A.P.

Psychology
Neuroscience and Behavior Neural Communication:
Biological psychologists are concerned with the links between
biology and behavior. Also called behavioral neuroscientists,
neuropsychologists,
behavior
geneticists,
physiological
psychologists, or biopsychologists.
The bodys information system is made up from billions of
interconnected cells called neurons. We are biopsychological
systems.
The information systems of humans and other animals operate
similarly. This similarity allows researchers to study relatively
simple animals, to discover how our neural systems operate.

It allows them to study other mammals brain to understand the

organization of our own.

Neurons:
Neurons - nerve cells. There are many types of neurons, but all
variations on the same theme. Each consists of a cell body and
its branching fibers. The dendrites fibers receive information
and conduct it toward the cell body.
From there, axon fibers pass the message along to other
neurons or to muscles or glands. Axons speak, dendrites listen.

Axons can be very long, projecting several feet through the body.

T Motor neurons control the muscles. A neuron carrying orders to

a leg can be up to 4 miles long.
A layer of fatty tissue, called myelin sheath, insulates the axons
of some neurons and helps speed their impulses. In multiple
sclerosis, the myelin sheath degenerates. The result is the
slowing of all communication to muscles and eventual loss of
muscle control.
Depending on the type of fiber, the neural impulse travels at
speeds ranging from a sluggish 2 miles per hour to 200 or more
miles per
hour.

We measure brain activity in milliseconds (thousandths of a

second). A neuron fires an impulse when it receives signals from
the sense receptors stimulated by pressure, heat, or light, or
when it is stimulated by chemical messages from neighboring
neurons. The impulse, called action potential is a brief
electrical charge that travels down the axon.
Neurons generate electricity from chemical events. The
chemistry to electricity process involves the exchange of
electrically charge atoms, called ions.
The fluid interior of a resting axon has an excess of negatively
charged ions, while the fluid outside the axon membrane has
more positively charged ions.
This positive outside/negative inside state is called the
resting potential. The axons surface is very selective about
what it allows in, thus making it selectively permeable.
When a neuron fires, the security parameters change. The first
bit of the axon opens its gates, and the positively charged
sodium ions flood through the membrane. This depolarizes that
part of the axon, causing the axons next channel to open, and so
on.
During the resting pause, refractory period, the neuron pumps
the
positively charged sodium ions back outside. Then it can fire it
again.
Most of the signals a neuron receives from the body are
excitatory, pushing a neurons accelerator. Others are inhibitory,
pushing its brake.
If excitatory signals minus inhibitory signals exceed a minimum
intensity, called the threshold, the combined signals trigger an
action potential. If there are more excitatory signals than
inhibitory signals, the neuron still fires.
The action potential transmits down the axon, which branches
into other neurons and with the bodys muscles and glands.
Increasing the stimulus above the threshold, however, will not
increase the action potentials intensity.
The neurons reaction is an all or none response. A strong
stimulus can trigger more neurons to fire, and to fire more often.
But it does not affect the action potentials strength or speed.

How Neurons Communicate:

How

A Spanish anatomist, Santiago Ramon y Cajal, described gaps

between individual nerve cells and concluded that the individual
neurons must function as independent agents within the nervous
system.
Sir Charles Sherrington, British physiologist, noticed that neural
impulses were taking and unexpectedly long time to travel a
neural pathway. Sherrington inferred that there must be a brief
interruption in the transmission.
The gap between neurons, less than a millionth of an inch wide,
is called synaptic gap or cleft. The junction is called synapse.
When the action potential reaches the terminal at an axon, it
triggers
the release of
chemical messengers, called
neurotransmitters.
The neurotransmitter molecules cross the synaptic gap and bind
to receptor sites on the receiving neuron. It unlocks tiny channels
at the receiving site. This allows ions to enter the receiving
neuron, thereby either exciting or inhibiting its readiness to fire.
Excess neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron
in a process called reuptake.
Neurotransmitters Influence Us:
We now know that a particular neural pathway in the brain may
use only one or two neurotransmitters, and have particular
neurotransmitters may have particular effects on behavior and
emotions.
Acetylcholine (ACh) is one of the best-understood
neurotransmitters. In addition to its role in learning and memory,
ACh is the messenger at every junction between motor neuron
and skeletal muscle. When it is released to our muscle cells, the
muscle contracts. If ACh transmission is blocked, the muscles
cannot contract.

Neurotransmitter
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Dopamine

Serotonin

Functions

Examples
of
Malfunctions
Enables
muscle With Alzheimer, ACh
action, learning and neurons deteriorate.
memory.
Influences movement, Excess dopamine
learning,
attention, schizophrenia.
and emotion.
Lack of dopamine
brain
produces
tremors
and
decreased mobility of
Parkinsons disease
Affects mood, hunger, Lack of serotonin
sleep, and arousal.
depression.

Prozac
can
raise
serotonin levels
Norepinephrine
Helps
control Lack
of
alertness and arousal. norepinephrine

depression.
GABA
(gamma A
major
inhibitory Lack of GABA
aminobutyric acid)
neurotransmitter.
seizures,
tremors,
insomnia.
Glutamate
A major excitatory Excess of glutamate
neurotransmitter;
overstimulate
brain,
memory.
migraines or seizures.

Candace Pert and Solomon Snyder (1973) discovered the

morphine, an opiate drug that elevates mood and eases pain,
bound to receptors in areas linked with mood and pain
sensations.
It has been concluded that the brain does have several types of
neurotransmitter molecules similar to morphine, called
endorphins. These natural opiates are released in response to
pain and vigorous exercise.

How Drugs and Other Chemicals Alter Neurotransmission:

One problem is that when the brain is flooded with opiate drugs
such as heroin and morphine, the brain may stop producing its
own natural opiates.
When the drug is withdrawn, the brain may then be deprived of
any form of opiate.
The result is discomfort until the brain resumes production of its
natural opiates or receives more artificial opiates.
Various drugs affect the communication at the synapse, often by
either exciting or inhibiting neurons firing. Agonists excite. An
agonist molecule may be similar enough to the neurotransmitter
to mimic its effects or it may block the neurotransmitters
reuptake.
Some opiate drugs, produce a temporary high by amplifying
normal sensations of arousal and pleasure.

Antagonists inhibit. An antagonist can be drug molecule that

inhibits a neurotransmitters release. Or it may be enough like
the natural neurotransmitter to occupy its receptor site and block
its effect, but not similar enough to stimulate the receptor.

Neurotransmitter research is leading to new therapeutic drugs to

alleviate depression, schizophrenia and other disorders. A blood

 brain barrier enables the brain to fence out unwanted

chemicals circulating in the blood. There is only a few chemicals
that can slither through.
The Nervous System:
Neurons are the elementary component of our nervous system,
our bodys speedy electrochemical information network. The
brain and the spinal cord form the central nervous system
(CNS). The peripheral nervous system (PNS) links the
central nervous system with the bodys sense receptors, muscles
and glands.
The axons carrying this PNS information are bundled into
electrical cables that we know as nerves.

Information travels in the nervous system through three types of

neurons:
Sensory neurons: sends info from the bodys tissues and
sensory organs inward to the central nervous systems
brain and spinal cord, which process the information.
Motor neurons: sends information and instructions from
the central nervous system out to the bodys tissues.
Interneurons: in between the sensory input and motor
output, information is processed by the central nervous
systems internal communication.
Our complexity resides in the interneurons.

The Peripheral Nervous System:

Its divided into somatic and autonomic. The somatic nervous
system enables voluntary control of our skeletal muscles.
Our autonomic nervous system controls the glands and the
muscles of our internal organs. It operates on its own.
The autonomic nervous system is divided in two:
Sympathetic Nervous System: if something alarms,
enrages or challenges you, this system will accelerate your
heart-beat, raise your blood pressure, slow digestion, raise
blood sugar, and cool you with perspiration, making you
alert and ready for action.
Parasympathetic Nervous System:
produces the
opposite effects. It conserves energy as it calms you by
decreasing your heart-beat, etc.

These systems work together to keep us in a steady internal

state.

The Central Nervous System: The Spinal Cord and Reflexes

The spinal cord is an information highway connecting the
peripheral nervous system to the brain. Ascending neural fibers
send up sensory info, and descending fibers send back motor
control info.
The neural pathways governing our reflexes, our automatic
response to stimuli, illustrate the spinal cords work. A simple
spinal reflex pathway is composed of a single sensory neuron
and a single motor neuron. These communicate through
interneurons.
Because the simple pain reflex pathway runs through the spinal
cord and out, the reflex occurs before the brain receives and
responds to the information that causes you to feel pain.
Information travels to and from the brain by the way of the spinal
cord. To produce bodily pain or pleasure, the sensory info must
reach the brain.
The Brain and Neural Networks:
The other part of your central nervous system, your brain,
receives info, interprets it, and decides responses.
Neurons cluster into work groups called neural networks.
Learning strengthens the connections. Neurons that fire together,
wire together.
The Endocrine System:
Interconnected with the nervous system is the second of the
bodys communication systems, the endocrine system. The
endocrine systems glands secrete another form of chemical
messengers, hormones. When hormones affect the brain they
influence our interest in sex, food, and aggression.
Some hormones are chemically identical to neurotransmitters.
Therefore, the endocrine system and the nervous system are
kindred system: they both secrete molecules that active
receptors elsewhere.
Endocrines messages trudge along. They are sent slower than
those of the nervous system. However, their effects usually
outlast the effects of neural messages.
The endocrine system works to maintain our body in balance,
while we respond to stress, exertion, and our own thoughts. Parts
of this system are the adrenal glands and the pituitary gland. The
adrenal glands are on top of the kidneys to release epinephrine
(adrenaline)
and
norepinephrine
(noradrenaline).
These
hormones increase heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar,
providing us with a surge of energy.

The most influential endocrine gland is the pituitary gland, a

pea-sized structure located in the core of the brain, where it is
controlled by an adjacent brain area called the hypothalamus.
It releases hormones that influence growth, and its secretions
also influence the release of hormones by other endocrine
glands.
(brain pituitary other glands hormones brain). The
nervous system directing endocrine secretions, which then affect
the nervous system.

The Brainstem:
The Brainstem is the brains basement. It begins where the
spinal cord enters the skull and swells lightly, forming the
medulla. Here lie the controls for your heartbeat and breathing.
Above the medulla sits the pons, which helps coordinate
movements.
The brainstem is also a crossover point, where most nerves to
and from each side of the brain connect with the bodys opposite
side.
Inside your brainstem lies the reticular formation, network of
neurons that extends from the spinal cord right up to the
thalamus.
The reticular formation filters incoming stimuli and relays
important info to other areas of the brain.
The Thalamus:
Atop the brainstem sits the brains sensory switchboard, called
the thalamus. It receives info from all the senses except smell
and routes it to the brain regions that deal with seeing, hearing,
tasting, and touching.
It also receives some of the higher brains replies, which then
directs to the medulla or cerebellum.
The Cerebellum:
Extending from the rear of the brainstem is the cerebellum (little
brain). It enables one type of nonverbal learning and memory.
Helps us judge time, modulate our emotions, and discriminate
sounds and textures.
The cerebellum coordinates voluntary movement.

The Limbic System:

Its linked to emotion and basic motives.
The Amygdala:
Influence aggression and fear.
The Hypothalamus:
Some neural clusters influences hunger, others regulate thirst,
body temperature, and sexual behavior. In other words, it
monitors the pleasure centers.
Monitors blood chemistry and takes orders from other parts of
the brain.
The Cerebral Cortex:
Cerebral Cortex is an intricate covering of interconnected
neural cells that forms a thin surface layer on your cerebral
hemispheres.
It is your bodys ultimate control and information processing
center.
Structure of the Cortex:
Inside the cerebral cortex are the glial cells, glue cells, that
guide neural connections, provide nutrients and insulating
myelin, and mop up ions and neurotransmitters. They also may
play a role in learning and thinking.
The brain is wrinkled. These folds greatly increase the brains
surface area.
Each brain hemisphere is divided into four lobes, geographic
subdivisions separated by prominent fissures, or folds. Starting
at the front of your brain and going around over the top, there

are the frontal lobes, the parietal lobes, the occipital lobes, and
the temporal lobes.
Functions of the Cortex:
Frontal lobes the portion of the cerebral cortex lying behind the
forehead. Involved in speaking and in making plans and
judgments.
Parietal lies at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives
sensory input for touch and body position.
Occipital lobe lies at the back of the head. Includes the visual
areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual
field.
Temporal lobes lies behind the ears. Includes the auditory
areas, each of which receives auditory information primarily from
the opposite ear.
Motor cortex an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that
controls voluntary movements.

Motor Cortex:
Stimulation causes movement only when applied to an arch
shaped region at the back of the frontal lobe, running roughly
from ear to ear across the top of the brain. This arch is called
motor cortex. Specific body parts moved on the opposite side
of the body. It controls voluntary movements.
Sensory Functions:
This area specializes in receiving information from the skin
senses and from the movement of body parts. It is just behind
the motor cortex at the front of the parietal lobe. Manages most
of the senses.
The temporal lobe manages auditory functions. The occipital lobe
manages the visual reception. Visual info goes to other areas

that specialize in tasks such as identifying words, detecting

emotions, and recognizing emotions.
Association Areas:
Neurons in these association areas integrate information. They
associate various sensory inputs with stored memories a very
important part of thinking. They dont have a specific function.
They are found in all four lobes. In frontal lobes, these areas
enable us to judge, plan, and process new memories. Frontal lobe
damage can alter personality. The case of Phineas Gage is an
example. A rod went through his eye, leaving his frontal lobe
very damaged. He became very irritable, profane, and dishonest.
Other association areas also perform mental functions. In the
parietal lobe, it enables mathematical and spatial reasoning.
An area in the temporal lobe enables us to recognize faces.
Language:
Damage to any one of the several cortical areas can cause
aphasia, an impaired use of language. Aphasia consists of
damage cause in the left hemisphere to either the Brocas area
or Wernickes area.
Brocas area controls language expression. And area on the
frontal lobe usually in the left hemisphere, that directs muscle
movements involved in speech.
Wernickes area controls language reception. A brain area
involved in language comprehension and expression; usually
found in the temporal lobe.
The angular gyrus is a second brain area, which transforms the
words into an auditory code that is received and understood in
the nearby Wernickes area and sent to Brocas area.
The brain operates by dividing its mental functions speaking,
perceiving, thinking, remembering into sub-functions.
The minds subsystems are localized in particular brain regions,
yet the brain acts as a unified whole. The two principles that
describe the brains functioning are specialization and
integration.
The Brains Plasticity:
The brains ability to modify itself after some types of damage is
called plasticity.
Most severed neurons wont regenerate. But some neural tissue
can reorganize in response to damage. The brain repairs itself
after little mishaps.

Our Divided Brain:

The brains two sides serve differing functions. The left
hemisphere was described as dominant or major, and the right
hemisphere was described as subordinate or minor.
Splitting the Brain:
The wide band of axon fibers that connects the two hemispheres
is called corpus callosum.
Patients that have spit brain dont have a corpus callosum. The
left -brain controls the right side of your body, while your rightbrain controls your left side of the body.
The left hemisphere is an interpreter that instantly constructs
theories to explain our behavior. Therefore, the left is more
active when a person deliberates over decisions.
The right side of the brain understands simple requests, easily
perceivable objects, and is more engaged when quick, intuitive
responses are needed.
The right side brain surpasses the left in copying drawings and at
recognizing faces, perceiving differences, perceiving emotion,
and expressing emotion through the more expressive left side of
the face.