CHAPTER 9 LECTURE NOTES

Informal Reports
CHAPTER SYNOPSIS
An effective flow of information is the life blood of business organizations. Reports serve multiple
purposes ranging from simply keeping superiors updated and creating a record to complex studies that
are designed to facilitate problem solving and decision making in the organization. Chapter 9
discusses the functions, strategies, writing style, and formats of typical business reports. It discusses
the importance of clearly identifying the problem to be solved and the specific purpose of the report.
Students are introduced to collecting data and documenting sources with an emphasis on online
databases, the Web, and other resources for business writers. The chapter addresses primary and
secondary sources. The chapter also provides tools for creating meaningful and interesting report
graphics.
Most workers in business organizations today write some type of report on a regular basis, usually
informal short reports, often distributed as a simple e-mail message. Occasionally workers collaborate in
teams on larger-scale projects. This is why students need to acquire the considerable skills involved in
planning, researching, composing, and presenting business reports. This report and research chapter will
help students to develop report writing skills that will impress their future employers.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Explain informational and analytical report functions, organizational strategies, and writing
styles.
2. Describe typical report formats and understand the significance of effective headings.
3. Determine the problem the report is addressing as well as the reports purpose, and gather
significant secondary and primary information.
4. Write short informational reports that describe routine tasks.
5. Prepare short analytical reports that solve business problems.
WHAT'S NEW IN THIS CHAPTER
The authors made the following changes and improvements:

Streamlined chapter contents by reorganizing into five concise learning objectives for quick
comprehension and retention.
Simplified the report-writing topics by categorizing informal reports as either informational or
analytical.
Converted selected content from textual to graphic representation to appeal to visual learning
styles.

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license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website or school-approved learning management system for
classroom use.

Added content that reflects how digital trends have affected information gathering and report
distribution.
Revised and updated guidelines for writing effective headings, including the importance of
establishing a clear hierarchy of heading levels within a report.
Created new model documents showing levels of headings in reports, a memo-style conference
report, and a memo-style article summary.
Rewrote 90 percent of the chapter review and 100 percent of the critical thinking questions to
reinforce concepts.
Rewrote or revised 90 percent of the chapter Activities to add relevant assignments on current
topics associated with the digital and social world.
Added relevant information to the Communication Workshop on facilitating group work on
team writing projects.

LECTURE OUTLINE

I.

Reporting in the Digital Age (p. 270)

Efficient reporting plays a critical role in helping organizations sift through data and
make major decisions.
Routine reports keep managers informed about work in progress. Focused reports help
managers analyze the challenges they face before recommending solutions.

A. Informational and Analytical Report Functions

Informational reports: present data without analysis or recommendations
Analytical reports: provide data, analysis, and conclusions
B. Organizational Strategies
Direct strategy when the purpose is presented close to the beginning
Indirect strategy when the conclusions and recommendations appear at the end of
the report
Figure 9.1 Audience Analysis and Report Organization
Figure 9.2 Informational Report Letter Format
C. Informal and Formal Writing Styles
Reports can range from informal to formal depending on their purpose, audience, and
setting.
Research reports from consultants to their clients tend to be more formal.
Figure 9.3 Report-Writing Styles

II.

Report Formats and Heading Levels (p. 274)

A. Typical Report Formats

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Letter format: Useful for short informal reports (usually eight or fewer pages)
addressed outside an organization; prepared on companys letterhead stationery.
Memo and e-mail formats: Useful for informal reports circulated within
organizations; usually attached to e-mails or contained in the body of an e-mail.
Manuscript format: Useful for longer, more formal reports; usually printed on plain
paper.
Forms and templates: Useful for repetitive data, such as monthly sales reports,
performance appraisals, and financial reports.
Digital formats and PDF files: Helpful in condensing documents while preserving the
formatting and graphics.
Infographics: Used to visually illustrate data or information; can display complex
information more quickly and clearly than written text.
Digital slide decks: Used to deliver report information in digital slideshows, which
can be sent by e-mail, embedded on the Web, or posted on a company intranet.
Figure 9.4 Informal Reports Delivered as Slide Decks

B. Effective Report Headings

Construct a clear hierarchy of heading levels.
Capitalize and underline carefully.
Create grammatically equal heading levels
For short reports use one or two heading levels.
Include at least one heading per report page, but don't end the page with a stand-alone
heading.
Apply punctuation correctly.
Keeping headings short but clear.
Figure 9.5 Distinguishing Among Functional, Talking, and Combination Headings
Figure 9.6 Varying Styles of Levels in Headings

III.

Defining the Purpose and Gathering Data (p. 279)

A. Determining the Problem and Purpose
First, the writer must determine the problem and purpose of the report. Once the report purpose
is understood, report writers should begin to gather data needed to start writing the report.
Reports are usually written in either a formal or an informal writing style. Most reports include
headings to organize the report and highlight main ideas. Ethical report writers know how to
properly document their resources.
B. Gathering Information From Secondary and Primary Sources
Look in company records.
Access printed material.

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IV.

Search databases and other electronic resources.

Make personal observations.
Use surveys, questionnaires, and inventories.
Conduct interviews.

Writing Short Informational Reports (p. 281)

Informational reports often describe periodic, recurring activities (such as monthly sales
or weekly customer calls) as well as situational, nonrecurring events (such as trips,
conferences, and special projects).
Informational reports have a neutral or receptive audience. Readers do not need to be
persuaded; they simply need to be informed.
A. Trip, Convention, and Conference Reports
Begin by identifying the event (name, date, and location) and previewing the topics
that were discussed.
In the body, summarize the main topics that might benefit others in the organization.
Use headings and bullets to add readability.
Close by expressing appreciation, mentioning the value of the trip or event, and
offering to share the information.
Itemize your expenses, if requested, on a separate sheet.
Figure 9.7 - Conference Report
B. Progress, or Interim, Reports
Progress reports explain the progress of continuing projects. For example, you must
report on the progress of a golf tournament your organization is planning.
Describe the purpose and nature of project.
Provide background information if necessary.
Summarize work already completed.
Explain work currently in progress, including personnel, activities, methods, and
locations.
Anticipate problems and possible remedies.
Discuss future activities and provide the expected completion date.
Figure 9. 8 Progress Report
C. Minutes of Meetings
Meeting minutes summarize the proceedings of a meeting.
Begin with the name of group, date, time, place, name of the meeting.
List names of attendees and absentees.
State whether the previous minutes were approved or revised.
Record old business, new business, announcements, and reports.

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Include the precise wording of motions.

Record the vote and action taken.
Conclude with the name and signature of the individual recording the minutes.

Figure 9.9 Formal Meeting Minutes

D. Summaries
Summaries compress data from a longer publication, such as a book, report, article,
Web site, meeting, or convention.
Present the goal or purpose of the document being summarized.
Highlight the research methods (if appropriate), findings, conclusions, and
recommendations.
Omit illustrations, examples, and references.
Organize for readability by including headings and bulleted or enumerated lists.
Include your reactions or an overall evaluation of the document if asked to do so.
Figure 9.10 Article Summary

V. Preparing Short Analytical Reports (p. 285)

This section describes three common types of analytical business reports: (a)
justification/recommendation reports, (b) feasibility reports, and (c) yardstick reports.
These reports involve collecting and analyzing data, evaluating the results, drawing
conclusions, and making recommendations.

A.

Justification/Recommendation Reports

Justification/recommendation reports are written to justify or recommend something,

such as buying equipment, changing a procedure, hiring an employee, or
consolidating departments.
Reader Response Determines Structure
If reader will likely agree with recommendations, use direct strategy:
Problem
Recommendations
Facts
Discussion
If reader may oppose recommendations, use indirect strategy:
Problem
Facts
Discussion
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Recommendations

1. Direct Strategy
Identify the problem or the need briefly.
Announce the recommendation, solution, or action concisely and with action
verbs.
Explain more fully the benefits of the recommendation or steps to be taken to
solve the problem.
Present a discussion of pros, cons, and costs.
Conclude with a summary specifying the recommendation and action to be
taken
2. Indirect Strategy
Make a general reference to the problem in subject line.
Describe the problem or need your recommendation addresses.
Discuss alternative solutions, beginning with the least likely to succeed.
Present most promising alternativeyour recommendationlast.
Show how the advantages of your recommendation outweigh its
disadvantages.
Summarize your recommendation and any action required.
Ask for authorization to proceed, if necessary.
Figure 9.11 Justification/Recommendation Report, Direct Strategy, APA
Style
B.

Feasibility Reports

Feasibility reports examine the practicality and advisability of following a course of

action. For example, your company must decide whether to add a child-care facility.
Announce your decision immediately.
Describe the background and problem necessitating the proposal.
Discuss the benefits of the proposal.
Describe any problems that may result.
Calculate the costs associated with the proposal, if appropriate.
Show the time frame necessary for implementation of the proposal.
Figure 9.12 Feasibility Report
C. Yardstick Reports
Yardstick reports examine problems with two or more solutions. To determine the
best solution, the writer establishes criteria by which to compare the alternatives.
Begin by describing the problem or need.
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Explain possible solutions and alternatives.

Establish criteria for comparing the alternatives; tell how the criteria were
selected or developed.
Discuss and evaluate each alternative in terms of the criteria.
Draw conclusions and make recommendations.

Figure 9.13 Yardstick Report

Critical Thinking Discussion Guide

11. Under what circumstances would a recommendation report be written directly? Give an
example. (Obj. 1)
If a company recommends a popular course of action and expects no negative reactions to
factors such as expense, time frame, or risk factor, the approach would likely be direct. An
example would be a company that wants to optimize its website for mobile devices to meet the
growing demands of mobile phone users. A recommendation report would show the pros and
cons of hiring an IT mobile Web specialist to optimize the website and of outsourcing the job to
a mobile site builder. Both are expensive, both involve a time frame for completion, and both
require hiring a mobile development expert. Therefore, those factors will not cause a negative
reaction. Readers will want to see the reports conclusions and recommendations immediately;
hence, the report should use a direct approach.
12. Do you think informational reports should be written directly or indirectly? For what
reasons would an analytical report be written with a direct or an indirect approach? State
your reasoning. (Obj. 1)
Opinions may vary, but the following ideas are generally true:
Informational reports are written directly because the reader is usually anxious for or accepting
of the reports contents. Even though informational reports sometimes show negative numbers
or results, they are usually written directly. Analytical reports can be written using a direct or
indirect approach. The determining factor is the need for persuasion. Analytical reports are
written directly when the topic is nonsensitive and the audience requires no persuasion. They are
written indirectly when the audience is likely to be disappointed or hostile about the reports
conclusions and recommendations. In this case persuasion is needed.
13. What heading guidelines should you follow when writing a report? (Obj. 2)
Students should include at least five of the following guidelines:
a. Useanallcapsheadingforthetitleofareport.
b. Striveforparallelconstructionwithineachheadinglevel.Usethesamefontsize,fontstyle,
placement,punctuation,andcapitalization.
c. Useupperandlowercasecapitalizationinfirstandsecondlevelheadings.
d. Keepheadingsshortbutclear(eightorfewerwords).

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e. Includeatleastoneheadingperreportpage.Donotleaveastandaloneheadingatthe
bottomofapage.
f. Addaperiodafteraparagraphheadingtoseparateitfromthetextthatfollows.
g. Makeeachlevelofheadingeasilydistinguishable.
14. What technology trends do you think will affect business reporting and delivery in the
future? (Obj. 5)
Encourage students to research technology and reporting trends. Their responses may vary. They
may discover that digital reporting is continually evolving with the use of mobile devices, digital
video, digital intelligence, and analytical tools that are changing the ways businesses collect and
share information. Informational and analytical reports will likely be generated by reporting
software connected to digital databases, which will help businesses analyze and predict their
business performance in real time. Large and small companies will benefit from digital reporting
solutions.
15. How can report writers ensure that they present their information objectively and
credibly? (Obj. 3)
Writers should strive to present both sides of an issue, even if they favor one option. They need
to separate facts from opinions and remove any signs of editorializing and bias. Readers expect
information from verifiable secondary and primary resources. By citing those sources properly,
writers gain credibility.

Activities
Note: The solutions to the activities and cases for this chapter are located in the Solutions to
Activities section of the Instructor's Manual.

Communication Workshop (p. 303)

Collaboration: Pulling Together a Successful Team Writing Project
This workshop establishes a framework in which to assign collaborative projects. Students are
instructed to prepare a report as a collaborative effort and implement the suggestions included in the
workshop. Furthermore, this workshop introduces the option of using a wiki to facilitate student
collaboration and instructor oversight.
Probably the hardest part of collaborative assignments is assessing individual and group
performance. How can you give grades to individuals and to the entire team? Business
communication instructors may use several methods to gather information and assess performance.
Here are some suggestions offered by Karen Sterkel Powell, Colorado State University, for
assessing team assignments.
ASSESSING INDIVIDUAL PERFORMANCE
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1. Confidential peer evaluations. These evaluations are an incentive to individuals to perform

according to the expectations of their fellow group members. Peer evaluations should focus on
the behaviors of group members rather than their traits.
2. Leaders or chairpersons report. This report should detail the tasks or responsibilities of each
member and provide a record of meeting dates, times, and attendees. You may also request
minutes of meetings with group members sharing the responsibility for submitting these to you
periodically. This helps you identify the nonperformers.
3. Student logs or journals. Ask students to keep a log or journal about the groups activities, the
groups small-group processes, and their feelings about other members behavior and
contributions, as well as their own. These should be submitted periodically to determine whether
your intervention is necessary with the entire group or with just one member. Logs and journals
also can be used to support peer evaluations.
4. Class attendance record. Take attendance on class days when instructions are being given on
group processes, writing processes, and the report project, as students who are absent miss
valuable information that helps them contribute effectively to the group project. Moreover, if
group meetings are held during a class period, they miss that interaction with the group,
increasing the out-of-class time required for group meetings.
ASSIGNING GROUP GRADES
Using a combination of group and individual grades increases the likelihood that the grade a student
receives is an accurate reflection of his or her writing ability and contribution to the group and the
assignment. Thus, a students grade should be based on the score assigned to the written report and
one or more of the evaluation processes described previously. Using a combination of evaluations
provides you with a defensible and objective basis for assigning grades. Some suggestions for using
the combined evaluations follow.
1. Score the written report and give each group member the same grade. In addition, give a
separate grade for each students contribution to the report and to the group process based on the
four evaluations discussed previously. For example, the written report may be worth 100 points,
and the other grade may be worth 50 points. You need to establish the criteria for assigning this
grade so that you have consistency from one student to another and to inform the students of the
criteria.
2. Score the written report and add or deduct 10 points for individual members according to the
evaluations they receive on the four evaluation items discussed previously. Criteria need to be
established for the 10 points.
3. Score the written report and deduct points (no limit) for individual members according to the
four evaluations they received (discussed previously). You should have some guidelines for
deducting the points to ensure consistency. For example, each low rating on the peer evaluation
is 5 points, each missed meeting is 3, each missed class period is 3, and so on.
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To minimize having to adjust grades for nonperformers, encourage groups to confront these students
early in the project and set some guidelines for what the group expects from them, along with
deadlines for completing tasks. If they do not meet the expectations or deadlines, the groups should
consult with you. See the peer evaluation form that appears in the Evaluation Methods section of
this Instructors Manual.

Workplace in Focus
Page271
Reportsgenerallyfitintooneoftwobroadcategories:informationalreportsandanalyticalreports.
Informationalreportsprovideinformationanddataonly,whereasanalyticalreportsexamineraw
data,drawconclusions,andevenmakerecommendations.
CocaColassalesreportisprimarilyaninformationalreport.Itdeliversstatisticaldataonsalesof
variousproductcategories,anditdrawscomparisonstosalesfrompriorquarters.However,thisraw
dataismeaninglesstomanagerswithoutfurtheranalysis.Companyleaderscanseethenumbersin
decline,buttheycantinterpretwhatthedatamean,orunderstandwhatshouldbedonetoturnthe
businessaround.
Totransformsalesdataintomeaningfulinformation,CocaColamustuseanalyticalreportsthat
examinewhysalesareindecline.Forexample,analystswhoobservedCocaColassalesdecline
blamedchangingconsumerpreferences.Accordingtotheseobservers,consumersaregivingup
sugarycarbonateddrinksandseekingoutmorehealthychoices.
Page280
Towriteeffectivebusinessreportsthatsolveproblemsandinformbusinessdecisions,
communicatorsmustbeabletogenerateandinterpretsurveydataonarangeoftopics.Todays
businessleadersconductsurveystogatherdataonemployeesatisfaction,marketresearch,customer
loyalty,customerpreferences,employeetraining,jobsatisfaction,eventplanning,meetingresponse
data,andmore.Inthepast,conductingsurveyswasexpensive.However,becauseoftheriseof
companieslikeSurveyMonkey,conductingsurveysandtabulatingresultshasbecomeeasyandcost
effective.

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