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INITIALLY POROUS
AND PERMEABLE UNIT
(Sedimentology)
yes
EXPOSED
(Sedimentology)
yes
no
Close to
unconformity
METEORIC PHREATIC
limited dissolution,
cementation by low Mg
calcite around grains
COMPACTION
LIMITED?
yes
RQ poor
RQ good
yes
METEORIC VADOSE
Extensive dissolution
limited but patchy cementation
(especially at pore throats)
no
RQ moderate
RQ moderate
RQ moderate - good
1
mechanical
RQ
REDUCED
COMPACTION
(Effective Stress)
Quantification
of effects?
chemical
2B
2A
RQ
REDUCED
RQ
MAINTAINED
No source of cement?
Hydrocarbon filling?
(Geochemistry)
no
CEMENTATION
(Petrography)
yes
Source of cement
Extent of cement
(Gheochemistry)
3A
RQ
IMPROVED
DISSOLUTION
(Petrography)
local
3B
regional
Reprecipitation as cement
Elsewhere in basin
4A
BURIAL DOLOMITISATION
(Petrography)
5A
RQ
REDUCED
RQ
IMPROVED
RQ MAY
IMPROVED
Yes
(compartmentalise)
No
(inc. permeability)
Import of Ca MgCO3
4B
Cementation
Yes
FRACTURING
(Well Data)
No
RQ
REDUCED
RQ
REDUCED
RQ
IMPROVED
RQ
MAINTAINED
5B
Process
Por.
Perm.
1 2A 2B
-ve -ve 0
-ve -ve 0
3A 3B 4A 4B 5A 5B
+ve -ve -ve 0
0
0
+ve -ve -ve +ve -ve +ve
Meteoric Diagenesis
Effects on RQ
if yes
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
Effects of karstification
on reservoir quality
Sequence Boundary Karst
Effects on RQ
if yes
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
MODIFYING TERMS
GENETIC MODIFIERS
PROCESS
SIZE* MODIFIERS
CLASSES
DIRECTION OR STAGE
SOLUTION
CEMENTATION
INTERNAL SEDIMENT
ENLARGED
REDUCED
FILLED
s
c
i
x
r
f
TIME OF FORMATION
PRIMARY
pre-depositional
depositional
SECONDARY
eogenetic
mesogenetic
telogenetic
EXAMPLES:
+ DIRECTION
P
Pp
Pd
S
Se
Sm
St
mg
large
small
lmg
smg
MESOPORE
ms
large
small
lms
sms
MICROPORE
mc
256
32
4
1/2
1/16
porosity types:
msVUG
smsMO
mcBP
ABUNDANCE MODIFIERS
TIME
solution-enlarged
cement-reduced primary
sediment-filled eogenetic
MEGAPORE
mm**
Percent porosity
or
Ratio of porosity
Ratio and percent or
sx
crP
ifSe
(15%)
(1 : 2)
(1 : 2)(15%)
ANY MODIFYING TERMS ARE COMBINED WITH THE BASIC POROSITY TYPES IN SEQUENCE GIVEN BELOW :
GENETIC MODIFIER
EXAMPLES :
SIZE MODIFIER
intraparticle, 10 percent
primary mesointraparticle porosity
solution-enlarged primary intraparticle porosity
micromoldic porosity, 10 percent
telogenetic cavern porosity
ABUNDANCE
WP (10%)
P-msWP
sxP-WP
mcMO(10%)
St-CV
Choquette and Pray, 1970
WP POROSITY
intraparticle porosity
Refers to pores formed where soft body parts lived in
body cavities (e.g., gatropods) or pores where
internal partitioning in otherwise solid material (e.g.,
rudist wall structures)
may add considerably to the total porosity of
grainstones and packstones
are commonly enlarged by dissolution to form moldic
or vuggy porosity
an example follows of 10 perm plugs measured from
three coral heads (Holocene), yielding average
porosities of 47, 63 and 53 %
BC POROSITY
intercrystalline porosity
Forms between crystals of dolomite or
limestone
provides one of the most evenly distributed
types of porosity in carbonates (except for
vugs)
occurs as mesoporosity and macroporosity in
dolomites
occurs as microporosity in limestone (within
the lime mud matrix
BP POROSITY
interparticle porosity
Intergranular pores from spherical triangles
between packed spheres and irregular
between platy grain shapes
rare in lithified rock--not commonly preserved
due to cementation
commonly is modified by thin isopachous rim
cements that form in the marine phreatic
common in jurassic carbonate of the Middle
East and accounts for the success of these
giant reservoirs
KV POROSITY
keystone vug porosity
Forms by the natural bridging of sand
grains to form a keystone arch with
pore space below it
forms in the swash zone of beaches
relatively rare porosity type
recognized in the Pleistocene of the
Bahamas
FENESTRAL POROSITY
A porosity type commonly associated with algal
stromatolite lithofacies
voids formed within algal laminations by algae
forming bridges and growing over other algal
layers or by air/gas pockets within algal layers
fenestra means window in latin and refers to
the window-like openings within algal layers
fenestral porosity may not be effective porosity
PROBLEMS with
CARBONATE RESERVOIR
Heterogeneous porosity and
permeability complex depositional
enviroments diagnetic overprints
GF POROSITY
growth framework porosity
associated with boundstone fabrics and reefs
created by branches or tubes winding and
bridging together to form pore space between
their framework elements (not within them)
one of the most difficult pore types to indentify
may be relatively unimportant, since detritus
commonly fills such spaces at the time of
deposition
FR POROSITY
fracture porosity
Brittle versus ductile behavior: dolomites fracture
more readily than limestones
Orientation of most natural fractures is verticle
Maximum amount of porosity due to fracturing (e.g.,
in the Monterrey Shale of California) is about 6 %
It is commonly beneficial to induce fracturing in the
area surrounding the borehole to increase daily
production rates: acid-fracs with propants
Presence of fractures is critical for reservoir facies
development in tight boundstones that grade to
wackestones and in chalk deposits (coccolith
mudstones)
RESERVOIR QUALITY
POROSITY
PERM
EXCELLENT
> 20 %
> 100 md
GOOD
> 15 %
> 50 md
FAIR
5 15 %
10 50 md
POOR
<5%
< 10 md
DIAGENETIC PHENOMENA
AFFECTING CARBONATES
MINERALOGIC STABILIZATION
ARAGONITE, CALCITE
NEOMORPHISM (REPLACEMENT)
CALCITE, CALCITE
DOLOMITIZATION
CALCITE, DOLOMITE
CEMENTATION
VOID-FILLING CALCITE,
DOLOMITE or
EVAPORITES
SILICIFICATION
PRESSURE SOLUTION /
COMPACTION
DISSOLUTION /
KARSTIFICATION
BRECCIATION / FRACTURING
DIAGENESIS
DEFINITION:
THOSE NATURAL CHANGES WHICH OCCUR IN
SEDIMENTS BETWEEN THE TIME OF INITIAL
DEPOSITION AND METAMORPHISM
FORMULA
CHARACTERISTICS
ARAGONITE
CaCO3
MG-CALCITE
CaCO3
TRACE IMPURITIES;
ORTHORHOMBIC
4-25% Mg IMPIRITIES;
HEXAGONAL
TACE IMPURITIES;
HEXAGONAL
50% or so Mg;
HEXAGONAL
CALCITE
DOLOMITE
CaCO3
CaMg(CO3)2
CEMENTS TEND TO BE
MENISCUS
PENDULOUS
OTHER CHARACTERISTICS
LEACHING OF ARAGONITE
SLIGHT CEMENTATION
COMMON POROSITY
ISOPACHOUS BLADED
EQUANT CALCITE
INTERLOCKING CRYSTALS
COARSER TO PORE CENTER
OTHER CHARACTERISTICS
SOME LEACHING OF ARAGONITE; LEACHING MAY BE ACCOMPANIED BY
CALCITE REPLACEMENT.
LOW POROSITY
RAPID CEMENTATION
SYNTAXIAL OVERGROWTHS ON ECHINODERMS
OTHER CHARACTERISTICS
NO LEACHING
SLOW CEMENTATION EXCEPT WHERE TIDES PUMP WATER
THROUGH SEDIMENT
POLYGONAL BOUNDARIES
MANY MINOR DISCONFORMITIES
DEEP SUBSURFACE
ENVIRONMENT
CHARACTERISTICS:
PERMEABILITAS OF ROCKS
AND SEDIMENTS
Tightly cemented criniodal limestone
Uncemented carbonate mud
Sucrosic dolomite
Cemented quartz or sandstone
or carbonate grainstone
Poorly cemented quartz sandstone
or carbonate grainstone
Unconsolidated quartz sandstone
or carbonate grainstone
Fractured sandstone or carbonate
10 md
0.01 10 md
0.1 150 md
10 300 md
300 500 md
>1000 md
>1000 md
BURIAL DIAGNESIS
STRUCTURAL
CONTROL
MINIMAL
IMPORTANCE
VERY IMPORTANT
MINERAL
STABILIZATION
VERY IMPORTANT
MINIMAL
IMPORTANCE
EQUILIBRIUM
CONDITIONS
WIDE VARIATION
SLIGHT VARIATION
RATE OF WATER
INFLUX
VERY HIGH
LOW
LONG PERIOD
PRESSURE
UNIMPORTANT
VERY IMPORTANT
TEMPERATURE
UNIMPORTANT
IMPORTANT
TRACE ELEMENTS
ENVIRONMENT
Fe2+
Na+
Sr2+
ISOTOPES
Mn2+ Mg2+
MARINE
FRESHWATER
VADOSE
L
(VAR.)
H
(VAR.)
FRESHWATER
PHREATIC
SUBSURFACE
(Shallow burial)
ENRICHED
H = HEAVY
OCCASIONALLY L = LIGHT
ENRICHED
General Properties of
Carbonate Reservoir Rocks
LITHOLOGY
POROSITY
dolomite
grainstones
boundstones
PRIMARY
interparticle
intraparticle
intercrystalline
SECONDARY
moldic
vuggy
intercrystalline
POSITION
ON PROFILE
INNER-SHELF FAIRWAY
OUTER-SHELF FAIRWAY
MIDDLE-SHELF HIGHS
DEEP-WATER REEFS/ATOLLS
DIAGENESIS
STEADY SUBSIDENCE
SINGLE UPLIFT
MULTIPLE UPLIFTS
low-mod energy
low-mod energy
mod-high energy
bioclasts, crinoids, echinoids, echinoids spines, brachiopods, bryozoa, forams, fusulinids, molluscs,
mollusc fragments, pelecypods, platy green algae, dasyclads
Outer shelf
1) Shoals
0- 30 ft
2)
normal marine
high energy
bioclasts, crinoids, echinoids, echinoid spines, brachiopods, bryozoa, forams, fusulinids, molluscs, mollusc
fragments, pelecypods, platy green, algae, dasyclads, ooids, pisolites, coated grains, peloids, intraclasts
Reef environments
0 200 ft
normal marine
mod-high energy
corals, encrusting red algae, oysters, tubiphytes, rudists, thick branching, corals, thin branching corals,
bryozoa, stromatoporoids
Basinal
>600 ft
normal marine
low energy