficient precision; what remains
to be desired is reduced to nearly the following particulars
:

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

40
I.

[BoOK

In the inverse problem, the determination of the time, that

true anomaly,

requisite to

it is

from v by

is,

I.

from the

have recourse to a somewhat indirect method, and

In order to meet this inconvenience, the first series

should be treated in the same manner as the second and since it may be readily

to derive

zv

trial.

that /

perceived

the same function of v as e/ of w, so that the table for w'

is

might answer

for

a table for

by which either problem

v'^,

v^

the sign only being changed, nothing more is required than

may be solved with equal precision.

Sometimes, undoubtedly, cases may occur, where the eccentricity differs but
little from unity, such that the general methods above
explained may not appear
to afford sufficient precision, not

and higher powers of d

enough

at least, to allow the effect of the third

method

in the peculiar

just sketched out, to be safely

Cases of this kind are possible in the hyperbolic motion especially, in

which, whether the former methods are chosen or the latter one, an error of
neglected.

several seconds

inevitable, if the

common

seven places of
figures only, are employed.
Although, in truth, such cases rarely occur in practice, something might appear to be wanting if it were not possible in all cases to
is

tables, constructed to

determine the true anomaly within O'M, or at least 0'^2, without consulting the
We
larger tables, which would require a reference to books of the rarer sort.
hope, therefore, that

it

will

tion of a peculiar method,

commend
little

itself

on

not seem wholly superfluous to proceed to the exposi-

which we have long had in

this account, that it is

from unity, but in

this respect

use,

and which

will also

not limited to eccentricities differing but

admits of general application.

36.

Before

we proceed

to explain this method,

it

will

be proper to observe that

the uncertainty of the general methods given above, in orbits approaching the
form of the parabola, ceases of itself, when
or
increase to considerable mag-

nitude,

which indeed can take place only in large distances from the sun.

show which, we give

to

l^^ea^nv^

the greatest possible error in the

following form,

To

206265'',

ellipse,

which we find in

article 32, IV.,

the

TO POSITION

Sect. 1.]

3 coey/ (1

ee).

THE

sin^

206265'

X(l ecos^)2
from which

narrow

is

limits

evident of

when

itself

41

ORBIT.

that the error

is

always circumscribed within

acquires considerable value, or

when

cos

recedes further

from unity, however great the eccentricity may be. This will appear still more
distinctly from the following table, in which we have computed the greatest
numerical value of that formula for certain given values of U, for seven decimal
places.

^= 10

maximum

error

20
30
40
50
60

The same thing takes

0)

The

following table

.76
.34
.19
.12

.08

place in the hyperbola, as

expression obtained, in article 32, YIL,

COS

3''.04

is

is

immediately apparent,

if

the

put into this form,

F (cos F-\-3esmF)\/ (ee cos Fy

X(e

1)

206265''.

exhibits the greatest values of this expression for certain

given values of F.

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

42

[BoOK

I.

34 might converge too slowly ; and therefore it is by no means to be regarded

as a defect of the method about to be explained, that it is specially adapted
to those cases in

which

E or F has not yet increased beyond moderate values.

37.

Let us resume in the

elliptic

motion the equation between the eccentric

anomaly and the time,

^-.sin^zz= ^^v/(i+^)
where we suppose

to be expressed in parts of the radius.

shall leave out the factor ^(l-|-jit);

while to take

it

into account, the

if

symbol

perihelion, but this time multiplied

by

y/

perihelion distance, and in the place of

Henceforth,

a case should occur where

t

would not express the time

(1 -{-

We

jii).

sin

worth

itself after

designate in future by q the

E and sin E, we introduce the

E sin^, and E ^^ {E

it is

we

-^\E-{-j\ sinE:
E)

quantities

the careful reader will readily perceive from what follows, our reason for selecting

In this

particularly these expressions.

form

As long

as

equation assumes the following

is

regarded as a quantity of the

j%E+ j\ sin
will

way our

be a quantity of the

first

first

order,

E=E ^\E' + j^\^ E'

etc.

order, while

E-smE=iE'-.ji^E' + j^-,^E'^ eic.,

will

be a quantity of the third order.

4:A
will

Putting, therefore,

= E' ^\E',^^E'-

etc,

be a quantity of the second order, and

B=l + j^\^E'etc.
will differ

becomes

from unity by a quantity of the fourth order.

But hence our equation

Sect.

TO POSITION

1.]

THE

IN

ORBIT.

B{2{l-e)A^-^^^{l^^e)J^)
common

By means

of the

puted with

sufficient

= kt{^-^Y
E -\when ^

trigonometrical tables,

accuracy, but not E

would not be

sin

43

jS/

-^^

is

J-^-

[1]
sin

may

be com-

a small angle; in this

possible to determine correctly

enough the quanbe

A remedy for this difficulty would
furnished by an approtities A and B.
or the
priate table, from which we could take out with the argument E, either

way

therefore

it

logarithm of

the means necessary to the construction of such a table will

readily present themselves to

any one even moderately versed

in analysis.

By

the aid of the equation

9^ + sin^
20
\J

can be determined, and hence

The
of log

following

further on

it

is

-v/^

by formula

to take the trouble to extend this table, for

are about to describe tables of a

[1] with all desirable precision.

a specimen of such a table, which will show the slow increase

would be superfluous

we

much more

convenient form.

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

44
17**

To

22' 38".64.

this

value of

E corresponds log B = 0.0000040

in parts of the radius,jE^= 0.3032928,

= 9.1801689, and

logarithm of which

Thence

by means of formula

derived,

log

43.56386=

so log

is

found

= 9.1801649.

A^

[1] of the preceding article,

2.4589614

,o^-^+M{_^f.

9.1801649

log^^

1.6391263

log

log,-^
logTl*

next

sin^ 0.2986643, whence ^\U-\-^\smU

= 0.1514150, the
is

I.

[BoOK

3.7601038
7.5404947

19.98014=

1.3005985.

19.98014
63.54400

2f.

same example is treated according to the common method, e sin E in

seconds is found
59610''.79
1633'30^79, whence the mean anomaly
And hence from
2947': 85.
49'7''.85
If the

log k
is

derived

= 63.54410.

The

{^-^^y

difference,

= 1.6664302
which

is

here only y o^no

might, by the errors concurring, easily come

It is further evident, that with the help of such a table for log

P^^

out three or four times

problem can be solved with

so that the value of

all

accuracy,

calculated from

B
it

^^ ^ ^^Yf
greater.

B even the inverse

being determined by repeated trials,

may agree with the proposed value.

would be very troublesome on account of which, we will now

show how an auxiliary table may be much more conveniently arranged, indefinite

But

this operation

be altogether avoided, and the whole calculation reduced to a numerical

operation in the highest degree neat and expeditious, which seems to leave
trials

nothing to be desired.
39.
It is

obvious that almost one half the labor which those

could be saved,

if

there were a table so arranged that

ately taken out with the argument A.

the

first indirect,

trials

log B

would require,

could be immedi-

Three operations would then remain ;

namely, the determination of

J. so

as to satisfy the equation

[1], article

done

to position

Sect. 1.]

37

the

orbit.

the second, the determination of

from

45

and B, which

may

be

VII., article

8.

by means of the equation

directly, either

U=2B{A^ + j\A^),
or

by

this,

sin

^=2^(^ 1^^);
B

the third, the determination of v from

by means of equation

operation, we will bring to an easy calculation free from vague trials

the second and third, we will really abridge into one, by inserting a new quantity
C in our table by which means we shall have no need of B, and at the same
time we shall obtain an elegant and convenient formula for the radius vector.

The

first

Each of these

we

will follow out in its

proper order.

change the form of equation [1] so that the Barkerian table

be used in the solution of it. For this purpose we will put

First,

may

we

subjects

will

^'^tanie^y/^^',
from which comes

75tani^.

+ 25tani^3_ZiMiiil)::^!y,

denoting by a the constant

3

2q^
If therefore

B should be known, w could

be immediately taken from the Barkerian

anomaly to which answers the mean motion

be deduced from w by means of the formula
table containing the true

^=
denoting the constant
5

Now, although

B may be

finally

^ tan^

-^

will

^ w,

T+Te ^y^known from A by means

can be foreseen, owing to

at

of our auxiliary table,

from unity, that if

the divisor
were wholly neglected from the beginning, w and A would be
affected with a slight error only.
Therefore, we will first determine roughly w
nevertheless

it

its

differing so little

and A, putting

B=l'j

with the approximate value of A, we will find

in our

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

46

[BoOK

I.

more exactly the same calculation

most frequently, precisely the same value of B that had been found from the
auxiliary table, with which

we

will repeat

approximate value of A will correspond to the value of A thus corrected, so that a

second repetition of the operation would be superfluous, those cases excepted in
which the value of
may have been very considerable.

hardly necessary to observe that, if the approximate value of

should in any other way whatever be known from the beginning, (which may
always occur, when of several places to be computed, not very distant from each
other, some few are already obtained,) it is better to make use of this at once in
Finally,

it is

approximation in this manner the expert computer will very often not
have occasion for even a single repetitit)n. We have arrived at this mot rapid
differs from unity, only by a difierence of the
approximation from the fact that

the

first

fourth order, and

tage, as will

by a very small numerical coefficient, which advannow be perceived, was secured by the introduction of the quantities
is

multiplied

E sin E, -^-^E-^- -^ sin E, in the place

of

E and sin E.

40.
Since, for the third operation, that

is,

the determination of the true anomaly,

not required, but the tan i

only, or rather the log tan ^ E, that
operation could be conveniently joined with the second, provided our table supplied directly the logarithm of the quantity

the angle

which

is

differs

from unity by a quantity of the second order.

We

have preferred,

however, to arrange our table in a somewhat different manner, by which, notwithstanding the small extension, we have obtained a much more convenient
interpolation.

By

writing, for the sake of brevity,

instead of the tan^

value of ^, given in article 37,

15(^ sin^)
is

easily

changed to
.

T%T^-\-^T^ '^

y^

+ l^r^

etc.

E, the

to position in the orbit.

Sect. 1.]

in

which the law of progression

is

obvious.

Hence

is

47
deduced, bj the inversion

of the series,

^ = l-iA + jh^' + Th^'+ ^mU ^* + T jAV2^ ^' + etc.

Putting, therefore,

^ = l-iA + 0,
C

be a quantity of the fourth order, which being included in our

can pass directly to v from A by means of the formula,
will

denoting

by y the

table,

we

constant

v/r

way we

In this

radius vector.

gain at the same time a very convenient computation for the

becomes, in

It

fact, (article 8, VI.),

~^^^^

(l-f-T) cosily

(l4-^^+C)cos2^i;*

41.

Nothing now remains but to reduce the inverse problem also, that is, the
determination of the time from the true anomaly, to a more expeditious form of
computation

for this purpose

T, therefore, will

be computed

we have added
first

from

T=

to our table a

new column

for T.

by means of the formula

tan2

iv;

and log B are taken from our table with the argument T, or, (which is
more accurate, and even more convenient also), G and log B, and hence A by

then

the formula

.yi_
finally

t is

call into

derived from

and

a+^)y

by formula

[1], article 37.

If

it is

desired to

use the Barkerian table here also, which however in this inverse problem

KELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

v48

less effect in facilitating

has

to Aj but

we have

the calculation,

at once

t,

I.

not necessary to pay any regard

tan ^

and hence the time

it is

[BoOK

w^

== tan

e^

y/ -tyJtT)

by multiplying the mean motion corresponding

7?

anomaly, w, in the Barkerian table, by

to the true

*
.

42.

We

have constructed with

described, and have added

to the ellipse

we

hyperbolic motion.

by
it

sufficient fulness a table,

such as

we have

just

Only the first part pertains

I.).
will explain, further on, the other part, which includes the
The argument of the table, which is the quantity A, proceeds

single thousandths

it

to this work, (Table

from

to 0.300

must be understood are given

the log

and

follow,

in ten millionths, or to seven places of decimals,

the ciphers preceding the significant figures being suppressed

column gives the quantity

which quantities

computed

first

lastly,

the fourth

to five, then to six figures,

which

degree of accuracy is quite sufficient, since this column is only needed to get the
and C corresponding to the argument T, whenever t is to be
values of log
determined from v by the precept of the preceding article. As the inverse prob-

lem which
r from

t,

is

much more

frequently employed, that

solved altogether without the help of T,

is

is,

the determination of v and

we have

preferred the quan-

A for

the argument of our table rather than T, which would otherwise have
been an almost equally suitable argument, and would even have facilitated a little

tity

the construction of the table.

It will

all

the

to ten places,

and

not be unnecessary to mention, that

numbers of the table have been calculated from the beginning

seven places of figures which we give can be safely relied upon;

cannot dwell here upon the analytical methods used for this work, by a

that, therefore, the

but we

explanation of which we should be too much diverted from our plan.

Finally, the extent of the table is abundantly sufficient for all cases in which it

full

is

advantageous to pursue the method just explained, since beyond the limit
0.3, to which answers T=^ 0.392374, or jE^=647', we may, as has been

^=

shown

before, conveniently dispense with artificial methods.

to position in the orbit.

Sect. 1.]

49

43.

We

add, for the better illustration of the preceding investigations, an example

of the complete calculation for the true anomaly and radius vector from the time,
for

which purpose we

will

resume the numbers in

= 63.54400, whence, we
= 8.2217364, log y = 0.0028755.
log a = 0.03052357, log ^
0.9674567, log

^= 9.7656500,

We

article 38.
first

put then

derive the constants

Hence we have log at:^ 2.1083102, to which corresponds in Barker's table

99 6' whence is obtained J.= 0.022926, and from
the approximate value of tv

our table log

table

B = 0.0000040.

Hence, the correct argument with which Barker's

must be entered, becomes log-^

13'M4

= 2.1083062,

after this, the subsequent calculation

0.1385934

.....

log tan 1

8.2217364

log/

iog^

8.3603298

A^

0.02292608

log tan

logf^

hence log

B in the

same manner

C=

1 1 ^+6'=:
1 + ^A+C=

which answers w

as follows

is

logtanHe^

to

0.0692967

0.0028755

^+

(7)

hv

i>

50

v^

0.0000242

0.9816833

log ^

1.0046094

2 Comp. log cos

affected with a

0'''

9.7656500
.

0.3838650

9.9919714

CAog{l+ }A+Cr).

had been wholly neglected

would have come out

0^

100

t'

9.9980028

0.1394892

logr

0.0040143

0.0761865

\og(liA-\-0).

If the factor

6'

2^

Comp. log(l 4

as before

= 99

in this calculation, the true

very slight error (in excess) of

O'M

anomaly
only.

44.

It will

because

it

have thus

be in our power to despatch the hyperbolic motion the more briefly,

is to be treated in a manner
precisely analogous to that which we
far

expounded

for the elliptic motion.

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

50

We

present the equation between the time

[BoOK

I.

and the auxiliary quantity u

in

the following form

(.-l)(A(-i) + Alog) + (^+A.)(i(-i)-log)=yti(l=i)^
:

in

which the logarithms are hyperbolic, and

2V(^

is

a quantity of the

first

+ Tolog
,T)

order^

n*

logM
;:)

a quantity of the third order, when log u

of the first order. Putting, therefore,

will

be a quantity of the second order, but

Our equation

ence of the fourth order.

^(2(.-l)il*
which

may

is

will

be considered as a small quantity

B will

from unity by a differthen assume the following form

differ

+ A(l + 9.)4*) = (^^)*

entirely analogous to equation [1] of article 37.

Vm

+ 1/

[2]

Putting moreover,

^'

T will

be a quantity of the second order, and by the method of

wDl be found

_
1_4_4/1_I
^ ^
r 'TIS
T
'^

-^

/42

-^

8
/13_l_
"S"23-^

1896

A^

T^^36TT^

infinite series

TT3^T2T^
2_8_7

44_

J5 _4_ pfp
-(- exo.

Wherefore, putting

Cwill be a quantity of the fourth order, and

^ ^T

Finally, for the radius vector, there readily follows

{l

T)coi^v~

from equation

(i_^^-j.(7)cos2^i;*

VII., article 21,

to position

Sect. 1.]

the

in

orbit.

51

45.

The

latter part of the table

annexed

to this

work

belongs, as

above, to the hyperbolic motion, and gives for the argument

we have remarked

A (common

to both

to seven places of
and the quantity
decimals, (the preceding ciphers being omitted), and the quantity T to five and
afterwards to six figures. The latter part is extended in the same manner as

parts of the table), the logarithm of

2.930,
^=0.300, corresponding to which is ^=0.241207, m
jP=+6219'; to extend it further would have been superfluous,

the former to
or

0.341,

(article 36).

The

the arrangement of the calculation, not only for the determination of the time from the true anomaly, but for the determination of the true
following

is

anomaly from the time.

In the former problem,

will

be got by means of the

formula
'

e-\- 1

with

T our table

will give log

B and

C,

A=z

whence
{\-\-G)

will follow

then found from the formula [2] of the preceding article.

problem, will first be computed, the logarithms of the constants
finally

is

5 e

will

then be determined from

mean motion

-g,

and that we

last

exactly in the same

motion, so that in fact the true anomaly

the

In the

w may

manner

as in the elliptic

correspond in Barker's table to

may have
Ar=^{i tan^ ^w,

the approximate value of

will

be of course

first

obtained, the factor

being

KELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

52

either neglected, or, if the

means are

[BoOK

at hand, being estimated

I.

our table will

then furnish the approximate value of B, with which the work will be repeated
the

new

value of

B resulting

in,

this

manner

will scarcely ever suffer sensible cor-

and thus a second repetition of the calculation will not be necessary.

be taken from the table with the corrected value of A, which being done we

rection,
will

shall have.

no difference can be perceived between the formulas

for elliptic and hyperbolic motions, provided that we consider /?, A, and T, in the
hyperbolic motion as negative quantities.

From

this it is evident, that

46.

not be unprofitable to elucidate the hyperbolic motion also by some

examples, for which purpose we will resume the numbers in articles 23, 26.
I.
The data are e
1.2618820, log ^ == 0.0201657, t;=185r0'': t is
It will

We

required.

have

21ogtan^e;
log
,

1=1

8.4402018

log

9.0636357

^og(l+C).

_l!i

C.log(l

II')

7.5038375
0.0000002

0.0011099

^-^038375

lg^

T=

0.0000001

log^=

0=

l-g.T(^)

0.0000005

log^^
log 13.77584

^^^0494^g

0.00319034

2{.

2.3866444

log^^^+^(^/.

8.7524738

log^^

1.1391182

log

2.8843582

6.2574214

0.138605=

9.1417796.

0.13861

13.91445
II.

required.

and g remaining as before, there

We

is

given

find the logarithms of the constants,

= 65.41236

and r are

TO POSITION IN THE ORBIT.

Sect. 1.]

log a
log

/?

53

= 9.9758345
= 9.0251649

log r =^ 9.9807646.

Next we have log ^=: 1.7914943, whence by Barker's table the approximate
value of ;=703r44'; and hence ^
To this A in our table
0.052983.

answers log
value of
follows

^ = 0.0000207;

from which,
log-g

w= 7031'36''.86.

2 log tan ^m;

= 1.7914736,

and the corrected

The remaining operations of the

9.6989398

log tan ^2f

9.0251649

log y

log^

8.7241047

hQ.\og{l-\-iA^C)

A=:

0.05297911

log tan ^e;

log

/?

lJ^^A-\-0=
1^4- ^=

9.8494699

.......

log B as before,

Cz=

v=

1.0425085

log^

0.9895294

9.9807646
9.9909602

...
...

67

.,

0.1580378

0.0180796

0.0045713

333r30'^02
3

.04

0.0201657

Clog

log

9.8211947

^v=
0.0001252

calculation are as

cos ie;

(1+1^+^)

i^4-^)
C.log(l

0.2008544

logr

= 67

59^78, log r == 0.2008541,

are less exact, and v should properly have resulted
67 3' O'^OO, with which
assumed value, the value of had been computed by means of the larger tables.

Those which we found above

i^

(article 26),

2;

2'

SECOND SECTION.
KELATIONS PEETAIOTNG SIMPLY TO POSITION IN SPACE.

47.
In the

first

section, the

motion of heavenly bodies

in their orbits

without regard to the position of these orbits in space.

position,

by which the

is

treated

For determining

relation of the places of the heavenly

point of space can be assigned, there

is

body

to

this

any other

manifestly required, not only the position

of the plane in which the orbit lies with reference to a certain

known

plane (as,
but
also
the
position
ecliptic),
of the apsides in that plane. Since these things may be referred, most advantageously, to spherical trigonometry, we conceive a spherical surface described
with an arbitrary radius, about the sun as a centre, on which any plane passing

for

example, the plane of the orbit of the earth, the

through the sun

will

mark a

great circle, and any right line

drawn from the

For planes and right lines not passing through the sun, we draw
through the sun parallel planes and right lines, and we conceive the great circles
and points in the surface of the sphere corresponding to the latter to represent
sun, a point.

The sphere may

be supposed to be described with a radius

infinitely great, in which parallel planes, and also parallel right lines, are represented in the same manner.

the former.

also

Except, therefore, the plane of the orbit coincide with the plane of the ecliptic,
the great circles corresponding to those planes (which we will simply call the orbit

and the

each other in two points, which are called nodes ; in one of

these nodes, the body, seen from the sun, will pass from the southern, through the
ecliptic) cut

ecliptic, to

the northern hemisphere, in the other,

the former ; the former

(54)

is

it

will return

from the

latter to

called the ascending, the latter the descending node.

We

to position in space.

Sect. 2.]

55

the positions of the nodes in the ecHptic by means of their distance from the
mean vernal equinox {longitude) counted in the order of the signs. Let, in fig. 1,
fix

be the ascending node, A9>

part of the orbit
part of the ecUptic, C 9>
let the motions of the earth and of the heavenly body be in the directions from A
9>

towards

and from

makes with

Q>

The

it is

can increase from

ascending node

to be the
ecliptic.

C towards D,

evident that the spherical angle which

to 180, but not

this angle

we

call

the

beyond, without

inclination of the

9>

Q,

ceasing

orl)it

to the

situation of the plane of the orbit being determined

tude of the node and the inclination of the

orbit,

by the longinothing further is wanted

except the distance of the perihelion from the ascending node, w^hich we reckon
in the direction of the motion, and therefore regard it as negative, or between
180" and 360, whenever the perihelion is south of the ecliptic. The following
The longitude of any point whatever in
expressions are yet to be observed.
the circle of the orbit

is

counted from that point which

is

distant just so far back

from the ascending node in the orbit as the vernal equinox

point in the ecliptic

is

back from the same

hence, the longitude of the perihelion will be the

sum

longitude of the node and the distance of the perihelion from the node
true longitude in orbit of the

body

longitude of the perihelion.

of the perihelion

only occur in

is

will

of the

also,

the

be the sum of the true anomaly and the

Lastly, the

sum

called the mean longitude

of the
:

mean anomaly and

this last expression

longitude

can evidently

elliptic orbits.

48.

In order, therefore, to be able to assign the place of a heavenly body in space

for any moment of time, the following things must be known.

L The mean
the epoch

longitude for any moment of time taken at will, which is called

sometimes the longitude itself is designated by the same name. For

the most part, the beginning of some year is selected for the epoch, namely, noon
of January 1 in the bissextile year, or noon of December 31 preceding, in the

common
II.

year.

The mean motion

in a certain interval of time, for example, in

solar day, or in 365,

3651, or

36525 days.

one mean

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

56
III.

The

the body

is

[BoOK

semi-axis major, which indeed might be omitted

known

motion, (article 7)

or can be

neglected, since

it

is

when

I.

the mass of

already given by the

mean

both, nevertheless, are usually given for the sake of con-

venience.

IV.

Eccentricity.

ascending node.

V. Longitude of the perihelion.

VI. Longitude of the

Inclination of the orbit.

VII.

These seven things are called the elements of the motion of the body.
In the parabola and hyperbola, the time of passage through the perihelion
of the

serves in place

first

element;

instead of IL, are

analogous to the

species of conic sections are

mean

given what in these

daily motion, (see article

19; in the hyperbolic motion the quantity IJcIT^, article 23). In the hyperbola,
the remaining elements may be retained the same, but in the parabola, where

will

and the eccentricity

be given in place of the elements III. and IV.

the major axis

is

infinite

1,

the perihelion distance alone

49.

According to the
which we count from

by the

common mode

A, which

only extended to 90, and if the angle made

exceeds a right angle, the angle of the orbit with

to 180,

orbit with the arc

9>

of speaking, the inclination of the orbit,

is

regarded as the inclination of

the orbit in this case then it will be necessary to add that the motion is retrograde
should represent a part of the orbit), in order that it
Q,
(as if, in our fiigure,
the arc

Q>

is

complement to 180,

its

is

E F

be distinguished from the other case where the motion is called direct. The
longitude in orbit is then usually so reckoned that in Q> it may agree with the

may

longitude of this point in the

ecliptic,

but decrease in the direction

Q,

F; the

initial

from which longitudes are counted contrary to the order of

motion in the direction Q, Fy is just so far distant from 9>, as the vernal equinox
point, therefore,

from the same

in the direction

Wherefore, in this case the longitude of

the perihelion will be the longitude of the node diminished by the distance of
the perihelion from the node. In this way either form of expression is easily con9,

verted into the other, but

might do away with the

Q,

we have

distinction

A.

preferred our own, for the reason

that

we

between the direct and retrograde motion,

to position in space.

Sect. 2.]

and use always the same formulas

57

for both, while the

common form may

fre-

quently require double precepts.

50.

The most simple method of determining the

ecliptic,

of

position, with respect to the

of any point whatever on the surface of the celestial sphere,

is

by means

distance from the ecliptic [latitude), and the distance from the equinox of

its

the point at which the ecliptic is cut by a perpendicular let fall upon it, {longiThe latitude, counted both ways from the ecliptic up to 90, is regarded as
tude).
positive in the northern hemisphere,

longitude

X,

and the latitude

/5,

let, also,

from the ascending node (which

inclination of the orbit,
i,

u, (i,X

is

u be the distance of the heliocentric place

called the argument of the latitude), i be the

the longitude of the ascending node ; there will exist

9>

which quantities

triangle, the following relations, which,

restriction
I.

II.

III.

IV.

When

Let the

correspond to the heliocentric place of a celestial

to the projection upon the celestial sphere of a right line drawn

body, that is,

from the sun to the body

between

and as negative in the southern.

will
it

is

tan [X
tan

|S

2 =

=tan^ sin (^

=
cos u =
sin

cos

(i

sin

cos

[i

sin

be parts of a right-angled spherical

easily shown, hold good without any

tan u

Q,)

cos [1

Q,).

and u are given, 1

Q> will be determined from them by
means of equation I., and afterwards (i by II. or by III., if does not approach
too near to
90 formula IV. can be used at pleasure for confirming the calthe quantities

Formulas

and IV. show, moreover, that X

Q, and u always lie in
the same quadrant when i is between 0 and 90 X
9> and 360
u, on the
other hand, will belong to the same quadrant when i is between 90 and 180, or,
culation.

I.

according to the
guity

common

which remains

according to formula

usage,

when

the motion

in the determination of X

I., is

readily removed.

is

retrograde

hence the ambi-

by means of the tangent

RELATIONS

58

The following formulas

ceding

X-\- Q) = 2
X-\- 9>)=- tan
VI.
X-\- = tan
= 2 co^
VIII.
G = cotan
IX.
8 )= cotan
X.
The angle u X-\when

sin^ i i sin

^ i sin

sin (m

tan

{i

sin {u

S2

sin (m -j- X

g^ )

h i sin

sin (w -f~ ^

h i sin

sin (w -)- X

^ is

9,^

than 90,

called,

SIMPLY

[BoOK

I.

are easily deduced from the combination of the

pre-

V. sin (w

VII.

PERTAmmG

tan

less

common

according to

/i

u cos [X
cos [X

l)

cos u

u cos [X
/5

/?

cos (X
cos

9,)
Q>)

m.

than 90, ov u-\-X

usage, the reduction

Q,,

to the

when

i is

ecliptic, is,

more

in fact,

the difference between the heliocentric longitude X and the longitude in orbit,
which last is by the former usage Q>
When the inclination
^j t>y ours Q, -\- u.

from 180, the same reduction may be regarded as a

quantity of the second order, and in this case it will be better to compute first 3
by the formula III., and afterwards X by VII. or X., by which means a greater
is

small or differs but

little

precision will be attained than

If a perpendicular

by

is

r,

in space

ecliptic,

the distance of the point of intersection from the

called the curtate distance.

Designating this by /, the radius vector likewise

upon the plane of the

sun

let

is

*
by formula I.
fall from the place of the heavenly
body

we

shall

XI.

have

= rco8^.
51.

As an example, we
cles

will continue further

the calculations commenced in

arti-

We

had

13 and 14, the numbers of which the planet Juno furnished.

found above, the true anomaly 3151'23''.02, the logarithm of the radius vector
0.3259877: now let i
lSQ'W\10, the distance of the perihelion from the

node =24110'20''.57, and consequently

171 r 48':73. Hence we have
:

log tan w

log cos

log tan (X

....
....

w= 196ir43".59

finally let

9.4348691 w

9.4630573

logsm{XQ)

9.9885266

log tan*

9.3672305

9.4515839

log tan

8.8020996 w

/3

TO POSITION IN SPACE.

Sect. 2.]

lQ=

1954r40';25

logr
log cos ^

9.9991289

log/

0.3251166

The

by means of formulas

calculation

log sin M

log sin

log sin

/3

....

....

log cos

3''3r40''.02

9.9991289

|9

...

logcosX S

9.9832852 w

9.9824141W
9.9824141 .

log cos M
III.,

YII. would be as follows

9.4454714w

log tan i^

9.3557570

log tan/?

8.8012284??

log cos w

33r40^02

/9=

(i=

6.55 28.98
0.3259877

X=z

59

log sin (w

9.0604259

.....

8.8020995
9.9824141 w

>.

4- a

u X-{-Q=
lQ=

7.8449395
024' 3';34

195 47 40.25.

52.

Regarding

and u

as variable quantities, the differentiation of equation III.,

article 50, gives

cotan

|9

d|3

= cotan idi-\- cotan udu,

or

XII.

d|?=:sin(>,

^)d2-|-

Q)du.

sine cos (X

In the same manner, by differentiation of equation

XIII.
Finally,

d (X

g^ )

r=

tan

/?

cos

(>-

from the differentiation of equation

d/=:

cos/S

dr

I.

di-j-

XL

we

get

dw.
cos^^

comes

r sin/3d|S,

or

XIV. d/

= cos^dr

r sin

/!?

sin (X

Q) di

r sin

sin

cos {X

Q)du.

In this last equation, either the parts that contain di and du are to be divided by
206265", or the remaining ones are to be multiplied by this number, if the
changes of i and u are supposed to be expressed in minutes and seconds.

KELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

60

I.

[BoOK

53.

The

of any point whatever in space

most conveniently determined by means of its distances from three planes cutting each other at right
angles.
Assuming the plane of the ecliptic to be one of these planes, and denotposition

is

ing the distance of the heavenly body from this plane by

the north side, negatively on the south,
r sin

/?

r sin

The two remaining

i sin w.

drawn through the

we

taken positively on
shall evidently have ^=: /tan /3

which we

planes,

sun, will project great circles

z^

upon the

also shall consider

celestial sphere,

which

and the poles of which, therefore, will lie in

be at the distance of 90 from each other. We call that pole

will cut the ecliptic at right angles,

the

ecliptic,

and

will

of each plane, lying on the side from which the positive distances are counted,
the

'positive

and

positive poles,

and iV -|- 90 be the longitudes of the

distances from the planes to which they respectively

Let, accordingly,

pole.

let

belong be denoted by x and

N)
Q
=
^ = /sin(X N)
Q
z=

Then

y.

x^=^r' cos {X
r cos

/?

cos {\

r cos

(i

sin [l

cos

{N

cos (iV

it

will be readily perceived that

$2 ) -[-

Q)

^ cos ^ sin

r cos

(i

(A.

cos (X

sin (iV

Q)

we have

sin (JV

9, )

),

which values are transformed into

x=^r cos (iV

y
If

now

i\^=

=r cos

Q, )

cos (iV

cos u-\-r cos

S^ )

sin w

the positive pole of the plane of x

S^,

we

shall

is

sin

[N ^

r sin [JSf

9, )

sin

cos u.

placed in the ascending node, so that

have the most simple expressions of the coordinates

x, y, z,

x^=^r cos u

y=.r cos i sin m

But,
still

r sin

sin

supposed condition does not occur, the formulas given above will
acquire a form almost equally convenient, by the introduction of four

if this

auxiliary quantities,

a, b,

A, B, so determined as to have

TO position in space.

Sect. 2.]

61

Q)=^asmA
Q,')z=a A
(iV
(A^ Q) = bsmB
S = Bf
(iV
cos {JV

cos

cos ^ sin

sin

cos
(see article 14,

We

II.).

cos

shall

^ cos

then evidently have

x^:=^ra sin {u

y ^rb

-\-

A)

sin [u -\-

B)

z=zr sin i sin u

54.

The

relations of the

motion to the

will evidently hold equally good,

even

explained in the preceding article,

some other plane should be substituted

ecliptic
if

for the ecliptic, provided, only, the position of the plane of the orbit in respect

to this plane be

known

must be suppressed.

but in this case the expressions longitude and latitude

The problem,

therefore, presents

itself:

Ft'om the

hiotvn

and of another new plane in respect to the ecliptic, to

derive the position of the plane of the orbit in respect to the new plane.
Let nQ,, Q>Q>',
nO,' he parts of the great circles which the plane of the ecliptic, the plane of the

position of the plane of the orbit

and the new plane, project upon the celestial sphere, (fig. 2). In order
that it may be possible to assign, without ambiguity, the inclination of the second
orbit,

circle to the third,

must be chosen

and the place of the ascending node, one direction or the other

in the third circle, analogous, as

it

were, to that in the

eclijitic

our figure be from n toward

9>'.
Moreover, of the two hemispheres, separated by the circle n9,', it will be
necessary to regard one as analogous to the northern hemisphere, the other to
the southern ; these hemispheres, in fact, are already distinct in themselves, since

which

is

in the order of the

signs; let this direction in

always regarded as the northern, which is on the right hand to one moving
forward in the circle according to the order of the signs. In our figure, then, Q,,

that

is

'="

n,

Q', are the ascending

the

first,

nodes of the second

the second upon the third";

* In the inner
surface, that

is

circle

upon the

180 n9,9,\

QnQ^,

to say, of the sphere represented

first,

nO,'

by our

the third upon

the inclina-

figure.

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

62

tions of the second to the

Our problem,

the third to the

first,

1.

the second to the third.

depends upon the solution of a spherical triangle, in

and the adjacent angles, the other parts are to be deduced.

therefore,

which, from one side

We

first,

[BuOK

known, the common precepts for this case given

another method, derived from certain equations, which

omit, as sufiiciently well

in spherical trigonometry

are sought in vain in our works on trigonometry,

The following
a, h, c,

site to

are these equations, which

we

shall

is

more conveniently employed.

make frequent

denote the sides of the spherical triangle, and A, B,

them
J

respectively

sin^(5

II.

sin

c)

sin ^

\{h

cos

cos

sin

c)

the angles oppo-

{B C)
^A

1(^0)
1

^ -4

{B-\- G)

cos ^-4

cos^(&-|-c)

__

cos

(^-|- C)
*

sin^^

cos-^a

Although

sin

^a

ly

COS

w^

sini(5-j-c)

III.

C,

use of in future

it is

necessary, for the sake of brevity, to omit here the demonstration

of these propositions, any one can easily verify

the sides nor the angles exceed 180.

conceived in

its

But

if

them

in triangles of

which neither

the idea of the spherical triangle

is

greatest generality, so that neither the sides nor the angles are

confined within any limits whatever (which affords several remarkable advantages, but requires certain preliminary explanations), cases
is

necessary to change the signs in

all

exist in

may

which

it

the preceding equations ; since the former

signs are evidently restored as soon as one of the angles or one of the sides

is

always be safe to retain the signs as we

have given them, whether the remaining parts are to be determined from a side
and the adjacent angles, or from an angle and the adjacent sides for, either
increased or diminished 360,

it

will

the values of the quantities sought, or those differing by 360 from the true values, and, therefore, equivalent to

them,

will

be obtained by our formulas.

reserve for another occasion a fuller elucidation of this subject

meantime,

it

will not

enumeration of all the

be

difficult,

by a rigorous

cases, to prove, that

induction, that

the precepts which

because, in the

is,

we

We

by a complete

shall base

upon

to position in space.

Sect. 2.]

63

these formulas, both for the solution of our present problem, and for other purposes, hold

good in

all

cases generally.

55.

Designating as above, the longitude of the ascending node of the orbit upon
the ecliptic by Q,, the inclination by i; also, the longitude of the ascending node

new

plane upon the ecliptic by n, the inclination by e the distance of the

node
of the orbit upon the new plane from the ascending node of the
ascending
of the

new plane upon the ecliptic (the arc n9>' in fig. 2) by 9>', the inclination of
orbit to the new plane by ^'; finally, the arc from 9, to Q,^ in the direction of
motion by J: the sides of our spherical triangle will be 9,
n, ^', J, and
opposite angles,*',
article,

we

180

H'sin ^(S^'-f-'^)

sin ^ i'coa i

sin

n) sin

sin ^

z/)

i'

n)

tion) will result

i'.

The

must

fall

below

i {i -\- )
e).

-\-

uncertainty, whether

J) and ^{9'
z/) should
and 180 or between 180 and 360, will be removed in this

be taken between

manner, that both

i'

e)

J) and sin ^ i'; the remaining two,

from ^{9'-]-J) and 1{9'J)^i\\ follow Q'andz/;
(the agreement of which will serve to prove the calcula-

equations will furnish h {9'

and cos

{i -\- e)

(/

^(8' ^) and cos n';

sin ^

i^

^ {9,

-\-

^''

from

the

Hence, according to the formulas of the preceding

i, e.

= ^(g^
n)sini{i
{Q'
J) ^ cos
=
cos H'sin ^{9'
^ cos

cos
cos h{9' ^) ^cos ^^ w)cos^

first

the

have

shall

sin

The two

the

sin ^

i',

cos ^

i\

h{9'

-\-

are positive, since, from the nature of the case,

i'

ISO**.

5a
It will

not prove unprofitable to illustrate the

= 17228a3^7, =
the equator,
that w = 180
= 2327'55".8.
obliquity of the
example.

Let

parallel to

so

ecliptic

preceding precepts by an
34 38' I'M; let also the new plane be
;

we put

We

the angle

e,

have, therefore.

which

will

be the

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

64

n=

i{9>

58
g

log sin i

II

=:

( S2

5 56

11 10
n)

8.8173026^

9.6862484

log cos h{i-\-^)

9.9416108

log sin h
log sin

whence

i'

^va. h

{9>' -\-

I i'cos ^ {Q>'-\-

J)

sin

29

2 58 .45

5 35

2 .65

n)

9.9990618

8.9881405

9.9979342.

e)

^ (i

^)

8.9872023

e)

whence

S)\

J) 8.7589134^2
A) 9.9969960
cos
^) = 3564r3r.43
(Q'

log cos I / sin

log cos

9.0094368

H'

14

8.5035510^2

^^V ^^'\^"

J)

Thus we obtain

A=

45'53'M5

1.

have

k{9>'-\-

log sin

3'

i(^

.3

\v[>

n)=

+ ^)=:
l{ie)^

cos
log
^{Q,

log
^(z

log cos

.9

log sin i (e-|- )

jU! e

[Book

il

'

'

^ (9>

^i'

log cos i

9.9977202.

2"

i'=: 11 43'52'^89,

5 51' 56';445,

g2'

= 338 30'50';43,

Finally, the point n evidently corresponds in the celestial

52' 12''.42.

sphere to the autumnal equinox for which reason, the distance of the ascending
node of the orbit on the equator from the vernal equinox (its ri^M ascension)
;

will

be 15830'50''.43.

In order to

and

illustrate article

53,

we

will develop the formulas for the

will continue this

example

still

further,

coordinates with reference to the three

planes passing through the sun, of which, let one be parallel to the equator, and
let the positive poles
let

of the two others be situated in right ascension 0 and 90

the distances from these planes be respectively

0,

;r,

If now, moreover,

?/.

the distances of the heliocentric place in the celestial sphere from the points Q,
9,',

are denoted respectively

by w,

w',

we

shall

have u'z=u

J=u-\- 14
by JV Q,

and the quantities which in article 53 were represented

be {, 180
9>^, m'.
Thus, from the formulas there given,

log a sin

logticosJ.

whence

9.9687197 w

....

log^sin^

9.5546380W

log^cos^

^ = 24855'22':97

log

We

have therefore,

9.9987923

52'12".42,

u, will

i,

here

follow,
.

9.5638058

.... 9.9595519w
whence^ = 158 54".97
5'

logb

9.9920848.

to position in space.

Sect. 2.1

= ar
+ 248 55^22^97) = ar
= hr
+ 158 5 54 := hr
= cr
= cr
= 9.3081870.
which log = log
x

in

sin

sin z/

sin

sin

.97)

{ii

+ 263 47'35".39)
7
(u + 172 58

sin (u

sin {u

?/

Go

.39)

sin (m -|-

14 52 12 .42)

^'

Another solution of the problem here treated

found in Von Zach^s Moimtliche

is

CorrespondenZy B. IX. p. 385.

57.
Accordingly, the distance of a heavenly body from any plane passing through
the sun can be reduced to the form ^r sin {v

denoting the true anomaly;

k will be the sine of the inclination of the orbit to this plane,
the distance

K),

-\-

of the perihelion from the ascending node*of the orbit in the same plane.
as the position of the plane of the orbit,

and of the

line of apsides in

it,

So far

and

also

the position of the plane to which the distances are referred, can be regarded as
constant,

Jc

and

will also

In such a case, however, that method

be constant.

be more frequently called into use in which the third assumption, at least, is
not allowed, even if the perturbations should be neglected, which always affect
will

the

first

and second

to a certain extent.

This happens as often as the distances

are referred to the equator, or to a plane cutting the equator at a right angle
variable, owing to

in given right ascension: for since the position of the equator

is

the precession of the equinoxes and moreover to the nutation

(if

mean

and

the true and not

be subject
to changes, though undoubtedly slow.
The computation of these changes can be
made by means of differential formulas obtained without difficulty: but here
the

it

may

of *',

Q>'

position should be in question), in this case also k

and J,

they depend upon the changes of

so far as

d/
-,

sin sinS^'d [Q,

sin cos

^^^ sinacosS^ ;^
sin

Finally,

add the

be, for the sake of brevity, sufficient to

when

the problem only

is,

sin
I

cos

n)

'

will

differential variations

n and

^'de

'
-,

sjnj^;^^^
sin

that several places of a celestial body with

9

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

66

[BoOK

I.

be computed, which places embrace a moderate interval of time (one year, for example), it will generally be most conrespect to such variable planes

may

venient to calculate the quantities

which they

fall,

A,

b,

B,

C, for

c,

the two epochs between

and to derive from them by simple interpolation the changes

for

the particular times proposed.

58.

from given planes involve v and r ; when it is

necessary to determine these quantities first from the time, it will be possible to
abridge part of the operations still more, and thus greatly to lighten the labor.

Our formulas

for distances

These distances can be immediately derived, by means of a very simple formula,

or u
from the eccentric anomaly in the ellipse, or from the auxiliary quantity

be no need of the computation of the true

The expression kr sin (v -|- K) is changed ;

in the hyperbola, so that there will

anomaly and radius vector.

For the ellipse, the symbols
I.

ak

cos

(p

cos

Determining, therefore, ^ X,

^,

in article 8 being retained, into

^ ^
sin

-|-

sin X'(cos

e).

by means of the equations

^sin^r=: IsinL

akcoa^ cosK=lcosL

eaksmK=z

our expression passes into

I sin

(F-{- L)-\-

far as it is admissible to regard

which we

laid

down

Jc,

K,

2iS

I,

el sinJv
in

which

constant

=
I,

but

X,

L, X will be constant, so
if not,

the same precepts

in the preceding article will be sufficient for

computing

their

changes.

We

add, for the sake of an example, the transformation of the expression for
X found in article 66, in which we put the longitude of the perihelion
121 IT

34".4,

the

= 14 13'3r.97, log a = 0.4423790.

ascending node in the

^=21236'56".09.

The

ecliptic, therefore,

Thus we have.

distance of the perihelion from

= 308 49'

20''.7

= w v;

hence

to position in space.

Sect. 2.]

loga^

logsin^
log a

X"

log cos

cos

....
9

^ ....

0.4411713

log/sini:

9.7315887??

log/cosX

0.4276456

whence

9.9254698 7?

67

....

0.1727600??

0.3531154w

L=

21325'5r.30

log/=

0.4316627

logXi=

9.5632352

lz=z

In the hyperbola the formula k r sin

II.

l-\-fi tainF-\-v sec F, if

^=v;

it is also,

we put ebksin

{v -{-

+0.3657929.

K), by

K= X,bJc tan

i//

article 21, passes into

cos

X= bJcmiK
^i,

evidently, allowable to bring the same expression under the form

wsin(i^-f--^)+*'
*

cosF
If the auxiliary quantity u
will pass,

by

is

used in the place of ^, the expression ^rsin {v-\-K)

article 21, into

in

which

a, , /, are

+ ^w +

^.

determined by means of the formulas

a=^X=. ehkmiK

= h{v + ii)=hehJc
= e^^
y=

^ (v

jtt)

sin

{Ki^)

sin

{K-\-

ijj).

In the parabola, where the true anomaly is derived directly from the time,
nothing would remain but to substitute for the radius vector its value. Thus,
denoting the perihelion distance by g, the expression ^r sin {v -j- ^) becomes
III.

g k sin (v -\- K)

59.

The precepts

determining distances from planes passing through the sun

may, it is evident, be applied to distances from the earth ; here, indeed, only the
most simple cases usually occur. Let
be the distance of the earth from the sun,
for

the heliocentric longitude of the earth (which differs 180 from the geocentric
longitude of the sun), lastly, X, Y, Z, the distances of the earth from three planes
cutting each other in the sun at right angles.

Now

if

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

68

Z is

[BoOK

I.

and the longitudes of the poles of the

remaining planes, the distances from which are X, JJ are respectively N, and
N-^ 90 then
I.

The plane of

the ecliptic

itself,

r = i?sin(Z

X=i?cos(X--i\^),
n. If the plane of

is

parallel to the equator,

i\^),

and the right ascensions of the

poles of the remaining planes, from which the distances are

0

and

90,

we

shall have,

denoting by

X=.R cos L, Y=zR cos

The

editors of the

most recent

^=0.
X,

Y, are respectively

the obliquity of the ecliptic,

e

sin X,

Z^=R sin sin L.

solar tables, the illustrious

Von Zach and de

began to take account of the latitude of the sun, which, produced

by the perturbations of the other planets and of the moon, can scarcely amount
to one second.
Denoting by B the heliocentric latitude of the earth, which will
Lambre,

first

always be equal to the latitude of the sun but affected with the opposite

sign,

we

shall have,
In Case

In Case n.

X R co8Bcos{L^JV)
Y=R B {LN)
cos

sin

Z=RsmB

X=^R cos B cos L

Y=R cos B cos sin Z R sin B sin e
Z = R cos'B sin 8smL-\- R sin B cos
t

e.

always be safe to substitute 1 for cos B, and the angle expressed in parts
of the radius for sin B.

It will

The coordinates thus found

are the distances of

are referred to the centre of the earth.

any point whatever on the

If

^, rj, ^,

surface of the earth from three

planes drawn through the centre of the earth, parallel to those which were drawn

through the sun, the distances of this point from the planes passing through the
sun, will evidently be X-f- ^, Y-\-rj, Z-\- L the values of the coordinates ^, rj, C,
:

are easily determined in both cas^s

by the following method. Let q be the radius

the sine of the mean horizontal parallax of the sun,)

of the terrestrial globe, (or

l the longitude of the point at which the
right line drawn from the centre of the
earth to the point on the surface meets the celestial sphere, /? the latitude of the

same

point,

a the right ascension, d the declination, and

we shaU

have,

TO position in space.

Sect. 2.]
Ip.

^
rj

=r ^

=
=

Case

COS

/5

In Case U.

I.

COS {X

Q COS ^ sin (X
9 sin

69

iV)

JV)

rj

|3

= COS d COS a
= Q COS d a
=
Q

sin

9 sin d.

This point of the celestial sphere evidently corresponds to the zenith of the
place on the surface (if the earth is regarded as a sphere), wherefore, its right
ascension agrees with the right ascension of the mid-heaven, or with the sidereal

time converted into degrees, and its declination with the elevation of the pole ;
if it should be worth while to take account of the spheroidal figure of the earth,
it

would be necessary to adopt

for d the corrected elevation of the pole,

and

for

from the centre of the earth, which are deduced

The longitude and latitude X and |S will be derived

Q the true distance of the place

by means of known

rules.

from a and d by known rules, also to be given below it is evident that

cides with the longitude of the nona^esimal, and 90
p with its altitude.
:

X coin

60.

denote the distances of a heavenly body from three planes cutting

each other at right angles at the sun; X, Y, Z, the distances of the earth (either
If

X,

t/,

0,

of the centre or a point on the surface), it is apparent that ir

X,t/
Z,
Y, z
would be the distances of the heavenly body from three planes drawn through

the earth parallel to the former; and these distances would have the same relation
to the distance of the

of

its

body from the earth and

projection in the celestial sphere,

which

x,2/, ^jhave to its distance

be the distance of the

by

^fee,* (that is, the place

a right hne drawn to it from the earth),
its geocentric

from the sun and the heliocentric

body from the earth

Let

place.

suppose a perpendicular in
the celestial sphere let fall from the geocentric place on the great circle which
corresponds to the plane of the distances z, and let a be the distance of the
celestial

intersection from the positive pole of the great circle

* In the broader sense

drawn from

which corresponds

for properly this expression refers to that case in

the centre of the earth.

to the

which the right

line is

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

70

[BoOK

1.

plane of the distances x; and, finally, let be the length of this perpendicular, or
the distance of the geocentric place from the great circle corresponding to the
distances z. Then b will be the geocentric latitude or declination, according as the
I)

plane of the distances z is the ecliptic or the equator ; on the other hand, a -|- iV
will be the geocentric longitude or right ascension, if iV denotes, in the former
case, the longitude, in the latter, the right ascension, of

the distances

rr.

Wherefore, we shall have

X-

the pole of the plane of

TO position in space.

Sect. 2.]

71

and
with respect to the ecliptic ; hence, the geocentric longitude and latitude
hence, finally, the right ascension and declination. Lest any thing should seem
to be wanting, we will in addition briefly explain the two last operations.
;

62.

Let X be the heliocentric longitude of the heavenly body, (^ the latitude I the
geocentric longitude, b the latitude, r the distance from the sun, J the distance
;

be the heliocentric longitude of the earth, B the latr

distance from the sun.
When we cannot put j& =i 0, our formulas

from the earth

itude,

its

lastly, let

be applied to the case in which the heliocentric and geocentric places

are referred, not to the ecliptic, but to any other plane whatever it will only be

may

also

necessary to suppress the terms longitude and latitude

moreover, account can

be immediately taken of the parallax, if only, the heliocentric place of the earth
is referred, not to the centre, but to a
point on the surface. Let us put, moreover,

=/, J cos h^=.J', R cos B = B!

r cos ^

Now by

N and

poles in longitude

themselves:

r'(ios{l
r'

sin il

r'

tan

determine directly/

and A' you

will

{i

which the angle

possible,

putting

is

wholly arbitrary.
iV and z/', whence

will

The
l will

h,

and second equations will

follow from the third; from I

first

That the labor of calculation may be as convenient

the arbitrary angle

A'

h,

immediately present

sin

z/'

N^^L^^q

^, and

90, the following equations

sin

r'

L,

the ecliptic,

N) R'GOB{L N)=J'GO^{l]S[)
N) K {L N)= A' {I N)
B' tan B
:=
tan

^sm(X
I

is

N-\-

have A.

we determine

L By

and

body and of the earth in space to

and the second and third have their

referring the place of the heavenly

three planes, of which one

in

shall

N in the three following ways:

make

L)=zP,

r'

^cos(>.

L) 1=^,

be found by the formulas

as

KELATIONS PERTAmiNG SIMPLY"

72

tan(/
A'
B!

Z) = p
-^

P
sin (/

[BoOK

L)

cos

r'

-p7

tan

iQ;ab=-

(3

{I

L)

tan B
,

B'

n.

By putting N=z X, we
^ sin (X

and we

shall have,

shall

make

L)z=P, cos =
1

(X

-Z/)

ft

].

TO POSITION

Sect. 2.]

IN SPACE.

73

63.

For an example, we continue further the calculation carried to the

centric place in article 51.
Let the heliocentric longitude of the

49^05 = Z,

24 19'

and

and

We

=0.

the latitude

thus, according to

have, therefore, X

method

....

log^

L)
logsm{X
Z)
logcos(X
logP
log^

log ^ = 9.9980979,

correspond to that place;

helio-

earth,

we put

= 1724'20^07, log =
i:

i?'

XL,

9.6729813

9.4758653?z

9.9796445

9.1488466

log(l_^)

.... 9.7408421
Hence lX = 142r

....

9.6526258

1^=

0.4493925

Q=

0.5506075

whence

6''.75

1=

35234'22''.28

9.7546117

whence log ^'

log tan ^

8.8020996 7^

log cos J

9.9973144

log tan 5

9.0474879W

log J

0.0824139

log^

0.0797283

2^55^07

According to method HI., from log tan C

and thus,

logtan^(X
X)
logtan(/ U IX)
l-il-^L = H+^L=

log tan (45

i?,

= 9.6729813, we have = 2513'6".31,

f

0.4441091

9.1848938^2

9.6290029?2

23 3a6".79

^hence/=35234'22':225.

15 37 39 .015 J

64.

We
I.

further add the following remarks

concerning the problem of article 62.

By

putting, in the second equation there given,

N=l, N=L,
10

Nz=l,

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

74

I.

'

there results

Hf sin

L) = A'
X)

[l

/ sin (X
/ sin (/;.)
The

[BoOK

z/'

sin

[l X)

sin (/

rz= 72' sin

X)

(/ Z)

or the second equation can be

conveniently used for the proof of the
calculation, if the method I. or II. of article 62 has been
In our
first

example

as follows

it is

logsin(>.

X)

employed.

^ Z = 3r45'26".82

9.4758653W
9.7546117

log^

9.7212536^

logsin(Z X)

9.7212536 w

n. The sun, and the two points in the plane of the ecliptic which are the
projections of the place of the heavenly body and the place of the earth form a
plane triangle, the sides of which are A', R', /, and the opposite angles, either
Z /; from this the
and 180
lL,ll, 180 /+Z, or L l,
I,

relations given in
III.

The

I.

readily follow.

therefore, the angles opposite to

shall

them

respectively be denoted

by

have
sinA^

~d
The plane of
which

body in space, and the true place

of which the sides will be A, H, r : if,

sun, the true place of the heavenly

of the earth will form another triangle,

we

sinT

sin (S-\-

T) *

this triangle will project a great circle

on the

celestial sphere, in

be situated the heliocentric place of the earth, the heliocentric place

of the heavenly body, and its geocentric place, and in such a manner that the
will

distance of the second from the

first,

of the third from the second, of the third

counted in the same direction, will be respectively, S,T, 8 A^ T.

IV. The following differential equations are derived from known differential

from the

first,

variations of the parts of a plane triangle, or with equal facHity from the formulas

of article 62:

to position in space.

Sect. 2.]

dz/'

= /sin(;L ^)dX +

dJ= / cos
-,

in

cos(>.

Ji

*'cos''5

d/ dJ'

which the terms which contain

rest are to

Qd/

,^
+
^^-^<i^ + ^r^^d/9

5 sin 5 sin (^

be divided by 206265,

75

if

cos'^S/,

^^(taii|9

cos(X /)tan5)d/,
,,

are to be multiplied

,x

by 206265,

,n

or the

the variations of the angles are expressed in

seconds.

V.

The

inverse problem, that

the geocentric place,

the determination of the heliocentric from

problem solved above, on which

further.
For all the formulas of

entirely analogous to the

would be superfluous to pursue it

62 answer also for that problem, if, only,

account
article

is

is,

it

all

the quantities which relate to

the heliocentric place of the body being changed for aiialogous ones referring to
the geocentric place, L -j- 180 and
are substituted respectively for Z and B,

or,

which

is

the same. thing,

if

the geocentric place of the sun

is

taken instead of

the heliocentric place of the earth.

65.

Although in that case where only a very few geocentric places are to be
determined from given elements, it is hardly worth while to employ all the
devices above given, by means of which we can pass directly from the eccentric

anomaly to the geocentric longitude and latitude, and so also to the right ascension and declination, because the saving of labor therefrom would be lost in
the preliminary computation of the multitude of auxiliary quantities; still, the
combination of the reduction to the ecliptic with the computation of the geocentric longitude and latitude will afford an advantage not to be
despised. For if the
ecliptic itself is

assumed

for the plane of the coordinates

the planes of the coordinates

a;, 2/,

0,

and the pole^ of

are placed in Q, 90 -f- Q, the coordinates are

very easily determined without any necessity for auxiliary quantities.

rr

t/

= cos u
= r cos
=
r

r sin

sin

r=irsin(X

sin

Z=zirta,nB

We

have.

X=J'cos{lQ)

^=^'tan^.

S)

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

76
"WTien

B = 0, then JR^ = B, Z=^0.

solved as follows

[BoOK

T.

According to these formulas our example

is

X S^ = 21312'0''.32.
logr

0.3259877

logi?'

log cos M

9.9824141 ?

log cos

logsinw

9.4454714^2

logsin(i:

loga;

0.3084018??

logX

9.9207006w

logT

9.7365332%

logr sin w
log cos

.....

S^)

9.9226027 w

9.7384353%

9.9885266

9.3557570

logy

9.7599857%

Hence

(Z 8)

9.7714591 w

log sin ^

.....*.

log0

9.9980979

9.1272161%

^=

follows

\og{xX)
log{t/

Y)

0.0795906%

8.4807165%

whence (/ 8)= 18r26'33^49

logz/'

0.0797283

log tan J

9.0474878%

1=

35234'22'^22

h=

62155.06

66.

The

and decHnation of any point whatever in the celestial

sphere are derived from its longitude and latitude by the solution of the spherical
triangle which is formed by that point and by the north poles of the ecliptic and
right ascension

be the obhquity of the ecliptic, / the longitude, b the latitude, a

the right ascension, d the declination, and the sides of the triangle will be s,
d ; it wiU be proper to take for the angles opposite the second
90
b, 90
equator.

and third

Let

sides,

90

-f- a,

in its utmost generahty)

shall have, therefore,

we

conceive the idea of the spherical triangle

the third angle, opposite , we will put= 90

90

by the

I,

(if

formulas, article 54,

We

TO position in space.

Sect. 2.]

77

(^+ a) = sin (45 + ^ sin (45 i (e + 5))

sin (45 i d) cos ^ (^+ a) = cos (45 + H) cos (45 i (e ^))
sin (45 i (
sin ^{Ea)^ cos (45 + h
cos (45 ^
h))
sin (45

H)

sin I

(^)

cos

The

(45

I)

I)

h{Ea) =

i ^) cos

sin (45

I)

H +

cos (45

^))

h^)', the last two,

h{E-\-a) and sin (45
h {E
a) will be had a, and,
h^); from h{E -\-a) and ^ (^
at the same time, E ; from sin (45
or cos (45
h ^), the agreement of
i
which will serve for proving the calculation, will be determined 45
h^, and

two equations
a) and cos (45

first

hence

(5")

The determination of the angles h{E-\-a),l[E

d.

angle 45

by means of

is

from the changes of

differentials of the quantities a, d,

according to

a)

not subject to ambiguity, because both the sine and cosine of the
h ^ must be positive.

their tangents

The

will give

known

/,

h,

are found

principles to be,

at

m\Ecosh

aa=id

= COS E

(5^

-,

cos^

cos

cosb

COS

^ab

dl-\-sinEdh<,

67.

Another method

is

required of solving the problem of the preceding article

from the equations

cos

sin

cos b cos

The

auxiliary angle 6

is

sin

tan

d == cos

sin ^ -]- sin

sin /

= cos a cos d

shall

cos

bsml

tan b
,,'
sin/
.

have

tan ^ =
,

tan oj

to

tan a

determined by the equation

tan^

and we

b -\- cos /

which equations

may

coso

be added, to

cos b cos

cos

-^

cos a

sin

a tan

or

(g -|- ^),

test the calculation,

>

,
'
(X

cos (s -j- 6) tan I

coso=

+/

cos

6) cos b sin I

(fi

cos

sin

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

78

[BoOK

This ambiguity in the detennination of a by the second equation

this consideration, that cos a and cos I must have the same sign.
This method

is less

expeditious, if, besides a and d,

is

1.

removed by

E also is required

the most

convenient formula for determining this angle will then be

sin 6 COS

-r,

Q,O^E=^

But

cos

f =:

sin s cos I

COS

little

cannot be correctly computed by this formula when

from unity moreover, the ambiguity remains whether
;

+ cos E
E

differs

should be taken

and 180, or between 180 and 360. The inconvenience

of any importance, particularly, since extreme precision in the value of

between

required for computing differential ratios

but the ambiguity

but

is

easily

is

rarely

is

not

removed

by the help of the equation

cos h cos 6" sin

which shows that

when

is

greater or less than sin

either one of the angles

must be taken between

360, according as cos c

necessary

^ = cos

h, d,

sin 5 sin ^,

and 180, or between 180 and

J sin d
this test is evidently not
:

does not exceed the limit 66 32'

always positive. Finally, the same equation, in the case

above pointed out, can be applied to the more exact determination of E, if it

for in that case sin

is

appears worth while.

68.

The

solution of the inverse problem, that

is,

the determination of the longi-

tude and latitude from the right ascension and declination, is based upon the same
spherical triangle the formulas, therefore, above given, will be adapted to this
;

a.
It will not be
purpose by the mere interchange of b with d, and of / with
imacceptable to add these formulas also, on account of their frequent use
According to the method of article 66, we have,
:

(45

^ b) sin J

(45

i b) sin h

sin (45

sin

cos

cos (45

^ b)

i b)

+
cos i{El)=:
(45 +
=
{E-\(45 +
=
cos
cos
J'+
(45 +
i

(^

/)

I)

/)

=cos(45

(45

(45

(45

a) sin (45

sin

^ a) cos

sin

a) sin

a) cos

i (
i (e
^ (

i (e

+ ^))
d))
^))
+ d))

to position in space.

Sect. 2.]

As

in the other

method of

we

article 67,

79

determine the auxiliary angle f

will

by the equation
,

tan

= -

tan d

sin

and we

shall

have
,

tan/=
,

tan

For proving the calculation,

may

COS h

cos (r
^^

)tana
^

cos f

sin / tan (^

e) .

be added,

cos 5 cos

cos

cos (t

^^

e) cos 8 sin
y^^j
COS Q
sm I

For the determination of Uy in the same way as in the preceding

lowing equations will answer
:

7-,

COS^=:

The

differentials of

l,

h,

will
T

sin 5 sin d.

the

fol-

sin s cos I

COS

be given by the formulas

&a-\-
= sin^cos5
= cos E cos d a
T

cosjET

cos

d5

cos

^ = cos

cos 5 COS d sin

sin s cos

article,

cos

'

r d

-j- sin

(5"

^d^

69.

We

will

compute, for an example, the longitude and latitude from the right

ascension 355 43'45".30

of the ecliptic 23 27' 59':26

45

^(+

(^)

(45

log cos (45

the declination
e.

We

1=37 39' 42^87, 45

i

a)

+ ^))
logcos(45 ^(e + ^))
log sin

a,

I (g

8 4^25" =:^,

have, therefore, 45=

^ (s

9.7860418

logsin

9.8985222

logcos(45

(45+ J a)
(45 i (e- (^))

logsin(45 ^^)sin^(^ ^)

9.6511238 w

logsin(45

9.7750375^2

whence

I)

216''56'5".39

^)

log sin

^)

= 2852'17".87;

9.8650820W

l^)cos^(^
{E =

and the obliquity

a
222 51' 52".65,

log sin (45

^ (e

^))

^b) = 9.8723171

hence

also,

9.8326803 w
9.6838112

9.9423572

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

80

logcos(45 i^)smi(^-|-/)

9.5164915 ^z

logcos(45

9.7636042 /^

whence

ii)cos^(^+/)

^(U+l)^
same

i J)

or,

^ = 66^26' 55'^33, /^ 35234'44".55;

thing,

amounts

the angle 45

H,

4810'58M2, from the logarithm of

4810'58".17, from the tangent, the logarithm of which is their differ-

obtained from the logarithm of the

the cosine,

= 9.8239669.
/= 725a5".45, what

log cos (45

we have J^= 42626'55".33,

Therefore,
to the

209''30'49';94

[Book L

ence, 4810'58'a4; hence ^

sine, is

= 62r56''.28.

According to the other method, the calculation

log tan

(J

9.1893062^

is

C.logcos^

as foUows
.

log sin a

8.8719792 w

logcos(C

log tan C

0.3173270

log tan a

c=

6417'6".83

log tan/

40 49 7

1=

.57

log tan (C

0.3626190

9.8789703

8.8731869w
9.1147762W

b=
we have

....

log tan ^

JE

35234'44''.50

log sin/

For determining the angle

9.1111232
8)

9.9363874
9.0475106??

62r56^26.

the double calculation

9.6001144

log sine

6.6001144

log cos a.

9.9987924

log cos/

9.9963470

0.0026859

Clog cos d

9.6015927

log cos

log sin

Clog cos ^
log cos

whence JEJ=

^.

....
....

0.0051313
9.6015927

6626'55''.35.

70.

Something

is

still

to be

added concerning the parallax and

aberration,

that

nothing requisite for the computation of geocentric places may be wanting.

We have already described, above, a method, according to which, the place
affected by parallax, that is, corresponding to any point on the surface of the

to position in space.

Sect. 2.]

81

can be determined directly with the greatest facility but as in the commethod, given in article 62 and the following articles, the geocentric place is

earth,

mon

commonly

referred to the centre of the earth, in which case

from parallax, it will be necessary to add a particular method

between the two places.
parallax, which is the difference

said to be free

it is

for determining the

Let the geocentric longitude and latitude of the heavenly body with reference
the same with respect to any point whatever
to the centre of the earth be I, (i
;

on the surface of the earth be

the distance of the body from the centre of

b ;

I,

the earth, r; from the point on the surface, J-, lastly, let the longitude L, and the
latitude B, correspond to the zenith of this point in the celestial sphere, and let

by R. Now

the radius of the earth be denoted

it is

evident that

all

the equations

of article 62 will be applicable to this place also, but they can be materially

abridged, since in this place

expresses a quantity which nearly vanishes in

comparison with r and J. The same equations evidently will hold good if X,l,L
denote right ascensions instead of longitudes, and /?, h, B, declinations instead of
In

latitudes.

this case

declination, but in the

X,h

will

/:?,

be the parallaxes in right ascension and

other, parallaxes in longitude

and

latitude.

l,h

If,

accord-

r, will be
^,
regarded as a quantity of the first order, I
quantities of the same order and the higher orders being neglected, from the
formulas of article 62 will be readily derived

ingly,

is

R COS B sin Q. Z)

r cos ^

IL

m.
The

= ^^^^^^(tan^cos(X X) tan^)

J = R cos B
cos
(cotan

/3

sin

{^

{X

(i

-^) "1-

tan

Bj

auxiliary angle ^ being so taken that

.

tan
the equations
,

-pj-

-rjj

11.

and

III.

= B ^,
tan

cos yz
(/

-L)

assume the following form

B cos B cos (X L) sin (^ 6)

H s'm B sin (B 6)

r cos d

r sin ^

EcosBcos{l

Z)cos(^

cos d

d)

^sin^cos(^
sin d

11

6)

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

82
it is

Further,

evident, that in

I.

and

11.,

in order that

[Book
I

and

I.

^ may be

R, must be taken the mean parallax of the sun in seconds

but in in., for R, must be taken the same parallax divided by 20626 5^'. Finally,
when it is required to determine in the inverse problem, the place free from

had

in seconds, for

parallax from the place affected

be admissible to use A, I, h, instead

of r, l, /i, in the values of the parallaxes, without loss of precision.
Let the right ascension of the sun for the centre of the earth
Example.

by

it, it

will

be 220 46' 4^.65

X,

the declination, 15 49' 43''.94

and the sidereal time

r:

at

/?,

the distance, 0.9904311

any point on the surface of the earth expressed

in degrees, 7820'38''=i:X, the elevation of the pole of the point, 45 27^57''

mean

the

and

its

solar parallax,

8''.6

= R.

The

place of the sun as seen from this point,

distance from the same, are required.

log cos J5

9.84593

log sin ^

9.85299

0.00418

C.logr

0.00418

....

0.01679

Clog sin ^

0.10317

Z)
logsin(X
log

(lk)

9.78508

log sin

0.58648

log {b

+3^86

1=

22046'48''.51

logcos(X

Z)

log tan 6

6=
^=

(^

11=
log tan

0.93450

logi?

C.logr

Clog cos/?

......

0.93450

\ogR

/S

= ^,

9.77152 w

0.66636W

4''.64

1549'48".58

b=

^) ....

0.66,636 w

0.00706

log(b

9.89909W

log cot

0.10797w

logr

9.99582

logr

4.68557

127 5r 0"

143

(i=

/?)

^)

(/?

J)
rJ=
J=

46 44

log{r

^)

0.13522

5.48297W

0.0000304
0.9904615

71.

The aberration of the

fixed stars,

and

also that part of the aberration of

com-

and planets due to the motion of the earth alone, arises from the fact, that
the telescope is carried
along with the earth, while the ray of light is passing
ets

to position in space.

Sect. 2.]

along

its

83

The observed place of a heavenly body (which

optical axis.

the apparent, or affected

by

aberration),

is

is

called

determined by the direction of the

optical axis of the telescope set in such a way, that a ray of light proceeding

from the body on its path may impinge upon both extremities of its axis but this
Let us condirection differs from the true direction of the ray of light in space.
:

sider

two moments of time

t, t',

when

the ray of light touches the anterior ex-

tremity (the centre of the object-glass), and the posterior (the focus of the objectlet the position of these extremities in space be for the first moment a, b ;
glass)
;

for the last

moment

a, h'

Then

evident that the straight line aV

it is

is

direction of the ray in space, but that the straight line ab or dh' (which

the true

may

be

regarded as parallel) corresponds to the apparent place it is perceived without

difficulty that the apparent place does not depend upon the length of the tube.
The difference in direction of the right lines Va^ ha, is the aberration such as exists
:

for the fixed stars

we

shall pass over the

mode

of calculating

it,

as well

known.

not the entire aberration for the wandering stars the

planet, for example, whilst the ray which left it is reaching the earth, itself
changes its place, on which account, the direction of this ray does not correspond
This difference

is

still

to the true geocentric place at the time of observation.

of light which impinges upon the tube at the time

time

T;

and

let

Let us suppose the ray

to have left the planet at the

the position of the planet in space at the time

P, and at the time thy p ;

lastly, let

the axis of the tube at the time T.

be the place of the anterior extremity of

Then

it is

evident that,

1st.

The

right line

AP shows the true place

2d.

The

right line

ap the true place at the time

3d.

The

right line

ha ov h'd the apparent place at the time

ence of which

be denoted by

of the planet at the time

t

T-,

or

t'

(the differ-

be regarded as an infinitely small quantity)

4th. The right line h'a the same apparent place freed from the aberration of

the fixed

Now

may

stars.

the points P,

, h', lie

in a straight line,

proportional to the intervals of time

form velocity.

The

interval of time

the immense velocity of light j within

t
t'

and the parts Pa,

ah', will

be

moves with an
T always very small on account of
T,t'

t,

if light

uni-

is

it, it

is

allowable to consider the motion

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

84

of the earth as rectilinear and

straight line,
t

lel,

T,

t'

its

velocity as uniform

and the parts Aa, ad

Hence

t.

it is

will likewise

[BoOK I

so also A, a, a' will lie in a

be proportional to the intervals

readily inferred, that the right lines

AP, Vd

are paral-

and therefore that the first and third places are identical.
The time t
T, within which the light traverses the mean distance of the

earth from the sun which

we

Fa

be proper to take, instead of the

since the difference can be of no importance.

into

493^

In

tance P, either

take for unity, will be the product of the distance

this calculation it will

PA

or

jpa^

dis-

From

these principles follow three methods of determining the apparent place

of a planet or comet for any time t, of which sometimes one and sometimes

be preferred.
I.
The time in which the light is passing from the planet to the earth may be
subtracted from the given time thus we shall have the reduced time T, for which
another

may

the true place, computed in the usual way, will be identical with the apparent

For computing the reduction of the time t

T,\\> is requisite to
know the distance from the earth generally, convenient helps will not be want-

place for

t.

example, an ephemeris hastily calculated, otherwise it

will be sufficient to determine, by a preliminary calculation, the true distance for
the time t in the usual manner, avoiding an unnecessary degree of precision.
ing for this purpose, as, for

II.

from

The true place and

this,

distance

the reduction of the time

motion (in longitude and

be computed for the instant t, and,

T, and hence, with the help of the daily

may

latitude, or in right ascension

and

declination), the re-

duction of the true place to the time T.

The

be computed for the time t; and

the heliocentric place of the planet for the time T : then, from the combination
III.

heliocentric place of the earth

may

of these in the usual way, the geocentric place of the planet, which, increased
by the aberration of the fixed stars (to be obtained by a well-known method, or
to be taken

from the

tables), will furnish the

The second method, which

it

commonly

used,

is

preferable to the others,

is

places near each other are calculated, or are

it

apparent place sought.

no need of a double calculation for determining the distance,

labors under this inconvenience, that it cannot be used except several

because there

but

is

would not be admissible

known from

to consider the diurnal

observation

motion as given.

otherwise

to position in space.

Sect. 2.]

85

The disadvantage with which the first and third methods are incumbered, is
evidently removed when several places near each other are to be computed.
For, as soon as the distances are

known

for some, the distances

next following

be deduced very conveniently and with sufficient accuracy by means of

If the distance is known, the first method will be generally
familiar methods.

may

does not require the aberration of the fixed

preferable to the third, because it
stars ; but if the double calculation is to be resorted to, the third is recommended

by

this,

that the place of the earth, at least,

What

is

wanted

is

retained in the second calculation.

for the inverse problem, that

is,

when

the true

is

to be derived

from the apparent place, readily suggests itself According to method L, you will
retain the place itself unchanged, but will convert the time t, to which the given
place corresponds as the apparent place, into the reduced time T, to which the
same will correspond as the true place. According to method 11., you will retain

but you will add to the given place the motion in the time t
T, as
you would wish to reduce it to the time t-\-{t
T). According to the method
in., you will regard the given place, free from the aberration of the fixed stars,
the time

t,

as the true place for the time T, but the true place of the earth, answering to

belonged to T. The utility of the third

method will more clearly appear in the second book.
Finally, that nothing may be wanting, we observe that the place of the sun is
affected in the same manner by aberration, as the place of a planet but since
the time

t,

is

to

be retained as

if it also

both the distance from the earth and the diurnal motion are nearly constant, the
aberration itself has an almost constant value equal to the mean motion of
the sun in 493^, and so
true to obtain the

compound
same

= 20".25;

mean

which quantity

longitude.

ratio of the distance

thing, in the inverse ratio

is

to be subtracted from the

The exact value of the aberration

is

in the

and the diurnal motion, or what amounts to the

of the distance ; whence, the mean value must be

diminished in apogee by 0'^34, and increased by the same amount in perigee.

Our

solar tables already include

account,
true.

it

will

the constant aberration

20^^25

on which

be necessary to add 20'^25 to the tabular longitude to obtain the

RELATIONS PERTAINING SBIPLY

86

[BoOK

1.

72.
Certain problems, which are in frequent use in the determination of the orbits
of planets and comets, will bring this section to a close. And first, we will revert

from which, in

to the parallax,
place.

Such a reduction

article 70,

we showed how

to free the observed

to the centre of the earth, since it supposes the distance

of the planet from the earth to be at least approximately known, cannot be made
when the orbit of the planet is wholly unknown. But, even in this case, it is possible to reach the object on account of which the reduction to the centre of the
earth

from

is

made, since several formulas acquire greater simplicity and neatness

being supposed to lie, in the plane of the ecliptic,
the observation should be referred to a point out of the

this centre lying, or

than they would have

if

plane of the ecliptic. In this regard, it is of no importance whether the observation be reduced to the centre of the earth, or to any other point in the plane
Now it is apparent, that if the point of intersection of the
of the ecliptic.

plane of the ecliptic with a straight line drawn from the planet through the true
place of observation be chosen, the observation requires no reduction whatever,
since the planet
fore, it will

may be

seen in the same

be admissible to substitute

taon instead of the true place.

following

manner

We

way from

points of this line:* where-

this point as a fictitious place of observar

determine the situation of this point in the

Let I be the longitude of the heavenly body,

all

all

/?

the latitude,

the distance,

referred to the true place of observation on the surface of the earth, to

the zenith of which corresponds the longitude /, and the latitude b ; let, moreover, n be the semidiameter of the earth, L the heliocentric longitude of the centre of the earth,

its,

latitude,

its

distance from the sun

heliocentric longitude of the fictitious place, Bf

* If the nicest
accuracy should be wanted,

it

its

lastly, let

X' be the

distance from the sun,

would be necessary

to

add

to or subtract

J -\-d

from the given

time, the interval of time in which light passes from the true place of observation to the fictitious, or from

the latter to the former,

scarcely be of

if

we

are treating of places affected

any importance unless the

latitude should be

by aberration

very small.

but this difference can

to position in space.

Sect. 2.]
its

distance from the heavenly body.

Then,

87

N denoting an

following equations are obtained without any difficulty

{L'N) + d cos
R sin {L'N) + cos

R' cos

(i

(^

/^

arbitrary angle, the

N) EcosB cos {LN) +

sin {I N) =JicosB sin {LN) +

cos {I

d sin

{i

z=:z

R mi B -\- n sinh

cos J cos

{lN)
jt cos ^ sin
{lN)

tt

Putting, therefore,

we
II

m.

{RmiB -{-Ti sin h)

shall

cotan

/?

jii,

have

= RGOBBcoB{LN)-{-nGo^hco^{lN)iiQO^{XN)
{lN)
{L'N) = RcosB8m {LN)^7tcosbsm {lN) ^

R'GO^{L'N)
J?'

sin

sin

cos

From

|D

equations

and

11.

HI., can be determined R'

and

X",

from

IV., the inter-

val of time to be added to the time of observation, which in seconds will be

= 493

d.

These equations are exact and general, and will be applicable therefore when,
the plane of the equator being substituted for the plane of the ecliptic, L,

denote right ascensions, and B,

when

the preceding formulas.

sin

in the case

L\

I,

X,

which we are

the fictitious place must be situated in the eclipis,

the smallness of the quantities B, n, I!
Z, still allows some abbreviation of

specially treating, that

tic,

b, fi

But

declinations.

1, for

The mean

solar parallax

cos B, and also for cos {L'

may

L)\ U X,

be taken for n

for sin {L'

Z).

way, making N-=^ L, the preceding formulas assume the following form

= {RB n
cotan ^
L)
R' = R-^7i cos cos L) cos
L)
i)
mjt J
L' L
Here B,
be expressed in parts of the radius
properly,
I.

-\-

|U-

Li

B, for
In this

sin h)
h

II.

{I

{X

/z-

nfcosSsin(Z

|Msin(X

-j^,

n,

to

are,

evident, that if those angles are expressed in seconds, the equations

retained without alteration, but for

p
^w ^"1

1^

II.

must be substituted

n cos h cos (I

L) n

cos {X

L)
*

206265"

I.,

but

it is

HI. can be

RELATIONS PERTAINING SBIPLY

88

[Book

I.

m., R may always be used in place of the denominator R'

error.
The reduction of the time, the angles being expressed

Lastly, in the formula

without sensible
in seconds,

becomes
493*.

206265". cos

/?

73.

ExampU.

Z'=

12 28' 54",

follows

= 354
^ =
R = 0.9988839, n =
5=+

luQi

44' 54",

4 59'

32'^,

0".49,

9.99951

logTT

log^

9.69020

log sin 5

log^i^

9.68971

logTTsin^

logcotan^

71

sin J)

....

log 71

0.93450

log|i*

log cos J

9.83473

logl"

logl"

4.68557
.

calculation

9.86330

....

0.79780

1.88913 w

X)
logcos(X

4.68557
.

9.97886

6.55356^

number

5.44520

+ 0.0000279
obtained ^ =
+ 0.0003856 = 0.9992695.

0.0003577

number

Hence

is

log

TT

i?

0.76923

cos J

log sin

(^

X)

is

0.93450
.

9.99040

= 46^63',

1.05873 w
1.88913 w

(/X)

0.83040

log II

log cos

The

8".60.

logi?

Hence log (^i?

^=24 29',

C.logi?'

Moreover,

we have
1.88913 w

log^i*

9.31794

Z)
logsin(X

0.00032

ClogiT

0.00032
1.37316

0.08749

number +r.22

9.48371W

number

+ 23".61

as

to position in space.

Sect. 2.]

Whence

is

V^=L 22''.39.

obtained

Finally

89

we have

1.88913 w

log|i*

....

Clog 206265

4.68557

log 493

2.69285

Clog cos ^

0.00165
9.26920W,

whence the reduction of time

= 0M86, and thus

is

of no importance.

74.

The other problem,

the geocentric place

from

the preceding, that

it

to

deduce the heliocentric place of a heavenli/ hody in Us orUt

and

the situation of the plane of the orhit, is

thus far similar to

depends upon the intersection of a right

also

line

drawn

between the earth and the heavenly body with the plane given in position. The
solution is most conveniently obtained from the formulas of article 65, where the

meaning of the symbols was

as follows

the longitude of the earth,

R the

distance from the sun, the latitude

we

the case in which

not
can
be reduced to
put =0,
by
whence R' =^ R, the geocentric longitude of the heavenly body,
since

r=: 0,

it is

article 72,

this

easily

the latitude,

the distance from the earth, r the distance from the sun, u the

z/

argument of the latitude, Q, the longitude of the ascending node,

of the orbit. Thus we have the equations
I.

r cos

sin

III.

r sin

sin

sin

cos w sin

sin

/)

cos

b,

sin

sin

I.

(Z

(X

cos b cos {I

0,)=:=.

11.

Multiplying

Rcos{Z
J
^)-=J
u^
(Z
u = Jsinb.
Q)
equation
by
(X

VQOBU

IT.

by

sin

cos

Q
(Z

w cos i cos (Z

sin J

sin w sin

whence
IV.

sin(L

tSinu=
cos

9, )

cos

(X
and adding together the products, we have

Q,) sin b

Q)Bmb

5 -J- sin i sin

) sin

12

(X

the incHnation

Q>)

cos b sin {I

b,

^
*

I) cos b

sin

(X

sin

I)

b,

HE. by

cos J

0,

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

90
Multiplying likewise
the products,
V.

sin {I

9>), 11.

by

cos

{I

),

I.

and adding together

we have
Rsm{L l)
sin

The ambiguity

by equation

by

I.

[BoOK

cos i cos

{I

l)

cos

sin (Z

Q,)'

in the determination of u

III.,

which shows that

ii

by means of equation

to be taken

is

between

lY., is

removed

and 180, or be-

tween 180 and 360 according as the latitude h may be positive or negative ;
but if 5
180, or u =^ 0, accord0, equation V. teaches us that we must put u
and sin (/
Q) have the same or different signs.
I)
ing as sin [L

The numerical computation of the formulas IV. and Y. may be abbreviated

various

ways by the introduction of auxiliary

Sin (i/

angles.

in

For example, putting

'

I)

we have

^^^^ sin^tao(Z.-8)
Sin

'

{A-\-i)

putting
cos

(Z

'

g^ )

we have
cos^sin&tan(Z

+,,

$^)

Sin (i}-|-o) cos I

In the same manner the equation Y. obtains a neater form by the introduction
of the angle, the tangent of which is equal to
.

cos

Just as

we have

tan u,' or

Q)

tan

(/
^^

-.

cos

obtained formula Y. by the combination of I., IE., so by a combina-

tion of the equations EL, in.,

^_

we

arrive at the following

HsmjL Q)

sin

(cos i

sin i sin (I

Q) cotan

'

b)

and in the same manner, by the combination of equations

r

cos

^)
Q) cotan

i?cos(Z
sin w sin i cos

{I

b*

I.,

TIT.,

at this ;

to position

Sect. 2.]

both of which, ui the same manner as

equations are

and

lected

met with

illustrated

in

Y.,

The

introduction of auxiliary angles.

Von Zach

in space.

may be

91

rendered more simple by the

solutions resulting

from the preceding

Monatliche Correspondenz, Vol. V. p. 540, col-

by an example, wherefore we

development in this place. If, besides u and

can be determined by means of equation III.

dispense with their further

the distance

r,

is

also

wanted,

it

75.

Another solution of the preceding problem

cle 64, III.,

that the heliocentric place of the

heavenly body and

its

GP

asserted in arti-

earth, the geocentric place of the

and the same great

3 let these places be respectively T, G,

fig.

be the place of the ascending node

Q,

upon the truth

heliocentric place are situated in one

In

circle of the sphere.

let

rests

further,

Q,T, Q>H, parts of the ecliptic and

upon the ecliptic from G, which, therefore,

wiUbe=J. Hence, and from the arc PT=r:Z ^will be determined the angle T
and the arc TG. Then in the spherical triangle 9>
are given the angle 9>
i,
orbit

the perpendicular let

fall

the angle T, and the side 9>T^=iL

sides

9,

H= u and TK

Finally

9>,

whence

we have IIG

B sin TG
sin

HT

JIG

'

will

be got the two remaining

^ TG TR, and

H sin TJI
sinHG

76.

In
tric

article

52

we have shown how

to express the differentials of the heliocen-

longitude and latitude, and of the curtate distance for changes in the argu-

ment of the

latitude

(article 64, IV.)

u,

will

i,

and the radius vector

we have deduced from

longitude and latitude,

and db

the inclination

and

r,

and subsequently

these the variations of the geocentric

by a combination of these formulas, d I

be had expressed by means of d^(, d^, dS, dr. But it will be worth
I

therefore,

while to show, how, in this calculation, the reduction of the heliocentric place
to the ecliptic, may be omitted in the same way as in article 65 we have

deduced the geocentric place immediately from the heliocentric place in orbit.
That the formulas may become more simple, we will neglect the latitude of

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

92

[BoOK

I.

the earth, which of course can have no sensible effect in differential formulas.

The following formulas accordingly are at hand, in which, for the sake of
we write w instead of / Q, and also, as above, J^ in the place of J cos h.

A' cos

(o

^' sin

CO

J'

brevity,

= cos u H cos (Z =
= cos w Msin{L Q)=:rj
= rsmismu =
r

S2 )

tsiiib

sin

^;

from the differentiation of which result

cosoi.dJ'
sin

to

d //'

^'sin
cos

-|- z/'

'

Hence by

fy.da)
a>

d CO

= d5
=

d?^

cos

elimination,
(0

J,

sin 0) .d J

4-

cos

to

d
'

^-f

cos (w.sinS.d^

sin ft)sin5.dj/-|-cos5.d^

A
of

If in these formulas, instead

and db

^,

t,

rj,

their values

are

substituted, doi

appear represented by dr, du, di, dQ; after this, on account of

d/=dw-|-dS, the partial differentials of I and b will be as follows
will

I.

TT

11.

= cos u cos
u cos
A'/dl\
= sm sm u cos cos u cos
iU\ = COS sm u sm
J'

TTT

ill.

V.

VL
Vn.

Vm.

sin

-p j

to

<^os

= cos
=
=
vo)
(y(

-g-f

CO

J \a~) =

'

A'

3-:

(o

-\-

xcIm/

sin

to

to

-{-

sin

CO

CO

sin

sin

sin 5 sin

COS M sin J

sin

sin

co

w sin 3

M sin sin

(Z

J -|- s^^

to)

sin w cos e sin ^ -f- sin u sin /cos b

cos u cos

=
9*

to

sin b -4- cos

^ ^^s ^^os ^
sin J sin

(Z

/).

u sin i cos b

TO position

Sect. 2.]

93

already appear in the most convenient form for calbut the formulas I., III., V., are reduced to a more elegant form by

The formulas lY. and

culation

in space.

"Viii.

obvious substitutions, as

m.*

coswtan^
=
cos (Z r)smb =

(^)=

v.*

(t- j

cos (Z /) sin 5 cos 5.

-T

Finally, the remaining formulas

11.,

changed into a more simple form

which may be most conveniently

VI., YII., are

by the introduction of certain auxiliary angles

done in the following manner. The auxiliary angles M,
by means of the formulas
:

tan

Then

at the

M=

cos

r ,
'

tan JV= sin

w tan ^

JV,

= tan Jf cos

be determined

may

(o

sia i.

same time we have

cos^

cos^

If

1 -1- tan^

-|- tan'^

cos^ i -J-

sin**

w sin'^ i
m

cos^ i -|- tan''

now, since the doubt remaining in the determination of M, JV^,hy their tangents,
may be settled at pleasure, it is evident that this can be done so that we may

have

^^ = +

cos

Jf

cos

'

cos w,'

and thence
siniV^

smM

'

These steps being taken, the formulas IL, VL, VII., are transformed into the
lowing

TT *

VI.*

VTT *

{^^\

(t^)
(^ ^\
\d i/

r sin

o)

cos

= ^(^os ^
''

^^"

"

fol-

(M u)

sin2 cos(J!f

^*^^ *

^^ ("^

^ cos ^

^^

w)cos(iV'

h)-{-8m(M

u) sin {JV

J))

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

94

[BoOK

I.'

These transformations, so far as the formulas EC. and YU. are concerned, will detain
no one, but in respect to formula YI.,some explanation will not be superfluous.
Jf u) for u, in formula VI.,
From the substitution, in the first place, of
(

there results

:= cos {M

Now we

sin(J[f

Msin I

sin

0)

m) (cos

sin

to

cos i cos Jf sin h -f- sin i cos Mgob b)

u) (cosoj cosillfsinJ-|-sino) cos

sin Jf sin J

sin^'sinilSfcos J).

have
cos

sin J[f

0}

=
=

cos^ i cos

sin

CO

cos

to

sin

cos

whence the former part of that expression

sin

M-\is

sin^ i cos

sin^ i cos

sin

o)

sin Jf;

transformed into

[M u) (sin i cos w sin JIfsin h -\- cos iHf cos I)

sin i cos

=
= cos

M-\-

cos

CO

(il[f

w) (cos

CO

siniVsin J-|-costu cosiV^cos J)

[M u) cos [N h)

sin i cos

Likewise,
cos

N=

whence the

sin

cos^

0)

cos N-\- sin^

oi

cos

N=^ cos w cos il!f-[~ sin

latter part of the expression is

co

cos

sin

M;

transformed into

[M u) (cos iV'sin h sin iV^cos h) = sin {M u) sin (iV b).

The expression VI.* follows directly from this.

The auxiliary angle
can also be used in the transformation of formula

which, by the introduction of

T **

{^^\
\dr/

sin

ft)

sin

A'

(M u)

sin

from the comparison of which with formula

E
hence

also a

n.* *

new

(Z

I)

sin Jtf

I.* is

r sin

derived

co

sin

Jf

somewhat more simple form may be given

(^)

= 1^

That formula VI.*

a

sin

sin

I.,

M, assumes the form

(Z

may

be

/)

cotan

still

u)

to formula

11.*,

that

is,

{M u).

further abridged,

it is

necessary to introduce

auxiliary angle, which can be done in two ways, that

is,

either

by putting

TO POSITION IN SPACE.

Sect. 2.]

.an(Jf-)

tan

COS

(o

Sin

^^ tan

95

= '""^^-?;
COS

0)

sin I

from which results

VT * *

(^^\
Kdu)

**

^^'^

(Mu) cos (N--b-P)

r sin

(H b)

cos

(iJf m

Q)

^ sin Q

^"sinP

merely fictitious, and it would

be easy to designate what may correspond to each one of them in the celestial
sphere several of the preceding equations might even be exhibited in a more

The

auxiliary angles

M, N, P,

Q, are, moreover, not

elegant form

by means of

arcs

and angles on the sphere, on which we are

less

inclined to dwell in this place, because they are not sufl&cient to render superfluous, in

numerical calculation, the formulas above given.

77.

has been developed in the preceding article, together with what we

have given in articles 15, 16, 20, 27, 28, for the several kinds of conic sections,

What

will furnish all

which

is

required for the computation of the differential varia-

tions in the geocentric place

For the better

above in
of dr,

is

log tan

d^, according

as follows

0)

log cos i
log tan

if.

to the

method of the preceding

8.40099 w

logtan(ilSf

9.36723

log cos

w sin i

7.76822 w

log tan

log sin

9.98853

log tan

8.41260

log tan i\^.

N=z

article;

8.40113

= r28'52"
M^u=U^ 17 8

we will resume the example treated

And first we will express d/ and d^ in terms

illustration of these precepts,

articles 13, 14, 51, 63, 65.

di, de!,

culation

caused by variations in the individual elements.

179 39' 50''

iVr_j=186 145

]Sfh

P=

which

cal-

u)

9.41932?^

9.35562^
0.06370

49iri3''

136 50 32

BELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

n.**

L*
log

sin(Z 09.72125

logM

Clog J'

9.99810

9.92027

(*)...

9.63962

C.logr

9.67401

[Book L

to position in space.

Sect. 2.]

52 18' 9^30)

-\-

Q=

by

V -\- IT,

97

and the true anomaly by v, the longitude in orbit will be

and therefore du =zdv-\-dIT
dS2, which value being sub-

ZT,

d/and db

be expressed in terms of dr,

Nothing, therefore, now remains, except to express dr and dv, ac-

stituted in the preceding formulas,

dQ, di
cording to the method of
dv, dIT,

articles 15, 16,

will

by means of the

differential variations

of the elliptic elements.*

We had in our

example, article 14,

log^

log cos 9

log(-)

....
....

log tan 9

9.98652

log sin ;

0.17942

COS :E=z

1.80085

ee=

0.06018

^\dM/

log sin

0.19290

log(^)
Hence

is

....
....

9.40320
9.84931 w

'

^-^2244

l^g^

0.24072

log^-^

....
....

174067
log

^-^2244

l^g

0.19290

logrr

= 9.90355 = log (1^)

log cos

....

log cos

t;

log(^-^)

....

9.98652
9.84966
0.25862;*

9.76634 w

0.19996

collected

= + 1.51154 dM 1.58475
dr = 0.47310 dM 1.81393
dv

dcp
dg)

+ 0.80085 da;

which values being substituted in the preceding formulas, give

+ 2.41287 dM 3.00531 + 0.16488 da + 1.66073 d77

0.11152 de+ 0.04385 dS
dh=: 0.66572 dM+ 0.61381
+ 0.02925 da 0.42895 d JT
0.47335 d + 0.38090 dQ.
d/=:

dtp

d(p

It will

be perceived,

at once, that the

our auxiliary angle, but (as in section 1) the

symbol M, in the following calculation, no longer expresses

mean anomaly.

13

RELATIONS PERTAINING SIMPLY

98

[BoOK

I.

If the time, to which the

computed place corresponds, is supposed to be

distant n days from the epoch, and the mean longitude for the epoch is
n%
denoted by N, the daily motion by t, we shall have
IT, and thus

diM=^ dLN-\-ndLt
place

is

d77.

In our example, the time answering to the computed

October 17.41507 days, of the year 1804, at the meridian of Paris: if,

accordingly, the

w=:

M= ^+

74.58493;

beginning of the year 1805

the

mean

diurnal motion, 824'^7988.

taken for the epoch, then

is

longitude for that epoch was 41 52' 2 r'.61, and the

its value in
Substituting now in the place of

&M

the formulas just found, the differential changes of the geocentric place, expressed
by means of the changes of the elements alone, are as follows:

d/= 2.41287 di\r 179.96 0.75214 diT 3.00531 dy + 0.16488 da

0.11152 d + 0.04385
dJ = _ 0.66572 di\^+ 49.65 dr + 0.23677 di7+ 0.61331 dy + 0.02935 da
0.47335 d2 + 0.38090 dQ.
d-r

d$2,

the mass of the heavenly body

is

either neglected, or

is

regarded as

known, r and a will be dependent upon each other, and so either dT or da

be eliminated from our formulas. Thus, since by article 6 we have
Ta^

we have

^v/(l-)-i"')?

also

dr

iij,

which formula,

if

dT

is

logT

2.91635

logr

4.68557

logf

0.17609

Clog a

log^

....

da

to be expressed in parts of the radius, it will

sary to express r in the same manner.

or, d-r

may

Thus

in our

be neces-

example we have

9.57756

7.35557W,

= 0.0022676 da, and da = 440.99

in our formulas, the final form at length

d-r,

becomes

which value being substituted

to position in space.

Sect. 2.]

99

dJY 252.67 dr 0.75214 d77 3.00531 dcp

0.11152 d^+ 0.04385 dg^,
db = 0.66572 diV^+ 36.71 d<r + 0.23677 d77+ 0.61331 dcp
6lI= 2.41287

0.47335 d^ + 0.38090 da.

In the development of these formulas we have supposed all the dijfferentials d/,
dby dJV^, dTy dU, dcp, di, dQ to be expressed in parts of the radius, but, manifestly,

by reason of the homogeneity of

answer,

if all

all

the parts, the same formulas will

those differentials are expressed in seconds.

THIRD SECTION.
RELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL PLACES IN ORBIT.

78.,

two or more places of a heavenly body in

its orbit as well as in space, furnishes an abundance of elegant
propositions, such
But our plan does not extend so far as to
as might easily fill an entire volume.

The

discussion of the relations of

exhaust this fruitful subject, but chiefly so far as to supply abundant facilities for
the solution of the great problem of the determination of unknown orbits from
wherefore, neglecting whatever might be too remote from our purwill the more carefully develop every thing that can in any manner

observations

we

pose,

conduce to
sitions, to

it.

We

some trigonometrical propothey are more commonly used, it is necessary more fre-

will preface these inquiries with

which, since

quently to recur.

Denoting by A, B,

I.

C,

any angles whatever, we have

+ sin^sin(^ + sin67sin(^ ^) =
GB) + cos^ {A C) + cos C%in{B A) =

sin^sin(C' ^)
cosJ.sin

XL If two quantities

it

may

generally be done

p sin {B
p sin {B
in

which

C')

sin

A)
A)

p,

0.

P, are to be determined by equations such as

psm{A P)z=a
psm(B F) = h,

by means of the formulas

=
cos {H P) =
sin

{ff P)

{H A) a sin (H B)
h cos (H A) a cos [H B)
h sin

an arbitrary angle. Hence are derived (article 14, H.) the angle
P, and p sin [B
A)] and hence P and p. The condition added is gen-

(100)

is

relations between several places in orbit.

Sect. 3.]

p must

101

be a positive quantity, whence the ambiguity in the determination of the angle

Pby means of its tangent is decided; but without
erallj that

be decided at pleasure. In order that the

calculation may be as convenient as possible, it will be expedient to put the arbior =: ^ ( J. -|- B). In the first case the equaeither =: ^ or
trary angle
that condition, the ambiguity

may

=^

tions for determining

P and
JO

jt?

will

sin (J.

be

P)z=:a,

^cos(^-P) = ^--(f--)

In the second case the equations will be altogether analogous

but in the third

case.

pAn{lA+iB-P)=.,^^
^{B A)
2 COS

^cos(M+ ii?-P) = ^4=^.

And

thus

if

the auxiliary angle C

is

introduced, the tangent of which

t, -P will

be found by the formula

tan

and afterwards

in. If

(M + i ^ P) = tan (45 + C) tan i (B A),

p by some

p and

one of the preceding formulas, in which

P are to be determined from the

pcos{A P)z=a,
(B P):=h,
p

equations

cos

every thing said in II. could be immediately applied provided, only, 90

90 -|that their use
were written there throughout instead of A and

be more convenient, we can, without trouble, add the developed formulas.

general formulas will be

p
p
Thus

for

sin
sin

A)
[B A)

{B

{H P) = h cos {H A)^a cos {H B)

cos (E P)=
^ sin (jET A) a sin {R B)
sin

ir=i A, they change

into

-|-

may
The

RELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL

102

jt?cos(^

For

H= B, they acquire a

F) =

similar

form

tan
Finally, if

I.

a.

but for

^=

[A-\-

B) they become

which the tangent =r-,

so that the auxiliary angle C being introduced, of

becomes

[BoOK

it

(M + i ^ P) = tan (C 45^) cotan ^ (^ ^).

we

desire to determine

ous computation of the angle P,

immediately from a and

we have

without previ-

the formula

pmi{B A)^='^ (aa-\-hb 2 a J cos (P ^1)),

as well in the present

problem

as in 11.

79.

For the complete determination of the conic section in its plane, three things
are required, the place of the perihelion, the eccentricity, and the semi-parameter.
If these are to be deduced from given quantities depending

must be data enough

other.

Any

be able to form three equations independent of each

radius vector whatever given in magnitude and position furnishes
to

one equation wherefore, three

:

an orbit

but

of the elements themselves must be given, or at

with which to form the third equation.

will

now

magnitude and position are

two only are had, either one

radii vectores given in

requisite for the determination of

which we

upon them, there

if

all

Thence

events some other quantity,

arises a variety of

problems

investigate in succession.

r, r', be two radii vectores which make, with a right line drawn at pleasure
from the sun in the plane of the orbit, the angles N, N', in the direction of the
motion further, let II be the angle which the radius vector at perihelion makes

Let

11 may
with the same straight line, so that the true anomalies
U, N'
answer to the radii vectores r, r lastly, let e be the eccentricity, and p the semi;

parameter.

Then we have the equations

places in orbit.

Sect. 3.]

103

t^l -^e cos (JYn)

^=l+,cos(i\r'
from which, if one of the quantities p,
'
determine the two remaining ones.

e,

77),

IT, is also given, it will

suppose the semi-parameter j) to be given, and

the determination of the quantities e and 77" from the equations

Let us

first

lemma HE.

can be performed by the rule of

accordingly
ta.1

tan

be possible to

it is

evident that

in the preceding article.

We have

= cotan (ir - if) - ^.^^^^^

_ 77) = &^=iii2^51Li^:=^.

(i\r_ 77)

i i\r_|_ i iVT'

^+^

80.
If the angle

77

is

given, p

and

e will

be determined by means of the equations

{N' 77))

cos {W It)
{N 77)

r
C =
77)
r cos (^ 77)
{N'

^=

rr'

cos

(iV U)

(cos

r cos

r'

r'

r'

It is possible to

a cos

{A

reduce the

77), so that

note an arbitrary angle,

cos

common denominator

a and

A may

in these formulas to the

be independent of 77.

Thus

letting

form

H de-

we have

rcos(iV 77) /cos(i\^' 77)=(rcos(iV' ^) /cos(iV" J?"))cos(.5' 77)

(r sin(iV ^) /sin {N'H)) sin (^77)

.

and so

if

a and

= a cos [A 77),
A

are determined
r cos

by the equations

(iV JJ)

cos

(iV^'

^) = a

cos

(^

iT")

KELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL

1Q4
In

this

way we have

_ 2rr^sm^(N'

IP)

sm(^N-\- 1 IT'

a cos (A

r'

a cos

r
II)

77)

r,

/, JV,

I.

II)

'

(-4

These formulas are especially convenient when

several values of II;

[BoOK

N' continuing

p and

are to be

the same.

computed

for

Since for the calculation

of the auxiliary quantities a, A, the angle

may be taken at pleasure, it will be
of advantage to put H=^ h (^-|- ^')} hy which means the formulas are changed
into these,

N) = acos {A iJY N')

N) = adn{A hNhN').
\r'-^r)m:^h{N'
(/

And

r) cos h

A being

so the angle

tan {A

{N'

determined by the equation

N')

tan

{N'

N),

we have immediately

\N\N')

cosi(xV'
iV)cos(^ 77)*

_
^~

co%{A

The computation of the logarithm of the quantity

method already frequently explained.

^-j^^

may

be abridged by a

81.
If the eccentricity e

given, the angle

is

will

be found by means of the

equation
cos

//

[A

afterwards the auxiliary angle

tan

'^

fliTf

A7-X

determined by the equation

in the determination of the angle

founded in the nature of the

different solutions

is

{Ah N h N) = ^^^ tan i (N N):

The ambiguity remaining

is

way

and

hy

its

cosine

problem can be satisfied by two

to be adopted, and which rejected, must be

case, so that the

which of these

decided in some other

AH

is

for this

purpose the approximate value at least

places in orbit.

Sect. 3.]

After IT

of IT must be already known.

is

105

found,

will

be computed by the

formulas
j(?

or

by

r (1

(iY 77)) =r'(l-\-e cos {N'

cos

this,

2 r / e sin

^ (jy

JV^) sin

(j iV^^-f j

77)),

iV^ /i)

82.
Finally, let us suppose that there are given three radii vectores

r,

/,

r",

which

make, with the right line drawn from the sun in the plane of the orbit at pleasure,
the angles iV, N\ N". We shall have, accordingly, the remaining symbols being
retained, the equations

^^l + ,cos(iV^-77)

(L)

^=zl^eQO^{N'n)

f=l + .cos(^'^-77),
from which p,

IT,

e,

can be derived in several different ways.

compvite the quantity j(? before the

rest,

N'),
[N"

respectively by sin
being added, we have by lemma
sin

- sin

{N"

{N" N),

sin

I.,

the three equations

sin

[N'

(I.)

we wish

If

may be

iV),

to

multiplied

and the products

article 78,

N')

{N"N') ^

sin

sin

{N"

N)-\-

sin

{N"N) +

{N'

N)

-, sin

This expression deserves to be considered more closely.

(iV^^

N)

'

The numerator evidently

becomes
2 sin ^ {]V"~]Sr') cos

==4

sin i

{N"

]S[')

2sm {N" N') GO^{h N" +

N).
{N" N)
{N'

i (]V"

sin h

]V')

it is

sin

{N"

N') =n, r r"

evident that i

radius vector,

n,

^n' h

N'

N)

sin h

Putting, moreover,

/ r"

n",

between the

sin

{N"

N)=^

n',

/ sin {N'

N) =

n",

are areas of triangles between the second and third

first

and
14

third,

and between the

first

and second.

RELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL

106

Hence

it

will readily

I.

[BoOK

be perceived, that in the new formula,

w' -|- n"

double the area of the triangle contained between the extremities of the three radii vectores, that is, between the three places of the
the denominator

is

heavenly body in space. When these places are little distant from each other,
this area will always be a very small quantity, and, indeed, of the third order,

N"

N' are

regarded as small quantities of the first order. Hence

it is readily inferred, that if one or more of the quantities r, r, r", N, N', N", are
affected by errors never so slight, a very great error may thence arise in the de-

if

^^

JV,

on which account, this manner of obtaining the dimensions of

the orbit can never admit of great accuracy, except the three heliocentric places
termination of

jt? ;

are distant from each other

As soon

by considerable

as the semi-parameter p

is

intervals.

found,

and 77

combination of any two whatever of the equations

I.

will

be determined by the

by the method of article

79.

83.
If

we

commence the

solution of this

problem by the computation

of the angle 77, we make use of the following method. From the second of
equations I. we subtract the third, from the first the third, from the first the secprefer to

ond, in which

manner we obtain the three following new equations

\
l_

1
J^

Any two

of these equations, according to

whence by

either of the equations

(I.)

lemma

will

select the third solution

given in article 78,

H., article 78, will give

be obtained likewise
II.,

77 and

and p.

the combination of the

first

If

-,

we

equa-

places in orbit.

Sect. 3.]

tion with the third gives rise to the following

may

and we

have

tan {I N-\- hN'-ir^

Two

mode

auxil-

N"

U) = tan

(45

C)

tan

i {JSr^

JST).

other solutions wholly analogous to this will result from changing the second

place with the

by the use of
article 80,

first

this

Since the formulas for - become more complicated

or third.

method,

it

will

be better to deduce

from two of the equations

(I.).

and^, by the method of

The uncertainty

by the tangent of the angle i iV-|- ^ iV' -|- i

e may become a positive quantity: for it is manifest

ferent were taken for,

H,

in the determination

JV II must be

of IT
that

The

of proceeding.

be determined by the equation

iary angle C

shall

107

opposite values would result for

and the value of

so decided

that if values 180

The

e.

dif-

sign of p, how-

cannot become negative,

unless the three given points lie in the part of the hyperbola away from the sun,
a case contrary to the laws of nature which we do not consider in this place.
ever,

is

free

from

this uncertainty,

That which,
cation of the

after the

first

method

more

difficult substitutions,

in article 78,

II.,

the present case in the following manner.

plied

by

cos h

{N"

N'), the

third

by

arise

from the

appli-

can be more conveniently obtained in

Let the first of equations II. be multi-

cos h {N'

the latter be subtracted from the former.

would

N), and

Then, lemma

I.

let the

product of

of article 78 being

properly applied,* will follow the equation

By combining which

with the second of equations

n by the formula
Putting, that

is,

in the second formula,

11.

II and

- will

be found

thus,

A = ^{N"N'), B=i^F-\-^N" H, 0=i {NN').

RELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL

108
tsin{i

JSr+iJ^'' JOT)
r

(l

Hence,

also,

[BoOK L

_^)cotan

r"

{N"^N) (^- l) cotan i {N' N)

two other wholly analogous formulas are obtained by interchanging

the second place with the

or third.

first

84.

whole orbit by two radii vectores given

in magnitude and position together with one element of the orbit, the time also
in which the heavenly body moves from one radius vector to another, may be
Since

it is

possible to determine the

mass of the body, or regard it as known

we shall adhere to the former case, to which the latter is easily reduced. Hence,
inversely, it is apparent that two radii vectores given in magnitude and position,
determined,

if

we

either neglect the

together with the time in which the heavenly body describes the intermediate
But this problem, to be considered among the
space, determine the whole orbit.

most important in the theory of the motions of the heavenly bodies,

is

easily solved, since the expression of the time in terms of the elements

scendental, and, moreover, very complicated.

we

It is so

much

not so
is

tran-

the more worthy of

not be disagreeable to
the reader, that, besides the solution to be given hereafter, which seems to leave
nothing further to be desired, we have thought proper to preserve also the one

being carefully investigated

of which

hope, therefore,

we have made frequent

it

will

use before the former suggested itself to me.

always profitable to approach the more difficult problems in several ways,

and not to despise the good although preferring the better. We begin with explaining this older method.

It is

85.

We

symbols r, /, N, N\ p, e, IT with the same meaning, with

which they have been taken above; we will denote the difference N'
by J,
and the time in which the heavenly body moves from the former place to the
will retain the

places in orbit.

Sect. 3.]
latter

by

Now

t.

quantities p,

e,

the approximate value of any one of the

known, the two remaining ones can be determined from them,

it is

IT, is

evident that

109

if

and afterwards, by the methods explained in the first section, the time corresponding to the motion from the first place to the second. If this proves to be
equal to the given time t, the assumed value of j, e, or II, is the true one, and the
orbit is found ; but if not, the calculation repeated with another value difiering a
little

from the

first,

will

show how great a change

sponds to a small change in the values of jt?,

be discovered by simple interpolation. And

with

e-,

if

in the value of the time corre-

H;

whence the correct value

the calculation

is

will

repeated anew

the resulting time will either agree exactly with that given, or at least

this,

very little from it, so that, by applying new corrections, as perfect an agreement can be attained as our logarithmic and trigonometrical tables allow.
The problem, therefore, is reduced to this,
for the case in which the' orbit is
differ

wholly unknown, to determine an approximate value of any one of the quantities jp, e, n.
We will now give a method by which the value of p is obtained
still

with such accuracy that for small values of

tion

and thus the whole

the accuracy the

all

it

will require

orbit will be determined

common

by the

no further

correc-

tables allow.

computation with
This method, however, can hardly
first

ever be used, except for moderate values of J, because the determination of

an

unknown, on account of the very intricate complexity of the

problem, can only be undertaken with observations not very distant from each
orbit wholly

other, or rather

with such as do not involve very considerable heliocentric

motion.

86.

Denoting the

anomaly

indiefinite

U hj

q,

or variable radius vector corresponding to the true

the area of the sector described

by the heavenly body

in'

be hfqqdiV, this integral being extended from v

iV to r
N',
Now it
thus, {Jc being taken in the meaning of article 6), Jct^ p =/q qdv.
from
evident
the fomulas developed by Cotes, that it (px expresses any

the time

will

and
is

function whatever of

x,

the continually approximating value of the integral

f(p x.dx taken from x =: u to

s:

=u

-\-

is

given by the formulas

RELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL

110

[BoOK

1.

iJ((pu-\-4:(p{u-{-iJ)-{-(f{u-\- J))

\J((fu-\-%(f{u-\-^J)-\-^(f{u-\-^J)-\-(f{u-\- J)),
It will

By

be

our purpose to stop at the two

formula we have in our problem,

sufficient for

the

first

^ ^
JfQQdv

if

first

= iJ(rr-\-//) =
^

'

27

cos 2

etc.

formulas.

'

we put

-^=:tan(45
"Wherefore, the

first

approximate value of

the second formula

denoting by

Now

p by means

in article 82,

we

will

put

=3

exactly

of

r,

R, r\

iV+

iV,

the middle anomaly

z/,

N-\- J according

find
sin^

\Asm^ A

and hence

R
By

1 /Jl. _1_ J_\

*
\ r
"//

cosQ)

2 8in'^i/i

'

/ cos 2
v/ (r

2sin'^^
w)

putting, therefore,
2 sin^ \

A^ (rr' cos 2 o))

cos

'

ei

we have
P

cos

^ ^\/

(r

/ cos 2

coso>(l

whence

is

be

= \J{rr-\-r'r-\- iRR),

cosl^

, will

0)

R the radius vector corresponding to

expressing

mula given

k t cos 2

we have more

y^gqdv

which we

Arr'

* -^

By

\/jo,

tu).

ci?)

obtained the second approximate value of

y'jt?,

to the for

places in orbit.

Sect. 3.]

Ill

- i A IZ = ^-^- YZ^
= +,2a
-^-

cos^a)(l
(1
cos^ 2 co

cos^

v/i^

-)'

-)2

we put

if

/cos
05

\A

ti

for

y/jo,

jt

rzz:

cos

Writing, therefore,

cos 2 a)\2

will

be determined by the equation

'

'

nn'

which properly developed would ascend to the

fifth

degree.

We may

put

approximate value of tt, and \i a very small quantity,

the square and higher powers of which may be neglected from which substitu71

-f-

5"

i"-?

so that q is the

tion proceeds

(?-)a-^)^+K(i-^)^+i^(i-^))=e,
or

^
and

(?^

5)(^ + 3dy 4a6)'

so

^)(gg + ^^g 5g)g

+ 35^ 4a5)
(^^

>rr_ g9^+(gg

fi)

Now we

(^8

have in our problem the approximate value of

being substituted in the preceding formula for

namely, 3 cc, which

the corrected value becomes

q,

^~~ 243ct*e-j-3a(9<x 5)

tt,

(9-[-7a)

(9aa 5)(27a-|-5 5)

Putting, therefore,
5

"

/5,
27aa~~f^'
(1 3|3)a

the formula assumes this form,

^
and

+ 5^

>

the operations necessary to the solution of the problem are comprehended

in these five formulas
all

-=tan(45 + w)
:

I.

RELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL

112

IL
jjj

jy

K-r,
okt

sin''

we

I.

=^

\ A\J {rr' cos 2

27 a a cos to

2 cos'^-^
(1

If

o
o)

cos 2

[BoOK

A cos^ 2

ft))

a)

^
3/5)cos2(

are willing to relinquish something of the precision of these formulas,

it

be possible to develop still more simple expressions. Thus, by making cos co

and cos 2 w =' 1, and developing the value of y//> in a series proceeding according

will

to the powers of

,^,

the fourth and higher powers being neglected,

we

have,

^p^a(3-iJJ + ^^).,
in

which

is

to

be expressed in parts of the

Arr'

radius.

Wherefore, by making

we have

yi.p=p'{l-lJj + 4^Jlp^).
In like manner, by developing

\J

in a series proceeding according to the powers

of sin J, putting
r / sin

/,

we have

or

The formulas

VIE. and VIII. agree with those which the illustrious Euler has

given in the Theoria motus planetarum et cometarum, but formula VI., with that which
has been introduced in the Reeherches et calciils sur la vraie orbite eUipiique de la

ccmde de 1769,

p. 80.

PLACES IN ORBIT.

Sect. 3.]

113

87.

The following examples will illustrate the use of the preceding

from them the degree of precision can be estimated.
f

= 0.3222239, J = r 63^73 = 27293^73,

= 47^90, whence the further compu-

Let log r
0.3307640, log /
21.93391 days. Then is found to

I.

tation

is

as follows

log^
logr/

33'

4.4360629

i log r r' cos 2

0.6629879

2 log sin

5.9728722

log

8.6588840

0.0000840

C log a a
C log cos

9.7208910

log^

CAogt.
Clog cos 2 w
.

loga

34'

CAogSk

/5

log2

2 log cos

2 log cos 2

logy

...

7.0389972
8.8696662

0.5582180
t

0.0000210

6.7933543

0.0006213757

0.3010300

9.9980976

l_py_[_21/?=

3.0074471-

9.9998320

log

0.4781980

0.0008103

loga

9.7208910

0.0000420

0.2998119

+ 5^)
....
logsjp
.....

1.9943982

21/3=

0.0130489

0.3264519

oj

Clog (1
3/?)
2 Clog cos w

precepts, while

Clog

(1

logjt?

9.9986528

0.1977418
0.3954836

This value of log p differs from the true value by scarcely a single unit in the
seventh place: formula VI., in this example, gives log j(?
0.3954822; formula
Vn. gives 0.3954780 ; finally, formula VIH., 0.3954754.

n. Let log r= 0.4282792, log

days.

Hence

is

derived

cu

/= 0.4062033, = 62 55' 16".64,?f= 259.88477

z/

1 27'20".14, log

1.681127, log Vi? = 0.2198027,

logjt?

= 9.7482348, ^ = 0.04535216,

= 0.4396054, which

is less

than the true

value by 183 units in the seventh place. For, the true value in this example
0.4396237; it is found to be, by formula VI, 0.4368730; from formula VIL

15

is
it

RELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL

114
0.4159824

results

[BoOK

deduced from formula Vm., 0.4051103 the two

from the truth that they camiot even be used as ap-

lastly, it is

last values differ so

much

I.

proximations.

88.

The

method

exposition of the secomd

fully a great

many new and

elegant relations

forms in the different kiuds of conic sections,

we

will begin

an opportunity for treating

which, as they assume different

will afford

it

will

be proper to treat separately ;

with the ELLIPSE.

Let the eccentric anomalies E,

two places of the true anomaly

and the

E\

v, v',

(of

radii vectores

which v

is first

r,

/, correspond to

in time)

let also

sin 9 the eccentricity, a the semi-axis major, t the

be the semi-parameter, e
time in which the motion from the first place to the second is completed ; finally
let
v'

us put

= 2f,
v

v'-{-v

= 2F,

E'

E=2g,

E'-\-E=2G,

acos(p

= -^ =

Then, the following equations are easUy deduced from the combination of
mulas v., VI., article 8
:

[1]
[2]

= sin/, y r /,
bsma = 8mF.\Jrr\
^

sin^

cos g =. (cos i V cos i

[3]

p cosy r=.

[4]

jt?

From

cos

6^

t;'

(1 -|- e) -(- sin ^

(cos/-|-

cos

F)

sj

rr',

= (cosi^-f-e cos/) y/rr.

e>

sin ^

;'.

(1

<?)) V'

and in the same way,

the combination of the equations 3 and 4 arise,

\/r/= (cosy

[5]

cos/.

[6]

cosi^.y'r/^

From formula

(cos

HI., article 8,

eQ,08G)a,
ecosy).

6^

we

obtain

= 2esinysin
-\-r=z2a 2 e cosy cos = 2 a
[7]

r'

whence,

6^,

(r

sin^y -f- 2

cos/cosy y/r/;

r',

or

i.

for-

places in orbit.

Sect. 3.]

115

Let us put

v/v+\/f ^

[9]

2 cos/

and then
L

'

'

will

'

sin^^

also

J^
'

-I-

V^(2

(/+sinl gr)co3/v^r/)
'

sin^r

which the upper or lower sign must be taken, as

Formula XII., article 8, furnishes us the equation
in

sin

is

positive or negative.

L^=^' esin^' ^+esin^=2^ 2esin^cos6^

= sin2y-[- 2 cos/siny^^.
2ff

now we

If

substitute in this equation instead of a its value

from

and put,

10,

for

the sake of brevity,

[11]

we

= ^

have, after the proper reductions,

[12]
in

^i
1
2^cos/^(r/)*
-3

+m = (l+^' j^)i+(;+rirf J^)(E=^^),

which the upper or lower sign

is

to be prefixed to m, as sin^

is

positive or

negative.

When

the heliocentric motion

when cos/

negative, the quantity

is

aginary, and

negative

of the equations

/
'

[9*]

[11*]

is

9,
,

1=^

2^ cos fy{r/f

whence

which we

^^--f^=l-2X,
2 cos/
-^

for 10, 12,

we

shall obtain these,

or,

more

generally,

determined by formula 11 becomes im-

in order to avoid

11, the following:

/

between 180 and 360,

will

adopt in this

case, instead

RELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL

IIB

in

(-^

[BoOK

I.

s^' i 9) cos fsjr/

riA*-!

[12*]

M=-(L-An^ig)i+{L-AnHgfi^-l^^),

which the doubtful sign

to be determined in the

is

same manner

as before.

89.

We

have

now two

things to accomplish

first,

to derive the

unknown quan-

from the transcendental equation 12, since it

tity g
does not admit of a direct solution ; second, to deduce the elements themselves
as conveniently as possible

from the

angle

g thus

we proceed

Before

found.

to these,

we

will obtain

a certain transformation, by the help of which the computation of the auxiliary

quantity

wards

to

By

more expeditiously performed, and also

be developed are reduced to a more elegant form.
I

or

is

several formulas after-

introducing the auxiliary angle w, to be determined by means of the

formula

y/^

= ta^(45 +

<),

we have
w^

^ _|_ y/Z, = 2 + (tan (45 +

cu)

cotan (45 +

a>))2

= 2 + 4 tan^ 2

CO;

whence are obtained

,

sin"-^/

cosy

tan'^2

'

cosy

sm^^f

j-

'

tan''

eo

cosy

cosy

90.

We
great,

is

will consider, in the first place, the case in

which a value of g not very

obtained from the solution of the equation 12, so that

2

ff

sin 2

sin'

be developed in a series arranged according to the powers of

numerator of this expression, which we shall denote by X, becomes

may

^^- sin^

ig

-1/ sin^ ^

sin^ ^

etc.

sin | g.

The

places in okbit.

Sect. 3.]

and the denominator,

12

8 sin^ i ^

+3

sin^ ^

X obtains the form

1 + 1 sinH^ + M sinH^ +

Whence

But

sin^ ^

117

etc.

etc.

in order to obtain the law of progression of the coefficients, let us differen-

tiate the

equation

Xsin^^
whence

= 2^

sin

2^,

results

SXcos^sin'^^-l-siQ^yT"^^^

cos 2 ^

=4

sin^^ ;

putting, moreover,
sin^

hg=.Xf

"We have
da;

whence

is

deduced

d^

6Xco3^

da;

and next,
(2ar

therefore,

If,

sin''

3X(1
x)
2

2a;)

a;

'

(1

2a;rp)^=4 6^)X
(3

|(l-|-aa;

/?a?3;

+ ya;4-d:z?*+

etc.)

obtain the equation

= (8-^4a)a; + (8a
which should be

identical.

in

we put

X=
we

4^):i::i?

{8/9

4y)a^ + (8y 4d)a;*+etc.

Hence we get

= l,/? = f,r=/?,^ = Hyetc.,

which the law of progression

is

obvious.

"We have, therefore,

4.6.8
4.6.8.10
4.6.8.10.12
jg-_4_L4.6
^
^ 13. 5^ T-3. 5.7^^-1- 3.5.7.9 ^
^n^-r 3.5.7.9.11 ^
.

This series

may

etc.

be transformed into the following continuous fraction

118

RELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL

[BoOK

i.

+ 5^^
5.8

-.

^-^

^""9:11^
7.10
11.13

X
3.6

13.15

X
9.12

^"15^7^
1

The law according

to

which the

is

5.8

obvious; in truth, the

w'*

term of

etc.

this series

is,

when

is

even,

n
+ 1.2-|-3'
n

is

1.4

5.7' 7.9' 9.11-,

2n

when n

etc.

coefficients

5'

proceed

3.

odd,

2w4-1.2w

+ 3'

the further development of this subject would be too foreign from our purpose.
If

now we put

=x l

X
1

+ 577^
-,

5.8

1-779^
1

^'^

^""911^
1

etc.

we have

^~|-A(^-^)'

places in okbit.

Sect. 3.]

119

and

or

g_ 8inV f(2gr sm2gr)(l f sin^^)

The numerator of

this expression is a quantity of the

nator of the third order, and

|,

a quantity of the

first

and x

that this formula

is

order,

seventh order, the denomi-

therefore, of the fourth order, if

as

not suited to the

^ is regarded as
of the second order. Hence it is inferred
exact numerical computation of | when ff

does not denote a very considerable angle: then the following formulas are

conveniently used for this purpose, which difier from each other in the changed
order of the numerators in the fractional coefficients, and the first of which is
derived without difficulty from the assumed value of

XX
= =rT-P;
1 + A=f
ii_
2

[13]

1 tpV'^
I-tW*
1-1%^
1-iH^
etc.,

or,

a?

$.*

RELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL

120

[BoOK

I.

moderate values of y; thus, for example, for E'

^=10, or g=i^^ when
0.0000002. It would be superfluous to continue the table furX =z 0.00195, is ^
66" 25>r U'
132'' 50'.
ther, since to the last term a;=0.3 corresponds g

E=

The

third

column of the

tive values of x, will

table,

which contains values of

be explained further on in

its

corresponding to nega-

proper place.

91.

Equation 12, in which, in the case we are treating, the upper sign must
dently be adopted, obtains by the introduction of the quantity ^ the form

m = (1 4- xY -{-

^
.

evi-

T/

=:.

Putting, therefore,

V(^+^)

= ^,

and

the proper reductions being made,

h^^l=^.

[15]
If,

accordingly, h

termined from

we have

it

by

mm

/jT

properly be regarded as a known quantity, g can be demeans of a cubic equation, and then we shall have

may

Now, although h involves the quantity ^, still unknown,

neglect it in the first approximation, and for h to take

it

will

be allowable to

mm
undoubtedly a very small quantity in the case we are discussing.
Hence g and x will be deduced by means of equations 15, 16 ^ will be got
from X by table m., and with its aid the corrected value of h will be obtained by
since

is

formula 14, with which the same calculation repeated will give corrected values
of 2/ and X : for the most part these will differ so little from the preceding, that $

places in orbit.

Sect. 3.]

121

taken again from table III, will not differ from the first value otherwise it would
be necessary to repeat the calculation anew until it underwent no further change.
;

x.
the quantity x shall be found, ^ will be got by the formula sin^ 2 y
These precepts refer to the first case, in which cos/ is positive ; in the other

When
case,

where

it is

negative,

we put
V^(-^

=T
^)

and
[14*]

T^^, = S,

whence equation 12* properly reduced passes

and

H can be determined, accordingly, by

into this,

this cubic equation,

whence again x

win be derived from the equation

[16*]

In the

x=zL
first

approximation

be taken for

will

from

YY'

H by means

H;

I will

MM

be taken from table

III.

of the equations 15*, 16*; hence,

with the value of x derived

by formula

14*, will be

had

the corrected value of H, with which the calculation will be repeated in the same

manner.
the

Finally, the angle

will

be determined from x in the same

way

as in

first case.

92.

Although the equations 15, 15*, can have three real roots in certain cases, it
will, notwithstanding, never be doubtful which should be selected in our problem.
Since h is evidently a positive quantity, it is readily inferred from the theory
of equations, that equation 15 has one positive root with two imaginary or two
negative.

Now

since

m
16

RELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL

122

must necessarily be a

positive quantity,

it is

[BoOK

1.

evident that no uncertainty remains

So far as relates to equation 15*, we observe, in the first place, that L is

necessarily greater than 1 which is easily proved, if the equation given in article
here.

89

is

put under the form

cosy cosy
"^

Moreover, by substituting, in equation 12*, YsJ (Z

have

and

x) in the place of

M, we

Y^l = {L x)X,

so

and therefore

Y^

positive quantity;

it is

tive roots.

hence

also equation

Y=l-\-

Y',

15* passes into

Y' will necessarily be a

this,

r+2rr+(i ^)r+2v 1^=0,

which,

Putting, therefore,

\.

proved from the theory of equations, cannot have several posiHence it is concluded that equation 15* would have only one root

easily

greater than

^,-1-

which, the remaining ones being neglected,

it

will

be necessary

to adopt in our problem.

93.

In order to render the solution of equation 15 the most convenient possible

in cases the most frequent in practice, we append to this work a special table
to 0.6 the corresponding loga(Table II.), which gives for values of h from
rithms computed with great care to seven places of decimals. The argument
h,

from

to 0.04, proceeds

by

single

second differences vanish, so that

of the table.

But

since the

ten thousandths,

simple

table, if

it

interpolation

by which means the

suffices

in

this

part

were equally extended throughout,

it was necessary to proceed

would be very voluminous, from h = 0.04 to the end

by

single thousandths only

on which account,

part to have regard to second differences, if

t If in fact

we

it

will

we wish

be necessary in

to avoid errors of

suppose that our problem admits of solution.

this latter

some

units

places in orbit.

Sect. 3.]

in the seventh figure.

The smaller

123

values, however, of

Ti

are

much

the more

fre-

quent in practice.

The

when

solution of equation 15,

h exceeds the limit of the table, as also

15% can be performed without difficulty by the indirect method,

by other methods sufficiently known. But it will not be foreign to the pur-

the solution of
or

pose to remark, that a small value of g cannot coexist with a negative value of
cos/, except in an orbit considerably eccentric, as will readily appear from equation 20 given below in article 95.f

94.

The treatment of equations

12=-=,

is

these equations do not require so

and conveniently solved by

many

trial without

of the expression
2

in

which

it is

explained in articles 91, 92, 93, rests upon

not very large, certainly within the limit 66 25',

do not extend table III. When this supposition is not correct,

the supposition that the angle

beyond which we

12,

evident that

1g

is

^r

artifices;

they can be most securely

a change of form.

sin 2

Securely, since the

value

to be expressed in parts of the radius, can, for

greater values of ^,be computed with perfect accuracy

by means of the trigonomet-

which certainly cannot be done as long as ^ is a small angle conveniently, because heliocentric places distant from each other by so great an interval
will scarcely ever be used for the determination of an orbit wholly unknown, while
rical tables,

by means of equation

an approximate value of g follows

with almost no labor, from any knowledge whatever of the orbit lastly, from an
approximate value of g, a corrected value will always be derived with few trials,
1 or 3 of article 88,

satisfying with sufficient precision equation 12 or 12*.

For the

given heliocentric places embrace more than one entire revolution,

to

remember

tric

that just as

anomaly, so that the

many

v'

if

it is

revolutions will have been completed

E,
angles^'

That equation shows, that

rest,

cosy*

is

negative,

v,

g)

either both lie

by

between

must, at least, be greater than 90

when two
necessary

the eccen-

and 360,

g.

RELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL

124

[BoOK L

or both between similar multiples of the whole circumference, and also

between

together, either

cumference.

If,

finally,

and g

and 180, or between similar multiples of the semicirthe orbit should be wholly unknown, and it should not

appear whether the heavenly body, in passing from the first radius vector to the
second, had described a part only of a revolution or, in addition, one entire revoour problem would sometimes admit several different solutions
do not dwell here on this case, which can rarely occur in practice.

lution, or several,

we

however,

95.

We

pass to the second matter, that

g when

the angle

is,

the determination of the elements from

The major semiaxis

found.

is

had here immediately by the

formulas 10, 10*, instead of which the following can also be used
PI

[17*]

khtt
=
= =1^^S^
4
TT?,m^g
Trr/cosysin^^'

The minor semiaxis h^=LsJap

is

combined with the preceding, there

Now

Tihtt

2mmcosyy/r/

f^-,

got

by means of equation

1,

which being

results

the elliptic sector contained between two radii vectores and the elliptic arc

the triangle between the same radii vectores and the chord
hrr' ^m. 2/: wherefore, the ratio of the sector to the triangle is as^: 1 or Y: 1.
This remark is of the greatest importance, and elucidates in a beautiful manner
is

kt

\J

p, also

both the equations 12,12*: for

parts m, (/-f-^)^ -^(^"j"-'^)

>

it

^.nd in

is

apparent from

this,

that in equation 12 the

equation 12* the parts M, {L

xY,X{L

x)

are respectively proportional to the area of the sector (between the radii vectores
and the elliptic arc), the area of the triangle (between the radii vectores and the
chord), the area of the segment (between the arc
first

area

ing as

v'

is

evidently equal to the

^v lies

between

sum

and the chord), because the

or difference of the other two, accord-

and 180, or between 180 and 360^

In the case

places in orbit.

Sect. 3.]

125

we must

conceive the area of the whole ellipse

added to the area of the sector and the area of the segment just as many times

where

greater than 360''

is

motion comprises entire revolutions.

Moreover, since J= cosy, from the combination of equations

as the

1,

10,

10%

follow
r-i

nn

[19]

ri9*1

f
= ^--^^^
q tan

sin

cos

coso) -^^"^^^"/

whence, by substituting for

rnp|-|
'-

'

-"

This formula

when

the latter

is
is

Z, their values from article 89,

/,

we have

sin/singr
'

COS /cos

g-^i

tan^ 2

la

not adapted to the exact computation of the eccentricity

not great but from it is easily deduced the more suitable
:

formula
L^iJ

tan

.^-^^^,,_^fj^g^_^^,^^.

which the following form can likewise be given (by multiplying the numerator
and denominator by cos^ 2 w)

to

r99"l

+nTi2 i

ffi

s^"' 2 (

/ + cos' \ (/ 9)
.9)

The angle 9 can always be determined with

if

gin" 2 o)

accuracy by either formula, using,

thought proper, the auxiliary angles of which the tangents are
tan 2

tan 2

0)

%m\{fgy

all

txt

sini(/+5')

for the former, or

sin 2

sin 2

to

0)

for the latter.

The following formula can be used

for the determination of the

which readily results from the combination of equations

one not numbered,
^
[23]-"

tan

6^

3=.^,

,^^~'^t^,,

(r-j-r)cos^

2cos/yrr'

from which, by introducing w,is easily derived

5, 7,

angle

(r,

and the following

KELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL

126
tan

[24]

/7
Cr

sin

5'

sin 2

[BoOK

I.

to

cos2 2o,sin^(/ ^)sini(/+^)

sin2 2o)COS5r-

The ambiguity here remaining is easily decided by means of equation 7, which

and 180, or between 180 and 360,
shows, that G must be taken between
as the

By

nmnerator in these two formulas

positive or negative.

is

combining equation 3 with these, which flow at once from equation XL

article 8,

2e
=
sm/ sm#
2e
^
- 4- -^ =
cos/ cos F,
1

jj,

J,

the following will be derived without trouble,

tnn

r^f^l

L^oj

r)

sin/

tan^_2^^g^^^^_^^_l_^)^,Qgy.,

from which, the angle

r9Rn
L

(r^

in

sin 2 co

t?

cos^ 2

-I

being introduced, results

The uncertainty here

CD

is

sin

|-

sin/
(/ sin^ (/-f-y) sin22a)COs/'
5')

removed

in the

F and G shall

have been found, we shall

whence the position of the perihelion will be known

the angles

Finally the

mean motion

in the time

will

As soon
= F-\-f,
have = F
E= G E':=G

same manner

as

as before.
v

also

/,

v'

-\-g.

y,

be

= 2^ 2ecos6^siny,
the agreement of which expressions will serve to confirm the calculation also,
the epoch of the mean anomaly, corresponding to the middle time between the
;

two given

times, will be

emiG cos

^,

which can be transferred

at pleasure

any other time. It is somewhat more convenient to compute the mean

e sin E\ and
anomalies for the two given times by the formulas E
emiE, E'

to

to

make

use of their difference for a proof of the calculation,

It

by comparing

it

with

places in orbit.

Sect. 3.]

127

96.

The equations in the preceding article possess so much neatness, that there
may seem nothing more to be desired. Nevertheless, we can obtain certain
other formulas, by which the elements of the orbit are determined much more
'

elegantly and conveniently;

more

but the development of these formulas

resume the following equations from

distinguish by new numbers
:

smivi/-

I.

n. cosiv\/

multiply

added,

or,

we

I.

by

article 8,

little

which, for convenience,

-= cosh JS^ {1 e)

sin ^ (^-|-^), II.

by

e).

cos ^ {F-\-^), whence, the products being

obtain

(/+</) y/^

sin

i^sin

(i^+^)v/(l

+ + COS i^cos
e)

(i^+^)v/(l

^)

because
\/

cos i

(1 -\-e)

= cos

{f-\-ff)J^z=

cos i

-f- sin ^

(p

9),

cos (i i^

In exactly the same way, by multiplying

=
^ + ^)
\/

(1

cos ^

e)

III.

by

sin h

{F

cp

sin h

(p

sin | 9,

cos ^ {F-\-G).

g), IV.

by

cos h

{F

the products being added, appears

cos ^

The

(f -\- g)

J z= cos h(p cos{iF ^G g) sin ^ 9 cos

{F-{-G),

subtraction of the preceding from this equation gives

cos i

or,

we

= smiU\J{l-\-e)

W. coshv'J^=coshi;'^{l

cos ^

abstruse.

We

We

is

if

+ g) (y/-

yZ-T.)

by introducing the auxiliary angle

[27] cos ^ {f-\-g) tan 2 oj := sin

=^2cosh(p smg

sin i

{F G),

w,
i

{F

G)

cos i

9 sin^ v/"^-

'

g)y

RELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL

128

[BoOK

we

transformations precisely similar, the development of which

By

skilful reader, are

[28]
[29]

[30]

When

the

(/

ff)

<^H^-<^)<^i9^ff<^"^,

tan 2

sin ^

(-^+ ^) siii

members of

9 sin^ i/ ^,

these four equations are known, |

cosi9)smyy/^
will

^^^ = co.HF+G)A-i9^nff^"^.
first

leave to the

found

^^ =
cos i

I.

be determined from 27 and 29 ; and

also,

{F

G) and

=P

from 29 and 30, in the same manner,

i(J^4-G^)and

smi9sm^y/^=^;
the doubt in the determination of the angles i

decided that

will

P and

P and

6r),

the same sign as sin g.

Q may have

be derived from

(F

From

Q.

R can be

{F-\-G),

Then

is

to be so

y and

deduced

RRsJrr^
sin^

and

'

also

P
unless

we

BR

'

prefer to use the former quantity, which

must be

+V (2 {1+ sin^ hg) cos/) = ( 2 (Z sin^ ^^) cos/),

V^

for a proof of the

iently determined

chiefly, in

computation

which case a and

are most conven-

by the formulas
7

sinfi/r/
^ a=
=
g
,
'

sin

cos

-*

= ocoscp.
,

'

go

Several of the equations of articles 88 and 96 can be employed for proving the
calculation, to which we further add the following
:

2 tan 2

0)

/
i

cos 2

(o

=
r/

sm 6^ sm

flr

PLACES IN ORBIT.

Sect. 3.]

2 tan 2
cos 2

2 tan 2
cos 2

Lastly, the

= tan w
'

(w

mean motion and

same manner

CO

PP__
rr'

sin 6^ sin

emiFsmf

/"

"^

129

= tan

the epoch of the

cp
'

F sin ^a

sin

mean anomaly

will

be found in the

as in the preceding article.

97.

We

resume the two examples of article 87 for the illustration of the

method explained in the 88th, and subsequent articles it is hardly necessary to
say that the meaning of the auxiliary angle w thus far adhered to is not to be
will

confounded with that with which the same symbol was taken in
3 47' 26':865, also
I. In the first example we have

articles 86, 87.

/=

log

^ = 9.9914599, log tan (45 + w) = 9.997864975, w ==

Hence, by

8' 27''.006.

article 89,

logsin^i/

7.0389972

logtan2 2ca

5.3832428

logcos/.

9.9990488

logcos/

9.9990488

7.0399484

5.3841940

= log 0.0010963480
and thus

/= 0.0011205691,

logjct

2
C.

=:

lou;

r'

log (1

Further

we have

9.5766974

9.0205181

C. log 8 cos^/

log

-|-/^ 0.8344539

9.1533948

f log r

loo;

0.0000242211

9.0997636

mm

7.2736765

9.9214023

7.3522742

The approximate

value, therefore, of h

corresponds logyy

= 0.0021633.
^^
log

yy

We

is

0.00225047, to which in our table

have, accordingly,

=, 7.2715132, or
17

"^"^

yy

= 0.001868587,
'

II.

RELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL

130

[Book

I.

0.0007480179 wherefore, since ^ is, by table TTT.,

whence, bj formula 16, x
wholly insensible, the values found for h, y, x, do not need correction. Now, the
determination of the elements
log:?:

logsini^

ii{fg)

6.8739120

8.4369560,

= 19'41".4039.

log tan 2

0)

is

as follows

^^

=r

34'

2':0286,

^(/+^) = 3 2r45".4611,

Wherefore, by the formulas 27, 28, 29, 30,

7.6916214

logcosi(/+^)

9.9992065

log cos

9.9999929

i(/^)

?2

Clog cos

log sin

7.6908279 w

log

log P cos i {F G)

8.7810240

\ogQco%^{F-\-G)

^{^FG)

0.0000052

7.7579709

logPsini(^ 6^)

sin i {F-\-

had

8.7810188

^(/+^)
log sin i(/^)
Q

is

G)

7.6916143 w

7.7579761

places in orbit.

Sect. 3.]

3.5500066

floga.

0.6336584

= SldSr.U=S52'12".U
i= 7 37 35
6sin^'= 27455

2.9163482

Hence the mean anomaly

logy&

logt

esmU

.08

1.3411160

first

Difference

Therefore, the

1809r.07

mean

daily motion

/= 3r27'38'^32,
j,
to this, in table

II.,

oi=

32944'27':67

=
=

334 45 58

.73

1 31 .06

The mean motion

in the time

we have

2r 50^565,

1= 0.08635659,

or the approximate value of ^

corresponds log?/?/

^^ =
hence from table HI.
rected values

for the

r3r.07.

5^

In the other example

II.

824''.7989.

is

.08

place

^^^ ^^^ second

4 2574642

^ is

131

is

log

w m ==

= 0.2451454

= 0.1722663, whence

is

9.3530651,

deduced

0.15163477, X r= 0.06527818,

taken

= 0.0002531.

Which value being

used, the cor-

become

= 0.2450779, logy y = 0.1722303, "^ = 0.15164737, x = 0.06529078,

=z 0.0002532.

If the calculation should be repeated with this value of ^

unit only, in the seventh place, from the
sensible change, wherefore the value of

may

proceed from

it

first; h, log?/?/,

x already found

is

by a

single

and x would not

suffer

differing,

the true one, and

at once to the determination of the elements.

We

we

shall

not dwell upon this here, as it differs in nothing from the preceding example.
ni. It will not be out of place, to elucidate by an example the other
case also in which cos/

= 0.1394892,

is

negative.

Let

v'

= 224
v

0'

0'',

=: 206.80919 days.
log /= 0.3978794,
10=^^4: U'ir 78, L = 1.8942298, log MM=: 0.6724333, the

log r

zf

or

/==

112

Here we
first

0'

0'',

find

approximate

log^= 0.6467603, whence by the solution of equation 15* is obtained

Y=: 1.591432, and afterwards x 0.037037, to which, in table HI., corresponds
Hence are derived the corrected values log
1 1= 0.0000801.
0.6467931,

value of

^=

F= 1.5915107, :v= 0.0372195, = 0.0000809.

^

The

calculation being repeated

logP =

places

Sect. 3.]

orbit.

133

98.

The

solution of our problem for the ellipse in the preceding article,

might be

rendered applicable also to the parabola and hyperbola, by considering the parabola as an ellipse, in which a and h would be infinite quantities, 9 =^ 90, finally
E, E', g, and

C^

and in a

like

manner, the hjrperbola as an

ellipse, in

which a

would be negative, and h,E,E',g,G,(p, imaginary: we prefer, however, not to

employ these hypotheses, and to treat the problem for each of the conic sections
In this

separately.
all

way a remarkable analogy

will readily

show

itself

between

three kinds.

Retaining in the PAEABOLA the symbols jo, v,v',F,f, r, r', t with the same signification with which they had been taken above, we have from the theory of the
parabolic motion
[1]

?^

yJl=CO,h{F^f)

= tan^ (^+/) tan {Ff) +

{F+f)
= (tan {F+f) tan (Ff)) (l + tan {FA-f) tan
| tan^ h

i (tan i
2

(F+f)

sin/^r/

/2
\

tan

cos/^r /
p

^ tan^ ^

{Ff)y)
4

fr /\
Bpp /'

sin^

'

whence
rq-|

[3]

Further,
[4]

W -J^

^i- 2sin/co8/.r/ + 4sin/(r/)^

7..

by the

^,

multiplication of the equations

= cosJ^+cos/

and by the addition of the squares,

1, 2, is

derived

{Ff)

(Ff) +

RELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL

134
Hence, cos

F being eliminated,
2

L J

If,

r/

we adopt here

cos/ positive, the second

L'

/'
J

>

cos

accordingly,

L'J

I.

2sinyfsjrr^'
r-}-/

p-|

[BoOK

for

also the equations 9, 9*, article 88, the first for

cos/ negative, we

shall have,

2Zcos/

r 2Lcosfr

which values being substituted in equation

the meaning established

3,

preserving the symbols m,

M, with

11, 11*, article 88, there result

by the equations

m=l^ + il^,

[8]

M= I/-{-^L^,

[8*]

These equations agree with 12, 12*, article 88, if we there put ^=: 0. Hence it is
concluded that, if two heliocentric places which are satisfied by the parabola, are
treated as if the orbit were elliptic, it must follow directly from the application
of the rules of article 19, that :?:= 0;

we have x=.Q,

by

these rules

an

ellipse, since

(p

of

90.

j(?,

After

by equations
this,

We

ellipse.

20

we

should have
is

instead of
oo, a^zztgo,

easily effected.

F=^ ^ ,~y

is

cotan

1, 2,

value from

Whence
See

it

6,

we

Instead

f might

of this article

/ = sin 2 to

cotan

taken with the same meaning as in

further observe just here, that if in equation 3

^^

17, 19,

F we have from equations

but for

the auxiliary angle

its

1, 16,

come out a parabola

the determination of the elements

tan i

the orbit must

readily seen that, if

it is

versa,

either equation 7 of the present article, or equation 18 of article 95

be employed

if

and vice

we

^ /,

article 89.

substitute instead of

obtain the well-known equation

= J + / + cosf.\Jr/) + / 2 cos/, sjrr')^ sJ2.

(r

is

at once evident that

article 95.

(r

y and

Y express

the same ratios in the parabola as in the

places in orbit.

Sect. 3.J

135

99.

We retain, in tlie HYPERBOLA also,

the symbols

same meaning, but instead of the major semiaxis

shall write
a we shall put the eccentricity e

The

etc.

first

is

in the

F,

=-, for

always greater than

the second

= Cc.

whence

r, r', t

with the

here negative,

we

same manner as

auxiliary quantity there represented

place

v, v',/,

which

above, article 21,

put for the

a,

jt?,

it is

by

m,

we

shall

readily inferred

from one, other things

being equal, in proportion as the two given places are less distant from each
other.
Of the equations developed in article 21, we transfer here the sixth and
that c

is

1,

but that

it differs less

seventh shghtly changed in form,

[l]cosJ.= i(^^ + ^^)^if=iL

[2]

^ni.= i{^^-^)^<^'

[8]

co.H=i{^Cc + ^^)^<i^

[4]

sinW=i{^Cc~^-^)^<^.

From

these result directly the following

[5]

,inF-ia{0-r)^tl=l

[6]

sin/=i(c

[7]

co.F={e{o

[8]

Again,

i)y/'-i:^

+ l)-{0+l)\p
cos/ = (.(<7 + ^)-(. +
l))^.

by equation X.

article 21,

we have

RELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL

136

[BoOK

1.

and hence,

'^=*''(^-^) (<'-?)'

[9]

This equation 10 combined with 8 gives

[11] a

= /-{-r

(c-{--)cosf.^r/

Putting, therefore, in the

same manner

as in the ellipse

2 cos/

according as cos/

[12]

is

positive or negative,

az=
"-

tu

we have
'

= -8(i+i(v/-i/i))cos/.v'r/
T^

The computation of the quantity

iary angle

'

'

'

[12*"
^]

^3

in the

same way

or

is

here

as in the ellipse.

made with the help of the auxilFinally, we have from equation

XI. article 22, (using the hyperbolic logarithms),

or,

being eliminated by means of equation

kt

-x=
In

this

equation

we

(^

8,

7)cos/.v/r/

h^
substitute for

its

(^^

21og(?.

value from 12, 12* ;

we then

introduce

Sect. 3.]

the symbol
it

and

places in orbit.

M, with the same meaning that formulas

for the sake of brevity, we write

or

finally,

H^c-J]f^.,
from which
[13]
[13*]

137
11, 11*, article

88 give

=.Z',

'-^^

result the equations

m^{lzY-[-{l

zfz,

M={L-{-zf-{-{L-{-zfz,

which involve only one unknown quantity,

z,

since

is

evidently a function of z

expressed by the following formula,

100.

In solving the equation 13 or 13*, we will first consider, by itself, that case in
can be expressed by a series proceedwhich the value of z is not great, so that

ing according to the powers of z and converging rapidly.

iog(v/(l

and so the numerator of

have

+ + v/2)=^*-J^*+As*...,
2)

^ is f

and the denominator, 2 0^

Now we

-|-

-f"

...

1^

>

whence.

In order to discover the law of progression,

whence

results, all

we

differentiate the equation

the reductions being properly made,

18

RELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL

138

[BoOK

I.

or

whence, in the same manner as in

article 90, is

deduced

4.6.8

4.6
4.6.8.10.12 ^
4.6.8.10^
^
^3
3V5^-h3.5.7^^ 3757779"^~r 3.5.7.9.11 ^~
I

evident, therefore, that

It

is

as

X does upon x above in the

C also will

depends upon
ellipse

wherefore,

be determined in the same manner by

in axactly
if

^^-

the same

manner

we put

z as

^,

above, by

a?,

so that

we have
[14]

=1

"5"^^
'i'^^

~r et^
l

+ T%^
1

-|- etc.,

or,

H~ if ^

1+lf^
1 _l_

18

In this

up

etc.

the values of C are computed for z to single thousandths, from

0.3, which values are given in the third column of table III.

way

to

101.

By

introducing the quantity C and putting

also

n rT
[15]

[15*]

=
j+7+j:
rnm

'^.0"-

j-^f^^^S,

0=0

places in okbit.

Sect. 3.]

assume the form,

(jquations 13, 13*

'-^^

[16]

[16*]

and

so,

''>

^^^{^ = S,

are wholly identical with those at

deduced, and afterwards

[17]

which we arrived in the

Hence, therefore, so far as ^ or

article 91).

Y can be

139

we

^ can be

ellipse (15, 15*,

considered as known,

or

have

shall

^=1-"^,

[17*]

= f^-i.

From these we

gather, that all the operations directed above for the ellipse serve

equally for the hyperbola, up to the period

from h or

H\

when y

Y shall have been

ox

deduced

but after that, the quantity

mm

MM
^^'

'

yy

should become positive, and in the parabola, 0, must in the

hyperbola become negative the nature of the conic section will be defined by
Our table will give t, from z thus found, hence will arise the corthis criterion.
which, in the

ellipse,

rected value of h or

H, with which

the calculation

is

to be repeated

until all

parts exactly agree.

After the true value of z

is

found, c might be derived from

it

by means of the

formula
c

but

it is

= l + 2^ + 2v/(^ + ^),

preferable, for subsequent uses, to introduce also the auxiliary angle

to be determined

by

the equation

tan 2 w

=2

+ tan^ 2 w) = tan (45 +

y/

(0-|- ^ 2?)

hence we have
(?

== tan 2 w

v^ (

) .

w,

RELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL

140

[BoOK L

102.

y must

Since

necessarily be positive, as well in the hyperbola as in the ellipse,

from ambiguity .-f but with respect

to equation 16*, we must adopt a method of reasoning somewhat different from
that employed in the case of the ellipse. It is easily demonstrated, from the thethe solution of equation 16

here

is,

also, free

ory of equations, that, for a positive value of ^J, this equation (if indeed it has
any positive real root) has, with pne negative, two positive roots, which will either

both be equal, that

is,

equal to
ly/ 5

1=0.20601,

or one will be greater, and the other

less,

than this

limit.

We

not a large
not abandon the use of the

the following manner, that, in our problem (assuming that z

quantity, at least not greater than 0.3, that
third table) the greater root
13*, in place of J!^

is

is

it is

be ]> 0.20601.

must be equal

limit

equation

we here

suppose,

substituted T'y'(Z-j-0),we have

(i:

+ 0)^>(i + 0)^,

or

readily inferred that, for such small values of z as

Y must always

is

K in

always, of necessity, to be taken.

r+i =
whence

we may

demonstrate in

to 0.79858 in

we

on making the calculation, that

order that {l-\-z)Z may become equal to this
In

fact,

find,

but we are far from wishing to extend our method to such great values of z.

103.

When
tions

13,

z acquires a greater value, exceeding the limits of table

rt will

and, in fact, for reasons similar to those which

The

their un-

we have

explained

as well as
hardly be necessary to remark, that our table II. can be used, in the hyperbola,

in the ellipse, for the solution of this equation, as

X

trial in

13* are always safely and conveniently solved by

changed form

HI, the equa-

quantity IT evidently cannot

long as h does not exceed

become negative, unless C

>

'

its limit.

^"^ ^ ^"^^ * value of C would

correspond a value of 2 greater than 2.684, thus, far exceeding the limits of this method.

in

94 for the

article

is

orbit.

In such a

ellipse.

elements of the orbit, roughly at least,

of n

places

Sect. 3.]

141
suppose the

case, it is admissible to

known

and then an approximate value

immediately had by the formula

tan

sm

2n^=

i/ 7* /

rr-^

r,.

a^{e e

which readily follows from equation

1')

s also will

6, article 99.

be had from n by

the formula
1

Z\

cos 2

sin^

2 cos 2 n

cos

2n'

and from the approximate value of s, that value will be deduced with a few
These equations can also be
trials which exactly satisfies the equation 13, 13*.
exhibited in this form,

,,

/r

and

sin^Wx*

'

cos 2 w'

'

'

sin^w

cos 2 n^

J cos 2

'^^'

"T"

>'

tan 2 n

being neglected, the true value of n can be deduced.

thils,

104.

remains to determine the elements themselves from

It

a\l [ee

l)r=

combining
[19]

whence the
(^

/3,

this

tanv

shall

c.

Putting

6, article 99,

article 99,

we

derive,

= tan^ = '5f-^,

= -f^?^,

eccentricity

and ^ {ee

have from equation

formula with 12, 12*

s/(..-l)

[19*]

from

we

or

0, n,

1)

is

by

conveniently and accurately computed

division,

and

p by

multiplication, so that

a will result

we

have.

RELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL

142
2(1

z) cos

f.^r/

tan^ 2 n

iP=

2(1

kktt

/yr/sin2/\2
/

TZsin/. tan/.^r/ "~\ 7>/_sin2/\2)'

/

kt

2JIfif

2^X4-^)

4 rrr/cosytan2 2'

2mm

^r/

rr' cos^/tan'^ 2

TTtSin^2n

yysmf.tsmf.^rr'

z)

sin/, tan/.

^y y

2MMcosf.^r/

sin/, tan/, y'r/

_
~
The

tan2

I.

khtt

mmcosf.^rr'
yy tan^ 2 n

2 {L-\-z) cos f.sjr/

[BoOK

and sixth expressions for p, which are wholly identical with the form18*, article 95, show that what is there said concerning the meaning

third

ulas 18,

of the quantities y, Y, holds good also for the hyperbola.

From the combination of the equations 6, 9, article 99,

(/_ r) y/'-^ = ^ sin/.

by introducing
[20]
L

-I

therefore

tan2iy=

\\>

and

co,

^f';'"/'"
sm/cos2fti

is

derived

67 1);

and by putting (7= tan [ih -\-N)y we have

being hence found, the values of the quantity expressed by w in article 21, will
be had for both places; after that, we have by equation III., article 21,
tan hv ^=

Gc
(G-\-c) tan

Cc
tan i

It/;

v'

(C7c4-l)taniV>'
or,

by introducing
[21]

L
[22]
J

Hence

for 0,

c,

the angles Ny

n,

= ^^^5|^^=^
tanJt/ = ^;"-fflt^.

tanit.

will

COS (iv

n) tan

-^ />

be determined the true anomalies

v, v',

the difference of which com-

pared with 2/ will serve at once for proving the calculation.

Finally, the interval of time from the perihelion to the time corresponding to
the first place, is readily determined by formula XL, article 22, to be

J(2ecos(NJrn)sm(N-n) __
k \

cos 2 J^Tcos 2

'>'^'

\
^ tan(45H-^
+ /
tan (4:5"

w)

'

places in orbit.

Sect. 3.]

IIS

same manner, the interval of time from the perihelion

and, in the

to the time cor-

responding to the second place,

i ^"^'1-J^^n^"' - l^yP-log ^- (45 + N) tan (45 + ))

therefore, the first time

If,

is

put

= T

^,

and, therefore, the second =:T-\-ht,

we have

2'=f(l^-logtan(45 + i^)),

[23]

whence the time of perihelion passage

[24]

will

be known

finally,

= 4&^-^-Si^^i^^ +n)),

which equation, if

it is

thought proper, can be applied to the

final

proof of the

calculation.

105.

To

illustrate these precepts,

in articles 23, 24, 25, 46,

we

will

computed

make an example from

the two places

same hyperbolic elements.

for the

Let,

accordingly,
v'

= ^^12'
v
t

Hence

is

0",

or/

= 24

6'

= 51.49788 days.

= 2 45'

28''.47, I

Yj-j or the approximate value of ^

log^^

which

is

log r

= 0.0333585, log/ = 0.2008541,

found
0)

to

0'^

in table

= 0.0560848,

m.

:=:

= 0.05796039,

0.0644371

hence,

by

table

II.,

= 0.05047454, 0= 0.00748585,
= 0.0000032. Hence the corrected value of

y^

corresponds C

0.06443691,
logyj^ == 0.0560846,

^^^-'

= 0.05047456, = 0.00748583,

which values require no further correction, because

The computation of the elements

is

as follows

is

not changed by them.

RELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL

144
.

7.8742399

14-0)

0.0032389

8.9387394

log0
log

logv/(2

+ ^^)

0.3010300

log 2
log tan 2 n

[Book

places in orbit.

Sect. 3.]

145

log

8.9308783

log

8.7432480

I log a

0.9030928

flog a

0.9030928

C.logy^

1.7644186

GAogk

1.7644186

log 2^

1.5983897

^Qg^

0.3010300

39.66338

logt

1.7117894

T=

t=

51.49788

13.91444 days distant from the time

corresponding to the first place, and 65.41232 days from the time corresponding
to the second place.
Finally, we must attribute to the limited accuracy of the
Therefore, the perihelion passage

tables, the small differences of

to which, the given places

is

the elements here obtained, from those, according

had been computed.

106.

In a treatise upon the most remarkable relations pertaining to the motion

of heavenly bodies in conic sections, we cannot pass over in silence the elegant
expression of the time by means of the major semiaxis, the sum r -|- /, and the
chord joining the two places. This formula appears to have been first discovered,
for the parabola, by the illustrious Euler, (Miscell. Berolin, T. VII. p. 20,) who
nevertheless subsequently neglected

it,

and did not extend

it

to the ellipse

and

they are mistaken, therefore, who attribute the formula to the illustrious Lambert, although the merit cannot be denied this geometer, of having
hyperbola

independently obtained this expression when buried in oblivion, and of having

extended it to the remaining conic sections. Although this subject is treated by
several geometers, still the careful reader will acknowledge that the following

We

begin with the elliptic motion.

We observe, in the first place, that the angle 2/ described about the sun
(article 88, from which we take also the other symbols) may be assumed to be
less than 360
for it is evident that if this angle is increased by 360, the time
explanation

is

not superfluous.

is

increased

by one

revolution, or

^-^' =a^X
19

365.25 days.

RELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL

146

Now,

if

we denote

the chord

by

=z (/ COS /

^ ^

9,

we

shall evidently

r cos

vY

-\- {r sin v'

[BoOK

1.

have

r sin v)^,

sin

E)^

'

and, therefore,

qq^=iaa

4:

VIII., IX., article 8,

by equations
(cos

E'

a a sin^^

cos E)^ -\-aa cos^

(sin^ Gr -\- cos^

cos^

E'

(sin

G) = iaa

sin^

(1

ee

cos^

G)

"We introduce the auxiliary angle h such, that cos h=^e cos G ; at the same time,
that all ambiguity may be removed, we suppose h to be taken between 0 and
180, whence sin h will be a positive quantity.
Therefore, as ^ lies between the

same

limits (for if

2^

should amount to 360 or more, the motion would attain

or would surpass an entire revolution about the sun),

preceding equation that

Since, moreover,

quantity.

[2]

Finally,

if

i^,

the chord

is

considered a positive

we have

y =
= s,we have,
= 2a{l cosd) = 4:asm^
=: 4
r-\-r-\-Q^2a{l

evident that,
[1]

sin ^ sin

readily follows from the

it

=2a{l ecos^cosC^) = 2a[l cos^cos-^),

r-{-r
it is

= 2a
9

to,

if

r-\-r'

we put

d, h-\-ff

h ^,

cos f)

sin^ ^

we have

= 0^ (2^ 2 esin^cos G) =^

kt

(2^

2 sin^ cos^),

or
[3]

kt

= a^(8 sm8 {d smd)).

can be determined by equations 1, 2, from

r -\- r, Q, and a
wherefore, the time t will be determined, from the same equaIf it is preferred, this formula can be expressed thus
tions, by equation 3.
Therefore, the

angles d and

= a^
8

kt

itarc

arc cos

cos

sm

2a(r-\-r')Q
^
^
^rJ
2a

^2a

arc cos

lj.-^ _l_ ^
g^^ ^
arc
^^(.qs^
i

2a (r + /) ^o
\

2a
v

2^

But an uncertainty remains in the determination of the angles d,e, by their

It appears at once, that d
cosines, which must be examined more closely.
must lie between
180 and
but thus
180, and e between 0 and 360

places in orbit.

Sect. 3.]

147

both angles seem to admit of a double, and tbe resulting time, of a quadruple,

We

determination.

have, however, from equation

cos/, sj rr'

=^a

(cos

6, article

=2^

cos i^)

sin ^

(5"

88,

sin ^

now, sin ^ e is of necessity a positive quantity, whence we conclude, that cos/

and sin ^ d are necessarily affected by the same sign and, for this reason, that
d is to be taken between 0 and 180, or between
180 and 0 according as cos/
;

happens to be positive or negative, that is, according as the heliocentric motion

happens to be less or more than 180. Moreover, it is evident that d must necessarily

be

2/= 180.

0, for

In this manner d

the determination of the angle

it

phenomenon
is

known from some

is
is

readily seen

for

But

completely determined.

continues, of necessity, doubtful, so that two

values are obtained for the time, of which

one, unless

is

it

is

impossible to determine the true

other source.
is

it

known

possible to describe two different ellipses,

Finally, the

reason of this

through two given points, it

both of which can have their focus
that,

same given point and, at the same time, the same major semiaxis;* but
the motion from the first place to the second in these ellipses is manifestly
per-

in the

formed in unequal times.

107.

Denoting by x any arc whatever between

sine of the arc i / ,

Moreover,

known

and

-|-

180,

and by

the

that,

we have
isin/

and

it is

180

= sv^(l 5s) = 5 1581^5^ 1^ s7__

etc.

thus,

circle

being described from the

from the second place, with the radius 2 a

intersection of these circles.

Wherefore,

ferent ellipses will be produced.

first

/,

place, as a centre, with the radius 2

it is

r,

and another,

manifest that the other focus of the ellipse

since, generally speaking,

lies in

the

two intersections are given, two

dif-

RELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL

148

We

[BoOK

I.

substitute in this series for s, successively

8.

and we multiply the

results

hy

a^

and thus obtain respectively, the

i-sm -^8 (^

T?f^2
the sums of which

we

+
^'

by

etc.

+ ^'+(>)^+etc.

^(^

will denote

9)^

series,

Now

T, U.

it is

easily seen, since

2sinH=^^^^,
the upper or lower sign having effect according as

2/

is less

or

more than

180,

that

J{d

smd)=zT,
In the same manner,

the sign being similarly determined.

smaller value, inferior to 180,

we

is

taken the

we have
a^(e

but the other value, which

if for e is

sin e)

= U;

the complement of the former to 360, being taken,

evidently have
a^

(e

sine)

1= a^

360

Hence, therefore, are obtained two values for the time

UTT

j a^360

_^,and^

^,

U+T
T--

108.

regarded as an ellipse, of which the major axis is infinitely

great, the expression for the time, found in the preceding article, passes into
If the parabola

is

places in orbit.

Sect. 3.]

149

but since this derivation of the formula might perhaps seem open to some doubts,
we will give another not depending upon the ellipse.
Putting, for the sake of brevity,

t-dn^v

= tan / = we have r=ip{l-\-^^),r = ^j}{l-{ dd

26
26'
= ^-p-^,
= ^-p^,,
cos
sm =
sm ^j-^.
y^r^,
^

6,

6',

cos V

d'd'

6'

6')^

V'

v'

^'

Hence follow

cose^'

Gosv

(^^

^'^')?

^sinz^'

rwnv^^p
[^'

^),

and thus

Now

it is

readily seen that

^'

=
^

T"

i^

^ positive quantity

therefore,

+ |(^' + ^)2)==7], we have

r 4- / =
+ ^M') =p
(2 +
V/(l

Moreover,

^^

^ j

wherefore,

as

Tj

than

the former equation

and
Tj,

&'

1 {^'

6)ri.

&y)

is

readily deduced,

but since

| (^'

&) is smaller or greater

according as

positive or negative,

U&' &f = l + &^'=

we

i"""'-^,

must, evidently, conclude from the latter equation that

which the upper or lower sign is to be adopted, according

scribed about the sun is less than 180'', or more than 180.

in

= (^_i(<5'_))^

^ are positive quantities;

r^ri

is

(jiri -\-

putting,

we have

^+^?
From

q=:p{^'

as the angle de-

RELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL

150

From

[BoOK

the equation, which in article 98 follows the second equation,

we

I.

have,

moreover,

whence readily

follows,

the upper or lower sign taking

effect, as

2/

is less

more than

or

180.

109.
If,

in the hyperbola,

article 99,

we

we

take the symbols a,

G,

c,

with the same meaning as in

have, from equations VIII., IX., article 21,

/cosy'
/siay'

rcos^ = h\c

rsine;

= h\c

jiC

)(^~l~'^)

ct

jAa
1);
V(^^

and consequently,

9=j(,_i)^(((7+^)^-4).
Let us suppose that y

since this

may

is

is

a quantity determined by the equation

evidently satisfied

adopt the one which

is

by

two values, the reciprocals of each other,

greater than

1.

In this manner

Moreover,
r

and

thus.

+ /=J(.(. + i)(<7+i)-4) = i(( + l)(y + i)-4),

we

places

Sect. 3.]

151

orbit.

Putting, therefore,

we

necessarily have

J- w-

but in order to decide the question whether

is

equal to

necessary to inquire whether y is greater or less than c

from equation 8, article 99, that the former case occurs

it is

180,

and the

latter,

when 2/

is

more than

180.

Lastly,

but

-|-

it

2 or

2n,

follows readily

when 2/ is less than

we have, from the same

article,

= 2ms/{l-\-mm)^2n^{l

-\-

nn)

2 log

(v/(l

-\-mm)

-{-ni)

2\og{sJ{l+7i7i)-\-n),
the lower signs belonging to the case of
is

easily

This

is

Now, log (^sJ{l-\-mm)-\-m)

the following
developed
w i.im^ + l.^^^m^ |.2^w^+etc.
into

series

readily obtained from

d log (v/(l

There

2/>* 180.

follows, therefore, the

27n\/{l-\-7nm)

2 log

(\/

+ mm) + m) = ^^-^3^^.

formula

1 -|-

m m) -|- m) = 4 ( J m^

and, likewise, another precisely similar, if

is

changed to

put

firj--ji('-

+ '-' 9)*+

etc.

TTfjj-T + + ?)*+ eta

('

''

^^ ~t" y

n.

o"! ^''^

Hence,

etc.),

finally, if

we

RELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL PLACES IN ORBIT.

152

we

[BoOK

I.

obtain

which expressions entirely coincide with those given in

changed

into

article 107, if

is

there

a.

Finally, these series, as well for the ellipse as the hjrperbola, are eminently

suited to practical use,

when

or a possesses a very great value, that

conic section resembles very nearly the parabola.

In such a

is,

where the

case, the methods

previously discussed (articles 85-105) might be employed for the solution of the

problem

but

given above,

as,

in our judgment, they do not furnish the brevity of the solution

we do not

dwell upon the further explanation of this method.

FOURTH SECTION.
KELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL PLACES IN SPACE.

110.

The

be considered in

relations to

this section are

independent of the nature of

the orbit, and will rest upon the single assumption, that

points of the orbit

all

lie

same plane with the sun. But we have thought proper to touch here upon
some of the most simple only, and to reserve others more complicated and special
in the

for another book.

The

determined by two places of

the heavenly body in space, provided these places do not lie in the same straight
line with the sun.
Wherefore, since the place of a point in space can be assigned
in

position of the plane of the orbit

two ways,

We

especially,

will, in

the

first

heliocentric longitudes

is

fully

two problems present themselves for solution.

place, suppose the two places to be given by means of

and

be denoted respectively by

latitudes, to

Then

distances from the sun will not enter into the calculation.

of the ascending node

by

i,

we

is

denoted by

Q>

if

I, l',

(S,

'

the

the longitude

the inclination of the orbit to the ecliptic

shall have,

Q,\
tan (^'= tan /sin (r
tan

/?

= tan

sin {X

Q,).

The determination of the unknown

to the
first

problem examined in

quantities

article 78, II.

Q>,

We

tan

',

in this place,

is

referred

have, therefore, according to the

solution,

tan i sin (X
tan

cos (X

^ = tan
- =^ /? ,

ga )

20

^^" ^

^an ^<^os

sin [K

(r-X)

'' A)

(153)

KELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL

154

we

likewise, according to the third solution,

tan
and,

^ by

find

[BoOK

I.

equation

(H + ^ r-a) = "''<^+^),?*f
-^^
(^
^

'

'

somewhat more conveniently,

if

the angles

not by the logarithms of their tangents

had to one of the formulas
.

^^^*

sin(^
tan

(3

'

sin

-jS)

/S, /?',

are given immediately, and

but, for determining

recourse must be

^
ga)~sm(r a)tan

Finally, the uncertainty in the determination of the angle

8,or H+H' Q,

tangent will be decided so that tan^ may become positive or negative,

this
according as the motion projected on the ecliptic is direct or retrograde
uncertainty, therefore, can be removed only in the case where it may be ap-

by

its

moved

parent in what direction the heavenly body has

to the second place

if this

should be unknown,

it

in passing from the

first

would certainly be impossi-

ble to distinguish the ascending from the descending node.

After the angles

S^,,

are found, the arguments of the latitude w,w', will be

obtained by the formulas,

COS

which are to be taken in the

first

'

'

cost

or second semicircle, according as the corre-

sponding latitudes are north or south. To these formulas we add the following,
one or the other of which can, at pleasure, be used for proving the calculation
:

= cos
sm u =
cos w

/?

siniS

-1-^.,

sint'

'

,,

sina

9>\
sm u =
cos (X
.

cos w'

= cos

^' cos

(r

),

sin/5'

-^-^,
sin* '

+ 2Q)cosScos8'

1'

cost

'

//

V.

sin (X'

^) cos

COS

|5

cos

jS'

places in space.

Sect. 4.]

155

111.

Let us suppose, in the second place, the two places to be given by means of
their distances from three planes, cutting each other at right angles in the sun
;

let

us denote these distances, for the

X, y, /, and

first

place,

by

x, y, z, for

suppose the third plane to be the ecliptic

let us

the second,

and second planes to be situated in N, and 90 -|- N.

thus have by article 53, the two radii vectores being denoted by r, /,

tive poles of the first

shall

=
y=

u cos

{N
r sin u cos {N
r cos

:^;

-|- r sin

w sin

[N

r cos u

cos i

9> )

sin

z-=-r sin u sin i

= / cos u cos [N ^
cos {^N ^
y=/
x'

sin %{

/ z= /
Hence

it

sin w' sin

9> )

[N

cos
9> )

/ sin li sin i^N 9> )

/ cos w' sin {^N
cos i

-|-

by

itself, also the posi-

We

i,
,

cos i,

9> )

i.

follows that

^/ = rr
rr
xz

xy'
yx =rr

sin (?/

zy

zx'

From

the combination of the

and

will

be obtained.

sin

{ii

u) sin

i,

sin

:=^

{ii

sin {u'

first

ii)
%i)

{^N

sin (iV

cos

u) cos

9> )

sin
sin

',

i,

/.

formula with the second will be obtained

hence and from the third formula,

Since the place to which the coordinates x\

y', zf,

and

correspond,

is

rr' sin

{it

Q>

u)

supposed pos-

must be greater than u if, moreover, it is known whether the

angle between the first and second place described about the sun is less or greater
must be positive
than two right angles, rr mi{u
it)
u)smi and r/sin(z/
terior in time,

it

quantities in the

first case,

negative in the second

then, accordingly,

9>

determined without doubt, and at the same time it is settled by the sign of
the quantity xy'
whether the motion is direct or retrograde. On the othei
^r?;',
hand, if the direction of the motion is known, it will be possible to decide from

is

the sign of the quantity xy'

than 180.

But

if

x',

whether

u'

is

to be taken less or greater

the direction of the motion, and the nature of the angle

RELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL

156

described about the sun are altogether unknown,

it is

[BoOK

we

evident that

cannot

I.

dis-

tinguish between the ascending and descending node.

It is readily perceived that, just as cos i is the cosine

the plane of the orbit to the third plane, so sin

[N

9> )

of the inclination of

sin 2, cos

are the cosines of the inclinations of the plane of the orbit to the

planes respectively ; also that r / sin

[u'

{N

first

9> )

sin

u) expresses the double area of the

xy'

xz'

i,

and second
tri-

zx',
angle contained between the two radii vectores, and zi/
yz',
yxf^
the double area of the projections of this triangle upon each of the planes.
Lastly, it is evident, that any other plane can be the third plane, provided,

only, that all the dimensions defined

to the third plane, whatever

it

may

their relations to the ecliptic, are referred

by
be.

112.

Let

x", y"f z",

the latitude, /'

r r" sin

{yl'

be the coordinates of any third place, and u"

its

radius vector.

w), r r' sin {yi

x\y\

w,

iib,

ri'.

radii vectores, the first

we

Accordingly,

shall

and

third, the first

have for x"

those which

following equations

u'\

the double areas of the triangles be-

we have given in the preceding

whence, with the assistance of lemma L, article 78,

to

similar

by

argument of

will denote the quantities r r" mi(ii!'

u\ which are

tween the second and third

respectively,

We

its

and second,

y", z", expressions

article for x, y,

z,

and

are easily derived the

= nx
= ny
Q = nz n'z+n''z'\
{)

n'x'

(i

n'l/ -{- n"y",

-{-n"af%

Let now the geocentric longitudes of the celestial body corresponding to these
three places be a, a', a"; the geocentric latitudes, /?, /?', ^"\ the distances from the
earth projected on the ecliptic, (^, 8\ 8"-, the corresponding heliocentric longitudes
of the earth, X, L\ L"\ the latitudes, B, B', B^\ which we do not put equal to
0,

in order to take account of the parallax, and, if thought proper, to choose

any other plane, instead of the ecliptic lastly, let

the earth from the sun projected upon the ecliptic.
;

i?, //, i/',

If,

be the distances of

then, x, y,

z,

are expressed

places in space.

Sect. 4.]

157

and the coordinates relating to the second and third

places in a similar manner, the preceding equations will assume the following
form

by means of
:

X, B, D, a,

/5,

d,

{)=n{dGO^a-^D(iOf^L)

[1]

n'{d'co^a'-\-D'QO^L')

+ n" {d" cos + D" cos L"\

= w {d a + X) L)
+ iX L')
+ w''(r
+ !/' Z'O^
= w {d tan + tan B) n tan + ly tan ^')
+ if {d" tan + D'' tan X").
a''

[2]

sin

sin

sin ''

[3]

sin

Z)

/9

sin

n' (d' sin '

{d'

/^?'

'

ff

D, L, B, and the analogous quantities for the two remaining places, are
here regarded as known, and the equations are divided by n', or by n% five un-

If a,

(i,

known

quantities remain, of which, therefore,

it is

possible to eliminate two, or to

In this manner these three

determine, in terms of any two, the remaining three.

equations pave the

way

most important conclusions, of which we

to several

will

proceed to develop those that are especially important.

113.

That we

much

oppressed with the length of the formulas, we

In the first place we denote the quantity
will use the following abbreviations.

may

tan

by

(0.1. 2):

(i

not be too

sin [a"

a)

-\-

tan

[^ sin (a

a")

in this expression, the longitude

if,

-\-

tan

(i"

sin [a'

a)

and latitude corresponding

to

any one of the three heliocentric places of the earth are substituted for the longitude and latitude corresponding to any geocentric place, we change the number
answering to the latter in the symbol
corresponds to the former.

quantity

tan
also the

/?

sin [L'

symbol

(0.

the

Roman numeral which

Thus, for example, the symbol

') -|-

tan

(i'

sin [a

L^) -\- tan

(0. 1. 1.)

sin [a'

expresses the

a),

0. 2), the following,

tan sin {a"

We

(0. 1. 2.) for

L)

-\-

tan

B sin (a a") -\- tan ^" sin (Z a).

change the symbol in the same way,

if

in the

first

expression any two helio-

RELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL

158

[BoOK

I.

and latitudes of the earth whatever, are substituted for two

If two longitudes and latitudes entering into the same expression are

centric longitudes

geocentric.

only interchanged with each other, the corresponding numbers should also be
interchanged ; but the value is not changed from this cause, but it only becomes
negative from being positive, or positive from negative.

have

(0.1.2)=

(0.2.

!)=(!.

2.0)

(1.0. 2)

All the quantities, therefore, originating in this

following

way

(2.

Thus, for example,

0.1)

we

(2. 1.0).

are reduced to the nineteen

(0.1.2)

(0.1.O),(0.1.L),(0.1.n.), (0.O.2), (0.1.2), (O.n.2), (0.1.2), (11.2), (n. 1.2),

(0. 0. 1.), (0. 0. IL), (0.
(2.

1.

1,

n.), (1. 0.

1.),

(1. 0. n.),

(l.

I:

II), (2. 0. L), (2. 0. IL),

II.),

which

added the twentieth (0. 1. XL).

Moreover, it is easily shown, that each of these expressions multiplied by the
product of the three cosines of the latitudes entering into them, becomes equal
to

is

to be

volume of a pyramid, the vertex of which is in the sun, and the

base of which is the triangle formed between the three points of the celestial
sphere which correspond to the places entering into that expression, the radius

to the sextuple

of the-sphere being put equal to unity. When, therefore, these three places lie in
the same great circle, the value of the expression should become equal to
and
;
as this always occurs in three heliocentric places of the earth, when we do not
take account of the parallaxes and the latitudes arising from the perturbations of
the earth, that is, when we suppose the earth to be exactly in the plane of the

fact,

we

0, which is, in
always have, on this assumption, (0. 1. II.)
an identical equation if the ecliptic is taken for the third plane. And fur-

ecliptic, so

shall

aU those expressions, except the first, become

much more simple every one from the second to the tenth will be made up of
two parts, but from the eleventh to the twentieth they will consist of only one
ther,

when B, B', B",

;

term.

each,

0,

places in space.

Sect. 4.]

159

114.

sin X'' tan (f^, equation [2]

multiplying equation [1] by sin a' tan B^'
cos a^ tan B^\ equation [3] by sin (X^^
by cos Z^' tan /3^'
a'), and adding the

By

products,
[4]

we

get,

0=:^((0.2.II.)^

+ (O.2.II.)Z>) ?z'((1.2.II)(J'+(I2.II.)i>');

and in the same manner, or more conveniently by an interchange of the

places,

simply
[5]

[6]

0=:n'

71

((0. 1.
((1.

0.

1) d

+ (0.
+

1. 1.)

0.
(I.

0.)^'

D)

d,

(O.l.L) 5-f(0-

n, 7i, is

or d from d^

the equations

(Q-2.ii. )g+(0.2.ii .)i)

ni
L'J

ll-)^

((2.

0.)B'')n''

K, therefore, the ratio of the quantities

we can determine d^ from

From the combination of

+ if

and

1.

1.)

0.

((2.

d''

0.)r

(II. 1. 1.)

-\- (II. 0.

B')

0.) i>").

given, with the aid of equation 4,

so likewise of the equations 5,

6.

the following,

4, 5, 6, arises

iD

z)"_

(i.Q.o .)y-f ( i.o.o.)Z)^

(2^1

(1.2.IL)fi'-f (I-2-Ii-)^'

'(2.0.O.)^'-|-(lI.0.O.)Z>"

<5"+ (n.

i.j.)

"''

by means of which, from two distances of a heavenly body from the earth, the
third can be determined.
But it can be shown that this equation, 7, becomes
identical,

two,

and therefore unfit

for the determination of

one distance from the other

when

B=:B'=B"=0,
and
tan (r tan

^''

sin

(X

a)

+ tan

+ tan

sin

/?

{L"
L')
tan {i' sin {B'

The following formula, obtained

inconvenience
[8]

(0. 1,

(0. 1. 2.)

n.)

BT/'d

dd'd"

+ (0.

+ (0.

1.

n.)

1.

2)

easily

Bd'd"

BB"d'

a") sin

we

/?

sin

{B

+ (0.

(0. 1.
1.

2)

a') sin

(Z

B")

0.

from equations

2)

B'dd"

1, 2, 3, is

(0. 1.

BB'r + (0.

multiplying equation 1 by sin a tan ^"

cos a" tan (^
cos a' tan (ff^, equation 3 by sin [a"

By

{B X) =

tan

(^"

1.

a'),

from

X>X>'X>'^

equation 2

0.

by
and adding the products,

get
[9]

this

H.) X^'^c^^

II.)

sin a'' tan {Y,

free

= ?^((0.1.2)(^ + (O.1.2)X)) /^'(I1.2)X>' + w''(II1.2)X)''

RELATIONS BETWEEN SEVERAL PLACES IN SPACE.

160

[BoOK

I.

and in the same manner,

[10]
[11]

= ^(0. 0. D
o = w(o.i.O)z>
2.)

fi

'

By means

((0. 1. 2) 8'

(0. 1. 2)

XO

(0.1.1) i>'+w'' ((0.1.

of these equations the distances

^, d', d'\

4-

tI'

(0.

H. 2) jy\

2)r+ (0.1. noixocan be derived from the

between the quantities n^ n', ?^", when it is known. But this conclusion only
holds in general, and suffers an exception when (0.1.2)= 0. For it can be shown,

ratio

that in this case nothing follows from the equations

relation

between the quantities

of the three.

Analogous

n, n', n",

except a necessary
and indeed the same relation from each
8, 9, 10,

restrictions concerning the equations 4, 5, 6, will readily

suggest themselves to the reader.

Finally, all the results here developed, are of no utility
For if /5, /?', /5'', B,
orbit coincides with the ecliptic.

when

the plane of the

B B" are

equation 3

is

identical,

and

also, therefore,

all

those which follow.

all

equal to

0,

SECOND BOOK.
INVESTIGATION OF THE ORBITS OF HEAVENLY BODIES FROM GEOCENTRIC
OBSERVATIONS.

FIEST SECTION.
DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM THREE COMPLETE OBSERVATIONS.

115.

Seven elements are required for the complete determination of the motion
of a heavenly body in its orbit, the number of which, however, may be diminished

by

one, if the mass of the heavenly

body

is

either

known

or neglected

neglecting the mass can scarcely be avoided in the determination of an orbit

wholly unknown, where all the quantities of the order of the perturbations must

be omitted, until the masses on which they depend become otherwise known.
Wherefore, in the present inquiry, the mass of the body being neglected, we reduce the number of the elements to

six,

and, therefore,

it is

evident, that as

many

quantities depending on the elements, but independent of each other, are required for the determination of the unknown orbit. These quantities are necessarily the places of the

heavenly body observed from the earth since each one

of which furnishes two data, that is, the longitude and latitude, or the right ascen;

and declination, it will certainly be the most simple to adopt three geocentric

places which will, in general, be sufficient for determining the six unknown elements. This problem is to be regarded as the most important in this work, and,

sion

for this reason, will be treated with the

greatest care in this section.

21

(161)

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

J62

[BoOK

11.

which the plane of the orbit coincides with the

and thus both the heliocentric and geocentric latitudes, from their nature,

But

in the special case, in

ecliptic,

vanish, the three vanishing geocentric latitudes cannot

any longer be considered

as three data independent of each other: then, therefore, this problem would

remain indeterminate, and the three geocentric places might be

infinite

number of orbits.

satisfied

by an

Accordingly, in such a case, four geocentric longitudes

must, necessarily, be given, in order that the four remaining

unknown elements

and the longitude of the node being omitted) may be

But although, from an indiscernible principle, it is not to be ex-

(the inclination of the orbit

determined.

pected that such a case would ever actually present

itself in nature, nevertheless,

imagined that the problem, which, in an orbit exactly coinciding with

the plane of the ecliptic, is absolutely indeterminate, must, on account of the
limited accuracy of the observations, remain nearly indeterminate in orbits very
it is

easily

little

inclined to the ecliptic,

where the very

slightest errors of the observations

are sufficient altogether to confound the determination of the

tities.

Wherefore, in order to examine this case,

unknown quan-

be necessary to select
show in section second, how to determine an
it

will

which purpose we will

unknown orbit from four observations, of which two are complete, but the other
two incomplete, the latitudes or declinations being deficient.

six data

for

on account of the imperfection of the instruare only approximations to the truth, an orbit based

Finally, as all our observations,

ments and of the

senses,

only on the six absolutely necessary data may be still liable to considerable
In order to diminish these as much as possible, and thus to reach the
errors.
greatest precision attainable, no other

the greatest

number of the most

method

will

be given except to accumulate

perfect observations, and to adjust the elements,

not so as to satisfy this or that set of observations with absolute exactness, but
For which purpose, we will
so as to agree with all in the best possible manner.

show

how, according to the principles of the calculus of

such an agreement may be obtained, as will be, if in no one pla,ce

in the third section

probabilities,

perfect, yet in all the places the strictest possible.

The determination of
bodies

move

in

them

orbits in this

manner, therefore, so

far as the

heavenly

according to the laws of Kepler, will be carried to the

three complete observations.

Sect. 1.]

163

Then it will be proper to undertake

highest degree of perfection that is desired.
the final correction, in which the perturbations that the other planets cause in the
motion, will be taken account of:

how

tliese

may

be taken account

we

of,

will indicate briefly in the fourth section,

so far at least, as

shall

it

appear consistent

with our plan.

116.
Before the determination of any orbit from geocentric observations, if the
greatest accuracy is desired, certain reductions must be applied to the latter on

account of nutation, precession, parallax, and aberration

these small quantities

neglected in the

be

rougher calculation.
Observations of planets and comets are commonly given in apparent (that

may
is,

referred to the apparent position of the equator) right ascensions and declina-

tions.

Now

as this position

is

variable on account of nutation and precession,

and, therefore, different for different observations,

it

will

be expedient,

first

of

all,

some fixed plane instead of the variable plane, for which purpose,
either the equator in its mean position for some epoch, or the ecliptic miglit be

to introduce

selected
is

it is

customary

recommended by some

When,
the

first

for the

most part

peculiar advantages which are not to be despised.

therefore, the plane of the equator

entirely with that

here.

which
the

is

is

selected, the observations are in

place to be freed from nutation, and after that, the precession being-

applied, they are to be reduced to

place

to use the latter plane, but the former

some arbitrary epoch

by which, from the observed place of a

this operation agrees

fixed star,

its

mean

derived for a given epoch, and consequently does not need explanation

But

may

mean

decided to adopt the plane of the ecliptic, there are two courses
be pursued namely, either the longitudes and latitudes, by means of
if it is

obliquity, can be

deduced from the right ascensions and declinations

whence the longitudes referred to the mean

the latitudes and longitudes will be computed more

corrected for nutation and precession,

equinox

will

be obtained

or,

conveniently from the apparent right ascensions and declinations, using the apparent obliquity, and will afterwards be freed from nutation and precession.

The

places of the earth, corresponding to each of the observations, are com-

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

164

[BoOK

II.

puted from the solar tables, but they are evidently to be referred to the same
For which
plane, to which the observations of the heavenly body are referred.
reason the nutation will be neglected in the computation of the longitude of the
sun but afterwards this longitude, the precession being applied, will be reduced
;

and increased by 180 degrees the opposite sign will be given

the latitude of the sun, if, indeed, it seems worth while to take account of it

to the fixed epoch,

to

thus will be obtained the heliocentric place of the earth, which,

if

the equator

chosen for the fundamental plane, may be changed into right ascension and
nation by making use of the mean obliquity.

The

position of the earth,

is

decli-

117.

computed

in this

manner from the

tables, is the

place of the centre of the earth, but the observed place of the heavenly body
there are three methods of
is referred to a point on the surface of the earth
:

remedying

Either the observation can be reduced to the centre

this discrepancy.

of the earth, that

is, freed

from parallax

or the heliocentric place of the earth

be reduced to the place of observation, which is done by applying the

parallax properly to the place of the sun computed from the tables or, finally,

may

both positions can be transferred to some third point, which is most conveniently
the
taken in the intersection of the visual ray with the plane of the ecliptic
;

observation itself then remains unchanged, and

we have

the reduction of the place of the earth to this point.

applied, except the distance of the heavenly

mately, at
observation
affected

by

explained, in article 72,

The

first

method cannot be

body from the earth be approxi-

known but then it is very convenient, especially when the

has been made in the meridian, in which case the declination only is

least,

parallax.

Moreover,

it

will

be better to apply

this reduction

imme-

diately to the observed place, before the transformations of the preceding article

are undertaken.

But

if

the distance from the earth

is

still

wholly unknown,

recourse must be had to the second or third method, and the former will be em-

ployed when the equator

have the preference when

is

taken for the fundamental plane, but the third

all

the positions are referred to the

ecliptic.

will

thkee complete observations.

Sect. 1.]

165

118.

body from the earth answering

If the distance of a heavenly

tion

already approximately known,

is

be the true time of observation

be freed from the

any observa-

effect

of aberra-

methods given in article 71.

the interval of time in which light passes

on the

tion in several ways, depending

Let

may

it

to

different

from the heavenly body to the earth, which results from multiplying 493* into the
distance I the observed place, t the same place reduced to the time ^ -f- ^ by
;

means of the diurnal geocentric motion V the place I freed from that part of the
aberration which is common to the planets and fixed stars L the true place of
;

the earth corresponding to the time

20".25)

lastly,

(that

is,

the tabular place increased

'X the true place of the earth corresponding to the time

These things being premised,

I.

we

shall

by

^.

have

the true place of the heavenly

body seen from 'L

at the time

n. t the true place of the heavenly body seen from L at the time t
III. V the true place of the heavenly body seen from L at the time t

By method

^.

^.

preserved unchanged, but the fic^ is substituted for the true, the place of the earth being comtitious time t
puted for the former ; method II., applies the change to the observation alone, but
it

L, therefore, the observed place

is

requires, together with the distance, the diurnal

motion

in

method

observation undergoes a correction, not depending on the distance

time

^ is substituted for

the true time

is

retained.

the

III.,

the fictitious

the true, but the place of the earth corresponding to

Of

these methods, the

first is

much

the most conven-

known

well enough to enable us to compute the

reduction of the time with sufiicient accuracy. But if the distance is wholly un-

ient,

whenever the distance

is

known, neither of these methods can be immediately applied

in the

first,

to be

heavenly body is known, but the time and the

in
distance
position of the earth are wanting, both depending on the unknown
the second, on the other hand, the latter are given, and the former is wanting;
sure, the geocentric place of the

finally, in

the third, the geocentric place of the heavenly body and the position

of the earth are given, but the time to be used with these

is

wanting.

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

166

What,

therefore,

be done with bur problem,

to

is

exact with respect to aberration

is,

to

is

required?

determine the orbit neglecting at

never be important

first

The

if,

[BoOK

II.

in such a case, a solution

simplest course undoubtedly

the aberration, the effect of which can

the distances will thence be obtained with at least such precision that the observations can be freed from aberration by some one of the
;

methods just explained, and the determination of the orbit can be repeated with
greater accuracy. Now, in this case the third method will be far preferable to the
others

for, in

the

the earth must be

in fact

is

first

method

commenced

the computations depending on the position of

again from the very beginning; in the second (which
all

never applicable, unless the nmnber of observations

from them the diurnal motion),

it is

necessary to begin

anew

is

sufficient to obtain

all

the computations

depending upon the geocentric place of the heavenly body in the third, on the
contrary, (if the first calculation had been already based on geocentric places
freed from the aberration of the fixed stars) all the preliminary computations
;

depending upon the position of the earth and the geocentric place of the heavenly
body, can be retained unchanged in the new computation. But in this way it
even be possible to include the aberration directly in the first calculation, if
the method used for the determination of the orbit has been so arranged, that

will

the values of the distances are obtained before

it

shall

have been necessary to

Then the double compunot be necessary, as will appear more

introduce into the computation the corrected times.

tation

on account of the aberration

will

clearly in the further treatment of our problem.

119.
It

would not be

difficult,

from the connection between the data and unknown

quantities of our problem, to reduce

since one or another of the

eliminated

but since

its

unknown

statement to six equations, or even to

less,

quantities might, conveniently enough, be

this connection is

most complicated, these equations would

become very intractable such a separation of the unknown quantities as finally

to produce an equation containing only one, can,
generally speaking, be regarded
;

three complete observations.

Sect. 1.]

as impossible,* and, therefore,

solution of the

problem by

But our problem may

remain.

It is

it

be possible to obtain a complete

direct processes alone.

be reduced, and that too in various ways, to the

F^= 0, in which only two unknown quantities

at least

solution of two equations JT =0,

X, y,

less will

still

167

by no means necessary that

x, y,

should be two of the

ele-

ments: they

may be quantities connected with the elements in any manner

whatever, if, only, the elements can be conveniently deduced from them when
found.
Moreover, it is evidently not requisite that X, F, be expressed in explicit
functions oi x,y

equations in such

it is

sufficient if

manner that we

they are connected with them by a system of

can proceed from given values of x, y, to the

corresponding values of X, Y.

120.

problem does not allow of a further reductwo equations, embracing indiscriminately two unknown quantities,

Since, therefore, the nature of the

tion than to

the principal point will consist,

quantities
in the

and

in the suitable selection of these

of the equations, so that both

arrangcme'iit

simplest

first,

manner upon

x, y,

unknown

X and Y may depend

and that the elements themselves

may

follow

most conveniently from the values of the former when known and then, it will
be a subject for careful consideration, how values of the unknown quantities satis:

fying the equations

may be

obtained

by processes not too

If this should

laborious.

be practicable only by blind trials, as it were, very great and indeed almost intolerable labor would be required, such as astronomers who have determined the
orbits of

comets by what

undertaken
the

at

first trials,

known

any

is

called the indirect

rate, the labor in

such a case

is

nevertheless, often

very greatly lessened,

if,

in

approximate values of the unBut as soon as an approximate determination is

rougher calculations

quantities are found.

method have,

suffice until

made, the solution of the problem can be completed by safe and easy methods,
which, before we proceed further, it will be well to explain in this place.
*

When

the observations are so near to each other, that the intervals of the times

infinitely small quantities,

solution of

a separation of this kind

is

may be

obtained, and the whole problem

an algebraic equation of the seventh or eighth degree.

is

treated as

reduced

to the

DETERMINATION 01 AN ORBIT FROM

1^8

The equations

X=0, 1^=0

true values are .taken

substituted for

and

ir

will

t/,

if

^ -\-X,

their

^,

their true values, the smaller should be the result-

is

^, rj,

not changed.
the values of

= rj-^

which the

:r,

if

Accordingly,

not changed, or to the variathe true values of x and t/ are

is

if

and

corresponding to the assumption that

will be expressed in the form

fi,

X=al-}-(^fi,
in

?/

2;

denoted by
a;

and

on the contrary, values different from the true ones are

and Y will acquire values differing from 0. The
then

are nearly proportional to the variation of

tion of

cc

and Y, and when their differences from the true values are very
and Y
be admissible to assume that the variations in the values of

ing values of
it

satisfied if for

II.

if,

more nearly x and y approach

small,

be exactly

will

[BoOK

coefficients a,

/?,

y,

Y=yl + dfi,

d can be regarded as constant, as long as X and fi

conclude that, if for three systems of values of

remain very small. Hence we

x, ?/, differing but little from the true values, corresponding values of X, Y have
been determined, it will be possible to obtain from them correct values of x, y so
the above assumption

far, at least, as

iox

is

admissible.

x^=a, y^^h we have

X=

X=A'Y=B',

= d,y = y
x=d'\y = h"
and we

sha^U

J^'

these

F= ^,

X=j^'Y^B",

B' =.y {d -i)A^-^{y

-n\

= a{d'-\)^^{h''ri\B'' = y{d'-l)-\-8{h''--ri\

we

by eliminating

obtain,

_
^
t

or, in

J^,

have

A^=a{d-i)^^{y -ri),
From

Let us suppose that,

{A!B'A'B)

-fg^

/9,

y, d,

{M'BAB')-\-d' {A B AB)

a:b'a'b^a'bab'-\-abab
I {A!B A'B) -\- y (A"B A B') -\- W {AB AB)
ATB'^^A'B-^ A'B^AB' -\-AB AB

'

'

a form more convenient for computation,

a) {A'B A B') + (a" a) (AB AB)

S= + AB'AB-\-ABAB'-\-AB
AB
h){A'BAB')-{-{V' l){AB AB)
_^
^ ^ ~r
('

{h'

AB'^A'B-\-A'BAB'-\-ABAB^

'

three coidPLETE observations.

Sect. 1.]
It

evidently admissible, also, to interchange in these formulas the quantities

is

A, B, with

a, h,

a', h',

A', B', or

with

The common denominator of

the form {A^

whence

it

A) {B" B)

appears that

otherwise, this

of

'i

169

and

'T],

a,

a, a",

all

^A^'

h,

the same time.

It

is

A', B".

these expressions, which

A) (B' B), becomes

must be

h\ h"

method would not be

fractions of

h",

a'',

so

may

be put under

taken as not to make

applicable, but

would

furnish, for the values

which the numerators and denominators would vanish

evident also that,

if it

should happen that

ad

=
/?/

same defect wholly destroys the use of the method, in whatever way
In such a case it would be necessary to assume
I, V, I", may be taken.

X the

values of

and a

a,

0,

at

the

a, a!\

for the

form

one for the values of F, which being done, analysis would supply
methods, analogous to the preceding, of obtaining from values of X, Y, computed
similar

for four systems of values of

in this

way would be very

a:,

y, true values of the latter.

troublesome, and, moreover,

it

But the computation

can be shown that, in

such a case, the determination of the orbit does not, from the nature of the quesas this disadvantage can only be avoided
tion, admit of the requisite precision
:

by

the introduction of

upon the

new and more

suitable observations,

we do not

here dwell

subject.

121.

When,

therefore, the approximate values of the

unknown- quantities are ob-

tained, the true values can be derived from them, in the

plained, with

all

the accuracy that

corresponding to the

is

needed.

First, that

manner
is,

just

now

ex-

the values of X, Y,

approximate values {a, b) will be computed if they do not

vanish for these, the calculation will be repeated with two other values
{a\ h')
differing

but

little

from the former, and afterwards with a third system

22

{a'\ h")

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

170
unless

X,

have vanished for the second.

Y,

[BoOK

Then, the true values

11.

be de-

"will

duced by means of the formulas of the preceding article, so far as the assumption
on which these formulas are based, does not differ sensibly from the truth. In
order that

we may be

better able to judge of which, the calculation of the values

of X, Y, will be repeated with those corrected values

that the equations

X=0, Y= 0,

are,

still,

not

if this calculation

much

satisfied, at least

shows

smaller

values of X, Y, will result therefrom, than from the three former hypotheses, and
therefore, the elements of the orbit resulting

from them,

will

much more

be

exact

If we are not satisfied

than those which correspond to the first hypotheses.
with these, it will be best, omitting that hypothesis which produced the greatest
differences, to combine the other two with a fourth, and thus, by the process of

system of the values of x,^', in the same

manner, if it shall appear worth while, we may proceed to a sixth hypothesis,
and so on, until the equations
0, y=z: 0, shall be satisfied as exactly as th6
the preceding article, to obtain a

fifth

X=

logarithmic and trigonometrical tables permit.

But

it

sary to proceed beyond the fourth system, unless the

far

will

first

very rarely be neceshypotheses were very

from the truth.

122.

As the values of the unknown

quantities to be assumed in the second

and third

hypotheses are, to a certain extent, arbitrary, provided, only, they do not differ
too much from the first hypothesis ; and, moreover, as care is to be taken that the
ratio

[a'^

a)

[h"

h)

does not tend to an equality with

{a'

a)

[b'

b\

it is

customary to put '=, h":=h. A double advantage is derived from this; for, not
only do the formulas for ^, t], become a little more simple, but, also, a part of the
first

calculation

wiU remain the same

in the second hypothesis,

and another part

in the third.

Nevertheless, there
this

F'

custom

j^,

is

a case in which other reasons suggest a departure from

for let us suppose

and the functions X',

that they are very

X to

Y', to

little affected

i^X'\

have the form X'

become

by small
l^X'\

Vdx/' Vdv/'

such,

x,

and

the form

by the nature of the problem,

errors in the values of x, y, or that

/dr\

I^T\

Vdcc/' \dt//

three complete observations.

Sect. 1.]

be very small quantities, and

may

it is

171

evident that the differences between the

values of those functions corresponding to the system :v^^, i/=^'rj, and those
which result from x
a, y=^h, can be referred to a somewhat higher order

than the differences

the latter

that
esis

a^ri

exact values of

but the former values are

0,

whence

than

x, y,

X=

these, the equations

= b-{- B,

X'=^a-\-A, Y^

much more
upon

a, h.

Y=^ 0,

X'

|,

Y'

^=.

t],

and

follows, that a -{-A,

b-\-B, are
If the second hypothesis is based

it

are very frequently so exactly satisfied,

not necessary to proceed any further ; but if not so, the third hypothwill be formed in the same manner from the second, by making
it is

it"

whence

= a'-{-A^a-]-A + A,b" = b'-\-B' = + B-]-B',

b

finally, if it is still

not found sufficiently accurate, the fourth will be ob-

tained according to the precept of article 120.

123.

We

have supposed in what goes before, that the approximate values of the
unknown quantities x,y, are already had in some way. Where, indeed, the
approximate dimensions of the whole orbit are known (deduced perhaps from

by means of previous

other observations

new

ones), that condition can

may

assign to the

unknown

be

satisfied

quantities.

and now to be corrected by

without difficulty, whatever meaning we

calculations,

On

the other hand,

matter of indifference, in the determination of an orbit

it

still

is

by no means a

wholly unknown,

by
(which
quantities we may
use but they should be judiciously selected in such a way, that the approximate
values may be derived from the nature of the problem itself Which can be done
far the

is

most

difficult

problem,) what unknown

most

satisfactorily,

when

the three observations applied to the investigation of

an orbit do not embrace too great a heliocentric motion of the heavenly body.
Observations of this kind, therefore, are always to be used for the

which

first

determina-

be corrected afterwards, at pleasure, by means of observations

more remote from each other. For it is readily perceived that the nearer the ob-

tion,

servations

may

employed are

unavoidable errors.

to each other, the

Hence

it is

more

is

the calculation affected

by

their

inferred, that the observations for the first de-

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

1*J2

[BoOK

IE.

termination are not to be picked out at random, but care is to be taken, Jlrst, that
be not too near each other, but then, also, that they be not too distant from
tliey

each other

for in the first case, the calculation of elements satisfying the obser-

vations would certainly be most expeditiously performed, but the elements themselves

would be

entitled to little confidence,

and might be

could not even be used as an approximation

don the
of the

artifices

unknown

which are to be made use of

quantities,

nor could

we

so erroneous that

in the other case,

for

we

they

should aban-

an approximate determination

thence obtain any other determination,

except one of the rudest kind, or wholly insufficient, without many more hypothBut how to form a correct judgment concerning
eses, or the most tedious trials.
these limits of the

method

is

better learned

by frequent

practice than

by

rules

the examples to be given below will show, that elements possessing great accu-

racy can be derived from observations of Juno, separated from each other only 22
days, and embracing a heliocentric motion of 7 35'; and again, that our method

be applied, with the most perfect success, to observations of Ceres, which

are 260 days apart, and include a heliocentric motion of 62 55'; and can give,

can

also

with the use of four hypotheses or, rather, successive approximations, elements
agreeing excellently well with the observations.

124.

We

now

most

methods based upon

the preceding principles, the chief parts of which have, indeed, already been exto be adapted to our purpose.
plained in the first book, and require here only
proceed

to the enumeration of the

The most simple method appears

suitable

to be, to take for

cc, ?/,

the distances of the

heavenly body from the earth in the two observations, or rather the logarithms
of these distances, or the logarithms of the distances projected upon the ecliptic
or equator.
Hence, by article 64, V., will be derived the heliocentric places and
the distances from the sun pertaining to those places

hence, again,

by

article 110,

the position of the plane of the orbit and the heliocentric longitudes in it and
from these, the radii vectores, and the corresponding times, according to the prob;

lem treated
it is

at length in articles 85-105, all the remaining elements,

by which,

evident, these observations will be exactly represented, whatever values

may

three complete observations.

Sect. 1.]

have been assigned to

x, y.

If,

173

accordingly, the geocentric place for the time of

computed by means of these elements, its agreement or

disagreement with the observed place will determine whether the assumed values
are the true ones, or whether they differ from them whence, as a double comthe third observation

is

parison will be obtained, one difference (in longitude or right ascension) can be

taken for X, and the other (in latitude or declination) for Y. Unless, therefore,
the values of these differences come out at once
0, the true values of x^ y, may

be got by the method given in 120 and the following articles. For the
in itself arbitrary from which of the three observations we set out still,
:

ter, in general, to

directly,

choose the

first

and

last,

the special case of which

we

rest, it is
it is

shall

betr

speak

being excepted.

This method

is

preferable to most of those to be explained hereafter, on this

admits of the most general application. The case must be excepted, in which the two extreme observations embrace a heliocentric motion of

account, that

it

180, or 360, or 540,

etc.,

cannot be determined,

degrees; for then the position of the plane of the orbit

be equally inconvenient to apply the

method, when the heliocentric motion between the two extreme observations
(article 110).

It will

from 180 or 360, etc., because an accurate determination of

the position of the orbit cannot be obtained in this case, or rather, because the
slightest changes in the assumed values of the unknown quantities would cause
differs

little

very

such great variations in the position of the orbit, and, therefore, in the values of
X, Y, that the variations of the latter could no longer be regarded as proportional to those of the former.
But the proper remedy is at hand which is, that
;

we

should not, in such an event, start from the two extreme observations, but from

and middle, or from the middle and last, and, therefore, should take for
X, Y, the differences between calculation and observation in the third or first

the

first

both the second place should be distant from the first, and the
third from the second nearly 180 degrees, the disadvantage could not be removed
in this way
but it is better not to make use, in the computation of the elements,
place.

But,

if

of observations of this

Moreover, this

from which, by the nature of the

case, it

is

wholly
an accurate determination of the position of the orbit.
method derives value from the fact, that by it the amount of

impossible to obtain

sort,

DETEEMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

174

the variations which the elements experience,

if

[BoOK

II.

the middle place changes while

the extreme places remain fixed, can be estimated without difiiculty: in this way,
therefore, some judgment may be formed as to the degree of precision to be
attributed to the elements found.

125.

We

from the preceding method by applying a slight

change. Starting from the distances in two observations, we shall determine all
the elements in the same manner as before; we shall not, however, compute
shall derive the second

from these the geocentric place for the third observation, but will only proceed
as far as the heliocentric place in the orbit on the other hand we will obtain the
;

the problem treated in articles 74, 75, from

the observed geocentric place and the position of the plane of the orbit; these
two determinations, different from each other (unless, perchance, the true values

same heliocentric

of

X,

?/,

place,

by means of

should be the assumed ones), will furnish us

X and Z, the

difference be-

tween the two values of the longitude in orbit being taken for X, and the
ence between the two values of the radius vector, or rather its logarithm,
This method

ceding article

is
:

subject to the

another

is

to

differ-

for Y.

same cautions we have touched upon in the pre-

be added, namely, that the heliocentric place in orbit

cannot be deduced from the geocentric place, when the place of the earth happens
when that is the case, accordingly, this
to be in either of the nodes of the orbit
;

be proper to avoid the use of this

method in the case where the place of the earth is very near either of the nodes,

method cannot be

applied.

But

it

will also

since the assumption that, to small variations of

X, F, would be too much

we have mentioned in the preceding
variations of

correspond proportional
in error, for a reason similar to that which
rr, t/,

But

may be

remedy
to which
sought in the interchange of the mean place with one of the extremes,
may correspond a place of the earth more remote from the nodes, except, perchance, the earth, in
nodes.

all

article.

here, also,

three of the observations, should be in the vicinity of the

Sect. 1.]

three complete observations.

'

175

126.

The preceding method prepares the way directly for the third. In the same
manner as before, by means of the distances of the heavenly body from the earth
extreme observations, the corresponding longitudes in orbit together with
the radii vectores may be determined.
With the position of the plane of the

in the

orbit,

which

this calculation will

have

furnished,' the longitude in orbit

and the

The remaining elements

radius vector will be got from the middle observation.
from
these
three
heliocentric places, by the problem treated in
may be computed
articles 82, 83, which process will be independent of the times of the observations.

In

way, three mean anomalies and the diurnal motion will be known,
be computed the intervals of the times between the first and second,

this

whence may
and between the second and
and the true intervals
This method
small arc only.

will be

third observations.

The

differences

between these

taken for X. and Y,

advantageous when the heliocentric motion includes a

For in such a case this determination of the orbit (as we have
is less

already shown in article 82) depends on quantities of the third order, and does
not, therefore,

admit of suf&cient exactness.

The

slightest

changes in the values

of x,y^ might cause very great changes in the elements and, therefore, in the values of -X, Yy also, nor would it be allowable to suppose the latter proportional to

But when the three places embrace a considerable heliocentric mothe use of the method will undoubtedly succeed best, unless, indeed, it is

the former.
tion,

thrown into confusion by the exceptions explained in the preceding

which are evidently in this method too, to be taken into consideration.

articles,

127.
After the three heliocentric places have been obtained in the way we have
described in the preceding article, we can go forward in the following manner.

The remaining elements may be determined by the problem

85-105,

first,

from the

and second places with the corresponding interval of

the same manner, from the second and third places and

first

time, and, afterwards, in

treated in articles

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

176

thus two vahies will result for each of the

the corresponding interval of time

elements, and from their differences

any two may be taken

One advantage, not

Y.

that in the

first

[BoOK IL

at pleasure for

to be rejected, gives great value to this

method

X
;

and
it

is,

hypotheses the remaining elements, besides the two which are

and Y, can be entirely neglected, and will finally be deterchosen for fixing
mined in the last calculation based on the corrected values of x, y, either from
combination alone, or from the second, or, which is generally preferable,
from the combination of the first place with the third. The choice of those two

the

first

elements, which
solutions

speaking, arbitrary, furnishes a great variety of

the logarithm of the semi-parameter, together with the logarithm of
is,

be adopted, for example, or the former with the eccenor the latter with the same, or the longitude of the perihelion with
any

the semi-axis major,

tricity,

commonly

may

one of these elements

any one of these four elements might

also

be combined

with the eccentric anomaly corresponding to the middle place in either calculation, if an elliptical orbit should result, when the formulas 27-30 of article 96,
supply the most expeditious computation.

will

demands some consideration

the semi-axis

ma 'or

or

its

But

in special cases this choice

thus, for example, in orbits resembling the parabola,

logarithm would be

less suitable,

inasmuch as excessive

variations of these quantities could not be regarded as proportional to

changes of
X,

in such a case

it

would be more advantageous

to select -

But we give

less

time to these precautions, because the fifth method, to be explained in the following article, is to be preferred, in almost all cases, to the four thus far explained.

128.

Let us denote three radii vectores, obtained in the "same manner as in

125, 126,

by

r,

/, r"

articles

the angular heliocentric motion in orbit from the second to

the third place by 2/, from the

second by 1f'\ so that we have

first

to the third

by 2/, from the

next, let

//'sin2/=w, r/'sin2/

w',

r/sin2/"

= w";

first

to the

177

three complete observations.

Sect. 1.]

the product of the constant quantity Tz (article 2) into the intervals of

the time from the second observation to the third, from the first to the third, and

lastly, let

from the

first

The double computation of

the preceding article, both from rr f" and ^",

to the second be respectively,

^, ^' ^".

begun, just as in
and from r r',f, ^ but neither computation will be continued to the determination of the elements, but will stop as soon as that quantity has been obtained

the elements

is

which expresses the ratio of the

noted above (article 91) by ^ or
first

calculation,

cle 95,

we

shall

But we have,

7]'\

in the second,

have

the triangle, and which is deLet the value of this quantity be, in the

elliptical sector to

Y.

Accordingly,

r].

for the semi-parameter j

besides,

by

by means of formula

the two values:

18, arti-

article 82, a third value,

4 rrV sinysiny sin/"

which three values would evidently be identical if true values could have been
taken in the beginning for x and y. For which reason we should have

4 d &>r7^i" sin/sin/ sin/^

,,

v!

66'
*

"

tirfnifi'

}/

ifrrW cos/cos/' cos/"

Unless, therefore, these equations are fully satisfied in the

first

calculation,

we

can put

X=log
n

rinff'
ri'ri'd^

,
I

-\-n

n'dff'
*

riij'rr^i^'

cos/cos/' cos/"

This method admits of an application equally general with the second explained in article 125, but it is a great advantage, that in this fifth method the
first

hypotheses do not require the determination of the elements themselves, but

stop, as it were, half

way.

It appears, also, that in this process

new

we

find that, as

it

hypothesis will not differ sensibly from the truth, it

will be sufficient to determine the elements either from r,r'yf"j&", alone, or from

can be foreseen that the

/, /',/,

&j or,

which

is

better,

from

r,

r" f,

23

^'.

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

178

[BoOK

II.

129.

The
differ

methods thus

five

far explained lead, at once, to as

from the former only in

this,

many

others which

that the inclination of the orbit and the lon-

gitude of the ascending node, instead of the distances from the earth, are taken

and

for X

The new methods

y.

are, then, as follows

From X and y, and

the two extreme geocentric places, according to articles

74, 75, the heliocentric longitudes in orbit and the radii vectores are determined,
I.

and, from these and the corresponding times, all the remaining elements
these, finally, the geocentric place for the time of the

differences of

nish

X and

from

middle observation, the

which from the observed place in longitude and latitude

will fur-

Y,

The four remaining methods agree

in this, that all three of the heliocentric

the
longitudes in orbit and the corresponding radii vectores are computed from
But afterwards
position of the plane of the orbit and the geocentric places.
:

II.

The remaining elements

are determined from the two extreme places only

and the corresponding times; with these elements the longitude in orbit and
radius vector are computed for the time of the middle observation, the differences
of which quantities from the values before found, that
centric place, will produce
III.

X and

is,

deduced from the geo-

Y'.

Or, the remaining dimensions of the

heliocentric places (articles 82, 83,) into

orbit

are derived from

all

three

which calculation the times do not enter

then the intervals of the times are deduced, which, in an orbit thus found, should

have elapsed between the first and second observation, and between this last
and the third, and their differences from the true intervals will furnish us with

X and Y:
The remaining elements

both by the
combination of the first place with the second, and by the combination of the
second with the third, the corresponding intervals of the times being used. These
IV.

are computed in two ways, that

is,

two systems of elements being compared with each other, any two of the
ences may be taken for
and Y:

differ-

V.

Or

lastly,

the same double calculation

is

only continued to the values of

Sect. 1.]

the quantity denoted

preceding article for

In order that the
for all

three complete observations..

by y,

X and

in article 91,

179

and then the expressions given in the

Y, are adopted.

methods

be safely used, the places of the earth

three of the observations must not be very near the node of the orbit on
last four

may

the other hand, the use of the

first

method only

two extreme observations, or

exist in the

requires, that this condition

rather, (since the middle place

may
may be

substituted for either of the extremes,) that, of the three places of the earth,

not more than one shall He in the vicinity of the nodes.

130.

The ten methods explained from

article

124 forwards,

rest

upon the assump-

body from the

of the plane of the orbit, are already known.
When
by means of observations more remote from each other,

tion that approximate values of the distances of the heavenly

earth, or of the position

the problem

is,

to correct,

the dimensions of an orbit, the approximate values of which are already,

some means, known,

as, for instance,

by

by a previous calculation based on other

observations, this assumption will evidently be liable to

no

difficulty.

But

it

does

not as yet appear from this, how the first calculation is to be entered upon when
all the dimensions of the orbit are still wholly unknown
this case of our problem
:

most important and the most

be imagined from
the analogous problem in the theory of comets, which, as is well known, has
perplexed geometers for a long time, and has given rise to many fruitless
is

by

far the

difficult, as

may

In order that our problem may be considered as correctly solved, that

is, if the solution be given in accordance with what has been explained in the
119th and subsequent articles, it is evidently requisite to satisfy the folio win
attempts.

conditions

we can

find

i-

First,

the quantities

x^ y,

are to be chosen in such a manner, that

approximate values of them from the very nature of the problem, at

long as the heliocentric motion of the heavenly body between the

all events, as

not too great. Secondly, it is necessary that, for small changes in

x, y, there be not too great corresponding changes in the quantities
to be derived from them, lest the errors accidentally introduced in the assumed
observations

is

the quantities

values of the former, prevent the latter from being considered as approximate.

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

180
Thirdly and lastly,

we

require that the processes

II.

[BoOK

by which we

pass from the quan-

he not too complicated.

These conditions will furnish the criterion by which to judge of the excellence
of any method this will show itself more plainly by frequent applications. The

tities X, y, to

X, Y,

successively,

method which we are now prepared to explain, and which, in a measure, is to be

regarded as the most important part of this work, satisfies these conditions so that
seems to leave nothing further to be desired. Before entering upon the explanation of this in the form most suited to practice, we will premise certain preit

liminary considerations, and

we

and open, as it were, the way to

which might, perhaps, otherwise, seem more obscure and less obvious.
will illustrate

it,

131.
It is

shown

in article 114, that if the ratio

between the quantities denoted

were known, the distances of the heavenly

body from the earth could be determined by means of very simple formulas.

there,

Now,

and in

article

128 by

w, w', w",

therefore, if

should be taken for x,y,

being taken in the same signification as in article 128) immediately present themselves as approximate values of these quantities in that
case where the heliocentric motion between the observations is not very great
(the symbols

d, ^', ^",

hence, accordingly, seems to flow an obvious solution of our problem,

tances from the earth are obtained from
to

some one of the

five

methods of

x, y,

articles

and

after that

124-128.

In

if

two

dis-

we proceed agreeably

fact,

the symbols

rj,

r['

taken with the meaning of article 128, and, analogously, the quotient
being
arising from the division of the sector contained between the two radii vectores
by the area of the triangle between the same being denoted by r(, we shall have,
also

three complete observations.

Sect. 1.]

and

readily appears, that if

it

order,

i]

1, r[

1, rf'

n,

n\

n\ are regarded

181

as small quantities of the first

1 are, generally speaking, quantities of the second

order, and, therefore,

?L

from the true ones only by quantities

of the second order.
Nevertheless, upon a nearer examination of the subthe reason of this we
is found to be wholly unsuitable
ject, this method
the approximate values of

x,?/,

differ

will explain in a

by which the

few words.

It is

readily perceived that the quantity

distances in the formulas

9,

10, 11, of article

(0. 1. 2),

114 have been multi-

example, in equation 9 the quanon the contrary, of the first order j hence,

of the third order, while, for

plied, is at least
tities (0. 1. 2), (1. 1. 2),
it

(11. 1. 2), are,

readily follows, that an error of the second order in the values of the quanti-

ties -,y

% produces

an error of the order zero in the values of the

distances.

Wherefore, according to the common mode of speaking, the distances would be

affected by a finite error even when the intervals of the times were infinitely
small,

and consequently

it

would not be admissible

to consider either these dis-

tances or the remaining quantities to be derived from

and the method would be opposed

them even

as

approximate

to the second condition of the preceding

article.

132.
Putting, for the sake of brevity,

(0.1.2)

(O.L2)ir

so that the equation 10, article 114,

ad^

the coefficients

shown that the

and d

will,

difference c

J,

(O.0.2)i>=

df is

tj,

{{).Jl.2)D''=

d,

may become
h -4-0 -J -\-

indeed, be of the

T,

first

order, but

it

can be easily

to be referred to the second order.

follows, that the value of the quantity

n-\-n"

Then

it

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

182

[BoOK

11.

from the approximate assumption that n\i{' =^^: ^" is affected by an

error of the fourth order only, and even of the fifth only when the middle is disresulting

tant from the extreme observations

cQ-^-dd'

where the denominator

&&" (^d

c)

is

For

intervals.
6 6f'{d

cn-\-dri'

c)

{rj'

this error is

ri)

of the second order, and one factor of the numerator

of the fourth, the other

of the third order.

by equal

The former

r('

of the second,

ri

or, in

that special case,

equation, therefore, being exhibited in this form,

,

.,

cn-\-dv!' n-\-n"

'

n-\-n'

'

evident that the defect of the method explained in the preceding article does

it is

not arise from the fact that the quantities

^, ^",

but thatj

have been assumed proportional to

was put proportional

in addition to this, n'

way, instead of the factor ^""^^

n, ri'

to

the less exact value

&'.

For, indeed, in this

is

ri,

rf' differ

introduced,

from which the true value

1+

JL
2 j/j/'rrV cos/cos/' cos/"

'

differs

by a quantity of the second

order, (article 128).

133.
Since the cosines of the angles/,/',/", as also the quantities

unity by a difference of the second order,

it is

from

evident, that if instead of

n-\-n"

the approximate value

introduced, an error of the fourth order

is

committed.

of the equation, article 114, the following

is

introduced,

is

an error of the second order

will

show

itself in

If,

accordingly, in place

the value of the distance $'

when

three complete observations.

Sect. 1.]

183

the extreme observations are equidistant from the middle ;

But

other cases.
tion of

because

d',

this

new form

of that equation

involves the quantities

it

r,

Now, generally speaking, the quantities ^

of the first order, and in the same manner
that in the

perceived

is

/, /',
-^

is

quantity of the

also the

degree higher.
as before

if,

product

^:

special case frequently mentioned, this

order, the difference

^rr^r^^

^^

it

is

readily

product differs
the orbit

And even when

may

be regarded as a

be referred to an order one

remains of the same order

It is manifest, therefore, that this error

in our equation,

order in

from unity by a quantity

differ

of can

first

unknown.

still

slightly eccentric, so that the eccentricity

first

of the

not suited to the determina-

from unity by a quantity of the second order only.

of the ellipse

or,

substituted for gps?

whence

is

obtamed the

following form,

ad=h+
In

fact, this

equation

contains the

still

nevertheless, can be eliminated, since

If

now

^,

(I4- ).

unknown quantity

/, which,

depends only on

and known

it

d'

the equation should be afterwards properly arranged,

it

it is

evident

quantities.

would ascend

to

the eighth degree.

134.

From

the preceding

to take for

ir,

it

will

be understood why, in our method, we are about

y, respectively, the quantities

^=i>,and2(-^"-l)/=e.
For, in the
ties, d'

first place, it is

evident that

P and

are regarded as

known

quanti-

can be determined from them by means of the equation

and afterwards d,d", by equations

In

if

the second place, it is

4, 6, article

114, since

manifest that -jy ^^" ^^? ^^

we have

^^

^^* hypothesis, the

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

184

[BoOK

II.

obvious approximate values of the quantities P, Q, of which the true values are
precisely
e

rf'^

r/'jyj/'

cos/cos/' cos/"

from- which hypothesis will result errors of the

d\ and therefore of

d, d'\

Although we

mentioned.

first

order in the determination of

or of the second order in the special case several times

may

rely with safety

upon these

conclusions, generally

speaking, yet in a particular case they can lose their force, as

(0. 1. 2),

it

path in the

quantity

of the third order, happens to be equal to zero, or so

must be referred to a higher order. This occurs when the geocentric

which

small that

when the

in general

celestial

is

sphere has a point of contrary flexure near the middle place.

appears to be required, for the use of our method, that the heliocentric
motion between the three observations be not too great but this restriction, by
the nature of the very complicated problem, cannot be avoided in any way;
it

Lastly,

neither

is

it

to be regarded as a disadvantage, since

begin at the earliest possible

orbit of a new heavenly body.
sufficiently

moment

the

first

always be desired to
determination of the unknown
it

will

Besides, the restriction itself can

be taken in a

broad sense, as the example to be given below will show.

135.

The preceding discussions have been introduced, in order that the principles
on which our method rests, and its true force, as it were, may be more clearly
seen

the practical treatment, however, vdll present the method in an entirely

very numerous applications, we can recommend as

Since in determining an unknown
the most convenient of many tried by us.
different

form which,

after

from three observations the whole subject

always be reduced to
certain hypotheses, or rather successive approximations, it will be regarded as a
great advantage to have succeeded in so arranging the calculation, as, at the
orbit

beginning, to separate from these hypotheses as

P and

may

many

as possible of the

compu-

Q, but only on a combination of the known

Then, evidently, these preliminary processes, common to each hypothquantities.
esis, can be gone through once for all, and the hypotheses themselves are reduced

tations

which depend, not on

three complete observations.

Sect. 1.]

to the fewest possible

It will

details.

185

be of equally great importance,

if it

should not be necessary to proceed in every hypothesis as far as the elements,

but if their computation might be reserved for the last hypothesis. In both
these respects, our method, which

we

are

now about

to explain, seems to leave

nothing to be desired.

136.

We

connect by great circles three heliocentric places

of the earth in the celestial siphere, A, A\ A' (figure 4), with three geocentric
are, in the first place, to

to
places of the heavenly body, B, B', B'\ and then

compute the

positions of these

great circles with respect to the ecliptic (if we adopt the ecliptic as the fundamental plane), and the places of the points B, B', B", in these circles.

a" be three geocentric longitudes of the heavenly body, fi, (i', (i'\ latitudes I, I, r, heliocentric longitudes of the earth, the latitudes of which we put
equal to zero, (articles 117, 72). Let, moreover, y, /, y" be the inclinations to the

Let

, a',

ecliptic of the great circles

drawn from A,

A!., A!.',

to B,

B\ B",

and,

we

shall

respectively

in order to follow a fixed rule in the determination of these inclinations,

always measure them from that part of the ecliptic which lies in the direction
of the order of the signs from the points J., A., A.\ so that their magnitudes will

be counted from
north, and from

to 360, or,
to

180

which amounts to the same thing, from

south.

We

denote the arcs

and 180, by d,d\

always be taken between
termination of y and d the formulas,

may

tony

[2]
-^
<-

fana^'"" COS
<"-'>

d".

if

desirable for confirming the calculation, can

sin^

= 4^, cosd =
sin 7

We

AB, AB', A'B", which

Thus we have for the de-

= ^-j^^^^

[1]

To which,

cos/?
'

cos(
^

be added the following,

T).
^

have, evidently, entirely analogous formulas for determining

if at

to 180

the same time (iz=zO. a

/=

or 180, that

24

is,

if

y', d',

y", d".

Now,

the heavenly body should

DETERmXATTON OF AN ORBIT FROM

186

[BoOK

II.

be in opposition or conjunction and in the ecliptic at the same time, y would be

indeterminate. But we assume that this is not the case in either of the three
observations.

adopted as the fundamental plane, instead of the ecliptic,

then, for determining the positions of the three great circles with respect to the
equator, will be required the right ascensions of their intersections with the equaIf the equator

tor,

is

besides the inclinations

and

the distances of the points B, B',

will

same

points A, A', J^' also from the

problem discussed in

be necessary to compute, in addition to

B'\ from these intersections, the distances of the
it

intersections.

we do not

article 110,

Since these depend on the

stop here to obtain the formulas.

137.

The

second step will be the determination of the positions of these three great

each other, which depend on their inclinations and the places

we wish to bring these to depend upon clear
of their mutual intersections.
and general conceptions, without ambiguity, so as not to be obliged to use

circles relatively to

be necessary to premise some

preliminary explanations. Firstly^ in every great circle two opposite directions
are to be distinguished in some way, which will be done if we regard one of them
special figures for different individual cases, it will

as direct or positive,

arbitrary in

itself,

we

the intersection of the

J., J.',

first

distance from the point A,

towards
is

to

it

rule, con-

will be
;

but

understood that
if it

be taken on the other side of A.

circle divides

able denominations

uniform

towards B, B', B" as positive thus, for example,

circle with the second is represented by a positive
A.'

B (as D" in our figure)

which every great

This being wholly

shall always, for the sake of establishing a

from

sider the directions

if

and the other as retrograde or negative.

it

is

to

be taken from

should be negative, then the distance

And

secondly,

the two hemispheres, into

the whole sphere, are to be distinguished

we

by

suit-

shall call that the superior

hemisphere, which,
one walking on the inner surface of the sphere, in the positive direction along
the great circle, is on the right hand the other, the inferior. The superior hemi;

accordingly,

to

sphere will

be analogous to the northern hemisphere in regard to the

equator, the inferior to the southern.

ecliptic or

three complete observations.

Sect. 1.]

These definitions being correctly understood,

to distinguish loth intersections of the

in one the

first circle-

second,

which

or,

hemisphere of the
It

is,

shall

will

circles

be possible conveniently
from each other. In fact,

tends from the inferior to the superior hemisphere of the

the same thing, the second from the superior to the inferior

is

first

in the other intersection the opposite takes place.

indeed, wholly arbitrary in itself which intersections

we

shall select for

we may proceed here also according to an invariable rule,

always adopt these (Z>, D\ B", figure 4) where the third circle A'B" passes

our problem

we

two great

it

187

but, that

into the superior hemisphere of the second A!.B\ the third into that of the first

AB, and

the second into that of the

sections will be determined

and

which we

by

first,

The

respectively.

their distances

places of these inter-

from the points A^ and

A.',

A and

simply denote by A^D, A''D, AD', A'l/, AD", AD''.

Which being premised, the mutual inclinations of the circles will be the angles
which are contained, at the points of intersection D, D', D" between those parts
A^',

^',

shall

of the circles cutting each other that

lie

in the positive direction

we

shall

denote these inclinations, taken always between

and 180, by , e", a". The determination of these nine unknown quantities from those that are known, evidently rests upon the problem discussed by us in article 55.
quently, the following equations

[^AD + A'D) =
{AD + A'D) = cos
{AD A"D) =
{AD A"D} =

We

have, conse-

[3]

sin ^

sin I

[4]

sin ^

cos i

[5]

cos ^

sin i

[6]

cos i

cos I

{AD -\-A'D)

and cos

and

sin I

sin \
i

{f

(r
{f

sin i {!"

cos ^

are

hence

AD, A'D

{AD -f A'D),

sin h

made known by equations

by the remaining two

determination of the arcs

{f + r'\
I')
(f /),
cos
t)
h{f + /),
cos
^ {f
I')
/).
t) sin h

and

4, k

{AD A'D)

The ambiguity in the

A'D), by means of the tan-

and

{AD

removed by the condition that sin ^ e, cos k , must be positive, and the
agreement between sin k , cos , will serve to verify the whole calculation.
The determination of the quantities AD', A'D', t, AD", AD", t" is effected in

gents,

is

h.

precisely the

same manner, and

it

will not

be worth while to transcribe here the

eight equations used in this calculation, since, in fact, they readily appear if
chano-e

we

188

DETEKMTNATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

J^D

[Book

II.

three complete observations.

Sect. 1.]

Thence are derived the following formulas, better suited

Putting,

we

[7]

tan

[8]

tan ^ cos

[9]

sin(a''

shall

(i

have

[10]

sin {a''
(''

tan
tan (r

a) =

cos

/')

to numerical calculations.

=
= Tsin
(a

sin (a

^''

I')

189

>S',

l')

l')

t,

rcos2f,

(article 14, 11.)

tan(d'-a)

The uncertainty

= ^,^4:p^j.

in the determination of the arc {^'

a) by means

of the

tangent arises from the fact that the great circles ^B\ BB", cut each other in
tioo points ; we shall always adopt for B^ the intersection nearest the
point B\ so

always fall between the limits of

the uncertainty is removed.
that o

may

For the most

90 and

-J- 90,

by which means

a (which depends upon the

curvature of the geocentric motion) will be quite a small quantity, and even, generally speaking, of the second order, if the intervals of the times are regarded
part, then, the value of the arc

as of the first order.

It will readily appear,

from the remark in the preceding

article,

what are the

modifications to be applied to the computation, if the equator should be chosen

fundamental plane instead of the ecliptic. It is, moreover, manifest that

the place of the point B"^- will remain indeterminate, if the circles BB", A.B"

as the

should be wholly coincident

the same great

circle,

this case, in

which the four points

we exclude from our

investigation.

selection of observations to avoid that case, also,

points differs but

from a great

A.,

It is

B, B' B"
,

lie

in

proper in the

where the locus of these four

then the place of the point i>*,

which is of great importance in the subsequent operations, would bo too much
affected by the slightest errors of observation, and could not be determined with
little

the requisite precision.

indeterminate

when

Or when they are

circle

for

In the same manner the point

the points B,

B"

opposite to each other

coincide,f in

but

we do

B^-, evidently,

remains

which case the position of the

not speak of this case, because our method

not extended to observations embracing so erreat an interval.

is

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

190
circle

B^' itself

also, just

would become indeterminate.

for reasons similar to the

as,

avoided in which the

first

and

[BoOK

Wherefore we exclude

11.

this case,

observations will be

preceding, those

last geocentric places fall in points of the sphere

near to each other.

139.

Let

C, C", be three heliocentric places of the heavenly body in the celestial

sphere, which will be (article 64, III.) in the great circles AB, AB', A'B", respecand ^, A' and B" moreover, the points
tively, and, indeed, between A and B,
C, C, G" will lie in the same great circle, that is, in the circle which the plane
Cy

of the orbit projects on the celestial sphere.

We will
by

q, q', q",

denote by

its

from the sun.

respectively,

r,

r,

r",

three distances of the heavenly

distances from the earth

body from the sun

by R, IH, R", the distances of the earth

Moreover, we put the arcs CO", CC% CC equal to 2/, 2/', 2/'',
;

and
r'r" sin

Consequently

2/= w, rr" sin 2/ =

w',

rr' sin

2/"

ri'.

we have

f=zf+f\ AO-\-CB = d, AC' + C'B'^d',

also,
sin 8

rC"-\-0"B"

= r',

three complete observations.

Sect. 1.]

191

140.

We first remark, that if JV were

any point whatever of the great circle CC 0'\

were counted in the
C, C" from the point

and the distances of the points G,

direction from G to G", so that in general
]SrG"

we

shall

NG'=2f, NG" NG=z2f\ NG' NG=2f,

have

I.

We

sin

2/sin

NG sin 2/ sin NG' + sin 2f sin NG''.

now

to be taken in the intersection of the great circles

suppose
BB^B'\ GG' G", as in the ascending node of the former on the latter. Let us
denote by d, S', S'', X), V, "h", respectively, the distances of the points G, G', G",

D,

D',

tively

will

ly from

the great circle

Then

on the other.

BB^B", taken

or multiplying

by rr/\

= nr

II.

It is evident,

equation

2/ sin S

sin

sin

moreover, that sin

point

G from

same

direction.

is

to that of

We

sin

nV

is

and nega-

I. is

sin

^ + nV sin ^'\

to sin T)\ as the sine of the distance of the

B' from B, both distances being measured in the

have, therefore,
sin T)' sin

Ci

sin

A n'

{AJJ

CB

A\
o)

f
'

same way, are obtained,

sm
-

rr
\i

sin

==

(sin
.

X" sin

sin

rsinC^
C"^'

II.

C"j5"

by r" sin

Bm(A"B'

sin

sin^'

'

{A D'8J

sin

"

there results,

(i'\

d^)_

C'B*

(A'B'd'-{-a)

G"B
_
~ sin(A"B^^^')
sinp"i?^^

Dividing, therefore, equation

r" sin

sin T," sin

A'B~ d'-\-6)

^_ sin V sin

BlTi^

''^'

GB

-.

sin(^i>" 5)'
sin V sin C'B*

sinS' =

^_
^

side,

be proportional to
expressed in the following form:

2/ sin ^' + sin 2f" sin d"

sm ^ =
in precisely the

on one

sin G, sin S', sin S^', will evidently

miNG, siniVC, miNG", whence

==

positively

r" sin

'

?' sin

C'B*
0"B"

sm{A"B

d")

'

sin

{A'^B S'+ff)

""

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

192
If

now we

the preceding

article,

L-'-'-J

i2"sin5"sin(^Zy 5)

\)^an

The

'

5'

our equation will become

XTT
TTT

coefficient h

/, /' their values in

r,

+ (j)~
i2"sin5"sin(^'Z>

-I

substitute for

z,

"^^

iysina^sin(^^^i) <yo

p,^-,

by

II.

and, for the sake of brevity, put

R sin 5 sin {A!'jyb")

P^^.^

L-'-

designate the arc C'J^

[BoOK

on ^
7

sin (2

d)

8in

//

4- w
I

'

be computed by the following formula, which

may

derived from the equations just introduced

is

easil;y

For verifying the computation, it will be expedient to use both the formulas 12
and 13. When sm{A'iy'd'-\-o)is greater than sm{A'I}d'-\-o), the latter
formula

and

so will

way

by the unavoidable errors of the tables than the

be preferred to it, if some small discrepancy to be explained
affected

is less

former,
in this

should result in the values of b; on the other hand, the former formula

is

d' -fmost to be relied upon, when sin {A'ly^

d'-\- a) is less than sin {AD
<?);
a suitable mean between both values will be adopted, if preferred. The follow-

ing formulas can be

difficult derivation

in

which

we

to answer for

= R'R'

(article 138,

examining the calculation; their not very

suppress for the sake of brevity.

a sin (r I')

^
h

made

bsm(l"l)

sin 8'

sin (d'

g)

sin(r

/)

Ucos^cos^'

sin 5"* sin

{Aiy

equation 10,)

S
sin {d'

8) sin e''

U expresses the

cos {d'

a)

quotient

Tsm{t-\-Y)

'
ff)

141.
n'

and
From P=z,
n

equation
f

III.

of the preceding

.P-X-a

,sin(

article,
a)

we have

three complete observations.

Sect. 1.]

193

thence, and from

- 1)/ and /= ^^
= 2 (^'
w
/

is

Sins:

obtained,

sm ^ 4- ^7-^,3

.,8

^H sm

(0

),

or,

Putting, therefore, for the sake of brevity,

and introducing the auxiliary angle

.

tan

(0

such that

(o

=
3

we have

cos a,

D~r

the equation

IV.

Q smo)

silKT

sin* ^

==

sin (0

to

or),

from which we must get the unknown quantity 3. That the angle m may be
computed more conveniently, it will be expedient to present the preceding for

mula

for tan

o)

thus

tan

(P+a)tan(T

o,

\cos(T

'

\cosa

Whence, putting,
_J
[15]

^^=<?,
1
COSff

tan

/.n

[16]

-^

<s

coscr

we

shall

have

for the determination of

w the very simple

tanw

We

^^^

formula,

consider as the fourth step the computation of the quantities

25

a, h, c, d, e,

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

194

by means of the formulas 11-16, depending on given

[BoOK

quantities alone.

11,

The

be required, only their logarithms.

There is a special case in which these precepts require some change. That
circle BB" coincides with A'B", and thus the points B, B*
is, when the great
with D', D, respectively, the quantities a, h would acquire infinite values. Putquantities

will not themselves

h, c, e,

ting, in this case,

R sin 8 sin {A!D' ^ -f g)

B! sin
in place of equation III.

we

b' sin

S)

_
~^'

have

shall
r.

{AD'

n' sin (z

=.Tin

(y)

-.'

r^

sin

whence, making

the same equation IV.

is

In the same manner,

w=

0,

= P+(l
TT

tan

CO

nevertheless,

ff

TTCOSd)'

obtained.
in the special case

on account of which the factor

terminate

sin

it is

when a =:

c sin w, in

0, c

becomes

infinite,

and

equation lY., seems to be inde-

in reality determinate,

and

its

value

is

P-f g
2i?'sin3

as a little attention will show.

In

5'(J l)(P+(;)'

this case, therefore,

sm^ becomes

ig-sind\7g^^=^> ^^+^>

142.

Equation

TV".,

which being developed

trial

expeditiously in

means of

real values.

its

rises to

unchanged form.

the eighth degree,

is

solved

by

But, from the theory of equa-

very
tions, it can be easily shown, (which, for the sake of brevity, we shall dispense
with explaining more fully) that this equation admits of two or four solutions by
In the former case, one value of sin ^ will be positive ;
and the other negative value must be rejected, because, by the nature of the

problem,

it is

values of sin s

become negative. In the latter case, among the

one wiU be positive, and the remaining three negative,
when,

impossible for

to

three complete observations.

Sect. 1.]
will not

it

accordingly,

with one negative

195

be doubtful which must be adopted,

in this case, from,

among

the positive values those,

any, are to be rejected which give z greater than d\ since,

condition of the problem,

When

{^

or three

and, therefore, sin id'

there are

by another

essential

z\ must be a

the observations are distant from each other

positive

if

positive quantity.

by moderate intervals of

most frequently occur, in which three positive values of

the equation. Among these solutions, besides that which is true,

time, the last case will

sin z satisfy

be found making z differ but little from d' either in excess or

The analytical treatment of
in defect; this is to be accounted for as follows.

some one

will

our problem

based upon the condition, simply, that the three places of the heavenly body in space must fall in right lines, the positions of which are determined

by the

is

absolute places of the earth, and the observed places of the body.

Now,
from the very nature of the case, these places must, in fjict, fall in those parts of
But the analytical equathe right lines whence the light descends to the earth.
and every system of places, harmonizing of
embraced, whether they lie in these right lines

tions do not recognize this restriction,

course with the laws of Kepler,

on

this side of the earth, or

is

on

that, or, in fine,

whether they coincide with the

undoubtedly satisfy our problem, since the

earth moves in accordance with these laws. Thence it is manifest, that the equaearth itself

tions

Now,

this last case wdll

must include the

we

(so long as

solution in

which the points

C.

C" coincide with A, A', A'

neglect the very small variations in the elliptical places of the earth

must
produced by the perturbations and the parallax). Equation IV., therefore,
d\ if true values answering to the places of the
always admit the solution z

P and

So long as values not differing much from these

are assigned to those quantities (which is always an admissible supposition, when
earth are adopted for

Q.

the intervals of the times are moderate),

some one

will necessarily

For the most

solutions

one,
d*,

is

where equation TV. admits of three

the third of these (besides the true

have just spoken) makes the value of z greater than
but physically impossible so that it can-

positive values of sin

and that of which we

the solutions of equation lY.,

be found which approaches very nearly to the value

part, indeed, in that case

by means of

and thus

among

only analytically possible,

z,

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

196

not then be doubtful which

that the equation

may

[BoOK

II.

But yet it certainly can happen,

and proper solutions, and thus that

to be adopted.

is

admit of two distinct

our problem may be satisfied by two wholly different orbits. But in such an
event, the true orbit is easily distinguished from the false as soon as it is possible
to bring to the test other

and more remote observations.

143.

As soon

as the angle s

is got,

immediately had by means of the equation

is

i?'sm(
smi?

P = n and III. we obtain,

nV_ (P-|-a)Jg'sintf'

n"

Further, from the equations

nV
Now,

in order that

we may

'

h sin (2

ff)

wV

treat the formulas, according to

which the

posi-

determined from the position of the point C, in such

a manner that their general truth in those cases not shown in figure 4 may
tions of the points C, C", are

immediately be apparent, we remark, that the sine of the distance of the point
from the great circle CB (taken positively in the superior hemisphere, nega-

equal to the product of sin ^' into the sine of the distance
from ZX', measured in the positive direction, and therefore to

tively in the inferior)

of the point

in the

sin ^' sin

same manner, the

circle is

as

is

sin

'

sin

/'sin

Putting, therefore,
^

CI/

Precisely in the same way, putting

Vn.

^'^ sine

rsmC=
w sine

/-

.-.

rsm{^

+ A'ly'

d')

from the same great

CI/ = ^', we

OC to sin
have

sin iz + Miy 8').

^'^%f^,
n'
sin

TTT
VI.

sin a" sin (0

But, evidently, those sines are as sin

to ^,, or as wV to nV.

V.

sine of the distance of the point G'^

CI/.

O'D"

C, is

-4sin (z
^

+ Aiy' An')==

'

r"

'

'

obtained

Af-n
AD

x/\

sin

^).

(^

+ ^'D ^'D^)-

C0^\ or

three complete observations.

Sect. 1.]

197

combining equations V. and YI. with the following taken from

By

Vm.

r" sin

IX.

^'

r sin

the quantities

That

t, l,", r,

this calculation

A'D' + = R"
AD' ^d) = Rmi

sin d",

d")

((;

d,

be thence derived by the method of article 78.

be more conveniently effected, it will not be unaccept^

r ',will

may

Let us put

able to produce here the formulas themselves.

sm(AB'

article 139,

d)

JR" sin d"

[18]

[19]-^
^

sm{A"l)'

^^(^^'-^)
it sin

The computation of
and

Q,

is

a, h,

^x,

these, or rather of their logarithms, yet

and

to be regarded as the J/fth

operations, and

of

d")

is

independent of

last step in the, as it

were, preliminary

same time with the computation

where a becomes equal to 4;.

conveniently performed at the

themselves, or with the fourth step,

Making, then,

wV

.^, sm
sine

n f sm
ri'

we

derive

and

C'^

and

from

== q^^-

AD d) = ,

,mi{z-\-A]y'

sin

r sin C

=p,

No ambiguity

r cos

(^

^,.

.,7-.

=q

^')=f,

also, t"

when
when AD'

That

is,

cases, nevertheless,

6^

/'

from

/^ sin
t'^,

t''

==/",

because r

The complete computation

can,

where another course must be pursued.

the point D' coincides with B, or

and

can occur in determining C and

r''

There are two

or

(z -\-

must, necessarily, be positive quantities.

desired, be verified by equation VII.

and
if

r" cos

sin

is

opposite to

it

in the sphere,

or 180, equations VI. and IX. must necessarily be iden-

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

198
tical,

and we should have x r=

In this case,

We

in article

neither

and

0,

q^

therefore, indeterminate.

will

dispense with transcribing here the formulas themselves, to be found

we

78;

nor

to follow the

where

observe, merely, that in the case

= 180, but

same method,

is,

fact,

AD'

nevertheless, a very small arc,

since the former

And, in

requisite precision.

is

(^

it is

in fact

preferable

method does not then admit of the

the combination of equation VII. with VI. or IX.

be chosen according as sin {^AD"

Ajy) is greater or less than sin(^i>' ^).
In the same manner, in the case in which the point Z>', or the one opposite to
either coincides with B" or is little removed from it, the determination of 'Cl'

will

it,

1=

Xjp

II.

be determined, in the manner we have shown, but

must be obtained by the combination of equation YII. with VI. or

C^'

then C and r
IX.

and /'

go

[BoOK

and

r"

by the preceding method would be

and

either impossible or unsafe.

In this

be ^determined by that method, but t" and r" by

the combination of equation VII. either with V. or with VIII., according as sin
J^'B') is greater or less than sin {^A^'jy
d").
(^j{'D
case, accordingly, C

r will

There

is

no reason

to fear that

iX

will coincide at the same time

with the points

B^ B", or with the opposite points, or be very near them for the case in which
coincides with B'\ or is but little remote from it, we excluded above, in article
;

138, from our discussion.

144.

The
and

it

and

being found, the positions of the points C, C", will be given,

wUl be possible to determine the distance CG"= If from C? 'Q" and ^.
arcs C

C''

be the inclinations of the great circles AB,A.'B" to the great circle CO"
6'6'''i>; respectively),
(which in figure 4 will be the angles 6"'(7i>' and 180
have
the
shall
we
and
following equations, entirely analogous to the equations

Let

u, w'',

3-6, article 137

sin/' sin \ [u" -f- w)

sin

sin i

e'

sin ^ (C -)- C'O?

f cos h {u" -\-u)=z cos ^

e'

sin i

cos/' sin ^ {u"

cos/' cos h {u"

u)=z
=
m)

sin h

s'

cos ^ (C

cos i

'

cos i (^

l,"\
'Q"),

^").

three complete observations.

Sect. 1.]

The two former

and

will give i {u'^-\-u)

from sin/' and cos/' we

shall have/'.

hypotheses the angles

{u"

-\-

and

u)

sin/', the

two

199

latter J (t/^

u)

and cos/';

be proper to neglect in the first

u), which will be used in the last

It will
^ ("

hypothesis only for determining the position of the plane of the orbit.

In the same w\ay, exactly,/ can be derived from

from

",

OD" and CD";

veniently for this purpose

e,

CD

but the following formulas are used

:

and

CD;

also/"

much more

con-

sin2/=rsin2/.;;J
n
sin2/"

= r"sin2/.^:^,
n'r"

n'

which the logarithms of the quantities -7-7 --, are already given by the pre7i'r'^ n't
ceding calculations.
Finally, the whole calculation finds a new verification in
in

this,

that

we must have

2/+ 2/" = 2/';

by chance any

difference shows

will not certainly

be of any imporNevertance, if all the processes have been performed as accurately as possible.
theless, occasionally, the calculation being conducted throughout with seven

if

places of decimals,

worth while,

w^e

it

may

may amount

itself, it

some tenths of a second, which, if it appear

with the utmost facility so distribute between 2 /and 2/"

that the logarithms of the sines

to

may

be equally either increased or diminished,

by which means the equation

p
will

be

satisfied

little, it will

be

with

all

r sin =lf"

vi'

the precision that the tables admit.

When /and/" differ a

sufficient to distribute that difference equally

between 2/ and 2/".

145.
After the positions of the heavenly body in the orbit have been determined in
this manner, the double calculation of the elements will be commenced, both
by
the combination of the second place with the third, and the combination of the
first with the second,
together with the corresponding intervals of the times.

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

200

[BoOK II

undertaken, of course, the intervals of the times themselves require

some correction, if it is decided to take account of the aberration agreeably to the

Before this

third

is

method of

article 118.

In this case, evidently, for the true times are to be

substituted fictitious ones anterior to the former, respectively,

493^/' seconds.

For computing the distances

_
9

=m

_
if

But,

aberration

i?sm(^Z>'

sin {d'

_rsin(JZ>'

/ sin

z)

E' s in {A'jy

I" )

{d'

we have

^, (/, {}",

by

493^',

493(^),

the formulas

z)

__ /^ sin {A'jy

the observations should at the beginning have been freed from

by the

first

or second

method of

article

118, this calculation

may

be

be necessary to deduce the values of the distances (>,

for the sake of proving that those values, upon which the
{^', q", unless, perhaps,
computation of the aberration was based, were sufficiently exact. Finally, it is
apparent that all this calculation is also to be omitted whenever it is thought
omitted

so that it will not

preferable to neglect the aberration altogether.

146.

The

calculation of the elements

on

the one hand from /,

/',

2/ and

the

corrected interval of the time between the second and third observations, the

product of which multiplied by the quantity Jc, (article 1,) we denote by ^, and
on the other hand from r, /, If" and the interval of time between the first and
second observations, the product of which by k will be equal to ^"

is

to be car-

agreeably to the method explained in articles 88-105, only as far as the

quantity there denoted by y, the value of which in the first of these combinations

ried,

we

shall call

ri,

in the latter rf\

ef
and

it is

Let then
'

rr^'fj^ cos

f cos f cos f"

P, Q, upon which the whole

we should have in the result P'
P,

evident, that if the values of the quantities

calculation hitherto

is

based, were true,

^'

THREE COMPLETE OBSERVATIONS.

Sect. 1.]

Q'

And

:=: Q.

conversely

it

readily perceived, that

is

Q' =r Q, the double calculation of the elements

201
the result P'

if in

= P,

from both combinations would,

if

completed, furnish numbers entirely equal, by which, therefore, all three observaBut
tions will be exactly represented, and thus the problem wholly satisfied.

when
if,

the result

indeed,

is

P and

not P'

Q were taken

logP=::r, log

Then the

= P, Q'=

calculation

Q^y,

for x

Q, let

P'P, Q' Q

and y;

\ogP'

it

be

will

still

be taken for

X and Y,

more convenient

to put

\ogP = X, log q log Q^Y.

must be repeated with other values

of x, y.

147.
Properly, indeed, here also, as in the ten methods before given,

what new values we assume

it

would be

x and y in the second hypothesis, if

only they are not inconsistent with the general conditions developed above but
is to be considered a great advantage to be able to set out
yet, since it manifestly
arbitrary

for

from more accurate values, in

if

we were

this

method we should

to adopt the second values rashly, as

perceived, from the very nature of the subject, that

were affected with

slight errors,

P' and

it

act with ])ut little prudence

were, smce

if

the

first

Q themselves would

it

may

values of

easily be

and Q

much more
Wherefore, we

represent

exact values, supposing the heliocentric motion to be moderate.

themselves for the second values of

and Q^ or
always adopt P" and
log P', log (^ for the second values of x and y, if log P, log Q are supposed to
denote the first values.
shall

in this second hypothesis,

Now,

in the formulas 1-20

is

where

all

to be retained without alteration, the calculation will be

undertaken anew in precisely the same manner.

That
will be determined; after that z, r, ~,
'-^, C, r, T, r', f,
ference,

more or

and the

first,

work exhibited

the preliminary

less considerable,

l)etween the

new

is,

/,

first,

f\

the angle

From

it

is

worth while

compute anew the correction of the times on account of aberration

latter case, the intervals of the times, and therefore the quantities ^ and

to

Finally,

i],

26

dif-

values of these quantities

a judgment will easily be formed whether or not

remain the same as before.

the

if are derived from

/,

r",

in the
6'^ will

/',/'', r, r

and

DETERMINATION OF AN OEBIT FROM

202

and hence new values of P' and ^, which commonly

from those furnished by the first hypothesis, than the latter from

the intervals of the times

differ

much

less

the original values themselves of

much

therefore, be

11.

[BoOK

P and

smaller than the

first,

X and Y

The second values of

Q.

and the second values of

will,

be

P', Q', will

adopted as the third values of P, Q, and with these the computation will be
resumed anew. In this manner, then, as from the second hypothesis more exact

numbers had resulted than from the

so

first,

from the third more exact numbers

Q can be taken

than from the second, and the third values of P',

will again result

P, Q, and thus the calculation be repeated until an hypothesis

and Y may be regarded as vanishing but when the
in which

as the fourth of
is

arrived at

be preferable to deduce the values of P, Q, assumed in the fourth hypothesis from the first three, in accordance
with the method explained in articles 120, 121, by which means a more rapid

third hypothesis appears to be insufficient,

approximation will be obtained, and

the

fifth

it

it will

will

rarely be requisite to go forward to

hypothesis.

148.

When

the elements to be derived from the three observations are as yet

wholly unknown (to which case our method

we have

hypothesis, as

values of

and

Q^

already observed,

where

X = log
Y= log

^^

fi
II

and

log

u!'

ii"

^ ^",

especially adapted), in the

first

are to be taken for approxnnate

for the present

from the

interv.als

If the ratio of these to the corrected intervals

1,

respectively,

-\-\og;rj

-\-

log
log ^"

-|-

Comp. log

The logarithms of the

and ^" are derived

of the times not corrected.

expressed by

is

->]

log
log

cos/'' -)-

quantities ^,

we

shall

have in the

hypothesis,

rj",

rj" -f-

Comp. log cos/-f- Comp. log cos/'

2 log / log

fi'\

first

is

are of

log

/'.

no importance

in respect to the re-

cancel each other

mahiing terms log rj and log rj'', which are both positive, in
somein some measure, whence
possesses a small value, sometimes positive,
times negative on the other hand, in Y some compensation of the positive terms
Comp. log cos/, Comp. log cos/', Comp. log cos/" arises also from the negative
;

three complete observations.

Sect. 1.]

terms

logrj, logr/^,
it is

general,

Now,

but

less

complete, for the former greatly exceed the

motion between the observations

with the numbers resulting from even the

is

In

^.

small,

it

most frequently the

and we may sometimes be

be necessary to proceed to the fourth hypothesis

third, often the second, will afford sufficient precision,

satisfied

latter.

not possible to determine any thing concerning the sign of log

as often as the heliocentric

will rarely

203

first

hypothesis.

It will

be

advantageous always to have a regard to the greater or less degree of precision

belonging to the observations; it would be an ungrateful task to aim at a precision in the calculation a

hundred or a thousand times

ijreater

than that which

In these matters, however, the judgment is

sharpened more by frequent practical exercise than by rules, and the skilful

the observations themselves allow.

readily acquire a certain faculty of deciding where

it is

expedient to stop.

149.

elements themselves will be computed in the final hypothesis,

either from/, /, r" or from/'', r, /, carrying one or the other of the calculations
Lastly, the

through to the end, w^hich in the previous hypotheses it had only been requisite
if it should be
to continue as far as ry, if
thought proper to finish both, the
agreement of the resulting numbers wdll furnish a new verification of the whole
-,

work.

soon as f,f\f", are got, to obtain the elements

from the single combination of the first place with the third, that is, from /',;, t^".
It

is

best, nevertheless, as

and the interval of the time, and

finally, for

the better confirmation of the com-

putation, to determine the middle place in the orbit

by means of the elements

found.

In this way, therefore, the dimensions of the conic section are made known,
that

is,

the eccentricity, the semi-axis major or the semi-parameter, the place

of the perihelion with respect to the heliocentric places C^ C, O", the mean
motion, and the mean anomaly for the arbitrary epoch if the orbit is elliptical, or

the time of perihelion passage

if

the orbit

is

hyperbolic or parabolic.

It

only

remains, therefore, to determine the positions of the heliocentric places in the

orbit with respect to the ascending node, the position of this
to the equinoctial point,

and the inclination of the

node with reference

orbit to the ecliptic (or the

DETEEMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

204

angle.
orbit

lastly,

Let

11.

be effected by the solution of a single spherical tribe the longitude of the ascending node ^ the inclination of the

All this

equator).

[BoOK

may

^ and /' the arguments of the latitude in the first and third observations
^=F. Calling, in figure 4, Q> the ascending node,
let I
Q=^h, I"
;

the sides of the triangle S^J[(7 will be

them, respectively,
sin ^
sin

% 180
^

\ i

cos ^

first

We

ii.

sin ^ (^ -[" ^)

cos \
sin i

cos Jcos I

The two

y,

i^g -\-

K)

AD'

C,^,

\{y

(Ajy

(AD'
C)cos
(AD'

i^ ^ (ili>'

==.

cos \

h)

sin i

^)

cos i

i^

and the angles opposite

h,

to

shall have, then,

^^

=
(g
=
(^

equations will give

C) sin
(,')

-\-u)

sin i {y

u)

C) cos i (y -\-u)
J (/

?^).

{g-{-h) and sin ^i, the remaining two i (^

^)

be known the place of the perihelion with regard to the

and cos ^i; from^
ascending node, from h the place of the node in the ecliptic finally, z will become known, the sine and the cosine mutually verifying each other. We can
will

same object by the help of the

arrive at the

triangle

^A'^C,

necessary to change in the preceding formulas the symbols g,

y,',

AH,

y",

I,",

ii".

That

still

another verification

may

in
h,

which

A,

be provided

t, y,

it is

only
u into g'\

for the

whole

not be unserviceable to perform the calculation in both ways;

when, if any very slight discrepancies should show themselves between the values
oi i, 9,, and the longitude of the perihelion in the orbit, it will be proper to take
will

work,

it

mean

values.

These differences rarely amount to 0*.l or 0*.2, provided

computations have been carefully made with seven places of decimals.
When the equator is taken as the fundamental plane instead of the
it

A,

will

make no

A' the

adopted.

all

the

ecliptic,

difference in the computation, except that in place of the points

intersections of the equator with the great circles

AB, A'B"

are to be

THREE COMPLETE OBSERVATIONS.

Sect. 1.]

206

150.

We

proceed

explained, which

how

now

to the illustration of this

will show, in the plainest

conveniently and expeditiously

The new planet Juno

it

manner, how

made

the distinguished Maskelyne.

Mean Time, Greenwich.

fully

applies,

and

example, for which purpose

we

generally

it

leads to the desired result*

will furnish us the first

select the following observations

method by some examples

at

Greenwich and communicated to us by

206

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

[Book

II.

THREE COMPLETE OBSERVATIONS.

Sect. 1.]
so that

3^56

to

is

be added for the

first

observation,

207

5'^28 for the second,

the third.

6''.74 for

Lastly the longitudes and latitudes of Juno are to be freed from the aberration of the fixed stars

thus

it is

found by well-known

rules, that

we must

sub-

from the longitudes respectively 19'M2, IT'. 11, 14''.82, but add to the latitudes 0".53, 1''.18, 1''.75, by which addition the absolute values are diminished,
tract

since south latitudes are considered as negative.

151.
All these reductions being properly applied,

problem as follows

we have

the correct data of the

Times of the observations reduced

to the meridian of Paris

Longitudes of Juno,
Latitudes,

/i,

ff, i^"

a, a',

a"

Longitudes of the earth,

I,

5.458644

17.421885

35444^3r.60

35234'22^a2

Oct.

V, I"

r.

24 19 49 .05

9.9996826

9.9980979

^,d\d"

logarithms of the sines

18 23 59 .20

32 19 24 .93

43 11 42 .05

9.4991995

9.7281105

9.8353631

213 12 29

.82

209 43

234 27

.90

221 13 57 .87

2 19 34 .00

7 13 37 .70

4 55 46 .19

8.6083885

9.0996915

8.9341440

6 26 .44

J^'D,J^'D',AD"

241 51 15

logarithms of the sines

.22

9.9991357

f:?

....

log sin (a'' r)

logcos(''

r)

article 138,

we have

8.9412494 ra

log tan

9.733239172

log sin (a

9.9247904

7 .47

8.7995259

Moreover, according to
log tan

9.9969678

1904r40M7

232

9 .65

191 58' 0^33

0'

J^D.AB'.AD"

log cos k

34 16

.95

8'^36

196

g'

351 34' 30^01

7 17 50

calculations of articles 136, 137, produce the following numbers,

log sin ^

6 21 55 .07

12 28 27 .76

Logs, of the distances, R, R', R!'

Hence the

59 31 .06

27.393077

^''

....

T)
T)
log cos (a

9.1074080 w
9.6935181

9.9393180

?2

DETERMINATiON OF AN ORBIT FROM

208

Hence
log (tan

V) tan f cos (a V)) = log

cos {a"

/3

a)=logI'cos2f
logsin(''
Hence ^=145
?J

-I-/

= 337

log (tan

/?

30 58.11

logsin(2f

{a!'

y')

log^sin(2f

whence log tan

^'

a = 31

According to

^'ly

d"

tan ^"

sin {a

t)

t)) =\ogS

a)

((^'

9.5825441 w

8.2033319 n

9.7947195

56' ir.81, and therefore a

== 194

=198

= 0 23' 13'a2.

140 we have

article

logsin 9.2904352w

15' 18".85

'48 30 .62

9.4075427w

39 33.17

9.5050667 w

9.5375909w

"

9.2928554^

9.2082723^2

^'i) _(j' + a = 200 10 14

=19119 8.27
Aiy' d
j^jy'^^' j^Q = 189 17 46
.63

"

.06

Hence

+ /) ....

8.4086124 w

== 191

Ajy ^
A['B8"

8.5786513

I' sin t

8.8260683

log 1^

sin

II.

8.7423191w

32' 57''.78

Lastly

[BoOK

logcos 9.991661w
""

9.9853301?z

follow,

'

log

9.5494437,

logJ

9.8613533.

Formula 13 would give log

value, because sin (A'Z>

Again, by article 141

3 log i?' sin

^'

^'

-[-

we
.

= 9.8613531,
a)

is

= +0.3543592
but

we have

greater than sin (^'i>"

log sin a

7.8295601
7.3092153 and therefore log
9.8613533

(T

-[- o).

9.1786252

0.3010300

log cos

(5^'

have,

log 2

log 5

preferred the former

9.9999901
9.8613632

= 2.6907847

three complete observations.

Sect. 1.]

whence

cos a

209

= 0.7267135. Hence are derived

d = 1.3625052, log = 8.3929518 n
e

Finally,

by means of

log X

...

logz"
log X

logr

formulas, article 143, are obtained,

0.0913394

?z

....

0.5418957

?i

...

0.4864480

?2

....

0.1592352 w
152.

The preliminary calculations being despatched in this way, we pass to the

The interval of time (not corrected) between the second and
first hypothesis.
third observations

is

9.971192 days, between the

The logarithms of these numbers

log

We

are 0.9987471,

first

and second

is

11.963241.

and 1.0778489, whence

= 9.2343285, log = 9.3134303.

6"

will put, therefore, for the ^rst hi/pothesis,

= log P= 0.0791018
^ = log ^ = 8.5477588
Hence we have P = 1.1997804, P-\'a = 1.5541396,
^

log^
log

(P -[-).

8.3929518

P-\-d= 0.1627248

?z

0.1914900

C.log(P4-e/) 0.7885463 w
log tan

logQ

ca

9.3729881, whence

= + 1316'51".89, w + a zi=+ 1340'

5^01.

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

210

z^

32

[BoOK

II.

2' 28''

0=137

27 59

= 193

4 18

must be rejected because sm z is negative the second because z is

greater than d' the first answers to an approximation to the orbit of the earth
of which we have spoken in article 142.

The

third

Further,

we

have, according to article 143,

9.8648551

log^^

a)

Clog sin

(0

log(P

0.1914900

0).

0.6103578

log

0.6667029

logP

0.0791018
0.5876011

log^
=
zJ^A[D^' z-^\W^r

= 214 6".41 log = 9.7516736 w

= 203 29 37 .84; log = 9.6005923 w
0+J.'Z>"d'=: + 188 64 32
Hence we have logjt?= 9.9270735 log/' = 0.0226459 and then
log q = 0.2930977
log /' = 0.2580086
r.51

22'

sin

.94

sin

w,

?z,

n,

w,

whence

result
C

= 203

C"=110
Lastly,

by means of

log r

10 58 .88

log/'= 0.3212819

we

article 144,

^u''
i(u''

obtain

+ u)=

logr

Clog
log sin

....

2/

2/=
The sum 2/ +2/"

20518'10".53

u)= S
/'=

log sin 2/'

= 0.3300178

17' 31".22

9.1218791

14

2 .02

3 48 14 .66

log sin 2/'

logr"

9.3332971

C.log^

8.7851940

log sin

differs in this case

9.1218791

0.3212819

0.3300178

329"46'.03

....

2/"

2/"=
from 2/' only by

9.4123989

8.8555599
46'43".28

0".01.

THREE COMPLETE OBSERVATIONS.

Sect. 1.]

in order that the times

Now,

may be

211

corrected for aberration,

it is

necessary to

compute the distances (), q', {)" by the formulas of article 145, and afterwards to
multiply them by the time 493*, or 0'^.005706. The following is the calculation,
log r

logr"

....

0.32128

logsin(4^'i>'r) 9.61384
0.16464
Clog sin (^''
logii"

0.09976
7.75633
7.85609

0.007179
Logarithms.

1.0778409

0.9987339

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

212

[Book D.

153.

In the second hypothem we shall assign to P, Q, the very values, which in the
first we have found for P', ^'.
We shall put, therefore,

P= 0.0790164
y = log ^ = 8.5475981
a;== log

Since the calculation

the

first

hypothesis,

-|-

log ^csin
.

w
.

is

it will

to be conducted in precisely the

be

sufficient to set

down here

same manner

as in

213

THREE COMPLETE OBSERVATIONS.

Sect. 1.]

hypothesis, as the values of P, Q.

r?;=:

Putting, therefore,

log

P = 0.0790167

= log ^ = 8.5476110

the following are found to be the principal results of the calculation

210 8^25^65

13 15' 38^39

cu

13 38 51 .51
log ^<? sin
z

14 33 19 .50

0.3259878

0.6675154

0.5884987

log /

logr

0.5989542

oj

lOff

log-;^

203 16 38
All these numbers differ so
nished, that
correction.*

we may

We

from 2/', r, r",

been given in

&',

safel}^

0.3307640

0.3222239

log /'

h{u"

n'r'

205 22 14

u)

3 14

.57

4 .78

2/

7 34 53 .73

2/

3 29

2/'

.39

5 53 .34

.41

from those which the second hypothesis furconclude that the third hypothesis requires no further
little

may, therefore, proceed to the determination of the elements

which we dispense with transcribing here, since it has already

detail in the

example of

article

97.

Nothing, therefore, remains

but to compute the position of the plane of the orbit by the method of article
This computa149, and to transfer the epoch to the beginning of the year 1805.
tion

is

to be based

upon the following numbers

l^ 955'5r.41
^X+?) = 202 18 13 .855
M)=r: 18 5 .495
i(y

AD'

whence we obtain

i{g^h)=
^[g
i

196 43^4^:62

h)^i 37 24
= 33 22
6

* If the calculation should be carried

through in the same

we

should obtain

in fact,

it

X=0,

.41

.05

manner

as in the preceding hypotheses,

and 1^=-)- 0.0000003, which value must be regarded as vanishing, and,

hardly exceeds the uncertainty always remaining in the last decimal place.

DETERMINATION OF AN OKBIT FROM

214

We

have, therefore, h

ther,

tion

(/

is

= 192

= 201 20' Sr.OS, and

so

Q=^l

[BoOK U.

h=^ 171

Y 48^73

fur-

and hence, since the true anomaly for the first observa97, to be 31055'29''.64, the distance of perihelion from

5' 50'''.21,

found, in article

the ascending node in the orbit, 241 10'20''.57, the longitude of the perihelion
If we prefer to
52 18' 9''.30; lastly, the inclination of the orbit, 13 6'44'MO.

proceed to the same calculation from the third place,

A''jy-.(;'^=

we

have,

24 18' 35''.25

^(/'-j_^/')::3.196 24 54 .98

^/^^u")= ^

43 14 .81

Thence are derived

^f-^h'')=

2ir24'32".45

^(/'_^")=_11

it

43 48 .48

6 33 22 .05

and hence the longitude of the ascending node,

I"

h" = 171

7'48".72, the lon-

gitude of the perihelion 52 18' 9".30, the inclination of the orbit 13 6'44".10,

same

just the

The

as before.

interval of time

from the

last observation to the

beginning of the year

64.614102 days; the mean heliocentric motion corresponding to which is

53293".66 =14 48' 13".66 hence the epoch of the mean anomaly at the beginning of the year 1805 for the meridian of Paris is 349 34' 12".38, and the epoch

1805

is

of the

mean

longitude, 41 52'21".68.

155.

be more clearly manifest what is the accuracy of the elements

just found, we will compute from them the middle place. For October 17.415011
the mean anomaly is found to be 332 28' 54".77, hence the true is 315 1' 23".02

That

it

may

and log/', 0.3259877,

(see the

examples of

articles 13, 14);

ought to be equal to the true anomaly in the

first

this true

anomaly

observation increased

angle 2/", or to the true anomaly in the third observation diminished

angle 2/, that

is,

equal to 315

should be 0.3259878

1'

by the
by

th'e

22".98; and the logarithm of the radius vector

the differences are of no consequence.

If the calculation

THREE COMPLETE OBSERVATIONS.

Sect. 1.]

215

continued to the geocentric place, the results differ from observation only by a few hundredths of a second, (article 63 ;) these
differences are absorbed, as it were, in the unavoidable errors arising from the

for the

middle observation

want of

strict

is

accuracy in the tables.

We have worked out the preceding example with the utmost precision, to
show how easily the most exact solution possible can be obtained by our method.

adhere scrupulously to this

It will generally be sufficient to use six places of decimals throughout ;
type.
and in our example the second hypothesis would have given results not less accu-

In actual practice

it

will rarely be necessary to

rate than the third,

and even the

would have been entirely satisfactory. We

not be unacceptable to our readers to have a comparison of
first

imagine that it will

the elements derived from the third hypothesis with those which would result
from the use of the second or first hypothesis for the same object. We exhibit
the three systems of elements in the following table
:

From hypothesis

Epoch of mean

Mean

long.
daily motion

1805
.

Perihelion
(f

Log

of semi-axis major

Ascending node
Inclination of the orbit

By

III.

4152'21".68
824".7989
52 18 9 .30
14 12 1 .87
0.4224389
171 7 48 .73
13 6 44 .10

computing the heliocentric place in

From hypothesis

II.

4152'18".40
824^.7983
52 18 6 .66
14 11 59 .94
0.4224392
171 7 49 .15
13
6 45 .12

From

hypothesis

I.

4212'37".83
823".5025
52 41 9 .81
14 24 27 .49
0.4228944
5 48 .86
171
13
2 37 .50

orbit for the middle observation

from

the second system of elements, the error of the logarithm of the radius vector is
found equal to zero, the error of the longitude in orbit, O'^.OS
and in comput;

ing the same place

by the system derived from the

the logarithm of the radius vector

orbit, l'^31.

And by

is

first

hypothesis, the error of

0.0000002, the error of the longitude in

continuing the calculation to the geocentric place

we

have,

216

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

[Book

11.

Sect. 1.]

THREE COMPLETE OBSERVATIONS.

217

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

218

Hence we have the following

tation

Mean Time,

Paris.

[Book

IT.

places of Pallas, for the basis of the compu-

THREE COMPLETE OBSERVATIONS.

Sect. 1.]

The

right ascension of the point

instead of

l'.

In

this

used in the calculation of

is

T sin

= 189

9.2848162 w

2'48';83, log

r= 9.2902527;

moreover,

log 2^ sin

{t

+ /)

J'o = 208 V 55".64,

and

In the formulas of article 140 sin

a, h

and

-,

and

^f

9.0110566

logS
whence

138

8.4868236 w

logl^cosif
if

article

manner are found

log

Hence

219

(7

+ / = 279

3'52''.02,

?z

9.2847950 n

4 50' 53^^32.

d, sin d', sin

d" must be retained instead of

also in the formulas of article 142.

For these calculations we

have

J"

=171

50'

%iy J
<^^DJ"

= 174

19 13 .98

=172

54 13 .39

9.0917972

^D J'^G

=. 175 52 56

.49

8.8561520

9 54 .05

9.0755844

18 11 .27

8.9967978

%'^D'

^D" J

^'D"J'-\-a

= 173
= 174

8'a8

log sin 9.1523306

8.9954722

log cos 9.9955759 w

9.9978629

?2

Hence we deduce
logz =0.9211850,
log x''= 0.8112762,

log =0.1099088,

= 0.0812057 w
log r= 0.0319691 w
= + 1.2879790

logX

log^ =0.1810404,
log- =0.0711314,

whence we have log b

0.1810402.
mean between these two nearly equal

We
values.

shall

adopt log h
Lastly we have

= 1.0450295
d = + 0.4489906
log = 9.2102894
log c

with which the preliminary calculations are completed.

= 0.1810403

the

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

220

The

interval of time

days, between the

first

between the second and third observations

and second 30.900961

= 9.8362757,

log 6

We

[BoOK

^''

log

is

II.

39.874409

hence we have

= 9.7255533.

put, therefore, for the Jirst hypothesis,

= log P= 9.8892776
^ = log ^=9.5618290
ii;

The

chief results of the calculation are as follows

+ a=:20 46^:72
log ^csinw = 0.0282028
w

Thence the true value of

is

8'

2111'24".30, and of log/, 0.3509379.

remaining values of z satisfying equation

z=
z

634ri2''

= 101

0=199
the

first

of which

is

to be regarded as

the deviation of which, however,

is

12 58

24

an approximation to the orbit of the earth,

here much greater than in the preceding

The

example, on accoimt of the too great interval of time.

result

from the subsequent calculation

195^12' 2^48

196 57 50 .78

....

0.3355758

+ ... 266 4750

.43 39 5
^u"
i{u"

u)

u)

2/

22 32 40

2/

13

shall distribute the difierence

is 0';36,

between

2/ and 2f'

.47
.33
.86

5 41 .17

9 27

2/'

We

following numbers

0:3647022

logr
log/'

The three

IV., article 141, are, in this instance,

.05

between 2/' and 2/-|-

in such a

manner

as to

2/"',

make

which in

2f= 13

this case

5'40".96,

and 2/' =9 26' 59^90.

The times

are

now

to be corrected for aberration, for

which purpose we are to

three complete observations.

Sect. 1.]

put in the formulas of

221

article 145,

r.

We

have, therefore,

logr

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

222
^(t/'_^).

u).
h{u"

267

43

[Book H.

6a0';75

2/'

22 32' 8^69

4.00

2/

13

39

9 30 14 .38

2/'
The

difference 0.''34,

between 2/' and 2/-|-2/''is to be

2f= IS" V 54'U5, 2f = 9 30' 14^24.

make

154.65

so distributed, as to

thought worth while to recompute here the corrections of the times,

there will be found for the first observation, 0.009169, for the second, 0.008742,
If

it is

for the third, 0.009236,

and thus the corrected

ber 36.466293, November 76.340280.

log^

9.8362703

log^''

9.7255594

log

0.0031790

7^

times,

November

6.564905,

Novem-

Hence we have
\

logrj"

0.0017413

logP'

9.8907268

log^

9.5710593

Accordingly, the results from the second hypothesis are

X= 0.0000244, r= 0.0002271.

Finally, in the third hypothesis, in

which we put

= 9.8907268
^ = log ^ = 9.5710593
a;=rlogP

the chief results of the calculation are as follows

20
log
e

8'

1''.62

21 12

0.3507191
.08

196 52 44 .45

267

difference 0".38 will

great

-43 39

4 .19
7 .67

2/

22 32

2/

13

2/'

1 57 .42

9 30 10 .63

r 57^20,

be here distributed in such a manner as to make

If = 9 30' 10".47.*

* This somewhat increased

difference, nearly equal in
this, that

6 53 .09

0.3630960

logr

= 13

0.3369536

4 .60

195 16 54

2/

0.0370857

^c sin 0)

log/

The

log /'

a had been got too

by several

units.

little

all

the hypotheses, has arisen chiefly from

by almost two hundredths of a

second, and the logarithm of h too

three complete observations.

Sect. 1.]

the differences

Since

of

these

all

223

numbers from those which the second

hypothesis furnished are very small, it may be safely concluded that the third
hypothesis requires no further correction, and, therefore, that a new hypothesis

would be superfluous.

Wherefore,

it

will

to proceed to the calcu-

from 2/', ^\ r, r" and since the processes comprised in

calculation have been most fully explained above, it will be sufficient to add

lation of the elements

this

now be proper

here the resulting elements, for the benefit of those

computation themselves

who may wish

Right ascension of the ascending node on the equator

....

to perform the

158 40' 38'^93

11 42 49 .13

Inclination of the orbit to the equator

Distance of the perihelion from the ascending node

Mean anomaly for the epoch 1806

Mean

323 14 56

335

daily (sidereal) motion

Angle of

eccentricity,

.92

4 13 .05
770''.2662

14

^)

3 .91

0.4422438

Logarithm of the semi-axis major

158.
Tlie

two preceding examples have not yet furnished occasion

method of

120

for using the

for the successive

hypotheses converged so rapidly that

we might have stopped at the second, and the third scarcely differed by a sensible
amount from the truth. \e shall always enjoy this advantage, and be able to do
article

without the fourth hypothesis, when the heliocentric motion is not great and the
three radii vectores are not too unequal, particularly if, in addition to this, the
intervals of the times differ

from each other but

little.

problem depart from these, the more will_ the

and Q differ from the correct ones, and the less rapidly

ditions of the

of

But the further the

values converge to the truth.

In such a case the

first

first

con-

assumed values

will the

subsequent

three hypotheses are to

be completed in the manner shown in the two preceding examples, (with this
difference only, that the elements themselves are not to be computed in the third
hypothesis, but, exactly as in the
P', ^',

X, F)

but then, the

last

and second hypotheses, the quantities t], r[\

values of P\ Q' are no longer to be taken as

first

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

224
the

new

values of

tlie

quantities P,

in the

be derived from the combination of the

method of

article 120.

fifth hypothesis,

It will

first

new

hypothesis, but these are to

three hypotheses, agreeably to the

then very rarely be requisite to proceed to the

according to the precepts of article 121.

these calculations further

[Book H.

by an example, from which

it

We

will

now explain
appear how far our
will

method extends.

159.

example we select the following observations of Ceres, the first

of which has been made by Olbers, at Bremen, the second by Hakding, at Got-

For the

tingen,

third

and the third by Bessel, at

Mean time

Lilienthal.

of place of observation.

Sect. 1.]

THREE COMPLETE OBSERVATIONS.

225

Accordingly; the data of the problem, after being freed from parallax and
aberration, and after the times have been reduced to the meridian of Paris, are as
follows

Times of the observations.

PETERAIINATION OF AN OKBIT FROM

226

= 852' r.05
log = 0.1840193
log = 0.0040987
(T

?z,

1.5276340

c=: 2.0066735
J:= 117.50873

The
days,

log

We now

=z 0.8568244

log

Jt

= 0.1611012

log

between the

between the second and

log

log

interval of time

^.= 0.3358520,

log

third,

first

r= 9.7320127

?^

and second observations

125.97102

r=: 0.3624066,

Xz= 9.9164090 w

is

133.91375

hence

log -^'=0.0265546, log

^r

= 0.6982586.

exhibit in the following table the principal results of the

hypotheses

II.

log>c''= 9.9770819 w

log

[Book

first

three

THREE COMPLETE OBSERVATIONS.

Sect. 1.]

we
B, B\ B"

designate the three values of

If

X by A,

A^, Al' \

quantities AB"

the quotients arising from the division of the

AB' A'B,

A'B

AB'',

so that

we have

^-|-^'-|-^^'= 1

third hypothesis,

by

iHf

sum

by. the

and

iV,

Y by

the three values of

of these quantities,

by

k, k',

A!^'B',

k" respectively,
,

and, finally, the values of log P' and log Q' in the

new

(which would become

values of x and

if it

should be expedient to derive the fourth hypothesis from the third, as the third

had been derived from the second)

it is

value of x

is

rected value of y,

-\-

k'B".

former becomes 0.0256331, the

we

construct the fourth

to

-j-

log
s

cf

B")

1.2094284

262 15

difference

now

Upon

A.\

and the

3 .90

cor-

these corrected values

:

0.4062033

h{u"

2625r38';78
273 29 20

u)

.73

2/

62 55 16 .64

2/

31 19

2r

31 36 15 .20

between 2/' and 2/-|- 2f" proves

distribute in such a

If

Ic

1 .49

0.4282792

logr

The

calculation being made, the

^z

0.4132817

A.')

log /'

2 12 .736

The

A-

the chief results of which are the following

714^45';247

{^A!.

0.7509143.

latter,

ht/pothesis,

^c sin CO

log /

manner

as to

make

2/= 31 19'

to be 0''.05,
1''.47,

which we

2/''=

31 36'

shall

15M7.

the elements are determined from the two extreme places, the
following

values result

True anomaly
True anomaly

M k

article 120, that the corrected

N k [B'

from the formulas of

easily ascertained

for the first place

289

7'

for the third place

352

2 56 .39

Mean anomaly for the first place

Mean anomaly for the third place
Mean daily sidereal motion
Mean anomaly for the beginning of
Angle of

eccentricity,

(p

Logarithm of the semi-axis major

By computing from

3 9''. 75

297 41 35

.65

353 15 22

.49

769''.6755

the year 1806

322 35 52 .51
4 37 57 .78

0,4424661

these elements the heliocentric place for the time of the

DETERMmATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

228

middle observation, the

mean anomaly

is

[BoOK

11.

found to be 32619' 2 5''. 72, the loga-

rithm of the radius vector, 0.4132825, the true anomaly, 320 43' 54''.87 this last
should differ from the true anomaly for the first place by the quantity 2 f\ or
:

from the true anomaly for the third place by the quantity 2/, and should, therefore, be 320 43' 54''.92, as also the logarithm of the radius vector, 0.4132817
:

the difference 0".05 in the true anomaly, and of eight units in the logarithm,

is

to be considered as of no consequence.

end in the same way as

0.0000168, whence the follow-

If the fourth hypothesis should be conducted to the

the three preceding,

we would have

ing corrected values of x and

X=: 0,

y would be

= log P = 0.0256331,
^ = log ^=0.7508917.
X

(the

Z=

obtained,

same

as in the fourth hypothesis,)

-.

If the fifth hypothesis should be constructed on these values, the solution

would

reach the utmost precision the tables allow: but the resulting elements would
not differ sensibly from those which the fourth hypothesis has furnished.

Nothing remains now, to obtain the complete elements, except that the position of the plane of the orbit should be computed.
By the precepts of article
149

we have
From

the

354

261 56

first

From

place.

9' 44''.22

6 .94

/
A"

....

57

the third place.

5'

161

0''.91

1 .61

10 37 33 .02

10 37 33 .00

9>

80 58 49 .06

80 58 49 .10

^^

^ ^^

^^

53 .53

146

Distance of the perihelion

from the ascending node

4.52

Longitude of the perihelion

146

The mean being taken, we

shall

put

i= 10 37' 33".01,

9>

146 0' 53".57. Lastly, the

longitude of the perihelion
the beginning of the year 1806 will be 108 36' 46".08.

53 .62

80

58' 49".08, the

mean

longitude for

three complete obseevations.

Sect. 1.]

229

160.

In the exposition of the method to which the preceding investigations have

been devoted, we have come upon certain special cases to which it did not apply,
has been exhibited by us. We have seen
that this defect occurs first, when any one of the three geocentric places coincides
either with the corresponding heliocentric place of the earth, or with the oppoat least not in the form in which

it

the heavenly body

point (the last case can evidently only happen when
the first geocentric place of the
passes between the sun and earth) second, when
site

heavenly body coincides with the third third, when all three of the geocentric
places together with the second heliocentric place of the earth are situated in the
;

same great
In the

circle.

case the position of one of the great circles

first

the second and third the place of the point

J?*, will

these cases, therefore, the methods before explained,

shown how
tities
is

P,

Q, are regarded as

method

lem; in the
if

is,

lose

first

and in
In

by means of which we have

from the geocentric

their efficacy but an

that in the

A.'B",

places, if the quanessential distinction

case the defect will be attributable

and third cases to the nature of the probcase, accordingly, that determination can undoubtedly be effected
suitably altered, but in the second and third it will be absolutely

alone, but in the second

first

the method

impossible,

known,

AB\

remain indetermmate.

to determine the heliocentric

here to be noted, which

to the

AB,

is

and the heliocentric places

will

remain indeterminate.

uninteresting to develop these relations in a few words

place to go through

all

but

that belongs to this subject, the

these special cases the exact determination of the orbit

would be greatly
will also exist

affected

when

by the

it

more
is

It will

not be

would be out of
so,

because in

impossible where

smallest errors of observation.

The same

all
it

defect

the observations resemble, not exactly indeed, but nearly,

any one of these cases for which reason, in selecting observations this is to be
recollected, and properly guarded against, that no place be chosen where the
;

heavenly body

is

at the

same time

in the vicinity of the

or conjunction, nor such observations as

turned in the

last to

node and of opposition

where the heavenly body has nearly

the geocentric place of the

first

re-

observation, nor, finally, such

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

230

where the great

as

circle

drawn from the middle

[BoOK

11.

heliocentric place of the earth to

the middle geocentric place of the heavenly body makes a very acute angle with
the direction of the geocentric motion, and nearly passes through the first and
third places.

161.

We
'

will

make

three subdivisions of the

B coincides with A or with the

If the point

I.

to zero, or to 180

other hand,

y',

y",

y,

',

''

and the points

and the points D, B*y

necessarily coincide with A.

article 140, the following

^
^

sin

(ar

(t)

jy

be determinate

will

sin d' sin

sinzH:' sin d" sin

and the quantities

z,

as soon as ^

r,

(A"I)

(A'D

5'

on the

the point

will

d")

+^)

this place all

Now

be indeterminate

will

equation will be easily obtained

be proper, therefore, to apply in

articles 141, 142, if, only, we put a

as before.

Z>', I/',

opposite point, d will be equal

a course of reasoning similar to that pursued in

By

It will

article 140,

first ease.

"

which has been explained in

determined by equation 12,

0,

and

b is

^,

will

be computed

the same

manner

and the position of the point C^ have become

be possible to assign the position of the great circle CC^, its intersection with the great circle A"B'^, that is the point 0", and hence the arcs 0C\

known,

will

it

CO'', C'C", or 2/',

2/, 2/

Lastly,

from these

wVsin2/

~n sin

2/

'

will

be had

wVsin2/"
w"sin2/'*

n. Every thing we have just said can be applied to that case in which B"
coincides with A^' or with the opposite point, if, only, all that refers to the first
place

is

TIT

exchanged with what

But

cides with

J^

/', ,

A!^

^"

it is

relates to the third place.

necessary to treat a

or with the opposite point.

and the points

i>, ZX', -5*, will

the intersection of the great circle

More

generally, with the great circle

that case only

little differently

where the

ecliptic is

BB"

AA'

the case in which B' coin-

There the point

be indeterminate

with the

ecliptic,-)-

C will

on the other hand,

the longitude of which
:

but for the sake of brevity

taken as the fundamental plane.

coincide with

we

are

now

considering

three complete observations.

Sect. 1.]

may be put

equal to

V -\-

n,

may

be determined.

By

231

reasonings analogous to

those which have been developed in article 140, will be obtained the equation

Let us designate the coefficient of n, which agrees with a, article 140, by the
same symbol a, and the coefficient of i/r by
a may be here also determined
by the formula
:

/:?

Ji"sm{l"
r7t)'
Iism(r-\-7t

^~~

We

l)

have, therefore,

which equation combined with these,

produces

whence we

be able to get /, unless, indeed, we should have (3

0, in which
=:
case nothing else would follow from it except
a.
Further, although we
might not have (S :^0 (when we should have the third case to be considered in
shall

the following article),

P will

always be a very small quantity, and therefore

but little from
a hence it is evident that the deter-

still

necessarily differ

('i

will

mination of the coefficient

is

very uncertain, and that /, therefore,

Moreover, we shall have

is

not determinable with any accuracy.

^~' HF

"vT

JF~'

after this, the following equations will be easily

developed in the same manner as

in article 143,
r

Sm

^
^

rrr:

sin

i>

r Sm

(\

l)' ',

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

232

II.

[BoOK

from the combination of which with equations YIII. and IX. of article 143, the
can be determined. The remaining processes of the calculaquantities r, C, /',
<,"''

tion will agree with those previously described.

162.

where B" coincides with B, 1/ will also coincide with them

or with the opposite point. Accordingly, we shall have AI/
d and A'jy
d"
either equal to
or 180: whence, from the equations of article 143, we obtain
In the second

case,

sinesin (2-|-^'Z) &y

~
+

= PB!'
+ AD"
n"

R sin d sin e" sin (0

sin d' sin {z

A' I/'

$')

'

d')

sin d" sin

sin (0

+ AD

d').
^

Hence
less it

it is

evident that

should happen that

is

P alone, independently of Q, (unor = AD + 180, when we should have

.

determinable by

AD" = AD,

the third case)

being found,
the values of the quantities
:

nr

will also

w/
,

be known, and hence, by means of

If. also -;

and

n^
-7:

and, lastly, from this also

c=2(i+i:-i)/.
/
\n
n
'

P and

cannot be considered as data independent of each

The
other, but they will either supply a single datum only, or inconsistent data.
positions of the points C, G" will in this case remain arbitrary, if they are only

Evidently, therefore,

taken in the same great circle as C.

In the iUrd case, where A, B, B\ B",

lie

in the

same great

circle, i>

and D^'

coincide with the points B", B,

respectively, or with the opposite points

will

hence

is

233

THEEE COMPLETE OBSERVATIONS.

Sect. 1.]

obtained from the combination of equations VII., VIII., IX., article 143,

p~

i? sin 5 sin s"

R" sin

"~ Jism(V
R" sin {!!'
b" sin

In this case, therefore, the value of

V)
l)

'

had from the data of the problem, and,

0\ C", will remain indeterminate.

is

therefore, the positions of the points 0,

163.

The method which we have

fully explained

from

article

136 forwards,

cipally suited to the first determination of a wholly

unknown

ployed with equally great success, where the object

is

already approximately

from each

When,
will

But

other.

known by means
in such a case

prin-

still it is

em-

the correction of an orbit

of throe observations however distant

will

be convenient to change some things.

embrace a very great heliocentric motion, it

consider and ^ ^" as approximate values of the

for example, the observations

no longer be admissible

quantities P, Q: but

nearly

it

orbit

is

known

to

much more

elements.

exact values will be obtained from the very

Accordingly, the heliocentric places in orbit for the

three times of observation will be computed roughly by means of these elements,

whence, denoting the true anomalies by

v,

v\ v'\ the radii vectores

semi-parameter by />, the following approximate values will result

jy

r sin {v'

v)

4 r"^

sin

{v'

v) sin

(v"

by

r,

/, /', the

v')

these, therefore, the first hypothesis will be constructed,

and with them, a

would be of no advantage

With

changed at pleasure, the second and third: it

to adopt P' and Q' for the new values, since we. are no longer at liberty to supFor this reason all three of the
pose that these values come out more exact.

little

hypotheses can be most conveniently despatched at the same time: the fourth will
then be formed according to the precepts of article 120. Finally, we shall not
object, if any person thinks that some one of the ten methods explained in articles

use

124-129

is;

if

not more, at least almost equally expeditious, and prefers to

it.

30

^Tlv

^aO^mf^Qf in

liO,i>JliidluOi>

lU

iSityiivW^iiie^.'H-

SECOND SECTION.
DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM FOUR OBSERVATIONS, OF WHICH TWO
ONLY ARE COMPLETE.

164.

We

have already,

book

in the beginning of the second

(article 115), stated

that the use of the problem treated at length in the

preceding section is hmited to those orbits of which the inclination is neither
nothing, nor very small,

and that the determination of

orbits slightly inclined

must necessarily be based

But four complete observations, since they are equivalent

and the number of the unknown quantities amounts only to

on four observations.
to eight equations,

would render the problem more than determinate on which account it will
be necessary to set aside from two observations the latitudes (or declinations),
six,

be exactly satisfied.
which this section will be devoted but the solution

that the remaining data

may

Thus a problem

we

arises to

shall here give will ex-

tend not only to orbits slightly inclined, but can be applied also with equal success to orbits, of any inclination however great.
Here also, as in the problem of
the preceding section, it is necessary to separate the case, in which the approxi-

mate dimensions of the

of a wholly

unknown

orbit are already

orbit

we

will begin

known, from the

first

determination

with the former.

165.

The

simplest

appears to be

method of adjusting a known

this.

Let

x,

?/,

orbit to satisfy four observations

be the approximate distances of the heavenly body

from the earth in two complete observations by means of these the corresponding heliocentric places may be computed, and hence the elements; after this,
:

(234)

determination of an orbit.

Sect. 2.]

235

from these elements the geocentric longitudes or right ascensions for the two
remaining observations may be computed. If these happen to agree ^vith the
observations, the elements will
differences

X, Y,

will

require no further correction

be noted, and the same calculation

will

but

not, the

if

be repeated twice,

changed. Thus will be obtained three systems

of values of the quantities x, y, and of the differences X, Y, whence, according
to the precepts of article 120, will be obtained the corrected values of the quanthe values of

tities

2^,

to

J/,

x,

which

calculation based

y being

on

little

will correspond the values

this fourth

X=0,

jr=:

0.

From

a similar

system elements will be found, by which

all

four

observations will be correctly represented.

your power to choose, it will be best to ret^'in those observations

complete from which the situation of the orbit can be determined with the greatest precision, therefore the two extreme observations, when they embrace a helioIf

it is

centric
will set

in

But

they do not possess equal accuracy, you

aside the latitudes or declinations of those you may suspect to be the

motion of 90 or

less.

if

less accurate.

166.
determination of an entirely
orbit from four observations, as include a heliocentric motion not too

Such places

unknown

will necessarily

great; for otherwise

first

we

approximation.

be used for the

first

should be without the aids for forming conveniently the

The method which we

shall give directly admits of such

extensive application, that observations comprehending a heliocentric motion of

30 or 40 may be used without hesitation, provided, only, the distances from the

sun are not too unequal

where there

is

a choice,

it

will

be best to take the

and second, the second and third, the

But it will not be necessary
third and fourth but little removed from equality.
to be very particular in regard to this, as the annexed example will show, in
intervals of the times

between the

first

which the intervals of the times are 48,

motion more than 50.

55,

and 59 days, and the heliocentric

Moreover, our solution requires that the second and third observations be
complete, and, therefore, the latitudes or declinations in the extreme observations

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM FOUR OBSERVATIONS,

236

We

are neglected.

[BoOK

have, indeed, shown above that, for the sake of accuracy,

11.

it is

generally better that the elements be adapted to two extreme complete observations, and to the longitudes or right ascensions of the intermediate ones ; never-

we

theless,

shall not regret

of the orbit,

and the

having lost this advantage in the first determination

because the most rapid approximation is by far the most important,

loss,

which

tion of the orbit,

affects

node and the

chiefly the longitude of the

inclina-

and hardly, in a sensible degree, the other elements, can

after-

wards easily be remedied.

We

will, for

the sake of brevity, so arrange the explanation of the method,

we

suppose four longitake into account the latitude

as to refer all the places to the ecliptic, and, therefore,

will

but yet, as we
of the earth in our formulas, they can easily be transferred to the case in which
the equator is taken as the fundamental plane, provided that right ascensions and

tudes and two latitudes to be given

declinations are substituted in the place of longitudes

Finally, all that
tion, precession,

we have

and

parallax,

article 118,

latitudes.

stated in the preceding section with respect to nuta-

and

also aberration, applies as well here

therefore, the approximate distances

method

and

unless,

from the earth are otherwise known, so that

can be employed, the observed places

will in the

beginning
be freed from the aberration of the fixed stars only, and the times will be corrected as soon as the approximate determination of the distances is obtained in
I.,

the course of the calculation, as will appear

more

clearly in the sequel.

167.

We preface the explanation

bols.
We will make
t,

f,

f,

f\ the times of the four

a,

a, (^\

^,

{^',

/,

(^)',

^",

list

of the principal symr

observations,

the geocentric longitudes of the heavenly body,

(r\ (r, their latitudes,

r, r', r",

^,

a!'\

of the solution with a

from the sun,

^'\ the distances from the earth,

r"\ the distances

r, r", V", the heliocentric longitudes of

the earth,

OF which

Sect. 2.]

B,

B\

two only are complete.

237

B'\ B'", the heliocentric latitudes of the earth,

R, R', R'\ R!'\ the distances of the earth from the sun,
(j?01),

(^

12),

are contained

(f^

23),

02),

(^

13), the duplicate areas of the triangles

(?^

between the sun and the

body, the second and third,

and second places of the heavenly

the third and fourth, the first and third, the second
first

and fourth respectively;

(^01), (^12),

division of the areas i

01), k

ing sectors

{ii

23) the quotients arising from the

(n 12), ^ {n 23), by the areas of the correspond-

(w^l2)

(nl2)

(23)'

(?i01)'

,_/ (n01)-{-(nl2)
^
V

V, v",

('>J

p,

V,

which

-,\
"~V^

(02)

n'f_(
,^\

,3

(nl2)-{.(n23)

(~[3^

^)r

,,3
,

the longitudes of the heavenly body in orbit reckoned from an arbi-

v'",

trary point.

Lastly, for the second

and third observations, we

heliocentric places of the earth in the celestial sphere

places of the heavenly

body by

B', B",

and

These things being understood, the

problem of the preceding section

its

first

(article

by A,

will denote the

A', the geocentric

heliocentric places

by C,

C".

step will consist, exactly as in the

136), in the determination of the posi-

AC'B', A' C"B", the inclinations of which to the eclipthe determination of the aj-cs AB' ^=^ d' A'B"=:^ tV' will be

tions of the great circles

tic

we denote by

y',

y"

connected at the same time with this calculation.

Hence we

shall evidently

+ 2 ^R! cos + R'R!)

r"=
+ 2 ^'R:' cos 8" + r!'r:%
=
+ R! cos = ^' + cos d" = x\ R'
/ = v/(^^' + V)
/

have

8'

y/ (^)'^)'

v/ ((?"(>"

or

by putting

^'

d'

R!'

x' ,

sin 8'

a',

R" sin d"

= a%

r"=sl{x"x"-\-a"a").

168.

By

combining equations 1 and

bols of the present discussion are

{n 12)

2, article

produced

R cos B sin (/ a) {n 02) (^' cos

+ {n 01)

{{/'

cos (r sin (a"

112, the following equations in sym-

/?'

) +

sin

{a' a)

+ R' cos ^'sin (/ a))

R'' cos B'' sin

(r )),

DETERMTNATION OF AN ORBIT FKOM FOUR OBSERVATIONS,

238

= {n 23)

((,/

cos

{n 13) (^''cos

/?'

sin (''' a')

/i'^sin

(^^

12)

+ M' cos B'

II.

V))

K' cos ^'' sin (''' I"))

(a'" ") -f
cos B"' sin

i^'^'

sin (a'''

[BoOK

(a'''

V").

These equations, by putting

^
^v
cos d = b,
^

a)
(a

^' cos ^^ -sin

.

.,

cos p sin

a)

(/'

'

^
=
n
m K^ ^COSd =X,
a)

-/-///

fl./
sin (u
cos p

cos

zffv

cos p sin (a
Sf' cos

cos p sin

^ cos B sin

.g^'^

,
'

'

(I"

r>

t^rr

(Z

'

cos ^' sin (d'

E'^ cos

.,

a)

)
(a
a)
a)
~ y
V") _
a)
a) ^

B" sin

(?

a)

i2'cos^sin(a'"
n,

ir

./

,^

sin (^^^

'

')

cosjS'sin ('''

cos
cos

j3'

(3"

*"

sin ('

'

sin (a"

cosjy^sin('^^

^0

^^

cos^'sin ('"')

and

all

the reductions being properly made, are transformed into the following:

1+
or,

by putting

besides,

__ ,t'_ r'p-:=

c",

ili''

(1

+ P'O = A

into these.

1+

+
^

>

(a^'y

o'a')'

wmcH two

OP

Sect. 2.]

only are complete.

1+
(a/V'

With the
Q\

two equations

aid of these

a", h", c", d", Q'.

If,

indeed,

x'

x'

239

+ a'V)^

and x" can be determined from

or x" should be eHminated from them,

obtain an equation of a very high order

but

the values of the

still

a',

V, c%

d',

we should
unknown

from these equations by indiquantities xf, x'\ will be deduced quickly enough
rect methods without any change of form.
Generally approximate values of
the

unknown

quantities result

if,

_
^

at

first,

<//-[-

d"

{W

Q'

and Q' are neglected

+ cQ -f

d'

(y -f
\

d') -I-

d'd"

thus

d'd"h'

ld'd"

~~ c'-{^_

'

d'd"w

approximate value of either unknown quantity is obtained,

values exactly satisfying the equations will be very easily found. Let, for example, \' be an approximate value of x!^ which being substituted in equation I.,

But

as soon as the

there results

equation

II.,

stituting for

x!'

= I"

in the

we may have
X in

I.,

x'

= X';

another value

value being substituted in

value of

x'

same manner from x"

11.,

may

= ^"

being substituted in
the same processes may be repeated by sub^' -\- v',

give

x^

which

= X^

-\-

may

N\

give x"

^'^ -|- v^'

this

Thereupon the corrected

wiU be

and the corrected value of

x'\

^_^(r-xo/
If'

'

v'

thought worth while, the same processes will be repeated with the corrected value of x' and another one slightly changed, until values of /, x" satisfy-

If

it

is

ing the equations

I.,

II.

exactly, shall have

been found.

Besides,

means

will

not

be wanting even to the moderately versed analyst of abridging the calculation.

In these operations the irrational quantities (x'x' -\- da^y, {x"x" -^-d'd'y, are
conveniently calculated by introducing the arcs /,

z",

of which the tangents are

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM FOUK OBSERVATIONS,

240

respectively

/, /',

may come

whence

whence come

-dj -jn

These auxiliary

it is

11.

[BoOK

which must be taken between

arcs,

out positive

and 180, in order that

be identical with the arcs C'B', C"B",

way not only / and r", but also the situation of

will, manifestly,

evident that in this

the points C, C", are known.

This determination of the quantities

Q!' to be

known, the

first

x',

x" requires d,

d', V, b",

Now

of the problem, but the four following depend on P', P".

jP, P",

TV

c',

Q,

e", d', d",

four of which quantities are, in fact, had from the data

^, Q', cannot yet be exactly determined ; but

the quantities

yet, since

7y'_i!iz^ (i^)

^ =hJck{tt)(t

)-r^-^i2)(f] 23) cosi (t/' v')

cos

(v'"

v') cos

(v'"

v")'

the approximate values are immediately at hand,

"~
tf

t'

t"'

f^

Q'=^kk{ift){fq, q'=hJck{fif){rf),
on which the

first

calculation will be based.

169.

The
first

calculation of the preceding article being completed,

to determine the arc C'C".

in article 137, the intersection

mutual inclination
found from

shall

CD =

z'

-\-

it

will

be necessary

Which may be most conveniently

done,

if,

as

of the great circles AC'B', A"C''B", and their

have been previously determined: after this, will be

z"
B'D, and C"D
B"D, by the same formulas

= +

OF which two only are complete.

Sect. 2.]

241

C"
v"
which we have given in article 144, not only
v', but also the angles
cut the great circle CO".
{ii, ii\) at which the great circles AB', A'B^',
After the arc v"
v' has been found, v'
v, and r will be obtained from a

combination of the equations

r

and

in the

sm

[v

v)=z

//,

///

s>m{y

and

r'"

'in,

nt

from a combination of these

)=^ / ~

same manner,
r

^,

sin (v"

ffs

v"

v'"

v')

+ P"

/x

/' sin

(^;''

14All the

numbers found

in this

v')

manner would be accurate

the beginning from true values of

if

we

could set out in

and then the position of the

plane of the orbit might be determined in the same manner as in article 149,
either from AC, ii and /, or from A' C", u" and /'; and the dimensions of the
orbit either

f,

v'"

V.

from

But

r, r",

t',

t",

P\ Q\ P",

and v"

v, or,

we

in the first calculation

Q"

which

is

will pass

more

by

all

exact,

from

r, 7"',

these things, and will

most approximate values of P', P"

by the method explained in 88 and the fol-

direct our attention chiefly to obtaining the

Q', Q".

We

lowing

articles,

shall reach this end, if

from r,/,v'

We
etc.,

and

(7^23).

also the values of

whence the values of

more exact than those on which the

(ijl2)

r",r'\v"'v%f'f

shall substitute these quantities,

(''^01)

1f

r',r",v"

in formulas III.- VI.,

we obtain
v\f
v,1f

first

P', Q',

r,

v\

/, r", r"\ cos h (v'

P" Q'
,

will result

hypothesis had been constructed.

these, accordingly, the second hypothesis will be formed, which, if

a conclusion exactly in the same

exact values of P",

^',

P",

Q^',

i,

manner

as the

and thus lead

first,

will furnish

Q',

With

carried to

much more

to the third hypothesis.

processes will continue to be repeated, until the values of P",

31

it is

much

These

P", Q" seem to

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM FOUR OBSERVATIONS,

242

II.

[BoOK

require no further correction, how to judge correctly of which, frequent practice

When the heliocentric motion is small, the first hypothesis
will in time show.

but if the motion ingenerally supplies those values with sufficient accuracy
cludes a greater arc, if, moreover, the intervals of the times are very unequal,
:

hypotheses several times repeated will be wanted ; but in such a case the first
hypotheses do not demand great preciseness of calculation. Finally, in the last
hypothesis, the elements themselves will be determined as

we have just

indicated.

170.

be necessary in the

It will

first

hypothesis to

make

use of the times

t, if,

f,

uncorrected, because the distances from the earth cannot yet be computed
soon, however, as the approximate values of the quantities /, ^'

known, we

be able to determine

shall

yet, since the formulas for ^

and

{^"

little

as

have become

also those distances approximately.

come out here a

f,

But

more complicated,

it

computation of the correction of the times until the

values of the distances have become correct enough to render a repetition of the
will

be well to put

work unnecessary.

off the

On which

account

on those values of the quantities x\

so that the last hypothesis

the quantities P',P",

for this purpose

vn.

Q'

Ynx

Q!,

may

x",

start

be expedient to base this operation

to which the last hypothesis but one leads,

it

will

with corrected values of the times and of

The following

Q",

are the formulas to be employed

= afircosd',

9"=a;^' iT'cosd",

= BcosB COS (a

a)
cos
cos

IX. QC09^
-\

I)

yylq'

^'

{a'

-\-

JR'

cos B' cos

{I'

a))

^(^"cos/3"cos(a" a) + ^'cos^''cos(r a)),

+ ^'
X. Qsmp=z B8mB-\
+ B' B')
^

(^/ sin

-i-,

(^/'

sin

(r

+ B"

(i'

sin B''),

sin

OF which two only are complete.

Sect. 2.]

XL

P^'"^OBB'"coB{a'"r)
^+-^' U cos
a")+
^" cos

243

q"'(iOBr-==^

XII.

[a'"

ir,

cos

{^

d'' sin ^'''

/i'

cos

= B!"

(a'''

sin

+ ^'
a!)

^''

B!' cos

cos B' cos

(a'^'

B" cos

^"*^^^, (^'' sin /9''

-^

i^^l

+ ls)

{a!"

I"))

T)),

+ B!'

sin ^')

-l(9'sin(:?'+i?'sin^).
The formulas IX.-XII.
112,

are derived without difficulty from equations

1, 2, 3, article

merely, the symbols there used are properly converted into those

if,

The formulas

employ.

Not only

vanish.

(),

will evidently

but also

/?

come out much more simple

if

we

B,

here

B\ B"

from the combination of the formulas

will follow

IX. and X., and, in the same manner, besides r", also

fi"'

from XI. and XII.

the

values of these, compared with the observed latitudes (not entering into the

they have been given, will show with what degree of accuracy
the extreme latitudes may be represented by elements adapted to the six remaincalculation), if

ing data.

171.

A suitable
which, of
the

all

ecliptic*

Lilienthal,
Oriajsii

example for the illustration of

the most recently discovered

We

select the following

and Milan, by the

* Nevertheless this inclination

illustrious

is still

XV.

p.

is

taken from

Vesta,

planets, has the least inclination to

observations

made

at

Bremen,

Paris,

great enough to admit of a sufficiently safe and accurate deter:

in fact the first elements

way from observations only 19 days distant from each other (see

respondenz, Vol.
tions,

mvestigation

astronomers Olbers, Bouvard, Bessel, and

mination of the orbit based upon three observations

in this

this

which had been derived

VON Zach's MonatUche

Gor-

595), approach nearly to those which were here deduced from four observa^

removed from each other 162 days.

244

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM FOUR OBSERVATIONS,

Mean time

of place of observation.

[BoOK

II.

two only are complete.

of which

Sect. 2.]

11.009449, x'= 1.083306, log = 0.0728800, log =9.713 9702

= 2.082036,
+ 6.322006, logr^=0.0798512?2 log/^''= 9.8387061
=
5^48
AD= 37nr5r.50, J^'D= 8924'ir.84,
B'D = 25 5 13
B"D =: 11 20 49
^

^'==:
y'

245

/^'

??

x'^=:

9 5'

.56.

.38,

These preliminary calculations completed, we enter upon the

From

we

the intervals of the times

'

log ^

^)

{rf) = 0.0054651,

log ]c

log P'

first

approximate values

= 0.06117,

logP''=

hypothesis.

=: 9.9153666
ifO= 9.9765359

(^'

log/^"(r

and hence the

first

obtain

+ F) = 0.33269,
== 0.28681,
log(l +

log Q"

log (1

9.97107,

Q''= 9.67997,

log

P'')

= 9.59087

hence, further,

= 7.68361,
c"^ + 2.20771,

log d'

c'

With these values the following

few

trials

x'

= 2.04856,

:?;''==

From

/, /'

and

e,

z'

get
0'0''

hence

v'

v, r, v'"

log r sin

{v'

d"^ 0.12552.

solution of equations

= 23

38' 17'',

/'=27

1.95745,

we

log

= 0.04666 n

v) 9.74942,

v''

obtained, after a

= 0.34951

log /'= 0.34194.

0,

= v':=ir

v'\ r", will

log

I., 11., is

5":

be determinable by the following equations

log r sin

{v'

v-{- IT

logr"sin(t;'" 2;"+ 17

log/"sin(z;'"t;")z= 9.84729,

1'

5'')

5")

vz:^ 14

v"'v"=
Lastly,

is

14' 32",

18 48 33,

log r

= 0.35865

log/"= 0.33887.

found

log

(?2

01)

= 0.00426,

log

(?z

12)

= 0.00599,

and hence the corrected values of P', P", Q\ Q'\

log (w 23)

= 0.07500
= 0.10733

whence we derive
v'

= 0.00711,

BETEBMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM FOUR OBSERVATIONS,

246

= 0.05944,

log

q = 9.60374,

logP''== 9.97219,

log

Q''= 9.69581,

log P'

upon which the

are as follows
c'

x'

+ 2.21061,

= 2.03308, / = 23

v=

log {n01)
result

= 0.045736 n
47' 54'^ log

27 12 25,

log /'=

= 0.004359,

log {n 12)

= 0.059426,
log P'' = 9.972249,
c'

c"
x'

we proceed

P'', Q^, Q",

log Q'
log

Q''

= 9.604749
= 9.697564,

to the third hypothesis, the following

numbers

result

= 7.67815, \ogd' = 0.045729

= + 2.21076, log /'= 0.126082
= 2.03255, / = 23 48' log / = 0.346653
?z

14",

fl;"= 1.94235,

v'

0.339373

= 0.006102, log (n 23) = 0.007280.

newly corrected values of P',

if

0.346747,

log/''=: 0.334564

log P'

from which,

/ =:

14 21' 36", log r =^ 0.354687

1^'''/'=: 18 50 43,

Hence

principal results of this

log^"=: 0.126054

/'= 1.94290, /'=

v'

11.

7.67820, log d'

c''=:

The

be constructed.

second hypothesis will

[BoOK

v=

/'= 27

14 21' 49", logr

i/''^v"=lS 51
log (w 01)

12 49,

7,

log /'= 0.339276

=0.354522

log/" =0.334290

= 0.004363,

log

(tz

12)

= 0.006106,

log (w 23)

= 0.007290.

now

the distances from the earth are computed according to the precepts of
the preceding article, there appears -^
If

= 1.5635,
log 9 cos = 0.09876
^ = 9.44252
log 9
= 1226'40"
log 9 = 0.10909
9'

/3

sin

/?

9"

=2.1319
cos ^'"

log

9"'

log

9'" sin ^'"

= 0.42842
= 9.30905

/5'"

= 4 20' 39"

log

9'"=

0.42967.

Sect. 2.]

Hence are found

OF WHICH TWO ONLY ARE COMPLETE.

247

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM FOUR OBSERVATIONS.

248

True anomaly
True anomaly

for the first place

293 33' 43^7

for the fourth place

343 54 50

Hence the longitude of the

Angle of eccentricity

.2

302 33 32

.6

346 32 25

.2

9 7 8''. 72 16

278 13 39. 1
168 10 45

.6

2 58

.1

(p

Logarithm of the semi-axis major

0.372898

geocentric places of the planet are computed from these elements

for the corrected times

t,

f,

f,

f, the four longitudes agree with

the two intermediate latitudes with

/i',

", to the tenth of

extreme latitudes come out 1226'43''.7 and 420'40'M.

22'^4 in defect, the latter 18''.5 in excess.

But

is

a, a', a", a'",

a second

The former

and

but the
in error

yet, if the inclination of the

only increased 6'', and the longitude of the node

other elements remaining the same, the errors distributed

orbit

II.

24957 6. 5

perihelion

Mean anomaly for the first place

Mean anomaly for the fourth place
Mean daily sidereal motion
Mean anomaly for the beginning of the year 1807.
Mean longitude for the same epoch

If the

[BoOK

is

diminished

among

all

4' 40'',

the

the latitudes

be reduced to a few seconds, and the longitudes will only be affected by the
smallest errors, which will themselves be almost reduced to nothing, if, in addition.

will

2" is taken fi:om the epoch of the longitude.

THIRD SECTION.
THE DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT SATISFYING AS NEARLY AS POSSIBLE ANY
NUMBER OF OBSERVATIONS WHATEVER.

172.
If the astronomical observations

on which the computathe elements also, whether deduced

and other

quantities,

were absolutely correct,

from three or four observations, would be strictly accurate
tion of orbits

is

based,

(so far

indeed as the

supposed to take place exactly according to the laws of Kepler), and,

therefore, if other observations were used, they might be confirmed, but not corBut since all our measurements and observations are nothing more than
rected.

motion

is

approximations to the truth, the same must be true of all calculations resting
upon them, and the highest aim of all computations made concerning concrete

phenomena must be

to approximate, as nearly as practicable, to the truth.

But

can be accomplished in no other way than by a suitable combination of

more observations than the number absolutely requisite for the determination of
this

This problem can only be properly undertaken when

an approximate knowledge of the orbit has been already attained, which is afterwards to be corrected so as to satisfy all the observations in the most accurate
the

unknown

manner

quantities.

possible.

then can only be worth while to aim at the highest accuracy, when the
correction is to be given to the orbit to be determined.
But as long as it

It
final

appears probable that new observations will give rise to new corrections, it will
be convenient to relax more or less, as the case may be, from extreme precision,
if in this

We will

way

the length of the computations can be considerably diminished.

endeavor to meet both

cases.

32

(249)

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

250

[BoOK

II.

173.

In the

first place, it is

of the greatest importance, that the several positions of

the heavenly body on which

it

is

taken from single observations, but,

proposed to base the

if possible,

orbit,

should not be

from several so combined that the

may be, mutually destroy each other. Obsersuch

as
are
distant
from each other by an interval of a few
example,
or by so much, in some cases, as an interval of fifteen or twenty days,

accidental errors might, as far as

vations, for

days,

are not to be used in the calculation as so

many

different positions, but

it

would

be better to derive from them a single place, which would be, as it were, a mean
among all, admitting, therefore, much greater accuracy than single observations
considered separately.

The

This process

is

based on the following principles.

geocentric places of a heavenly body computed from approximate ele-

ments ought to differ very little from the true places, and the differences between
the former and latter should change very slowly, so that for an interval of a
few days they can be regarded as nearly constant, or, at least, the changes may
be regarded as proportional to the times. If, accordingly, the observations should

between the observed places

corresponding to the times t, t', f\ f, and those which have been computed from
the elements, that is, the differences between the observed and the computed

be regarded as free from

all

error, the differences

longitudes and latitudes, or right ascensions and declinations, would be quantities either sensibly equal, or, at least,

creasing.

uniformly and very slowly increasing or de-

Let, for example, the observed right ascensions ,

respond to those times, and let -]- ^, a'

computed ones then the differences d, 8\
;

a!'
-|-|- 8',

^", a'"

^'\ ^"', etc. will

a',

a\

-|-

d"\

differ

a"\
etc.,

etc., cor-

be the

from the true

deviations of the elements so far only as the observations themselves are errone-

ous

if,

therefore, these deviations can

servations, the quantities d,

be regarded as constant

^', d'\ d'", etc.

will furnish as

many

nations of the same quantity, for the correct value of which

take the arithmetical

there

is

no reason

mean between

for preferring

it

those determinations, so

one to the other.

But

if it

for all these ob-

different determiwill
far,

be proper to
of course, as

seems that the same

degree of accuracy cannot be attributed to the several observations, let us assume

any number of observations.

Sect. 3.]

that the degree of accuracy in each

bers

e,

that errors reciprocally proportional to

is,

numbers could have been made

these

be considered proportional to the num-

may

/, e'^ e"\ etc. respectively, that

251

in the observations with equal facility;

then, according to the principles to be propounded below, the

mean value

will

no longer be the simple arithmetical mean, but

ee8-\- e'e'8' -[- d'd'^' -[- e"'e"'8"'
ee

Putting
sions,

now
-j-

this

most probable

mean

A^a!

-\-

e'e!

e"e"

-f- e"'e"'

value equal to A,

-\-^'

-\- etc.

etc.

we can assume

-~ A,
J, a' '\- ^"
a"-\- d'"

for the true right ascen-

z/,

and then

respectively,

be arbitrary, which we use in the calculation. But if either the observations are distant from each other by too great an interval of time, or if suffiit

will

ciently approximate elements of the orbit are not yet

known,

not be admissible to regard their deviations as constant for

all

so that it

would

the observations,

it

be perceived, that no other difference arises from this except that the
mean deviation thus found cannot be regarded as common to all the observations, but is to be referred to some intermediate time, which must be derived from
will readily

the individual times in the same

and therefore generally

manner

as

from the corresponding deviations,

to the time

eet^ e'e'tf -f e"e"t" -j- e'"e'"t"' +

"ee-|_eV_|_7V'
e'V+etc.

if

we

it

will in general

e tc.
*

be necessary to compute
the geocentric place from the elements for the same time, and afterwards to free
it from the mean error A, in order that the most accurate position may be obConsequently,

tained.

But

desire the greatest accuracy,

it

be abundantly sufficient

referred to the observation nearest to the

mean

time.

of right ascensions, applies equally to declinations,

and

will

if

the

mean

What we have

or, if it is desired, to

error

is

said here

longitudes

however,
always be better to compare the right ascensions
and declinations computed from the elements immediately with those observed
for thus we not only gain a much more expeditious calculation, especially if we
latitudes

it

will

make

use of the methods explained in articles 53-60, but this

method has the

additional advantage, that the incomplete observations can also be

and besides,

if

made

use of;

every thing should be referred to longitudes and latitudes, there

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

252

[BoOK

II.

an observation made correctly in right ascension,

but badly in declination (or the opposite), should be vitiated in respect to both
The degree of precision
longitude and latitude, and thus become wholly useless.

would be cause to fear

to

be assigned to the

lest

mean found

as above will be, according to the principles to

be explained hereafter,

V (ee

+ // + e'Y -f /V +

etc.)

so that four or nine equally exact observations are required, if the

mean

is

to

possess a double or triple accuracy.

174.
If the orbit of a heavenly

body has been determined according

given in the preceding sections

from three or four geocentric

to the

methods

positions, each one

of which has been derived, according to the precepts of the preceding article,

from a great

many

observations, that orbit will hold a mean, as

and

it

we^e,

among

between the observed and'computed

places there will remain no trace of any law, which it would be possible to remove or sensibly diminish by a correction of the elements. Now, when the whole
number of observations does not embrace too great an interval of time, the best
all

these observations

in the differences

agreement of the elements with all the observations can be obtained, if only
three or four normal positions are judiciously selected. How much advantage
we shall derive from this method in determining the orbits of new planets or
comets, the observations of which do not yet embrace a period of

more than

one year, will depend on the nature of the case. When, accordingly, the orbit
to be determined is inclined at a considerable angle to the ecliptic, it will be
based upon three observations, which we shall take as remote from
each other as possible but if in this way we should meet with any one of the
cases excluded above (articles 160-162), or if the inclination of the orbit should

in general

seem too

we

small,

we

shall prefer the determination

from four

positions, which, also,

remote as possible from each other.

But when we have a longer series of observations, embracing several years,
more normal positions can be derived from them on which account, we should
shall take as

any number of observations.

Sect. 3.]

253

not insure the greatest accuracy, if we were to select three or four positions only
But in such a case,
for the determination of the orbit, and neglect all the rest.
if it is

proposed to aim at the greatest precision,

we

shall take care to collect

and employ the greatest possible number of accurate places. Then, of course,
more data will exist than are required for the determination of the unknown
quantities

but

all

these data will be liable to errors, however small, so that

be impossible to

will generally

Now

satisfy all perfectly.

no reason

as

it

exists,

why, from among those data, we should consider any six as absolutely exact, but
since we must assume, rather, upon the principles of probability, that greater or
less errors are

equally possible in

all,

promiscuously ; since, moreover, generally

it is evident, that an orbit

speaking, small errors oftener occur than large ones ;

which, while
others,

it

satisfies precisely

must be regarded

probabilities,

the six data, deviates

less

from the

as less consistent with the principles of the calculus of

than one which, at the same time that

six data, presents so

more or

much

it differs

the better an agreement with the

little

rest.

from those

The

investigar

tion of an orbit having, strictly speaking, the maximum probability, will depend
upon a knowledge of the law according to which the probability of errors decreases as the errors increase in magnitude

vague and doubtful

but that depends upon so many

included
which cannot be

considerations physiological

and indeed

than scarcely, possible

Neverto assign properly a law of this kind in any case of practical astronomy.
theless, an investigation of the connection between this law and the most probsubjected to calculation, that

able orbit, which

as

we

will

it is

scarcely,

undertake in

by any means a barren

its

less

utmost generality,

is

not to be regarded

speculation.

175.

To

this

end

let us leave

and one of the most

discussion

natural philosophy.
p,

q, r. s, etc.,

quantities

our special problem, and enter upon a very general

jti

and

observation are

the
let

Let

V,

V\

number of

fruitful in

V",

etc.

every application of the calculus to

be functions of the unknown quantities

those functions, v the

number of the unknown

us suppose that the values of the functions found

V=M, V = M\

V"

= M",

etc.

Generally

by

direct

speaking, the

254

DETERMINATION OF AN

determination of the

unknown

^^1/* We
all

11.

quantities will constitute a problem, indetermias

fKC."^,

fJ'

y,

or

here to the last case, in which, evidently, an

the observations would only be possible when they

all

And

absolutely free from error.

things, happen,

V"

since this cannot, in the nature of

every system of values of the unknown quantities p,

must be regarded

V M',

[BoOK

shall confine ourselves

exact representation of

were

FROM

more than determinate, according

determinate, or

nate,

OllBIT

as possible,

M'',

etc.,

q, r, s, etc.,

V M,

which gives the values of the functions

within the limits of the possible errors of observation

not to be understood to imply that each one of these systems

this, however,
would possess an equal degree of probability.
is

Let us suppose, in the first place, the state of things in all the observations to
have been such, that there is no reason why we should suspect one to be less
exact than another, or that
as equally probable in

all.

we

are

bound

to regard errors of the

same magnitude

Accordingly, the probability to be assigned to each

be expressed by a function of J which we shall denote by (p A. Now

although we cannot precisely assign the form of this function, we can at least
affirm that its value should be a maximum for z/
0, equal, generally, for equal
opposite values of A, and should vanish, if, for A is taken the greatest error, or a
error

will

value greater than the greatest error

9 z/, therefore, would appropriately be referred to the class of discontinuous functions, and if we undertake to substitute
:

analytical function in the place of

any

z^

0,

must be of

for practical purposes, this

converge to zero on both sides, asymptotically, as it were,

so that beyond this limit it can be regarded as actually vanishing.

such a form that

from

it

it

may

Moreover, the probability that an error lies between the limits A and A -\- dA
differing from each other by the infinitely small difference d A, will be expressed
hy (pA dA ; hence the probability generally, that the error lies between i> and
*
If,

in the third case, the functions V,

V, V"

should be of such a nature that

or more, might be regarded as functions of the remainder, the problem would

still

f*

-|-

tions

say,
V,

it

would be impossible

V,

discussion.

V",

etc.

to

determine the values of the

should be given with absolute exactness

latter,

but

we

even

oi'

them,

be more than determi-

nate with respect to these functions, but indeterminate with respect to the quantities p,
is to

if the

etc.
g, r, s,

that

values of the func-

shall exclude this case

from our

any number of observations.

Sect. 3.]

256

J=D

be given by the integral / 9 z/.d// extended from

to J^^If.
This integral taken from the greatest negative value of A to the greatest positive
go to ^
value, or more generally from A ^=
-|-co must necessarily be equal

i>',

will

Supposing, therefore, any determinate system of the values of the

to unity.

quantities p,

value

M,

q, r, s, etc.,

the probability that observation would give for

be expressed by

will

their values; in the

V,

(p

same manner

{M

(p

Wherefore, since

V", etc.

V), substituting in

V),
[M'

cp

[M" V"),

would give the values

probabilities that observation

tions

we

M%

V for

p,

q, r, s, etc.,

of the func-

etc.

are authorized to regard

the

express the

etc. will

M",

all

the observa-

tions as events independent of each other, the product

ip(^MV) if{M'r) ip(M''r')

etc.,

=i2

will express the expectation or probability that all those values will result to-

gether from observation.

176.

Now

in the

unknown

same manner

as,

when any determinate

values whatever of the

quantities being taken, a determinate probability corresponds, previ-

ous to observation, to any system of values of the functions V, V, V",

inversely, after determinate values of the functions

etc.; so,

have resulted from observa-

a determinate probability will belong to every system of values of the unknown quantities, from which the values of the functions could possibly have
tion,

resulted

for,

evidently, those systems will be regarded as the

more probable

in

which the greater expectation had existed of the event which actually occurred.
The estimation of this probability rests upon the following theorem
:

If,
if,

any hypothesis

another hypothesis

probability of the

H'

being

same event

the probability thai

hypothesis, as

H heing made, the

was

is

made
hf

probahiUty of any determinate event

excluding the former

then

and

say, tvhen the eveivt

the true
hypothesis,

is

equally probable in

is

h, a7id

itself,

the

has actually occurred, that

to the
probability that

H' was

the true

to \i.

For demonstrating which let us suppose that, by a classification of all the circumstances on which it depends whether, with ^or H' or some other
hypothesis,

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

256
the event

is,

II.

or some other event, should occur, a system of the different cases

formed, each one of which cases

(that

[Book

as long as

it is

and that these cases be

that

to be considered as equally probable in itself

uncertain whether the event E, or some other, will occur),

so distributed,

among them

may

is

is

be found

any number of observations.

Sect. 3.]

etc.,

257

unknown

and, therefore, that all systems of values of these

quantities

were

equally probable previous to the observations, the probability, evidently, of any

determinate system subsequent to the observations will be proportional to i2.

be understood to mean that the probability that the values of the unknown quantities lie between the infinitely near limits j and jt? -|- djt?, q and q-^^q,
This

is

and

to

r-|- dr, s

and

5 -|- d^, etc. respectively, is* expressed

XXidjodg-drds

where the quantity

by

etc.,

\ will be a constant quantity independent of

j, q, r, s,

and, indeed, ^ will, evidently, be the value of the integral of the order

/^S2d]9dqdrds
for each of the variables p, g,

value

-f-

00

r, s, etc.,

etc.

v,

etc.,

extended from the value

00

to the

177.

Now

it

the quantities p,
therefore,

from

readily follows

is

is
q, r, 5, etc.

to be derived

^
dp

that the most probable system of values of

this,

that in which SI acquires the

maximum

value, and,

from the v equations

0,' ^3

aq

0,'

0, -J-^=
ar
'as

0,' etc.

These equations, by putting

VM=v, rM' = v\ r'M' = v",

dv
d^^^ + d^^^^'+d^^^

assume the following form

,

dv

di/

di/

and

-^^, = q>'A

dt/'

d^/'

//

dv'

dw"

dv"

+etc.= 0,

d^9 + 5^9^ +179'^

dv
d/
d;9 + d7^^+d79'^
dv
Ts'f + aT'f+aTf''
f

etc.,

//

/f

//

+etc.= 0,
\

+etc.= 0,
1

+t-=0-

Hence, accordingly, a completely determinate solution of the problem can be

obtained by elimination, as soon as the nature of the function 9' is known. Since
33

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

258

cannot be defined a

this

of

point

view, inquire

common

base, the

It

depends.

prioii,

we

will,

upon what

[BoOK

II.

approaching the subject from another

function, tacitly, as

which

principle, the excellence of

is

it

were, assumed as a

generally acknowledged,

has been customary certainly to regard as an axiom the hypothesis

any quantity has been determined by several direct observations, made

under the same circumstances and with equal care, the arithmetical mean of the

that

if

observed values affords the most probable value,

least, so

nearly at

that

it

not rigorously, yet very

always most safe to adhere to it.
By putting,

is

if

therefore,

V=r=r' Qic.=p,
we ought

to have in general,
g,'

if

instead of

{Mp) + ^' {M' p) +

is

jt?

wnatever positive integer

shall

p)-\-

{M"

etc.

0,

substituted the value

i(JW4-Jf'

we

(f'

+ Jf''+etc.),
By

expresses.

have in general, that

is,

for

any

supposing, therefore,

positive integral value of

pu,

9'(^-l)iV={l-;)9'(-iV^),
whence

it is

denote by

Jc.

readily inferred that

must be a constant quantity, which we

Hence we have
log

(pJ=:hk}d /I -\-

Constant,

denoting the base of the hyperbolic logarithms by

Constant

Moreover,
really

it is

readily perceived that

become a maximum,

for

Jc

since,

= log

by the elegant theorem

first

and assuming

x.

must be negative,

which reason we
hJc^=-

and

will

shall

in order that 2

put

hh',

discovered

by Laplace, the

integral

may

any number of observations.

Sect. 3.]

from

A = 00

the circle

toz/==-|-
the radius of which

i^

is

(denoting

/~>

259

by n the semicircumference of

unity), our function

becomes

178.

The function
of the errors
limits,

just found cannot,

true, express rigorously the probabilities

it is

for since the possible errors are in

aU cases confined within certain

the probability of errors exceeding those limits ought always to be zero,

while our formula always gives some value. However, this defect, which every
analytical function must, from its nature, labor under, is of no importance in
practice, because the value of our function decreases so rapidly, when hJ has

can safely be considered as vanishing.

Besides, the nature of the subject never admits of assigning with absolute rigor
the limits of error.
acquired a considerable magnitude, that

it

Finally, the constant h can be considered as the

For

observations.
in

if

the probability of the error

measure of precision of the

is supposed to be expressed

any one system of observations by

and

in another

system of observations more or

^

less

exact

by

^ h'h'AA '

sin

the expectation, that the error of any observation in the former system
tained between the limits

taken from A^=i

to

8 and

-|-

in the

same manner the expectation, that

the error of any observation in the latter system does not exceed the limits

and

-f- 8' will

con-

d will be expressed by the integral

Jn/^
and

A ^-\-8

is

d'

be expressed by the integral

extended from

A =^ d'

yjt

to

^ = -|- d'

but both integrals manifestly become

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

260
equal

when we have hd
committed

error can be

error in the latter, in

z=z h'd\

in the former system with the

which

double degree of precision

case, according to the

common way

of speaking, a

attributed to the latter observations.

is

179.

We

develop the conclusions which foUow from this law.

dent, in order that the product

now

will

may become

maximum,

that the

vv-\-

must become a minimum.

the

unknown

It is evi-

sum
v'v'

-\-

v"v" -\-

etc.,

Therefore, that will he the most probable system of values of

quantities p, q, r,

between the observed

II.

example // =.2h, a double

same facility as a single

therefore, if for

Now,

[BoOK

s,

and computed

the same degree of accuracy

is

etc.,

in which the

sum of

values of the functions

to be

presumed

the squares of the differences

Y,

V,

N",

etc. is

a minimum,

in all the observations.

if

This prin-

which promises to be of most frequent use in all applications of the mathematics to natural philosophy, must, everywhere, be considered an axiom with
ciple,

the same propriety as the arithmetical

same quantity

mean

of several observed values of the

adopted as the most probable value.

This principle can be extended without difficulty to observations of unequal
If, for example, the measures of precision of the observations by
accuracy.
is

means of which
respectively,

by

V=^M,

V ^=M',

h, h', h", etc.,

that

V" ^M",
is,

if it is

have been found, are expressed,

assumed that errors reciprocally proetc.

portional to these quantities might have been

observations, this, evidently, will be the

as

if,

facility in those

by means of observations of

equal to unity), the values of the funchad been directly found to be hM, KM',H'M", etc.:

equal precision (the measure of which

tions hV,

same

made with equal

is

h'V, h"V'\ etc.,

wherefore, the most probable system of values of the quantities p, q, r, s, etc.,
will be that in which the sum of
hhvv-\- HKv'v' -f- h"h"v"v" -f- etc., that is, in whi^h
the

sum of the squares of the

amd computed values

a minimum. In this way it

differences between the actually observed

multiplied by numbers that measure the degree of precision,

is

any number of observations.

Sect. 3.]

261

not even necessary that the functions V, V\ V", etc. relate to homogeneous
quantities, but they may represent heterogeneous quantities also, (for example,
seconds of arc and time), provided only that the ratio of the errors, which might

is

have been committed with equal

facility in each,

can be estimated.

180.

The

principle explained in the preceding article derives value also

that the numerical determination of the

expeditious algorithm,

suppose

when

unknown

the functions V,

and

V M^=. v=. m-\-ap-\-hq-\-cr -\- ds-\-

let

us put
av-\-a!i/-{-a"v"-\-eiG.

hv-\- Vv'
GV
c'v'

+ V'v" +
+ +

+
dv + d'v'-]-d"v"+

etc.

Then the

c"v"

etc.

etc.
etc.
etc.

etc.

=P
=q
=R
=S

v equations of article 177, from which the values of the

quantities must be determined,

P=%

will, evidently,

Q^

0,

this,

reduced to a very
quantities
V\ V", etc. are linear. Let us
is

Y"_M"=v"=z m"+a"p + b"q + c"r + d"s +

etc.,

from

be the following

R= S=
0,

unknown

0, etc.,

provided we suppose the observations equally good; to which case we have shown
in the preceding article how to reduce the others.
We have, therefore, as many
linear equations as there are

unknown

the values of the latter will be obtained

quantities to be determined, from

by common

which

elimination.

Let us see now, whether this elimination is always

solution can become indeterminate, or even
impossible.

possible, or
It is

theory of elimination, that the second or third case will occur

whether the

known, from the

when one of the

equations

P=0, ^ = 0, i?=0,

/S'rrzO, etc.,

being omitted, an equation can be formed from the

rest, either identical

with the

DETERMINATION OF AN OKBIT FROM

262

omitted one or inconsistent with

or,

it,

which amounts to the same

which

when

the

unknown

7i.

have the identical equation

at once

{v-\-m)v

+ {v'-\-m') ^
v'

accordingly,

by the

{y"

we suppose

7d') v"

the functions

v\

v,

{IX

= 'pP -\-qQ-\- rE^sS^

etc.

v\

to

become
-|-

etc.

respectively,

m"
Vx,

-\-

Vx,

etc.,

have the identical equation

n' + rr +

-\-

etc.

= ^x, = yx, = dx,

m-^-lx, m'

shall evidently

-^

substitutions

p -rrziax,

that

all

Let us assume, therefore,

etc.

jo, q, r, s,

aP-\-(jQ-^yB-\-dS+eic.

We

from

identically either equal to zero, or, at least, free

is

quantities

we

thing,

II.

possible to assign a linear function

it is

If,

[BoOK

etc.)

xx{Xm + rmf-}- IV etc.) x = iix,

is,

^X _^
hence

it

XT+ rr + etc. z=

must follow that

evident, that all the functions

changed, even

if

0, X'

V,

the quantities p,

+ Xm + rm'+ rV+ =
= X" =
x =
Then
and

0,

etc.

Jc

also

0, etc.

0,

it is

0.

V", are such that their values are not

q, r, s,

etc.

receive

any increments or decrebut we have already

etc.

ments whatever, proportional to the numbers , /?, /, d,

mentioned before, that cases of this kind, in which evidently the determination
of the unknown quantities would not be possible, even if the true values of the
:

functions V,
Finally,

V\

we

should be given, do not belong to this subject.

can easily reduce to the case here considered, all the others in
V",

etc.,

which the functions

V,

V,

V", etc. are not linear.

Letting, for instance, n, %,

a, etc., denote approximate values of the unknown quantities p, q,

we shall easily obtain if at first we only use v of the fi equations

r, s, etc.,

V=M,

V" := M",
y,

etc.),

we

will introduce in place of the

/, /, /, etc., putting

values of these

unknown

(which

F'=Jf',

quantities the others,

p=:n-\-p',q^=x-\-^,r^=^i}-\-r',s^o-\-s\

new unknown

{),

etc.

the

quantities will evidently be so small that their

any number of observations.

Sect. 3.]

squares and products

linear.
ties

y,

may

be neglected, by which means the equations become

completed, the values of the unknown quantiprove, contrary to expectation, to be so great, as to make it

after the calculation

If,

/, /, /, etc.,

263

is

appear unsafe to neglect the squares and products, a repetition of the same process (the corrected values of p, q, r, s, etc. being taken instead of n, /,
q, o, etc.),
will furnish

an easy remedy.
181.

When we

have only one unknown quantity p,

for the determination of

which

ap -j- n, dp -j- n, d'p -\- n", etc. have been found, reM, M', M", etc., and that, also, by means of observations

the values of the functions

spectively, equal to

equally exact, the most probable value of

am-\-

will be

a'm' -j- d'm" -\-

etc.

aa -\- a'a' -\-d'd' -\- Qic.

putting m,

rri,

m", respectively, for

n,

M'

n',

'

M" n",

etc.

In order to estimate the degree of accuracy to be attributed to this value, let

us suppose that the probabiUty of an error

Hence the

probability that the true value of

in the observations

jt?

is

is

expressed by

equal to A.-\-p' will be propor-

tional to the function

if

^ -f-p'

is

substituted for p.

The exponent of

this function

can be reduced to

the form,

in

which

is

independent of p

therefore the function itself will be propor-

tional to

It is evident, accordingly, that the

same degree of accuracy

is

to be assigned to

the value

would be

to the accuracy of the

original observations Sish)J{aa-\-a'a'-{-d'a"-\- etc.)

to h, or as

y/

as if

it

had been found by a

+ dd

-\-

d'd'

direct observation, the accuracy of

etc.) to unity.

which

"

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

264

[BoOK

II.

182.
It

wUl be necessary

to preface the discussion concerning the degree of accu-

unknown quantities, when there are sevracy to be assigned to the values of the
of the function vv -\- v'v' -{- v'V -\- etc.,
eral, with a more careful consideration
which we
I.

will denote

by W.

Let us put

i-|E=y = X + jt7 + /3^ + yr-fds+etc.,

also
'

and

evident that

it is

we have p'

= P, and,

dW'_dW
dp

since

2/d/
a

dp

^'

dp

independent of p. The coefficient a ^aa-\etc. will evidently always be a positive quantity.

n. In the same manner we will put

that the function

TT

is

a'a' -)-

V-|-

also

and we

shall

have

j.=
^

whence

it is

that

from

V,

is

a-'^

evident that the function

This would not be so

if

derived from vv

v\ v", etc.,

/?'

could

-{- v'v -[-

W"

^g' in vv,

coefficients, in fact, is

v'v',

'

v"v"

-\- etc.,

0,
^-^=
dq
'

independent both of

is

become equal

by means of the equation

the coefficients of

and

e
^ _?/,
*/_/4:=
a dq
dq

the quantity

y=

But

to zero.

hence, ^'

all

it is

q.

evident

being eliminated
will be the sum of

v"v", etc., after the elimination;

a square, nor can

p and

each of these

vanish at once, except in the case

excluded above, in which the unknown quantities remain indeterminate.

it is evident that /3' must be a
positive quantity.

Thus

any number of observations.

Sect. 3.]

By

III.

putting again,

i^ = / = r + fr + rs +
we

etc.,

and

W y= W"\

have

shall

r^

W"

also

265

RlW t

independent of p, and

q,

as well as

a'

Finally, that the coefficient of y"

r.

proved in the same manner as in II. In fact, it is readily perceived, that y" is the sum of the coefficients of rr mvv, v'v', v"v", etc., after the
quantities p and q have been eliminated from v, v', v", etc., by means of the equa-

must be

tions

IV.

positive

0,

is

0.

In the same way,

by putting

i^^'=/=r'+r'5 + etc.,

TF-=Tr''' ^;,

we shaU have

W"

independent of p, q, r, s, and d''^ a positive quantity.

V. In this manner, if besides p, q, r, s, there are still other unknown quantities, we can proceed further, so that at length we may have

^=-fV-\-J 44 + 7/
in

which
VI.

all

+ Y" +
^'^'

*^-

+ Constant,

the coefficients will be positive quantities.

Now

tities p, q, r,

'^'^'

the probability of any system of determinate values for the quan-

s,

etc. is

proportional to the function e~^^^

-,

wherefore, the value of

remaining indeterminate, the probability of a system of determinate values for the rest, will be proportional to the integral
the quantity

extended fromjt?=:

go to

jo=: -|-oo

which, by the theorem of Laplace, becomes

therefore, this probability will be proportional to the function e~^''^'.

same manner,

if,

in addition, q

is

In the

treated as indeterminate, the probability of a

34

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

260

system of determinate values for

extended from q

will

r, s, etc.

is

Precisely in the same way,

or proportional to the function e~^^^".

if r also is

considered as indeterminate, the probability of the determinate values for the

s,

be proportional to the function

etc. will

number of

the unknown

will hold good,

be

jjT,,

whether

quantities to

it is

and the probability that

e~**^'",

amount

greater or

less.

II.

be proportional to the integral

upto'=-)-^? which

oo

[BoOK

and

so on.

to four, for the

same conclusion

The most probable value of

this will differ

rest,

Let us suppose .the

s will

from the truth by the quantity

be proportional to the function e~'''''"^'^; whence we conclude that the

measure of the relative precision to be attributed to that determination is exo, will

pressed

by

^$''\

observations

is

provided the measure of precision to be assigned to the original

put equal to unity.

183.

method of the preceding

measure of precision is conveniently expressed for that unknown quantity only, to which the last place has
been assigned in the work of elimination in order to avoid which disadvantage,

By

the

article the

it

will

be desirable to express the coefl&cient

d'" in

another manner.

equations

it

follows, that jt?', /, /, /,

p'

can be thus expressed by means of P, Q, P, S,

=P

4=QJ^%p

From

the

any number of observations.

Sect. 3.]

so that

^,

S3',

W,

^", S"

therefore (by restricting the

may

267

We

be determinate quantities.

number of unknown

shall

have,

quantities to four),

Hence we deduce the following conclusion. The most probable values of the
unknown quantities p, q, r, s, etc., to be derived by elimination from the equations

F=0,

= 0,B=OyjS=0,

etc.,

P, Q, B, jS, etc., are regarded for the time as indeterminate, be expressed

in a linear form by the same process of elimination by means of P, Q, R, jS, etc.,
so that we may have
will, if

p=Z

+ AF + BQ+ OR -\-DS+
g=,r-{-AF + B'Q+C'R-\-iyjS-\r = r-\-A'P-}-B"Q-{-C''R-{-iy'S-\-

etc.
etc.
etc.

s=L"'+A"B+B'''Q-lrC"'R-\-iy''jS+

etc.

etc.

This being done, the most probable values of

B"

jt?,

q, r, 5, etc.,

will evidently

be

etc., respectively, and the measure of precision to be assigned to

L, B, B',
these determinations respectively will be expressed by
^

A' \JB'

si

sJG"' sJD""

^^^'^

the precision of the original observations being put equal to unity. That which
we have before demonstrated concerning the determination of the unknown

quantity

s (for

which

^777

simple interchange of the

answers to D'") can be applied to

unknown

all

the others

by the

quantities.

184.

In order to

illustrate the

preceding investigations

by an example,

pose that, by means of observations in which equal accuracy

we have found

may

let us sup-

be assumed,

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

263

[BoOK

II.

q-\-2r = 3
6r=6
Sp-{-2g

jt?

but from a fourth observation, to which

accuracy only, there results

We

to be assigned one half the

is

2/?+6^ + 6rr=28.

will substitute in place of the last equation the following

p-\-Sq-\-Sr
and we

will suppose this to

accuracy with the former.

14:,

have resulted from an observation possessing equal

Hence we have

P = 21p+

Q=
R=

same

Qq

88

70
+r
^ + 54r 107,

6j(?+15^

and hence by elimination,

= 49154 + 809 P 324 ^ + 6

QE
737^= 2617 12P+
2P 9 ^ + 123 P.
6633 r = 12707+

19899 j

i2

64:

The most probable

values of the

unknown

quantities, therefore, will be

= 2.470
^ = 3,551
r = 1.916

jt?

and the relative precision to be assigned to these determinations, the precision of

the original observations being put equal to unity, will be

= ^-9

forp

v/ir

for?

^^=3.69

forr

s/^ = 1M.

any number oe observations.

Sect. 3.]

269

185.

The

subject

investigations,

much

we have

just treated

upon which,

might give

however, we

diverted from our object.

will not dwell, that

When

more

elegant analytical
too

we may not be

For the same reason we must reserve

occasion the explanation of the devices

lation can be rendered

rise to several

for another

by means of which the numerical

I will

expeditious.

calcu-

add only a single remark.

number of the proposed functions or equations is considerable, the

computation becomes a little more troublesome, on this account chiefly, that the
the

coefficients,

tain

by which the

P, Q, E,

a case

it

accurate

jS,

etc.,

original equations are to be multiplied in order to ob-

often involve inconvenient decimal fractions.

If in such

does not seem worth while to perform these multiplications in the most

manner by means of logarithmic

tables, it will generally

be

sufficient

employ in place of these multipliers others more convenient for calculation,

and differing but little from them. This change can produce sensible errors in
to

that case only in which the measure of precision in the determination of the

unknown

quantities proves to be

much

less

than the precision of the original

observations.

186.
In conclusion, the principle that the sum of the squares of the differences
between the observed and computed quantities must be a minimum may, in the
following manner, be considered independently of the calculus of probabilities.
When the number of unknown quantities is equal to the number of the ob-

served quantities depending on them, the former may be so determined as exactly

to satisfy the latter.
But when the number of the former is less than that of the

an absolutely exact agreement cannot be obtained, unless the observations

In this case care must be taken to establish the best
possess absolute accuracy.

latter,

possible agreement, or to diminish as far as practicable the differences.

however, from

its

values for the

unknown

nature, involves something vague.

quantities

which makes

all

This idea,

For, although a system of

the differences respectively

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

270

[BoOK

II.

without doubt to be preferred to the latter, still the

choice between two systems, one of which presents a better agreement in some

than another system,

less

is

observations, the other in others,

is

left in

a measure to our judgment, and innu-

merable different principles can be proposed by which the former condition is

satisfied.
Denoting the differences between observation and calculation by J,
J', A'\ etc., the first condition will be satisfied not only ii J J -\- A'A' -\- A" A" -\is

etc,

z/^ -\-

minimum (which

A"^ -\-

A"^ -J-

etc.,

our principle), but also

is

or in general,

if

the

sum

of

if

A^A^A"^-\- A"^

-\- etc.,

or

any of the powers with an

even exponent becomes a minimum. But of all these principles ours is the most simple by the others we should be led into the most complicated calculations.
;

Our

principle,

which we have made use of since the year 1795, has

been published by Legendre

orbiies des cometes,

Paris,

in the

work

Noiwelles methodes

pour

lately

la determination des

1806, where several other properties of this principle have

been explained, which, for the sake of brevity, we here omit.

If we were to adopt a power with an infinite even exponent, we should be
led to that system in which the greatest differences become less than in any other
system.

Laplace

made

number of which

use of another principle for the solution of linear equations the

is

greater than the

number of the unknown

which

quantities,

had been previously proposed by Boscovich, namely, that the sum of the errors
themselves taken positively, be made a minimum. It can be easily shown, that a
system of values of unknown quantities, derived from this principle alone, must
necessarily* exactly satisfy as many equations out of the number proposed, as
there are unknown quantities, so that the remaining equations come under consideration only so far as they help to determine the choice

F=

J:/^

for example,

is

of the

number of

therefore, the equation

if,

those which are not satisfied, the sys-

tem of values found according to this principle would in no respect be changed,

even if any other value JSf had been observed instead of M, provided that, denoting the computed value

same

signs.

by

n,

the differences

Besides, Laplace qualifies in

Except the special cases

in

n, JSf

some measure

which the problem remains,

to

w,

were

affected

this principle

some

by the

by adding

extent, indeterminate.

any number of observations.

Sect. 3.]

271

he requires, namely, that the sum of the differences, the signs

remaining unchanged, be equal to zero. Hence it follows, that the number of
equations exactly represented may be less by unity than the number of unknown
a

new

condition

quantities

but what

two unknown

we have

before said will

still

hold good

if

there are only

quantities.

187.

From

these general discussions

we

return to our special subject for the sake

of which they were undertaken.

Before the most accurate determination of
the orbit from more observations than are absolutely requisite can be com-

menced, there should be an approximate determination which will nearly satisfy

all the given observations.
The corrections to be applied to these approximate
elements, in order to obtain the most exact agreement, will be regarded as the
objects of the problem.

And when

that their squares and products

it

can be assumed that these are so small

may be

neglected, the corresponding changes,

computed geocentric places of a heavenly body, can be obtained

by means of the differential formulas given in the Second Section of the First
Book. The computed places, therefore, which we obtain from the corrected eleproduced

in the

ments, will be expressed by linear functions of the corrections of the elements,

and

their comparison with the observed places according to the principles before

explained, will lead to the determination of the most probable values.

processes are so simple that they require no further illustration, and

it

These

appears at

once that any number of observations, however remote from each other, can
be employed. The same method may also be used in the correction of the paralolie

orbits of comets, should

we have

a long series of observations and the best

agreement be required.

188.

The preceding method

greatest accuracy

is

adapted principally to those cases in which the

desired: but cases very frequently occur where we may,
is

without hesitation, depart from

it

little,

provided that by so doing the calcula-

DETERMINATION OF AN ORBIT FROM

272
tion

is

considerably abridged, especially

II.

the observations do not embrace a

here the final determination of the orbit

great interval of time;

proposed.

when

[Book

In such cases the following method

may

not yet
be employed with great
is

advantage.

Let complete places L and L' be selected from the whole number of observations, and let the distances of the heavenly body from the earth be computed

from the approximate elements for the corresponding times. Let three hypotheses then be framed with respect to these distances, the computed values being
retained in the

first,

the

'

first

distance being changed in the second hypothesis,

and the second in the third hypothesis these changes can be made in proportion
to the uncertainty presumed to remain in the distances.
According to these
three hypotheses, which we present in the following table,
;

any number of observations.

Sect. 3.]

273

to small variations of the distances Z>, D', as well as of the geocentric places

computed from them, we can assume, that the geocentric places computed from
the fourth system of elements, based on the distances from the earth D-\-x8.

jy J^yd\ are respectively Jtf

fy, etc.
ax^^y,
^a'x-\- fy, M" -\- a"x
the
to
preceding discussions, in such a
Hence, x, y, will be determined, according
manner (the relative accuracy of the observations being taken into account), that

these quantities

may

as far as possible agree with

The corrected system of elements can be derived

tances

D-\-x^, D' -\-xd',

or,

N, N', N",

etc.,

respectively.

either from L, II and the dis-

according to well-known rules, from the three

first

systems of elements by simple interpolation.

189.

from the preceding in this respect only, that it satisfies

two geocentric places exactly, and then the remaining places as nearly as possible while according, to the other method no one observation has the preference
This method

differs

over the

rest,

but the

errors, as far as it

The method of the preceding

can be done, are distributed

article, therefore, is

among

all.

only not to be preferred to the

former when, allowing some part of the errors to the places Z, X', it is possible to
diminish considerably the errors in the remaining places but yet it is generally
:

to provide that this difference

by a suitable choice of the observations Z,
cannot become very important. It will be necessary, of course, to take care that

easy,

not only possess the greatest accuracy,

but also such that the elements derived from them and the distances are not

such observations are selected for Z,

too

much

affected

by small

X', as

variations in the geocentric places.

It will not, there-

be judicious to select observations distant from each other by a small interval of time, or those to which correspond nearly opposite or coincident heliocen-

fore,

tric places.

35

FOURTH SECTION.
ON THE DETERMINATION OF ORBITS, TAKING INTO ACCOUNT THE
PERTURBATIONS.

190.

The perturbations which the motions of planets suffer from the influence of
other planets, are so small and so slow that they only become sensible after a
long interval of time

within a shorter time, or even within one or several entire

revolutions, according to circumstances, the motion

would

differ so little

from the

motion exactly described, according to the laws of Kepler, in a perfect ellipse,

that observations cannot show the difference. As long as this is true, it would
not be worth while to undertake prematurely the computation of the perturbations, but it will be sufficient to adapt to the observations what we may call an

when

the planet has been accurately

observed for a longer time, the effect of the perturbations will show itself in such

osculating conic section: but, afterwards,

a manner, that

it

no longer be possible to satisfy exactly all the observations

motion then, accordingly, a complete and permanent agree-

will

by a purely elliptic
ment cannot be obtained,
the

elliptic

unless the perturbations are properly connected with

motion.

Since the determination of the elliptic elements with which, in order that the
observations

may

be exactly represented, the perturbations are to be combined,

supposes a knowledge of the latter so, inversely, the theory of the perturbations
cannot be accurately settled unless the elements are already very nearly known
;

the nature of the case does not admit of this difficult task being accomplished

with complete success at the first trial but the perturbations and the elements
can be brought to the highest degree of perfection only by alternate corrections
:

(274)

ON the determination of

Sect. 4.]

often repeated.

Accordingly, the
elliptical

new

275

theory of perturbations will be constructed

elements which have been approximately adjusted to

orbit will afterwards be investigated, which, with the

upon those purely

the observations

first

orbits.

addition of these perturbations,

tions.

may satisfy, as far as practicable, the observaIf this orbit differs considerably from the former, a second determination

of the perturbations will be based upon

it,

alternately, until observations, elements,

and the corrections

will

be repeated

and perturbations agree as nearly as

possible.

191.
Since the development of the theor}^ of perturbations from given elements is
foreign to our purpose, we will only point out here how an approximate orbit

with given perturbations, it may satisfy, in

This is accomplished in the most simple
the best manner, the observations.

can be so corrected,

that, joined

method analogous to those which we have explained in articles 124,

The numerical values of the perturbations will be computed from the
165, 188.
equations, for the longitudes in orbit, for the radii vectores, and also for the helio-

way by

centric latitudes, for the times of all the observations

and which can either be

which

it is

proposed to use,

three, or four, or more, according to circumstances: for

be taken from the approximate elliptic elements upon which the theory of perturbations has been constructed. Then two
will be selected from all the observations, for which the distances from the earth
this calculation the materials will

be computed from the same approximate elements these will constitute the
first hypothesis, the second and third will be formed by changing these distances
a little. After this, in each of the hypotheses, the heliocentric places and the
will

two geocentric places; from those,

have been freed from the perturbations, will be deduced the

distances from the sun will be determined from

after the latitudes

longitude of the ascending node, the

tudes in orbit.

The method of

article

inclination of the orbit,

and the

110 with some modification

is

longi-

useful in

thought worth while to take account of the secular variaIf /5, j3', denote the
tion of the longitude of the node and of the inclination.
heliocentric b. litudes freed from the periodical perturbations; I, l\ the heliocenthis calculation, if it is

ON THE DETERMINATION OF

276
trie

longitudes; ^,

Q, -{-

inclinations of the orbit

ing form

/?

This value of

^,

approximate value for

methods.

J, the longitudes of the ascending node; tji-\-df the

the equations can be conveniently given in the follow-

tan
tan

[BoOK II

ORBITS,

= tan

^?]

^.

(t -j-

5)

tan 8'

acquires
i:

and

sin {X

'

= tan

sin (X^
^

J Q).
^

the requisite accuracy

all
9>

Q),
by

substituting an

can afterwards be deduced by the

common

Moreover, the sum of the perturbations will be subtracted from the longitudes
in orbit, and also from the two radii vectores, in order to produce purely elliptical
But here also the effect, which the secular variations of the place of the
values.
perihelion and of the eccentricity exert
vector,

and which

to be determined

is

upon the longitude

by the

in orbit

and radius

differential formulas of Section

I.

combined directly with the periodical perturbations,

provided the observations are sufficiently distant from each other to make it
appear worth while to take account of it. The remaining elements will be deterof the First Book,

to be

is

mined from these longitudes

the corresponding times.
geocentric places for

all

in orbit

Finally,

and corrected

from these elements

the other observations.

observed places, in the manner

radii vectores together with

be computed the
These being compared with the
will

we have

explained in article 188, that set of

distances will be deduced, from which will follow the elements satisfying in the
best possible

manner

all

the remaining observations,

192.

The method explained

in the preceding article has

been prmcipally adapted

to the determination of the first orbit, including the perturbations

as the

mean

elliptic

but as soon

elements, and the equations of the perturbations have both

become very nearly known, the most accurate determination

will

be very con-

veniently made with the aid of as many observations as possible by the method
of article 187, which will not
require particular explanation in this place. Now
if the number of the best observations is
sufficiently great, and a great interval

taking into account the perturbations.

Sect. 4.]

of time

is

277

embraced, this method can also be made to answer in several cases for

the more precise determination of the masses of the disturbing planets, at least
of the larger planets.

Indeed,

if

the mass of any disturbing planet assumed in

the calculation of the perturbations does not seem sufficiently determined, besides

unknown

on the corrections of the elements, yet

another, fi, will be introduced, putting the ratio of the correct mass to the assumed
one as 1 -|- to 1 ; it will then be admissible to suppose the perturbations them-

the six

quantities depending

i"-

selves to be

changed in the same

whence, evidently, in each one of the comlinear term, containing fi, will be produced, the development

puted places a new

of which will be subject to no

ratio,

difficulty.

The comparison of the computed

places

with the observed according to the principles above explained, will furnish, at the
same time with the corrections of the elements, also the correction fi.
The

which exert very considerable perturbations, can

be more exactly determined in this manner. There is no doubt but that the motions of the new planets, especially Pallas and Juno, which suffer such great per-

masses of

several planets even,

turbations from Jupiter,

may

furnish in this

manner

after

a most accurate determination of the mass of Jupiter

perhaps, hereafter, to ascertain,

some decades of
it

may

from the perturbations which

others, the mass of some one of these new planets.

it

years,

even be possible
exerts

upon the

APPENDIX.

1.*

The value of
hagen, 1853,)

is

adopted in the Solar Tables of Hansen and Olufsen, (Copen365.2563582. Using this and the value of ^i,
t

^
from the

354936'

of Laplace's Systhne du Monde^ the computation of k

last edition

log2jT

0.7981798684

Compl. logjf

7.4374022154

Compl. log V (1

+ ^)

is

9.9999993882

8.2355814720

log^

^=

0.01720210016.

11.

The following method of

is

solving the equation

recommended by Encke, Berliner Astronomisches Jahrhich, 1838.

Take any approximate value of E, as e, and compute

M' =zt
*

The numbering

of the Notes of the

/'sine,

Appendix designates the

articles

of the original

which the J pertain.

(279)

work

to

280
/'

APPENDIX.

being used to denote

expressed in seconds, then

we have

dM = dJE (l ecosU),
or

M M'^E
E

== {E

if

is

e" (sin

t) (1

sin )

ecose),

as a small quantity of the first order,

regarded

the second order are neglected for the present

and quantities of

so that the correction of

is

_ MM'

e cos s

and a new approximate value of

e is

MM'

'

with which
It is almost
ally, if

the

cos

we may proceed

in the

first

'

same manner

until the true value

may

not too far from the. truth, the

is

be retained
is

first

cos

is

obtained.

Gener-

computed value of

in all the trials.

identical with that of article 11, for X

.

d log

sin

dE
we

cos

always unnecessary to repeat the calculation of 1

This process

if

cos

is

nothing more than

^iiT^'

neglect the modulus of Briggs's system of logarithms, which would subse-

quently disappear of

itself,

and
1

^~ d\og{e"smE)
d
E) ~i^^''
{e" sin

therefore,

^1 ecosE'

and

and the double sign

sign as cos E.

from

is

In the

to be used in such a
first

way that X
approximations when the

shall

always have the same

value of

that the differences of the logarithms are uncertain, the

note will be found most convenient.

agreement to the
advantage.

last

But when

it is

decimal place, that of article

differs so

much

method of

this

desired to insure perfect

11

may be

used with

APPENDIX.
As an

take the data of the example in article 13.

illustration,

Assume

281

= 326, and we find

log sin

log cos

9.74756 ^^

log/^
sin

log/'
/'sine

9.91857

4.70415

log

4.45171 w

lege cose

= 28295'' =
Jf' = /'sing = 3335r35"
Jf If' = 4960"

7 51' 35"

9.38973

9.30830

cos =.79662
cose) 9.90125
log (1
1

log

MM'

MM' =:_6226"
e

= r43'46".
And

cos e

3.69548W
3.79423W

for a second approximation,

log sin

log e"
log e" sin

= 326

1 43'

46"

= 324

9.7663820?2

4.7041513
4.4705333 w

^ _ 29548".36 =
= 332 28' 42".36
M 31' = + 12".41
= + 15".50
,^~~^'

/' sin

8 12' 28".36

J!f'

which gives

cos

16' 14"

cose)

9.90356

{M M')

1.09377

log (1
log

MM'
log!

'

e cos

E= 324 16' 14" 4- 15".50 = 324 16'29".50.

18.

Putting
^

log x

I JO

= perihelion distance,

= 8.0850664436,

.=v^ 4-^
we have
tan ^ v-\-^ tan^ ^

T =:

z;

^ (3 tan iv-\- tan^

36

t,
^ v)

1.19021

APPENDIX.

282

may be computed from

a table

this formula, giving v for values

of t as the argu-

ment, which will readily famish the true anomaly corresponding to any time
from the perihelion passage. Table Ha is such a table. It is taken from the

volume of Annates

first

de

V Ohservatoire

Imperiale de Paris, (Paris, 1856,)

from that given in Delambre's Astronomy,

(Paris,

1814,) Vol.

intervals of the argument, the coefficients for interpolation,

with which

The

anomaly corresponding

the formula

The

differs

only in the

and the value of k

was computed.

it

true

III.,

and

Vq-\- A^{i;

Tq) -\-

A^ijv

to

any value of the argument

x^f

-\-

{t

'VQf

A^-{- A^{x

is

found by

't^f.

signs of A^, A2, A^, are placed before the logarithms of these quantities

in the table.

Burckhardt's table, Bowditch's Appendix to the third volume of the Mecanique

Celeste, is similar, except that log t is the argument instead of t.

Table Ila contains the true anomaly corresponding to the time from perihelion passage in a parabola, the perihelion distance of which is equal to the
earth's

^=:

1,

By

mean
jU,

distance from the sun, and the mass

0,

we have t =

equal to zero.

if

we put

^.

= OK (3 tan hv-\- tan^

^r-

h v)^

'

becomes
rr= 27.40389544 (3 tan ^

and therefore,

if

^;

1.096155816 ( 75 tan

we put >c'= 0.912279061,

75 tan I -|- 25 tan^
;

log

x'

+ tan^
+ 25 tan^^
h v)

^2;

t'

x'

2;;

= 9.9601277069

Barker's Table, explained in article 19, contains x't for the

The Mean

daily motion or the

obtained from table

value of r

by

Ila, for

Given, the

= 6''.590997,

quantity

M,

any value ai

argument

therefore, of Barker's Table

v,

v.

may be

by multiplying the corresponding

%' .

The following examples

t

For

substituting the value of n in the equation

T
it

perihelion

will serve to illustrate the use of the table.

distance

to find the true

^:=0.1; the time

anomaly.

after

perihelion passage

APPENDIX.
Assuming

/i

0,

we

283

find

= 208.42561

<r

=z 200.

To

T 'u,=

8.42561

= 110 24'

vo

46''.69

= 2'20".19
A,{'u--T,f = +

0'U6
j^(r
= 111 3ri3''.52
^^(r

To)2

4''.76

troy.=.
e'

or

T == 208.42561

=210.

To

= 1.57439
= 111
= 12^58^96
,Ai{t
=
4^35
^(t
rof =
0^03
roy =
0^00
T

To

50' 16''.87

Vo

To)

To)2

A^{T;

A^('v

= lir3ri3^53

e;

The
is

form of calculation

is

to

and that depending on (t

of which all the appreciable terms are
smaller,

which the

limit

for example,
V

e'

and

it is

the only form

to be found in the table.

is

table,

coefficients expressed in arc are

For T =^ 40000,

If

Tq)* is insensible

= 40000, the
of the
we can use the formula,
= 180 [6.0947259] (\f [6.87718] (\) [7.313] Q^,

Beyond t

in

be preferred because the value of t

%
and
therefore
the
terms depending on (t
smaller,
Tq)^, are
To), (t
T^f, (t
latter

given, and

6' 6''.87

it is

given by their logarithms.

we have

= 180 10
= 16950'44''.28.

required to find t,

etc.,

3' 8".41

we have

0''.44

APPENDIX.

284

For a
of T

To

approximation the terms depending on the square and third power

Tq thus found can be corrected
may be neglected, and the value of t

first

so as to exactly satisfy the equation.

V exceeds 169, the formula

= [1.9149336] tan

t>

+ [1.4378123]

tan^ i

used instead of the table.

may be

Thus, for V

= 169

50' 44''.28,

log tan ^2;. .1.0513610

1.9149336

2.9662946

925.33

logtan^t^. .3.1540830
1.4378123

4.5918953

39074.67

= 40000.00

This method wiU often be found more convenient than the table, even where

than 169.

V is less

35.

Ya

Table

form

and

contains Bessel's table here

also a similar table

by

referred to, in

a slightly modified

Posselt, for the coeflicients

v'

and

v''

in the

formula of article 34,

it is

taken from Encke's edition of Olbers Abhandhmg uber

Methode

die

Bahn

explanation of

its

eines

Cometen zu

construction

such changes as are needed to adapt

articles:

If

is
it

to

we put

^ = tan h w
%

= tan

i V

und bequemste

The following
(Weimar, 1847).
taken from the same work, with

berechnen

and use

die leicMeste

the notation of the preceding

APPENDIX.

285

become

the formulas of article 34

Tg^

~3

t7y^

TIT

5(i

35^^

n^'gSO^

^-2

= ^H

+ xry

-r

The second

(1 _l_ ^2)4

equation, in which v

is

expressed in terms of

Bessel, Moimtliche Correspondenz. Vol. XII., p. 197.

cient of the series, but has

He

to^ is

first

equation

computed a table of only the

he has also given three

the second only, since

changing the sign.

Bessel's

first

two.
p.

coefficients of the series,

table will

give the

by

also gives the third coeffi-

the Zeitschrift fur Astronomie iind venvandte Wissenschaften, Vol. V.,

the

that given

first

Posselt, in

161, has given

but a table of

coefficient simply

Posselt has changed the sign of the second coefficient

by

also.

Instead of the logarithms as given in the tables of Bessel and Posselt, the
corresponding numbers are given in table Va, and to avoid large numbers, O.Ol
is

taken as the unit of

(5".

Putting

x^:^

tan ^
the table contains

So that when =
B

2:

And when ^

ri

r,

t3

t5

t7

JL

t9

19

rooor(r+fp
^^^

til

^^ob^b^

we have

v=w + A{ 100
^>,
ei;

+ ^ (100 df
= e;_^(100(^) ^'(100(^f
c))

seems unnecessary to recompute the table in order to be certain of the

accuracy of the last place, or to extend it further, as its use is limited. For
It

APPENDIX.

286

absolute values of d greater than 0.03, and for values of x considerably greater

In such cases the

than 90, the terms here given would not be sufficient.

method of 37 and the following articles should be used.
Example.

For Halley's comet,

log d

by

= 8.5099324, and = 63''.43592, we have

t

table lla,

and by table

Ya,

A=

we

417.45

B=^

which, rigorously, should be

Inversely,

-\-

find, for

100**

== 99 36'

55''.91

+
+

30^63

1st cor.

2d

3.111

cor.

V = 99
so that d

v = 100,

is

^^_|_ 426.78
0.297

1st cor.

2d

32^57
59' 59".ll

in this case too great.

t;=rlOO

B=+

22'

cor.

w=

0'00".00
23'

0".83

^Al
9936'56".06

which agrees nearly with the preceding value. The change of the table
present form has been made under the supervision of D' Arrest.

to the

39.

When

table

Ha

is

used instead of Barker's table,

is

the value of v, which

corresponds to the argument

at
X J5'

40.
If

we put

V(i-f^ + c)

the formulas for

computing the true anomaly and radius vector are

tan

iv= U^y tan

r-=zEfq

sec^ h v.

APPENDIX.

287

Table la for the Ellipse contains log ^^ and log^^ for the argument ^, together with the logarithms of their differences corresponding to a change of a unit
It was computed by Prof J. S.
in the seventh decimal place of the argument.

Hubbard, and has been used by him for several years.

similar table,

Vol.

richten,

computed by Mr. A. Marth, has appeared

XLIIL,

p.

The example of

122.

article

Since

it

was

in type, a

in the Asironomische

43

will furnish

an

Nach-

illustra-

tion of its use.

Formulas expressing the

in a

differentials of the true

anomaly and radius vector

terms of the differentials of the time of perihelion

passage, the perihelion distance and the eccentricity may be obtained from the

very eccentric

equations of this
If

ellipse, in

article.

we put B=^l, (7= 0, we

tan h

have, article 39,

tv

-\- ^

tan^ ^

S at

=^

which, by article 20, gives

We

dw

2cos*^w

75

7,

3'

75

-^

'

75

also have, article 40,

log tan i

z;

1= log tan

^ 2^

Hog | ^
(1

+ log Y

tan^ ^ ^)

and, therefore,

dv

cos'

2 sin I V cos ^ v

dv
sinv

cos^

^wdw

2&m^w cos^ i ^
^w

'

f ^)
at

2 ^ 75 tan

7bXsin^w{\^A)

(1

^w
^^
75tani;(l 1^)""
tco^

dy
\

|J,

cos"^

a
75 tan

cos^

9 e)

N= (l+.)(l + 90
4

^w

| ^)

AA^il

^A)

2 (1

'

-ri_|^

^w

fwjl

\_

~7~

w (1

which, by putting
TTT-

\_^y
'

^^

^^
^A "f
,

^^

288

APPENDIX.

0^ ^^%A
1

P=
is

10

+ 9e)

(l-e)(l

reduced to

KdTKLtdq-\- \KMt NOF'\ de,

dv

observing that
If

we

di^^

dT,

dijfferentiate

if

denotes the time of perihelion passage.

the equation

\-\-e cos V

we

find

ir

^'-dQ-^'^-^^^^de^'^^^^^dv

These formulas are given by Nicolai, [Monatliche Correspondenz, Vol.

p. 212).

M,

etc.,

The labor of using them

are

is

greatly abridged

by the

XXVIL,

fact that

X, L,

and that the quantities needed for this purcomputing the true anomaly and radius vector.

computed once

for

all,

pose are those required for

If the ellipse so nearly approaches the parabola that, in the coefficients,

we

may assume
tan iiv=^y tan

iJ

K-.
2 qi tan

the values of

^v

dv and dr assume a much more

simple form.

In this case

should have

k^2

jp-

cos'

-^

r sin ^ w

2 q^ tan

{N+

P) sm V

k^2 cos* ^ v

^v

[ (i^^)(^^,^)

**

q%

- ,-(i+^Jsin v
"I

k^2q

Stan^r

[44-4tan2it;
.(l+e)(l
9)J"--

(l

+ e)(l+96)

and consequently,

dv-

^ ^^ -^^1-/^ + 1-;^ 2Tr+9^-(l+e)(l+9e)J^^-

we

APPENDIX.

given by Encke {Berliner Astronomisches Jahrhuch^ 1822, page 184.)

put e=: 1 in the coefficient of deii becomes

This form
If

we

is

dv_
rfg
If

may

289

we

substitute the value

ktsj~q

2tan^z'
tan $2;.
5

^2

dv

of

in the expression for

dr given above,

it

be reduced to the form

^=
=^&mv d T -\- coBV d q -\- \^^
V

dr=^

^2q

-f-

^2q

xV^tan^i v)' de.

41.

The time
responding to

may

be found from table

w by
yi

Ila,

by multiplying the value of %

cor-

45.

Table lo for the hyperbola is similar to that for the

log E^ and log E, for the formulas
tan

tan

\v=^E^y

r-= E^ sec^
The

h v

differential formulas of article 40, of the

the hyperbola

also,

by changing the

sign of

and contains

ellipse,

Appendix, can be applied to

and of 1

e in

the coefficients.

56.

As the

solution here referred to

than the one given in

articles

may sometimes

be found more convenient

53-57, the formulas sufficient for the use of prac-

computers are given below.

Using the notation of 50 and the following

tical

articles,

rectangular coordinates referred to the equator are,

x=zr
(1)

^ :=

cos u cos

r cos u sin

zz=zr cos u

sin

r sin u sin

9>

cos

-)- r sin

u cos

9>

cos e cos

Q,

sin e -|- r sin

u cos

Q,

cos

37

Q,

cos

the expressions for the

r sin u sin

sin

sin e -f- r sin u sin i cos

e
e

APPENDIX.

290
which can be put in the form

= rsma

x
(2)

2/

sin

[A-\-u)

z=

r sin b sin

{B -^

u)

r sin c

[0 -{-

u)

sin.

or

A cos u-\-rBm.a cos A sin u

x-=:.r sin a sin

= rsin5 sin^cosw-j~^sin
Ccos M
r
^=

(3)

r sin c sin

cosjSsinw

C sin w

sin c cos

-|-

equations (3), compared with (1) give

sin

(4)

ami A=^ cos

sin J sin
sin c sin

By

^ = sin
C=

sin

=
cos ^ = cos
cos C = cos

sin a cos J.

9>
l

cos

sin 5

9,

sin e

sin c

introducing the auxiliary angle

Q,

9>

cos

cos

S^

cos

sin

sin 2 sin e

-|- sin i

cos

tan^=
we

cos

sin

tan i

shall find

cotan
,

A = tan Q
-n

cotan j5

= ^
Q
COS

sin J

cos

cos

sin

sin

Q
sin

sin

smc

cos (-^+
s)
^
'

tan

AJ^
cos s

tan g^ cos

Sin a

cos

Q
sin

Jii

sin e

sin

cos
cos e

cos

cos

^ cos i cos e sin i sin

cos
cos

sin

cos

sin e -|~ sin i cos e

cos

always positive, and the quadrants in which A, B,

be taken, can be decided by means of equations (4).

sin a, sin 5, sine are

The following

between these constants,

foregoing, are added, and may be used as checks
relations

tan

sin J

a A B)

sin^
;

c sin (

sin

sin

easily deducible

are to

from the

291

APPENDIX.
COS a
cos 5
cos c

= sin S
= cos
= cos

sin

cos^

cos

Q>

sin

9>

sin

a 4" sin^ 5

sin^

cos

<

4" cos^ h

cos

cos

sin 8

^^^

sin e -|~ ^^^

sin^ c

-\- cos^ c

=2
=1

^) = cotan a cotan
{B ^) = cotan cotan
^) = cotan a cotan
(A

cos (J.

b
<?

c.

58.
If in the formulas of article 66 of the Appendix, the ecliptic

the fundamental plane, in which case

TT

sin

==

sin b

=1 ky

shall

have
^a;

sin

^a:Sin^==:cos

which can

easily

and

S2

A = K^ (tt Q)

^a;

B = Ky

Q)
C = K^
(tt

1)

(tt

S)) =
Q)
Q)-\Q
(tt

siu

cos(7T

i^= [cos

we put

if

(^ (tt ^ )) = cos

^3.cos(^

^;eCOS

sin (tt

S2

sin

S^

cos 2

sin (tt

sin

S2)cos/
Q)

cos

cosz]

(tt

be reduced to the form,

2
Jc^cobK^^= [cos^^sin7r -|-sin^|2sin(7r 2S2)]
^^ sin

and in

like

K^ =z

cos^ i

manner we should

cos

-\- sin^ i i

cos {n

Q>)

find

2 ^
^2COS7r sin^^zcos(7r 2S)
^j,cos^=:
^2sin^=: sin/sin(7r

K^ =

ky sin

Ky =:

cos^ k i sin

sin^ I

sin (jt

cos^

Q,)

Jc^

cos

adopted as

long, of the perihelion

8mc=^k^

we

is

sin i sin (tt

g^ )

APPENDIX.

292

If these values are substituted in the general expression for coordinates,

a k cos

and

if

(f

^sin E -\-akBm. K{co8 E

cos

we put
a cos (p

a co^

J / cos

/^cos^ i

:^

=
i

'

=A
,-ML=:1R)] =b

'

+tan2

e)

1 -|- tan^ i i

sinTT fl
L

^^^ ^^

cos

7t

sinrt

^^~ ^ :^ ^^

^cos^/cosTrri tann^ "^^"^~^^^ ]r^^

= A'
a
^ = B"
^

a cos^ ^

sin

tt

tan^ ^ /^^"

["l
L

sin

b sin

cos

TT

cos

7t

sin (tt

sin

S^ )
)

(:7T

the coordinates will be

e)-f-^ sinE = ^ esecE)4--^ sinE

esecE)+^ sinE
y=:^' (cosE e)+^'sinE==:il'
esecE) + ^'sinE.
= J."(cosE + ^''sinE =
x=^A

(cosE

(1
(1

J[''(l

e)

adopted as the fundamental plane instead of the ecliptic,

the same formulas may be used, if 9> n, and i are referred to the equator by
If the equator

is

the

method of

article

on the equator, for

Q,,

65.

Thus,

n, and

i,

if S^g

denote the right ascension of the node

we must

use

^e-h(^

9,^,

^)

-^j

and?

respectively.

This form has been given to the computation of coordinates by Prof Peirce,

and

is

designed to be used with Zech's Tables of Addition and Subtraction Logarithms.

Example.

g^

is

The

= 15830'50^43,
adopted

as the

Whence we
logcos(7r
log sec

logtanH*
logc

data

of

the

example

7r=:12212'23''.55,

fundamental plane

and

of

articles

56

and

= ir43'52''.89 when
log = 0.4288533.

also

58,

furnish

the

equator

find

2g^)

9.9853041 w

logsin(7r

0.2732948 n

log cosec

0.0725618

8.0234332

logtan^i?

8.0234332

8.2820321

logc'

7.5039093

g^)

9.4079143

APPENDIX.
add. log -

log cos

:7T

log cos^ i

log a

log^
add. log -

log sin

71

log co^ i

logZ>

logJ5

APPENDIX.

294

59.

and

denote the radius vector, the heliocentric latitude and longitude

of any planet, the rectangular coordinates referred to three axes,
of which
that of x is directed towards the vernal equinox, that of 0, parallel to the earth's
I r, by

axis,

and that of

?/,

90 of right ascension in advance of x,

=
=
z=

r cos h cos

t/

r cos b sin

cos

r cos b sin

sml-\-r

and by putting
cos u

= cos

will

be as in case

II.

r sin 5 sin e
sin b cos s

b cos /

sin b

sin

cos h

Sin U:
sin d
,

tan

cos d

= sm

tan b
-:

they assume the following forms convenient for computation

x^=.r cos u

=
=r

r sin w cos (^ -|~ e)

sin

w sin

(^ -|-

fi)

74.

The following

are the solutions and examples from the Monatliche Correspon-

dent referred to in this article, adopting the notation of article 74,

and using L'

to denote the longitude of the Sun.

Given,

Q>,

L',l,b,

i,

B,

to find u, r,

J, and the auxiliary angles A, B, C,

L
1.

etc.

APPENDIX.
The angle u

tween 180 and 360 when

nodes of

the same sign

and in the

h is negative.

and 180 when

When

A, B C, etc., are taken.

90.
always taken between -|- 90 and
,

sin(l
Q)

p,

-:

:r-r ^^^=

71

/ 7

tan^sm(/
^

6.

tan

^)

^)smM
Q,) =
(L'
.^
\,

u
sm
G (Z'
Q 7^ M =
sin-^sin(Z'
- .
/ .
-r,^

jry
jfif

= tan-r
X

r^ \

cos i^sin

rr

S^)^

= tan
,

7.

cos i tan u

tan(/ Q) __ ^^^
cos i

tan 6

8inicos(l

-in

sin b

-rT-,

cos

sin

I)

tan (X'

cos

l)

Or) cos

r
-5
si
r
-5
li

Ji

_r

7^?

7^

sin

~
sin^
M) (X ^)

(m Z) cos

-J,

sin (u

Ji

0) cos

sin

"^

)cos i

Ji

' I)

IT sin

sin (I

g^) cos*

sini)co3(Z^

19
^^'

IT

^)

l)

sin

Q,)

{G-\-L'

sin

;^

sin

J.

sin (7 sin

^
^
^^'

cos

0) sin

r
-JS

u) (L Q) _ ^
{JI
/cos (L' Q)
J)
E
sin(u

QasKs\nhQ.os{L'
g,) = r
r
^
u
sm (A

cos {I
^

sin {I

^\x
^ tan u = tan K

~ ^^ ^
{L
a) ~
^" ^"
(i?4-X' Q
I

r-

cos

yy

6r

(1

'

Sin

10.

sin(i

(i^

t-

In the following examples they

II.
O.

in one of the

is

body

when sin (X'

and sin (I
/)
Q) have
descending node when they have opposite signs.

the auxiliary angles

tan J

the

0,

and be-

h is positive,

which of the two quadrants that give the same tangent,

It is immaterial in

are

ascending node

orbit, in the

its

between

to be taken

is

295

(X ^

cos

r^

i?
21

i?

III.
r sin

u sm i

13.

sini
-.,

^)sine
^)sin6
Fsin {U g) tan

i?sin^sin(Z'
sin (i

5 cos

-.p.

Other expressions
formulas

for

J may

3 6'

sin (Z

R sin /"sin {L'

sin (/

Q, )

be obtained by combining 13 with

II.
:

all

the

Given, g2=8059a2".07,

'^

X)

Examples

^)sini
^)cosi
Q^)

RcosEsin{L'
sin (t

33^561, log

i?=

Z'=28r r3r.99,
9.9926168.

/=:5323'2''.46, /z= 10 37' 9^55,

APPENDIX.

296

C\ogmi{L'
log cos {L'

log tan

log sin

9>)

9.9728762 w

log tan (X'

b)

0.1313827 ?^

8.8392287 w

^ = 35r2M36

A + i=

log sin {L'

6 40'

8.7349698 w

log tan h

7^414

8.8381955 w

9.5620014

g2)

^ log sin {A-\-i)

0.9350608

log tan u

w = 12

9.3352577
12'

37^942

/^

APPENDIX

298

9^
log tan h
C.
C.

log sin

log cos

{I

log sin

0.7345153

logsin(Z' S2)

9.9728762 w

log sin [u

0.9674054

0.0542771

log tan /

8.7349698 ?z

C.

9.4991749

/)

9.5237622 w

0.4394565

I= 18 23' 55^334
6 ir 17^392
u /=

10^
log sin i

log cos

(/

2)
1

log tan

log cos

9.9475229

log sin b

9.3352577 ?g

log tan u

9.2654847

8.5482653 w

log cos (Z'

'

K= 2T26".344

9.9997290

8.7343300 n
Q,)

(^ J)

9.9728762 w
1.7225836

C:

log sin

G.

log cos u

0.0099379

logj

0.4394667

r5' 7^217
11.

C-\-L'

logsinC

l-- =

21959'25".474

9.1243583 w

log sin

L)

9.8686173 w

C'.

log sin {u

a\ogco%{O^L'l) 0.1156850W

(7.

log cos (Z'

logsin(X'

aiog tan
Clog

cos

{r9>

Z = 19

u L=

42' 32^:533

7" 29' 54".591

i>_j_X'

13.

= 178

g^ )

C.\ogcoB{D-\-L'^9>
(7.

logr

0.4320.724

9.5735295 w

log sin u

9.3253198 w

9.9728762 n

log sin

9.2654847

0.0002536 n

<7.1ogsin$

2'

3r'.738

0.0075025

log cos 2

logtan

?z

9.5541617 w

12.

log cos (X'

0.0271238

0.0075025

log sin i>

0.8843888

0.4394565

0.4379986

log tan

9,)

9.5279439 w

M{= L)

9.5541618 n

log^

12656700
0.2885469

299

APPENDIX.
76.
If in the equations of article 60,

X=^ cos a
y F= cos ^
^=
^
X

cos

(J

since

z/

z^ sin

a denoting the right ascension, and d the declination, we suppose X, Z,

we have

dx=^
c?j^

dz
Multiply the
cos a,

we

first

by

cos

a and add

dx cos a

-\-d?/

Multiply this equation by

the second multiplied

it

sin

2/

by

sin

cos a sin

(^

and add

to the third of the differential equa-

it

dt/ sin

a sind -^ ds cos d

=J dd

and, therefore,
sin

cosoaa=
ft

From

COS a sin 5

r>

cos

dx

;j

sin

sin 5

cos d

dy-\

:;

t-

as.

the formulas of article 56 of the Appendix are obtained

dx

dr

r^

dy
dr

dx
di

dz
dr

y
r^

-^ ^= X coian (A

and the

dx-f-r-di/

do=
^

-\-

X sm u cos a ^,

u) ,

dy
di

-7^

r^
-7^

-j^z=yQ,oidin[B-\-u),

= r smwcos^,
.

dz
di

'

;T-.

a;

cost,>

= ^ cotan

smM cos c,

partial differentials

dx
'

-j-r=^

dQ

and

= cos d d J J sind dd.

above multiplied by cos d and we find

dx

by

the second multiplied

to it

sina

sin d

c^cJ"

sin

J cos d da = d X sin a -\- d

find

tions

sin

of these by sin a , and subtract from

first

known,

A cos a d
a sind dd
a cosd da J
a cos ^ da

/^ sin

= sina cosd dJ -{-J cos

= sind dJ -\-A cosd dd.

and we find

Multiply the

dA

cos a cos d

^z^cose ^sme,
.

'

dy

7^
dQ

dz

3 =a;sm

dQ

( (7-|-

w)

APPENDIX.

300

whence
dsc

= -dr -\-x cotan {A

\x cotan

dy =^^-dr -\- y

ds

\_y

J. -[-

-|-

u)

-|-

w)

u)

C-\-u)

dv -\-y cotan

cotan (C-f-**)

[z cotan

d v -\- x eotan (A

cos ]

^^

c?

dn

(JB-j-u) dTi

-|- ^ ^^^

xsmi'\d9,-\-r
may

Ueber die Differet-dialformeln fur Cometen-Balmen,

They

u)

^ cos bdi

+ ^ cotan (^-f~^) ^^

These formulas, as well as those of 56

1852).

-f-

w) -f- ^ cos %-\;-z^\Ti{\d9,-\-r sin u cos a di

cotan (-5

cotan (j5

= -dr

-{-

sin

w eoBcdi.

be found in a small treatise

etc.,

by

G. D. E. Weyer, (Berlin,

are from Bessel's Ahhandhmg uber den Olbers'schen Comeien.

90.
Gauss, in the Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch for 1814,
other method of computing ^, and also C of article 100.

We

p.

256, has given an-

It is as follows

have
fc

This fraction,

by

10

5
,

_ a;X-~|XH-Jg

<^

X the

substituting for

series of article 90, is readily trans-

formed into

t_

4.8.10.12
M\
^-Q;,
g-S-iy
^1^
^^
^~I05^\-^^
9.11
9.11.13 ^1
8

5.8.10.1-2.14

Therefore, if

we put

4 = l + ii^^ +
we

9.11.13.15

M4V +
9.11

etc,

have

shall

-^

>

%x

t_ ^y^ar^(l-far)
by means of which

can always be found easily and accurately.

^, "T

X
^tc.

APPENDIX.
For

Cj article

100,

it is

301

only necessary to write z in place of x in the pre-

ceding formulas.

A may

be computed more conveniently by the following formula

A-{\

l-^-^-7

x\-^{\

^^:r

1.3.5.5.7.9

v.

142.
Prof. Encke, on the 13th of January^ 1848, read a paper before the Eoyal

Academy

of Sciences at Berlin, entitled

den Ausnahmefall dner doppelten

TJeber

Bahnhestimmuncf aus denselhen drei geocentrischen Oertern, in which he entered into a

discussion

full

manner
useful

which

in

it is

instructions

vestigation

By

of the

to

origin of the
to

be explained.

putting

is

embody

the results of his in-

m = c$sinw

Equation IV., 141, becomes, for

for

The following paragraphs, containing

the practical computer,

and

ambiguous case here mentioned, and the

/ <[ -B'

= +
(01

a),.

/^ B!

m sin*g =

sin {z

m sin*5f =

sin {z -\- q)

q)

always positive.

The number and the

limits of the roots of this equation

may

be found by

examining both forms.

Take the

first

form, and consider the curves, the equations of which are

tf

z=z

m sin* z,

y'

=.

sin [z

q)

y and y' being ordinates, and z abscissas.

The first differential coefficients are'
-^

=4m

sin^ z cos z,

^=

cos {z

q),

APPENDIX.

302

There

will, therefore,

be a contact of the curves when we have

m sin*
and
4
or

which

may

sin

(^r

q)

{s

q) sin 3

be more simply written

the value of

=1
q)

deduced from

this

m sin* z =
then there

(gf

= cos

q) cos z

sin (2 ^

When

sin

m sin^ s cos s = cos (s q)

when
4

sin

q.

equation

sin [z

satisfies

q)

a contact of the curves, or the equation has two equal roots.

is

These

equal roots constitute the limits of possibility of intersection of the curves, or the
limits of the real roots of the equation.

For the delineation of both curves

q
is

only necessary to regard values of

between 0 and 180, since for values between 180 and 360 the solution

impossible

and beyond 360 these periods are repeated.

The curve

is

it is

/=sm{3 q)

the simple sine-curve, always on the positive side of /, and concave to the axis of

abscissas,

and has a

maximum

for

g^q=
=

The curve

sin*

2/

is

of the fourth order, and since

,

az

z=

im sin^

it

90.

gives

cos

:=

W2 sin

m sin 4

4m s
= 12 m
= 2 m (cos 20 cos 4
= 4m
(1 4- 2 COS 2
4
20 2
-4 = 4 m
dz*
= 8 m (cos 20 4 cos 4
4
dz
d^y
T-T

sin^

sin*

cos^

sin^

0)

sin

(sin
^

0)'

0)

it

has a

maximum

for

90"=

0)

APPENDIX.
and a point of contrary flexure
z

From 2=0
120

it is

For

to

for

60,

it

is

60,

303

and

= 120.

convex to the axis of

from 60 to

concave, and convex from 120 to 180.

osculation, the three equations,

4m
3 cos z = cos
8m{z
4msin^0(l -|-2
m sin*

sin (0

q)

(z

g)

sin*

cos22f)=i=

must

abscissas,

coexist, or

m sin^z = sin {z q)

q)=2 ^sinq
20 =

sin (2

cos

In this case

q)

we

|.

should have
sin

{2z

=I

cos

$')

consequently,

tan 3'

and
sin$'

or

g*

4" I

29

=i
= f,

= 454-isin-^f.
From

these considerations

we

infer that for the equation

m sin* z = sin (0 q)
or even

when

it is

in the

m^

sin^ z

form

2m

cos q sin^ z -\- sin^ z

sin^

of the eighth degree, there can only be four real roots

period from z
are possible

Of

5'= 0to = 360,only

z

on the

these,

and 180

-\- q',

and 180

-|- 5-;

g*

=
because, in the whole

four intersections of the two curves

positive side of the axis of ordinates.

0=0

and 0=180, and one between 180

or, inversely, one between 0 and 180, and three between 180
consequently, there are three positive and one negative roots, or

three are between

three negative and one positive roots for sin z.

APPENDIX.

304

Contact of the curves can exist only

^ z= ^q -\-i
and
(/

sin*

sin

when
sin""^

for a given value of q^

si?i

5'

g)

If the contact of the curve of the fourth order with the sine-curve

is

with-

for m greater than this

then will n/ constitute the upper limit,
values of the roots will be impossible. There would then remain only one positive

out the

latter,

and one negative

root.

within the sine-curve, then will the corresponding n/' constitute the lower limit, and fo;- m less than this, the roots again would be reIf the contact

duced

is

one positive and one negative.

taken negative, or if we adopt the form

to two,

If q

is

m sin* 2 = sin (^ -f"

180

must be substituted

The equation
m^ sin^ 3

for

2m

sbows, moreover, according to

S")

3.

cos q sin^ s

the

rule

-|- sin^

sin^

q=0

of Descartes, that, of the four real

roots three can be positive only when q, without regard to sign is less than
For q greater than 90, there is
90, because m is always regarded as positive.
always only one real positive root, l^ow since one real root must always cor-

respond to the orbit of the Earth, that

equation, article 141,

sm s

to

is,

r=jRf; and

since sin

d',

in

the

=
7

always positive, so that it can be satisfied by none but positive values

of ^ an orbit can correspond to the observations onlj'' when three real roots are

is

positive, or

when

q without regard to

its

sign

is less

than

90.

more narrowly confined, because, also, there can be four

when m lies between m' and mf^, and when we have
still

|sin^<l,
in order that a real value of

or sin

/ may

^< I,
be

^<36

possible.

52'

ir.64

These

limits are

real roots only

APPENDIX.

306

Then

the following are the conditions upon which it is possible to find a

planet's orbit different from that of the earth, which shall satisfy three complete
observations.
First.

The equation

m sin* s = sin (^ -|- q)

must have four

The

real roots.

conditions necessary for this are, that

we must

have, without regard to sign,

sin$'<|
and

must

Of these four

Second.

For

between the

lie

and mf\

limits m'

real roots three

must be

positive

and one negative.

remain positive

this it is necessary that cos q should

for all four of those

values for which

sin'<=:|,
the two in the second and third quadrants are excluded, and only values between
52' and
36^ 62' are to be retained.

36

If both these conditions are satisfied, of the three real

positive roots, one

always correspond to the Earth's

problem.

And

cles 139, 140,

And

by the meaning of the symbols,

since

arti-

we have
sin 2

not only must

positive, or

and consequently will not satisfy the

be no doubt which of the other two will

orbit,

generally there will

give a solution of the problem.

must

we

and

be always
must have
^'

sin {8'

less

sin

z)

than 180, but,

also,

m\.{p'

z)

must be

d'-yz.

we

arrange the three real positive roots in the order of their

absolute magnitudes, there may be three distinct cases. Either the smallest root
If,

therefore,

approaches most nearly the value of

d',

and corresponds, therefore,

to the Earth's

>

which case the problem is impossible because the condition ^'

can
never be fulfilled. Or the middle root coincides with 8', then will the problem
orbit, in

be solved only by the smallest root.

differs least

from

^'.

in

Or, finally, the greatest of the three roots

which case the choice must

39

lie

between the two smaller

APPENDIX.

303

Each of these

roots.

the conditions, and

it

will give a planetary orbit, because

will

four of the roots

all

lie

is

all

must

the true solution.

between the two

lie

between those roots

In Table IVa. are found, therefore, for

ni'.

fulfils

remain to be determined, from observations other than

the three given ones, which

As the value of

each one

limits m'

and

so also

rd',

which correspond
the argument q from degree
as limits

must

to

and

to degree,

the roots corresponding to the limits, arranged according to their magnitude, and
For every value of m which gives a
distinguished by the symbols 0', 0, 0, z^.

possible solution, these roots will lie within the quantities given both for
wi",

and we

glance,

shall

be enabled in this manner,

whether or

can occur.

not, for a given

It must,

ing to the earth's orbit

been blended

in

for the sake of

sin [z -\- q)

limit

the paradoxical case of a double orbit

when

the corrections of

might be allowed,

root z^^ for which sin z

for the

0's,

first

P and

would

belong-

had been employed, and, therefore, a certain difference

even beyond the extremest

be very great.
duced here

q,

found, to discern at the

to be sure, be considered that, strictly speaking, b'

only agree exactly with one of the

The

and

if b' is

and

is

negative, always

the intervals of time should

falls out,

Both parts of

sake of completeness.

one with the proviso of putting

more rapid

if

and

this table

in the place of z its

only intro-

is

might have

supplement
and
')

inspection, however, the two forms sin (0

have been separated,

so that q

always regarded as positive in the

is

table.

To explain the use of Table

in this
in his

which
I.

IVa. two cases are added

example of Ceres

given in his Astronomical Journal, Vol. T., No. 19.

In our example of Ceres, the final equation in the first hypothesis
is

0.9112987] sin^0
d'

= 24

sin {z

between m' and

m'^,

hesitation, since z^

and

must

2^0)

By

the table, the numerical factor

answers to

0",

concerning which there can be

between 10

27'

and 87

this d'
lie

7 49'

is

19' 53".34

the factor in brackets being the logarithm.

no

one, the

Appendix, and the other, the exceptional case that occurred to Dr. Gould,
computation of the orbit of the fifth comet of the year 1847, an account of

and

lies

34'.

Accordingly,

we

307

APPENDIX.
have only to choose for the z^ which occurs in this
and 10 27'.
ceive, is to be sought between T 50'

The

root

is

in fact

z'

and the remaining

roots,

^=:

26 24

all

found within the limits of the

2.

In the case of the

fifth

as

we

per-

2 35

^=187 40
are

and which,

59' 30".3,

= 148

0"'

case,

table.

comet of 1847, Dr. Gould derived from

his first

hypothesis the equation

[9.7021264] sin*0 == sin

He had

d'=:.

Then we have

+ 32

53' 28".5).

1330'3r.

and the inspection of the table shows that the factor

between m' and m" therefore, there will be four real roots,

sin q <C ^,

in the parenthesis lies

The given

of which three will be positive.

0,

(z

also

about which, at any

rate, there

d'

approximates here most nearly to

can be no doubt.

Consequently, the paradoxical case of the determination of a double orbit

occurs here, and the two possible values of z will lie between
88 29'

105

59'

131

and
105 59
In

fact,

the four roots are,

z'
0^^

0"^

By

a small decrease of

= 95
= 117 31
= 137 38

31' 43".5

13

.1

16

.7

0'^= 329 58 35

.5.

without changing

q,

or

by a

small decrease of q

without changing m, a point of osculation will be obtained corresponding to

nearly a mean between the second and third roots and on the contrary, by a
;

small increase of

without changing

m, a point of osculation
first

and second

roots.

is

q,

or a small increase of q without changing

obtained corresponding to nearly a

mean between

the

APPENDIX.

308

We

have, therefore, the choice between the two orbits.

which gave him

vations showed him that this was not the

Gould was

The

an ellipse of very short period.

^,

real orbit.

root used

by Dr.

The other

obser-

M. D'Arrest was involved

a similar difficulty with the same comet, and arrived also at an

ellipse.

An

in

ellipse

of eighty-one years resulted from the use of the other root.

"

Finally, both forms of the table

occur

when

d'

< 63

" It
will also

with the

first

26'.

seldom occur when

form

show that the exceptional case can never

sin [z

q),

d'

<^

For then

90.

and since here

for all

can only take place

values of q either the limits
it

are very narrow, or one of the limits approximates very nearly to 90, so

it

will

be perceived that the case where there are two possible roots for d^ <| 90 will
very seldom happen. For the smaller planets, therefore, which for the most part
are discovered near opposition, there
the comets

we

shall

is

rarely occasion to look at the table.

have more frequently

d'

^ 90

For

even here, on account

the most part, be excluded.
Con-

of the proximity to the sun, d^ > 150 can, for

still,

be necessary, in order that the exceptional case should occur,

90 and
that we should have in general, the combination of the conditions d'
sequently,

between

form

it

will

and 32 in the form

sin (s

q),

or between 22 and 36 62' in the

sin (0 -j- q)."

American Academy several methods

of exhibiting the geometrical construction of this celebrated equation, and of
others which, like this, involve two parameters, some of which are novel and
curious.
In order to explain them, let us resume the fundamental equation,
Professor Peirce has communicated to the

m sin^ s
1.

The

first

is

q).

by logarithmic curves ; the logarithm

is

log

we

sin (z

method of representation

of the given equation

If

-\-

4:

log sin

= log

construct the curve

= 4 log

sin

^,

sin (0

q).

APPENDIX.
and
its

same curve on another

also the

309

which y

scale, in

is

reduced to one fourth of

value, so that

y =.
it is

plain that if the second curve

log sin

0,

removed

is

parallel to itself

direction of the axis of y,

0,

intersect each other will be a root of the given equation

is

on the

first

curve,

its

^
and because

it is

log

-\-

= 4 log

its

sin

since the point of

coordinates satisfy the equation,

= log

m sin*0
diagram constructed on

for,

0,

sin {z

q)\

and by eliminating y from these two equations we return

coordinates satisfy the equation,

on the second curve

distance equal

logw^

in the
and by a distance equal to
the value of z on the first curve where the two curves

to q in the direction of the axis of

intersection

by a

sin {z

to the original equation,

q).

this principle is illustrated

by

figure

5,

and

it

will

be readily seen how, by moving one curve upon the other, according to the
changeable values of q and m^ the points of intersection will be exhibited, and also
the limits at which they

On

this

and

all

become points of

osculation.

the succeeding diagrams,

two cases are shown, one of which

is

we may remark, once

for

all,

that

the preceding example of the planet Ceres,

which the four roots of the equation will correspond in all the figures to the
four points of intersection 7>, D', D", D'", and the other of which is the very
in

remarkable case that occurred to Dr. Gould, approaching the two limits of
the osculation of the second order, the details of which are given in No. 19 of his
Adronomical Journal, and the points of which are marked on

2.

The second method of representation

is

all

our diagrams

fixed curve and straight line,

by a

as follows.
(.)

by

The fundamental equation, developed

m cos z,

second member, and divided

its

assumes the form

sin*

cos z

By

in

cos

(7

putting

==.

tan z,

(^

tan z

tan

= tan

a.

0)
^'

a^=^

^-^

APPENDIX.

310

the roots of the equation will correspond to the points of intersection of the

curve

sin* z

(1+X^)
with the straight line

y =.

a [x

h).

[Figs. 6

and

6'.]

be perceived that the curve line, in this as in all the following cases
under this form, is not affected by any change in the values of m and q, and that
It will

the position of the straight line

the

distance tan a from the

is

determined by

cutting the axis of x at

its

^^

and the axis of y at the distance

oriarin,

The tangent of its inclination to the axis is obviously equal to

-^, which may in some cases answer more conveniently for determining its

from the

origin.

position than
(b.)

its

intersection with the axis of ^.

The development of the fundamental equation divided by

sin^ z

and by putting

-^ cotan
= -^
m CO tan q
X = cotan
= cotan
(

2)

m sin s,

is

g*

ainq

the roots of the equation correspond to the intersection of the curve

=: (1 + ^) ~^
=
y = a{b
sin^

^
with the straight line

x).

The

position of the straight line

is

[Fig. 7.]

determined by

its

cutting the axis of

at a

;r

distance equal to cotan q from the origin, and the axis of y at a distance equal to

from the

origin.

This form of construction

is

identical with that given

Binet in the Journal de VEcole Poly technique^ 20 Cahier,

method of

mode

is

not

XIII.

p.

285.

strictly accurate.

by M.
His
This

not surpassed by either of the others under this form.

The fourth root of the fundamental equation developed, and divided by

of representation

(c.)

cos [z

fixing the position of the straight line

Tome

is

q\ assumes the form

^MCos^(tan

(^

^)

-f tan^) ==

t^^^^^.

311

APPENDIX.

By

= tan
=
m cos q
a =

putting

(^

q)

tan'

\l

the roots of the equation correspond to the intersection of the curve

with the straight line

C^(sm(z
cos

(2;

straight line cuts the axis of

of

at a distance equal to

m sin

sin (^

q)

\^

^x|
J

tan

^ at a distance equal to
q, from the origin.

q,

and the axis

of the fundamental equation divided

is,

'si

By

[Fig. 8.]

h).

The development of the fourth root

[d.)

by

y'

^ ^^ ^

q)

= a{x +

The
j/

y))

sin

(cotan [z

'

putting
a;

q) -\- cotan q)

= cotan
= cotan q
(0

a =^

= cosec
(^

g').

q)

^ msmq

the roots of the equation correspond to the intersection of the curve

with the straight line

yz=a{x-{-h).

The
axis of
[e.)

roots

straight line cuts the axis of

i?;

[Figs. 9

and

9'.]

at a distance equal to

y at a distance equal to ^ m cos q, from the origin.

From the reciprocal of the fundamental equation

may be

cotan

multiplied

q,

and the

by m,

its

seen to correspond to the intersection of the curve

r

with the straight line

r

= cosec^

= m cosec
(0

q).

[Figs.

10 and

10'.]

Both these equations are referred to polar coordinates, of which r is the radius
vector, z the angle which the radius vector makes with the polar axis, m the distance of the straight line from the origin, and q the inclination of the line to the
polar axis.

'

312
(/).
roots

From

may

APPEJSDIX.

the reciprocal of the fourth root of the funclamental equation,

its

be seen to correspond to the intersection of the curve

r

cosec*

with the straight line

^=='!^;;;cos^c(9
in

which

i^=-z

^),

[Fig. 11.]

q.

Both these equations are referred to polar coordinates, of which ^ is the

- the distance of the
angle which the radius vector r makes with the polar axis, \j
from the

straight line
3.

The

third

The

(.)

origin,

and q the inclination of the

method of representation

is

line to the polar axis.

by a curve and a

circle.

roots of the fundamental equation correspond to the intersection

of the curve
sin*0

with the circle

r

=-

sin (0

[Fig. 12.].

z).

Both these equations are referred to polar coordinates, of which r is the radius
- the
vector, z the angle which the radius vector makes with the polar
axis,
^
m
radius of the circle which passes through the origin, and 90 -f- ^ i^ the
angle
which the diameter drawn

to the origin

makes with the polar

From

the fourth root of the fundamental equation

roots correspond to the intersection of the equation
ih.)

axis.
it

appears that

its

r^t^sin^)
with the

circle

in

which

^m
is

is

(p

=
{z

q)

is

=^w

sin

(g) -f- $')

[Fig. 13],

the inclination of the radius vector to the polar axis,

the diameter of the circle which passes through the origin, and 90

the inclination of the diameter

In these

last

drawn through the

two delineations the curve

which the centre of the

circle

IK

I'

must be contained,

origin of the polar axis.

K' I"

incloses a space, within

in order that there should be

four real roots, and therefore that there should be a possible orbit.

The curve

313

APPENDIX.

of osculation denoted by Professor Encke's

corresponds to the limiting points
and K' correspond to the extreme points of osculaand m", and the points

itself

tion of the second order, for which

and m'

= 4.2976, and

On

m"

the delineations,

and S' the same

= 9.9999.

is

Encke has given the values

5^

=f 36 52'

the centre of the circle for our example of Ceres.

for Dr. Gould's exceptional case.

careful examination of the

will illustrate the peculiar difficulties attending

singular position of the point 8'
the solution of this rare example.

159.

We

add another example, which was prepared with great care to

Method of Computing an Orbit from three observations published

illustrate the
in

pamphlet
American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac ixi 1852. It
furnishes an illustration of the case of the determination of two orbits from the

form

for the use of the

same three geocentric

We

142.
places, referred to in article

take the following observations,

from the volume for the year 1845,

Mean Time, Greenwich.

p. 36.

made

at the

Greenwich Observatory,

APPENDIX.

314

Reducing the observed places of the planet from the equator

we

find
Date.

to the ecliptic,

APPENDIX.

315

The longitudes of the sun were corrected for aberration by adding 20''.06,
numbers given in the Nautical
20''.43,
20''.21, and
respectively, to the
Almanac.

These reductions having been made, the correct data of the problem are as
follows

Times of observation.
For "Washington Meridian.

Ceres'slong. a, a\
latitudes

{^',

/:?,

Earth's long.

a"

l"

logs.of dist.i?, iT,

R'

By
r

rr

log

330" 27' 25''.28

13

54 54 .49

307

39 43 .66

d, d',

f^"
, ',

log cos h

sines,

12

we

14 45

28.28

45.49

218

24

56 .84

ir

5 31.31

21 19 53.97
9.9985083

59

19 53 .34

61

9.6149131

35.15
50.78

9.9422976

233

54

11 .72

233 31 23

.54

199

30 24 .04

27

32

45

142 37 25 .44

115

4 41 .10

.72

8'25".14

9.7832221

article 138,

log I^sin^

6.2654993 w

^cos^

9.2956278 w

log

wherefore
log 7^

3' 12".63,

9.2956280

3814'35".01,logsin(2f4-/) 9.7916898
8.6990834

log/S'

log 7^ sin

Whence

13

194

9.9764767

^+/=

3 52.58

22".38

9.5057153

=180'

321

204

e'

if

132915.

199 45' 4r.00

'

And by

Oct. 14.

find

9.6650753

50.92

0.0031709

9.6746717

324 34

344

0.0064753

28
d" sines

rr

log sin ^

248435.

6.

Sept.

329 25' 34".81

AD,Aiy,AD''
f

372903.

the formulas of Arts. 136 and 137,

Y,r,r
d,d',r
log

July 30.

t,

/,

log tan (r

(?{

+ /)
a)

9.0873178

9.6117656

r a = 22 14' 47".47 and a = 2

5'

5".87.

203 56' 46".56

9.956992

APPENDIX.

316

By

articles

140-143,

we

find

d" = 172
AD' d
=175 55
A'D d"
=172 47
AD + o =111 30
Aiy' d
=175 43
AD" -{-0=111 15
Bf

j^'

24' 32^^76 log sin 9.1208995 log cos 9.9961773 n

28.30

d'

d'

Formula
the

prefer

20.94

9.0987168

53.53

8.6370904

49.72

8.8718546

36.57

8.6794373

log a

0.0095516,

log ^

0.1389045.

13,

9.9989004 w

8.8516890

<

= 1.0222370

which serves as a check, would give log

latter

value,

because sin

[A D

d' -\-

a)

is

= 0.1389059.

less

than sin

[A

We
Bf'

-*'+")
The

interval of the time (not corrected)

between the second and third obser-

37.884480 days, and between the

and second 37.875532 days.

The logarithms of these numbers are 1.5784613 and 1.5783587 ; the logarithm
9.8139401.
of h is 8.2355814 whence log ^
9.8140427, log
vations

is

We

first

r=

shall put, therefore, for the first hypothesis

= logP=:f =9.9998974
^ = log ^ = r = 9.6269828
w=
43' 56'a3
w + = 7 49 2
= 0.9112987
log ^
a:

and we find

.00

cf

c sin

It

is

found,

by a few

trials,

^ c sin w
is

satisfied

by the value

whence log

sin z

0)

that the equation

sin^ z

sin [z

+ T 49' 2".00)

z=T 59' 30".30,

=: 9.1431101, and

/=^^' = 0.474939.

APPENDIX.

317

Besides this solution, the equation admits of three others,

0=

The

third

must be

greater than d'

of which

we

we have spoken

x.

9
is

negative

the second, because z

these trials

On

as follows.

is

looking at the table of

approximation for one of the values,

first

Then we have

log sin

+ 89^
6.57424 + 356
9.14356

2r

log sin*

log

ii?

0.91130

^c sin to

logsin(0

(j)

7.48554

+ 356

a?

^_OJ_(7::^010'52''+ ^Wd ^
a>

+a= 7

49

0=:7

59

55+ ^2^? ^^i"ly=8+iP.

For the second approximation, we make

z=:r 59'

30"

x'

log sin

log

+ 600/,

0.9112987
D.

7.4837211

0)

0 10' 28".27

CO

0==7
is

and have

9.1431056+150/

a)
logsin(0
_ a=
+ 01:= 49
The process

6.5724224

sin*

^csinw

is

in article 142.*

are led to take for a

nearly, or 8 -|-

40

answers to the approximation to the orbit of the earth,

first

The manner of making

sines

2 35

rejected, because sin z

the

26 24'

0=148
z=l%1

2.

^'

nearly.

00

59 30. 27

the same for the other roots.

+ yV

+ 600/

+ ^V^'='^59'30".30.
\

* See article 142 of the

Appendix.

APPENDIX.

318
Again, by

art.

143 we obtain

C=18510'3r.78

r=189

25 30.25

r=: 0.4749722

log

log r"== 0.4744748

= 264 2r 48^61
= 2SS 49 5.19
i(u"
= 6 57 7
2/
2f" = 6 56 32

i(w''-f w)

u)

.46

.68

The sum

2/+ 2/", which

a check, only

is

differs

by

0''.20

from 2f, and the

equation
r sin

2f"

/' sin

is

sufficiently satisfied

that

Q,

2f=

distributing this

by

6597^36, and 2/'

nf^

2/
0''.2

= 656'32^58.

equally between

2/ and 2/",

so

Now, in order that the times may be corrected for aberration, the distances
must be computed by the formulas of Art. 145, and then multiplied into
q', q''

the time 493^ or 0^005706, as foUows:

logr

logsin(AD

0.47497

C)

....

9.51187

comp. log sin d

0.32533

log 9

0.31217

log const

7.76054 *

log of reduction

8.07271

Reduction

= 0.011823
0.47497

log /,

logsin(d

9.44921

0)

0.38509

log sin d\
of
reduction
log

comp

0.30927

Reduction, 0.011744.

The

constant of aberration

is

that of

M.

Struve.

APPENDIX.
0.47447

log/'
logsiii(A''D'
log sin

9.84253

0.05770

....

0.37470

Reductions 0.013653

r ....'...

log of reduction

Observations.

319

320

APPENDIX.

log

264

0.7724952

185n0'3r64
189 25 42
loo; y

log/'

we

In this case

and

2r

50" .64

288 49

.36

2/'

0.4748696

2/.

0.4743915

2r

0'M7 so

distribute the difference

.13 53 58

82

57 15

58

6 56 43

41

as to

make

5 .57

2/= 6 51' 15''.49

2/'= 6 56' 43".33.

It

would not be worth while

account of the aberration, for

rived from the

first

compute anew the reductions of the time on

they scarcely differ 1" from those which we deto

hypothesis.

Further computations furnish

log 1]

From which
the

it

= 0.0011582, log7]" = 0.0011558, whence are deduced

log P'=: 9.9999225, X= 0.0000000
Y= 0.0000479.
log ^= 9.6309955,

is

apparent

how much more

exact the second hypothesis

is

than

first.

For the sake of completing the example, we will still construct the third
hypothesis, in which we shall adopt the values of P' and Q' derived from the
-

second hypothesis for the values of

Putting, therefore,

P and

= log P

Q.

9.9999225
9.6309955

the following are obtained for the most important parts of the computation
0)

log

Qc

543'56".10

C"

7 49

logr

1 .97

0.9143111

sino)

......

logr"

loo;/

0.4749031

i (^u''~ m)

lOff

0.7724168

2/'

0.7724943

2/

log

185 10' 39".69

2/"

0.4748690
0.4743909

^u"+u)

18925'42".45

759'35".02

....
....

264 21' 50".64

288 49

5 .57

13 53 58 .94

.....

6 57 15 .65
6 56 43 .49

321

APPENDIX.
The

difference

0''.2

and 2/ -f- If" is divided

15^55, and 2/'= 6 56' 43^39.

between

making 2/= 6" 57'

All these numbers differ so

hypothesis,

2/

as

in

the

first

from those given by the second hypothesis

that it may safely be concluded that the third hypothesis requires no further corif the computation should be continued as in the preceding hypotheses,
rection
little

the result would be

F^ 0.0000001, which

X== 0.0000000,

last

value must be

regarded as of no consequence, and not exceeding the unavoidable uncertainty

belonging to the last decimal figure.

We

proceed to the determination of the elements

from 2/', r, r", ^' according to the methods contained in articles 88-97.
The elements are found to be as follows
are, therefore, at liberty to

Epoch of the mean longitude, 1845,

Mean

daily motion,

....

771".5855

Longitude of the perihelion,

148 27' 49".70

Angle of eccentricity,

4 33 28 .35

Logarithm of the major semi-axis

0.4417481

Longitude of the ascending node,

80 46' 36".94

Inclination of the orbit,

10 37

The computation of the middle

....

place from these elements gives

a'z= 324 34' 51".05,

which

278 47' 13".79

differ

but

little

a'=

^'=

14

45' 28".31

from the observed values

324 34' 50".92,

^'=
41

14

45' 28".28.

7 .98

APPENDIX.

322

FORMULAS FOR COMPUTING THE ORBIT OF A COMET.

Given

Mean

times of the observations in days,

Observed longitudes of the comet,

Observed latitudes of the comet,

i!,

f,

a\

a'\

a"'

p\

fi",

(i'"

A"

Longitudes of the sun.

A,

A',

Distances of the sun from the earth,

i?',

R', B!"

9',

^\

Required

The

curtate distances from the earth,

^"'

Compute

L
tanjy'

^~"sin(a" ^")

i!'m
^ fff
-^^

sin {a!

A') tan

/JT

tan/?"' msin(ce"' ^")

and by means of this, approximately,

q'"

= Mq'.
n.

m" (io^{A" A) m = g co%{G A)

A)
B!"
(^A" A) = y
sin

is

sin

longitude of the

first

6^

and third places of the earth.

place of the earth as seen from the third place.

the chord of the earth's orbit between the

G the

first

IIL

cos

(a'" a')

sin (a''' a')

= hcos^ cos {H
= hcos^ {JI
sin

Jf tan ^'" tan /?' :=i h

h

is

always positive.

a'")

sin C-

If iVis a point, the coordinates of which, referred to the

third place of the earth, are

q'

then are

a'")

cos a\

q'

sin a',

g tan

/?,

APPENDIX.

323

the polar coordinates of the third place of the comet, (that

as the origin.
tude and latitude,) referred to the point

is,

the distance, longi-

IV.

cos C COS

{G

=
A) =z
A") =
//)

cos

cos

cos {y cos {a'

cos

By means

of 9,

fi'"

cos {a'"

if', v^'",

sin

=^

^'^ B'
B"
TC" sin Y'
R' sin

cos ^r'

A, B", B'", Olbers's formulas, become:

^ =(hQ' ^ cos 9)^ 4"^^

/2

=:(^/sec(rR'Gos^/f-\-B'^
T^^'cos tf''')2
(iltf (/sec /r

r"'2^

+ ^''2

The computation would be somewhat

easier

by

V.

g cos

h cos (j'=zf',
Ai

COS o

j,fn

_^_=z/

in

(p

/' ^

cos

g^Q^^^^f R
j.iff

which

u^h

{/

ff

cos

if

'=

c'

nr

-rtfir

cOSIf

=C

ni

g)

VI.

value of

tc

is

to

be found by

(/ 4_ /-_(_
in

/,)-2

trial

which

will satisfy the

equation

_ (/+ r'" Itf = ^-^,

which
log

w/=

0.9862673

no approximate value for q' or for / or /'' is otherwise known, by means

of which an approximate value of u can be found, we may begin with
If

APPENDIX.

324
'

-This trial will be facilitated

by means of which

is

found

k,

by Table

Ilia,

which gives 7* corresponding to

which corresponds rigorously to

r,

/",

and f"

f:

x(r 0^
in

which
log

= 8.5366114.

){

For any value of u compute k, r\ r'", by V,

and with /, r"\ compute v], with which \i is to be taken from Table Ilia, and a value
t' used.
And w is to
of h is to be computed which corresponds to the r , f,

The

process

may

be as follows

be changed until the second value of h

shall agree exactly

with that computed

byV.
Then we have
u-\-q COS

(p

vn.
^'

cos {a'

A) B! =
=/

r'

sin ('
q'

A')

9'tan/3'

f'

cos

cos

b'
h'

= /siny

A") R" =
A") =
^-

cos ("'

sin {a'"

r'" cos
r'" cos

A)

cos {t
sin {H

A!)

A")
A")

V" cos {t"

sin {t"

FIRST CONTROL.

The values of

/, r"\ obtained

from these formulas, must agree exactly with

those before computed.

^,

t"^ h'", are heliocentric longitudes

The motion
negative.

is

direct

when

f t

is

and

latitudes of the comet.

positive,

and retrograde when t"

is

APPENDIX.

325

vm.

tan y = tan
tan
.^.

V"_

_^

sin {t

tan^os(
sin(r

always positive, and less than

used when the motion is direct the lower when

the inclination

tan2COS(^ Q)

is

The upper

90.
it is

signs are to

be

retrograde.

IX.

tan(r-S^)
cos

^^^^

._^

tanjr-g)^^^^
COS

J'

_^

'

11 and I!" are the longitudes in orbit.

SECOND CONTROL.

The value of Tc before computed must be exactly

^

V^

[/2 _(_ /..2

_2/

/'' cos {fi"

)].

X.
COS

cosec ^ {L'"

(M^{L'"V)
n, the longitude of the perihelion,

^ (JJ

is

n)

ZQ _

sin

(Z^

n)

counted from a point in the orbit from which

the distance, in the direction of the order of the signs, to the ascending node,

is

equal to the longitude of the ascending node.

XL
The

true anomalies are

v'

With

= L' n,v''' = r"n.

these the corresponding

Table, and

we have then

M' and M"'

are to be taken from Barker's

the time of perihelion passage

APPENDIX.

326
in which

M'

and M'" have the sign of v and

log

The upper

the constant log n

v"' ;

is

?^= 0.0398723.

signs serve for direct, the lower for retrograde motion.

For the use of Table Ila instead of Barker's Table, see Article 18 of the
Appendix.
THIRD

The two values of T, from

If,

CONTROL.

and f\ must agree exactly.

XII.

With

T, q,7i,

observed values.

9,,

t,

f, A", B!',

And

also

compute a" and

^'\

and compare them with the

compute with these values the formula

tan/?"

If this value agrees with that of

of formulas

I.,

the orbit

is

exactly deter-

mined according to the principles of Olbers's Method. That is, while it satisfies
exactly the two extreme places of the comet, it agrees with the observations in
the great circle which connects the middle place of the Comet with the middle
place of the Sun.
If a difference

is

found,

M can be changed

until the

agreement

is

complete.

TABLES.

TABLE

I.

(See

articles 42, 45.)

TABLE

I.

TABLE

TABLE

I.

TABLE

TABLE

I,

TABLE

I,

TABLE

I,

TABLE
h

II.

(See Article

93.)

TABLE

10

II.

TABLE
h

II.

11

TABLE

12

II.

TABLE

14

II.

TABLE
h

II.

15

TABLE

16

II.

TABLE
X

or z

III.

(See Articles 90, 100.)

17

TABLE

18

or z

III.

TABLE
X

or z

III.

19

TABLE

20

or z

III.

TABLE

la.

21

22

TABLE

la.

TABLE

Ic

23

24

TABLE

la.

TABLE

la.

25

26

TABLE

la.

TABLE

la.

27

28

TABLE

la.

TABLE
To.

Ila.

29

TABLE

30

To.

Ila.

TABLE
1

To.

Ila.

31

TABLE

32

To.

Ila.

TABLE
n

Ilia.

33

TABLE

34

m sin 2* = sin

(z

q).

IV,

and q

positive.

^
4.2976
3.3950
2.8675
2.4938
2.2044
1.9686

9.9999
9.9996
9.9992
9.9986
9.9978
9.9968

9.9957
9.9943
9.9928
9.9911
9.9892
9.9871

10
11
12

1.7698
1.5981
1.4473
1.3130
1.1922
1.0824

10

11
12

13
14
15
16
17
18

0.9821
0.8898
0.8045
0.7254
0.6518
0.5830

9.9848
9.9823
9.9796
9.9767
9.9736
9.9702

13
14
15
16
17
18

12
16
20
26
33

19

22
23
24

0.5185
0.4581
0.4013
0.3479
0.2976
0.2501

9.9667
9.9629
9.9588
9.9545
9.9499
9.9451

19
20
22
23
24
25

41
51
2
15
31
49

25
27
28
30
31
33

25
26
27
28
29
30

0.2053
0.1631
0.1232
0.0857
0.0503
0.0170

9.9400
9.9345
9.9287
9.9226
9.9161
9.9092

27
28
30
31
33
35

10
35
4
38
18

31
32
33

9.9857
9.9565
9.9292
9.9040
9.8808
9.8600

9.9019
9.8940
9.8856
9.8765
9.8665
9.8555

37
39

9.8443

9.8443

20
21

34
35
36

5'

20

20
40

40
20

89
89
89
88
88
87

40
20

5 20
6 41
1
8

41
1

89
89
89
88
88
87

9 22
10 42
12
3
13 25
14 46
16 8

9 22
10 42
12 3
13 25
14 46
16 8

87
87
86
86
86
85

18
57
35
14
52

87
87
86
86
86
85

31

17 31
18 53
20 17
21 40
23
5

24 30

24 30

85 29
85 7
84 43
84 20
83 55
83 30

85
85
84
84
83
83

56
23
50

83 4
82 37
82 10

83 4
82 37
82 10
81 41

20

25 oQ
27 23
28 50
30 19
31 49
33 20

34 53
36 28
38 5
39 45

34 53
36 28
38 5
39 45

41 27
43 13

41 27
43 13

33
76 47

45
47
49
51 22
53 58
57 13

75 56
74 59
73 54
72 38
71
2
68 47

75 56
74 59
73 54
72 38

47 47
52 31

45
47
49
51 22
53 58
57 13

63 26

63 26

63 26

63 26

2 40

1
1

5
1

41 33

44 21

= 36

17
18
20
21
23

53
17

40

19
49

52' 11.64"

20

40
19
59

38

81 41
81 11
80 40

80

79
78
78
77

32
55
15

40
19

59

177
175
172
170
168
165

37
14
52
28

163
160
158
156
153

18
52
28

5
41

180 55

28
23
18
13

37
151 10

186
187
188
189
190
191

148
146
143
141
138
136

43
14
45
14
42

191
192
193
194
195
196

59
54
49

34
58

80 40

133
130
128
125
122
120

80
79
78
78
77
76

38
18
57
35
14
52

29
7

43
20
55
30

44
39
33
28
23

117 20
114 27
111 30
108 27
105 19
102 3

202
203
204
205
206
207

54

208
209
209
210
211
212

14

71
2
68 47

98 37
95
91
6
86 49
81 53
75 40

63 26

63 26

213 15

81

11

32
55
15

33
47

sin

19

^ =.Q.Q

186
187
188
189
190

59
59
58
57
b&

191 54

197
198
199
200
201
202

38
55

181
182
183
184
185
186

181 51
182 46
183 42
184 37
185 32

17
11
6

192
193
194
195
196
197

52
49
46
42
38
33

198
199
200
201
202
202

28
22
15
8

203
204
205
206
207
207

47
41
35
28
21

208
209
210
210

58
50

51

42
32
22
11

48

36
24
11

58
211 46
212 33

41
32
|

213 15

TABLE

IV,

35

TABLE

3@

X.

Va.

TABLE
X.

Va

37

TABLE

38

X.

Va.

TABLE
X.

Va.

39

CONSTANTS.
Log.

Attractive force of the Sun, h in terms of radius,

.0172021

3548M8761

k in seconds,

8.2355814

3.5500066

Length of the Sidereal Year (Hansen and Olufsen),

365*^.2563582

2.5625978

Length of the Tropical Year, 1850,

365^2422008

2.5625809

Horizontal equatorial parallax of the

Sun

(Encke),*

Constant of Aberration (Struve),

Time required

for

0.9333658

20".4451

1.3105892

497^827

2.6970785

light to pass from the Smn to

the Earth,

Radius of Circle in Seconds of

206264''.806

5.3144251

13750^987

4.1383339

0.000004848137

4.6855749

1296000''

6.1126050

86400'

4.9365137

3.14159265

0.4971499

arc,

in Seconds of time,

Sin r

Circumference of

8".5776

Circle" in

Seconds of

arc,

in Seconds of time,
in terms of diameter,

TT

50^2411

General Precession (Struve)

+ 0';0002268^

Obliquity of the ecliptic (Struve and Peters), 232r54';22

in

which

t is

the

number of years

Daily precession, 1850,

Modulus of

Common

Logarithms,

* The Constants of
Parallax, Aberration,
the authority for them
(40)

may

after

etc.,

0.464525 .0000014^

1800

0M375837

9.1385669

0.4342945

9.6377843

are those used in the American Ephemeris, and

be found by reference to the volume for 1855.

.v'\

/Ai6 4

BINDING SECT. JAN

1 1

197]

Gauss, Carl Friedrich

Theory of the motion of
the heavenly bodies

OB
355
G253

'.r plied Sci,

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