The Langmuir-Child Law and the Work

Function of Tungsten
PHYS 404 Lab 3
Devin Greene

Department of Physics and Engineering Physics

University of Saskatchewan
April 6, 2001

Abstract
In a vacuum diode, when a filament is heated electrons are released. If a potential is
placed across the electrodes of the diode, a current can flow. The Langmuir-Child law
predicts that for low voltages, the current that flows is proportional to the 3/2 power of
the anode voltage. This relationship was measured for several different filament
temperatures and was determined to be 1.26810.0051. The vacuum diode used in the
experiment did not satisfy the assumptions of the Langmuir-Child law, however, so
agreement with theory was not expected.
The work function of tungsten was determined to be 2.8810.050 eV using the
Richardson/Dushman equation. This is below the accepted value of 4.52 eV (Koller).
The main reason for the discrepancy was the subjective way in which the temperature
measurements were taken. A different temperature measuring device would provide
better results if the experiment was repeated.

ii

Table of Contents
ABSTRACT......................................................................................................................II
1

OBJECTIVE..............................................................................................................2

THEORY....................................................................................................................2
2.1

VACUUM TUBES AND THERMIONIC EMISSION.....................................................2

2.2

LANGMUIR-CHILD LAW.......................................................................................4

2.3

RICHARDSON/DUSHMAN EQUATION....................................................................6

PROCEDURE............................................................................................................8

OBSERVATIONS.......................................................................................................9

ANALYSIS...............................................................................................................12

5.1

LANGMUIR-CHILD DATA....................................................................................12

5.2

WORK FUNCTION DATA.....................................................................................13

DISCUSSION...........................................................................................................14
6.1

LANGMUIR-CHILD LAW.....................................................................................14

6.2

WORK FUNCTION AND THE RICHARDSON/DUSHMAN EQUATION......................15

CONCLUSION........................................................................................................17

REFERENCES........................................................................................................18

APPENDIX...............................................................................................................19

iii

1 Objective
The purpose of this lab is to experimentally verify the Langmuir-Child law for a vacuum
diode, and determine the work function for tungsten.

2 Theory
2.1 Vacuum Tubes and Thermionic Emission
A vacuum tube consists of an evacuated glass tube, and two or more electrodes. One
electrode serves as the cathode, or source of electrons, and the other is the anode, or
collector. Although electrons can be released from the cathode by electromagnetic
radiation or bombardment by other electrons, the easiest and most common method is to
heat the cathode. This is known as thermionic emission. The electrons are effectively
boiled off the surface of the cathode. The electrons require a minimum amount of energy
in order to escape from the cathode. This energy depends on the material, and is called
the work function of the material. If a positive voltage is applied at the anode, the freed
electrons from the cathode travel to the anode, producing a current. A schematic of a
diode is shown below in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Diode Circuit

iv

The relationship between the voltage across the anode/cathode and the current between
the electrodes can be broken into two regions. At low voltages, the electrons emitted
from the cathode occupy the space between the two electrodes and effectively reduce the
potential between the plates. This tends to limit the current between the plates, as the
electron cloud returns electrons with a low velocity to the cathode. This region is said to
be space limited, where the relationship between the current and voltage is governed by
the Langmuir-Child law. Once the voltage becomes high enough, all of the emitted
electrons are carried to the anode. The current is now limited by the production of
electrons at the cathode. This region of the current-voltage curve is called the
temperature-limited region. The relationship between the work function of the metal and
the saturation current at these voltages is given by the Richardson-Dushman relationship.
Figure 2 shows these two regions for a typical current vs voltage graph.

Figure 2 Thermionic Emission Regions

The next sections deal with these two laws in detail.

2.2 Langmuir-Child Law

The Langmuir-Child law describes the relation between the maximum current that can
flow between two parallel plates in a vacuum, and the potential difference between those
two plates. Consider two parallel plates separated by a distance d. One is held at zero
potential (the cathode), and the other is held at some fixed positive potential, Va (the
anode). See Figure 3 below.

V=0

V=Va

x=0

x=d
Figure 3 Langmuir-Child Law

When there is no current flowing between the plates, the potential varies linearly between
the two plates. As current begins to flow however, the presence of the electrons between
the plates alters the shape of the potential. See Figure 4. Curve a shows the potential
when there is no current. Curve b shows the potential with some current flowing. The
electrons have lowered the potential. As the current is increased, say by raising the
temperature of the filament, the potential near the cathode is lowered even further until it
is zero. The electrons near the cathode shield the cathode from the potential field due to
the anode. Once the potential near the cathode is reduced to zero, no more electrons will

vi

potential

a
b

x=d
Figure 4 Potential Relationship

flow from the cathode to the anode because the local electric field is zero. Increasing the
temperature of the filament cannot increase the current. The current is now limited by
space charge, not the emission by the cathode.
The Langmuir-Child law is derived based on two main assumptions:

The separation distance (d) is small compared to the area of the plates. If this is
true, then fringing effects near the edges of the plates can be ignored.

The particles move in straight lines across the gap at non-relativistic speeds.

Due to the arrangement of the plates, the potential V, charge density , and velocity v are
all functions of distance from the cathode, so this becomes a one dimensional case of
Poissons equation.
Consider a single electron emitted from the cathode with zero initial velocity. As it
moves through the gap, at some location with potential V, it will have a velocity v given
by:
1 2 mv 2 Ve

(1)

where m and e are the mass of and the charge of the electron. The charge density is:
vii

I
v

(2)

where I is the current. The one dimensional Poisson equation to be solved is:
2V

2
o
x

(3)

The boundary conditions are that the potential at the cathode is zero, the potential at the
anode is Va, and that the electric field near the cathode is also zero, or
dV
dx

(4)

x 0

Rearrange (1) and (2) to eliminate v, and sub into (3) for to get:
2V
I

2
x
0 2Ve m

(5)

After some tricky integration, and rearranging the solution to find I, we get the LangmuirChild relationship:
3

4 e Va 2
I 0
9 m d2

(6)

Taking the natural log of both sides yields a linear relationship:

4 o
2
9d

ln I ln

e
3
ln Va

m
2

(7)

A plot of lnI vs lnV should yield a straight line with slope 3/2.

2.3 Richardson/Dushman Equation

As previously stated, at sufficiently high voltages, the current between the anode and
cathode becomes saturated. This saturation current is given by the Richardson/Dushman
equation:

viii

J AoT 2 e

(8)

kT

where J is the saturation current density, T is the temperature and is the work function
of the metal. Richardsons constant is given by
Ao 4mek 2 h 3

(9)

which is constant for all pure metals. In practise, the value of Richardsons constant
varies from this theoretical value. Some modifications in the derivation give a slightly
altered equation:

I s A DT 2 4mek 2

h3 e

(10)

kT

where the current density has been rewritten as the saturation current over the area (A) of
the filament, and D is a measure of the mean transmittance for the electrons at the
vacuum-metal interface. Rearranging (10) slightly, and taking the natural log of both
sides yields:

Is
2
ln 4 ADmek B h 3
2
kB
T

ln

1

T

(11)

A plot of ln(Is/T2) vs 1/T should be linear with slope proportional to the work function.
To qualitatively understand where this relationship comes from, imagine the cathode at
0K. The cathode is a conductor, and all of the electrons occupy energy states below the
Fermi level. As the temperature is increased, some of the electrons have energies above
the Fermi level. Just how many, is given by the Fermi-Dirac distribution. At sufficiently
high enough temperatures, some electrons will have energies that are greater than the
work function. See Figure 5. These electrons can escape and contribute to the current.
These electrons constitute the saturation current. It is constant, and depends only on the

ix

temperature of the material. To determine the saturation current, simply integrate over all
the electrons with energies greater than the work function.

Figure 5 Fermi-Dirac Distribution

(Ws is the work function)

To experimentally determine the saturation current, a straight line is fitted to the flat
portion of the lnI vs lnV graph and the extrapolated intercept is used as the saturation
current.

3 Procedure
A Teltron Planar vacuum diode was used for this experiment. Two power sources were
also used. A high, constant voltage source was used to control the anode voltage. A
constant current source was used to heat the filament. DMMs were used to measure the
anode voltage and current, as well as the filament voltage and current. A schematic of the
apparatus is shown below in Figure 6.

Ia

Vacuum
diode

Va
If

Vf
Figure 6 Experimental Schematic

A Micro Optical Pyrometer was used to measure the filament temperature. A series of
measurements were taken as follows:
1. The filament current was set to a specific value, and the filament voltage and
current were both recorded.
2. The temperature of the filament was measured.
3. The anode current was measured as the anode voltage was varied between 0V
500V in various increments depending on the filament current.
4. These steps were repeated for other filament current settings, from 1A 3A.
5. Once all current/voltage measurements were complete, the physical dimensions of
the vacuum tube were measured with a laser.

4 Observations
Physical dimensions of the vacuum diode are shown below in Table 1. The errors in the
measurements reflect the difficulty in shining a laser through the curved glass of the
diode and measuring the plate dimensions. The very large error in the filament length is

xi

because the length could not be measured directly, and a visual estimate had to be used
based on the shape of the filament, and the diameter of the plate.
Value (mm)
Plate Diameter
35
Anode Cathode Distance 35
Filament Anode Distance 21
Filament Length
64

Error (mm)
2
2
2
12

Table 1 Vacuum Tube Dimensions

Table 2 shows the filament temperature for the different filament currents.
Filament Current
(0.01A)
1.02
1.25
1.49
1.77
1.87
1.99
2.13
2.27
2.43
2.59
2.73

Filament Voltage
(0.02V)
1.38
1.92
2.59
3.42
3.73
4.16
4.64
5.15
5.78
6.40
6.97

Temperature
(K)
1420
1560
1770
1860
1860
1910
1960
2010
2300
2400
2460

Error
(K)
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
40
40
40
40

Table 2 Filament Temperature Data

Plot 1 and Plot 2 are graphs of the lnI vs lnV curves for all the different filament currents.
The raw data can be found in the Appendix. Plot 1 shows the curves for filament currents
between 1A 2A. It can easily be seen that the shapes of these curves do not match the
theoretical shape shown in Figure 2. There is only one linear section, not two. The
slopes of the lines are not close to 1.5. Because the filament temperature is relatively low
in these graphs, it is most likely that the diode reaches saturation quickly, and these
curves are mostly due to the saturation current. They were not used in verifying the

xii

Plot1 - Results
Filament Currents 1A - 2A
0.0
0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

ln(Ia)
(error bars not shown for clarity)

-2.0

-4.0

-6.0

-8.0

-10.0

Plot2 - Results
Filament Currents 2A - 3A

-12.0
0.0
-14.0 0.0

ln(Ia)
(error bars not shown for clarity)

-2.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

ln(Va)
(error bars not shown for clarity)

-4.0

-6.0

-8.0

-10.0

-12.0

-14.0
ln(Va)
(error bars not shown for clarity)

xiii

Langmuir-Child law. The three lowest filament currents were also not used to determine
the work function, as they were almost all identical.
The graphs in Plot 2 show two distinct linear regions, except for the two highest filament
currents. The data from these filament currents were used in verifying the LangmuirChild law, and to calculate the work function of tungsten. The highest filament current
(2.73A) did not reach saturation because the anode voltage power supply could not go
any higher. The highest anode voltage reached was 400V. Therefore, it was not used to
calculate the work function. The second highest current (2.59A) did not have enough
data points at high voltages to extrapolate a reliable line, so it was not used to calculate
the work function.

5 Analysis
Initially, all the data was plotted as was shown in Plot1 and Plot 2. As stated in the
Observations section, the data shown in Plot 1 was not used for verifying the LangmuirChild law, and the two highest filament currents were not used in calculating the work
function. For the graphs in Plot 2 that showed two distinct linear regions, the data was
separated at a point where there was a definite change in the trend of the data.

5.1 Langmuir-Child Data

Once it was decided which data points were going to be used for the Langmuir-Child law,
a linear line was fitted to the data using a Chi-squared fit. Results of these fits are
summarised below in Table 3.

xiv

Plot 3
Work Function of Tungsten
-20
0.0003

0.00035

0.0004

0.00045

0.0005

0.00055

0.0006

-21
-22
-23

ln(Is/T^2)

-24
-25
-26
-27
-28
-29
-30
1/T

xv

Filament
Current
(A)
2.13
2.27
2.43
2.59
2.73
Average

Slope

+/-

Intercept

+/-

1.261
1.2589
1.2195
1.2576
1.34303
1.2681

0.015
0.0066
0.0025
0.0011
0.00061
0.0051

-13.040
-12.672
-12.2918
-12.3253
-12.5936
-12.585

0.047
0.023
0.0098
0.0048
0.0030
0.018

Correlation
Coefficient
-0.995
-0.995
-0.992
-0.0983
-0.984

Number
of Data
Points
7
9
12
19
25

Table 3 Chi-Squared Results for Langmuir-Child Law

The five filament currents have an average slope of 1.2810.0051. All of the lines have a
very high correlation coefficient, which indicates a good fit. This is less than the
expected value of 1.5.

5.2 Work Function Data

The data chosen to use to calculate the work function was also fit using the Chi-squared
method. The intercept of the best-fit line was then used to determine the saturation
current for that filament temperature. See Table 4.
Filament
Current
(A)
1.77
1.87
1.99
2.13
2.27
2.43

Slope

+/-

0.617
0.4146
0.2502
0.174
0.2673
0.3218

0.011
0.0050
0.0031
0.013
0.0055
0.0024

Intercept
-13.466
-11.843
-10.3000
-8.918
-8.472
-7.837

+/0.062
0.029
0.016
0.071
0.031
0.014

Correlation
Coefficient
-0.997
-0.995
-0.988
-0.996
-0.997
-0.998

Number
of Data
Points
20
25
25
21
18
20

Table 4 Chi-Squared Results for Richardson/Dushman Region

The intercepts from the best-fit lines above were used to determine the saturation current
at the specified filament temperature. These values are listed below in Table 5.

xvi

Filament
Current
(A)
1.77
1.87
1.99
2.13
2.27
2.43

Saturation
Current
(mA)
0.001418
0.00719
0.03364
0.1339
0.2092
0.3948

+/- (mA)

Temperature
(K)

0.000087
0.00021
0.00055
0.0096
0.0066
0.0054

1860
1860
1910
1960
2010
2300

+/(K)
20
20
20
20
40
40

Table 5 Work Function Data

Theoretically, the slopes of the lines should have been very close to zero. They were not,
and as a result, the extrapolated saturation currents are quite low. A Chi-squared fit was
performed on these six data points to determine the work function of tungsten (Plot 3).
The equation of the line was determined to be:
Slope +/- Intercept +/- Work Function (eV) +/- (eV)
-33437 580 -8.34
0.30 2.881
0.050
Table 6 Work Function Equation

The work function of tungsten was determined to be 2.8810.050 eV.

6 Discussion
6.1 Langmuir-Child Law
The Langmuir-Child law predicts that the current that flows between the electrodes in a
vacuum diode is proportional to the 3/2 power of the voltage across them. The slope of
the lnI vs lnV graphs should have been 3/2 if this is true. Experimentally, the average
value over several different filament currents was determined to be 1.26810.0051. This
does not agree with the theory.

xvii

The observed trends of the lines agree with the theory. The effect is more pronounced at
higher filament temperatures. At lower temperatures, there are not enough electrons to
contribute much of a retarding potential. The lower filament temperature curves
generally had a lower slope, which qualitatively is expected.
The most likely explanation for the lower than expected value, however, comes from the
assumptions made during the derivation of the equation. As mentioned in the Theory
section, the derivation of the law assumes that the size of the electrode plates is much
greater than the separation between them. For the particular vacuum diode used in this
experiment, this is not the case (Table 1). The plate separation is the same size as the
diameter of them. Fringing effects are not negligible, and the electrons do not necessarily
travel in a straight line between the electrodes. The derivation of the current-voltage
relationship becomes much more complicated. The charge density is now a function of
two space dimensions: the distance from the anode/cathode, as well as the radial distance
from the centerline between the electrodes. Determination of this charge density is
beyond the scope of this experiment, but it is suspected that if the resulting Poisson
equation were solved, the exponent on the voltage term would be less than 3/2.
In the future, a different vacuum diode with the electrode plates significantly closer
would provide results in better agreement with the Langmuir-Child law.

6.2 Work Function and the Richardson/Dushman Equation

Through analysis of six different filament temperature readings, the work function of the
tungsten filament was determined to be 2.8810.050 eV. This does not agree with the
accepted value of 4.52 eV from Koller.

xviii

One problem is the way in which the value was determined. The saturation currents were
extrapolated from the nearly flat region of the current vs voltage graph. Theoretically,
these regions should have been perfectly flat. They were not however, which indicates
some deviation from theory. Higher anode voltages would have given a better idea of the
saturation current, but a different power supply would have been needed.
In using the Chi-squared fit, it was assumed that only the y-values had error associated
with them. The temperature values were treated as precise values. This is not the case,
as is evident from the error bars on Plot 3. A more complicated analysis using a Chisquared fit with two variables would fit a more accurate line. This method was not used
due to the complexity involved.
Secondly, only six data points were used in the Chi-squared fit to determine the work
function. The Chi-squared test for goodness of fit gives better results with larger data
sets. More readings at different temperatures would have given a better data set with
more reliable results.
Measuring the temperature of the filament involves two places for user error. First, the
pyrometer reading depends on the user determining when the colour of the filament and
the pyrometer wire is the same. This is a subjective procedure. Usually, two people take
the reading separately, and an average of the two values is used. There was only on
experimenter for this lab, so this could not be done. Secondly, the filament is not the
same temperature at all spots. Where it is connected to the leads, the filament is
significantly cooler. Again, it is a subjective procedure to determine the hottest
(brightest) part of the filament, and measure that temperature. Even if the highest
temperature part of the filament is measured correctly, because other parts of the filament

xix

are cooler, the actual effective temperature will be some unknown lower value. One
way to reduce this kind of error is to use a different device to measure the temperature. A
pyrometer with a digital output would make finding the hottest spot easier.

7 Conclusion
The Langmuir-Child law was not verified with this experiment. A value of
1.26810.0051 for the slope of the lnI vs lnV curve was found, which does not agree with
the predicted value of 3/2. Qualitatively, the trends of the curves for different filament
temperatures agree. The quantitative deviation can be explained by the geometry of the
vacuum diode used in the experiment. The separation distance of the electrode plates are
not much smaller than the size of the plates, so results should not be expected to match
the Langmuir-Child law.
The work function of tungsten was determined to be 2.8810.050 eV, which is lower than
the excepted value of 4.52 eV (Koller). Having only a few data points, and neglecting
error in the temperature measurements possibly affected this result. Another factor that
introduced error was the pyrometer used to measure the temperature of the filament. It is
difficult to judge where the hottest part of the filament is, and when the colour of the
filament matches the pyrometer. If a different instrument was used to measure the
temperature, better results may have been achieved.

xx

8 References
Dall, Ray. Tube Theory ODE to Electronics. Fundamentals of Electricity
Electronics 101. 3 Apr 2001. <http://www.vvm.com/~radioray/html/e10138.htm>.
Franzen, Peter. Neutral Beam Heating: Theory and technology. 25 Oct 2000. MaxPlanck Institute for Plasma Physics. 3 Apr 2001.
<http://www.ipp.mpg.de/technologie/nbi/theory/appendix/index.html>.
Hill, C. E. Ion and Electron Sources. CERN, Geneva, Switzerland. 1 Apr 2001.
<http://linac2.home.cern.ch/linac2/seminar/seminar.htm#ES>.
Koller, L. R. The Physics of Electron Tubes. New York. McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc. 1934.
Metois, Eric. Understanding Tubes. 3 Apr 2001.
<http://xenia.media.mit.edu/~metois/Projects/Tubes/tubes.htm>.
Savage, C. et al. Dark Noise Determinations of Hybrid Photo Diodes. Physics
Department, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. 5 Apr 2001.
<http://www.hep.umn.edu/uscms/hcal/Noise/HTML/SavagesReport/SavagesReport.htm>.

xxi

9 Appendix
The tables that follow are the raw data collected.

xxii

If (A)
Vf (V)
T (K)

0.01
0.01
20
Error Ia
(mA)
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001

If (A)
Vf (V)
T (K)

+/0.01
2.59 +/0.01
1770 +/20
Error Va
Error Ia
Va (V)
Ia (mA)
(V)
(mA)
If (A)
1.87
0.01
25
1 +/- 0.003
0.001
Vf (V)
3.73
0.01
50
1 +/- 0.006
0.001
T (K)
1860
20
75
1 +/- 0.009
0.001
Ia
100 Error Va
1
0.011 Error
0.001
Va (V)
Ia (mA)
(V) 1
(mA)
125
0.014
0.001
20
1
0.027
0.001
150
1
0.016
40
1
0.038
0.001
175
1
0.019
60
1
0.043
0.001
200
1
0.021
0.046
22580
11
0.024
0.001
100
0.050
250
11
0.026
0.001
120
0.050
275
11
0.029
0.001
140
0.053
300
11
0.031
0.001
160
0.057
325
11
0.034
0.001
180
0.058
350
11
0.036
0.001
201
0.062
375
11
0.039
0.001
220
0.065
400
11
0.041
0.001
240
1
0.069
0.001
425
1
0.044
260
1
0.067
0.001
450
1
0.046
280
1
0.074
0.001
475
1
0.049
300
0.072
500
11
0.051
0.001
320
1
0.079
0.001
340
1
0.080
0.001
360
1
0.082
0.001
380
1
0.086
0.001
400
1
0.087
0.001
420
1
0.088
0.001
480
1
0.095
0.001
500
1
0.097
0.001

If (A)
Vf (V)
T (K)

Va (V)
24
50
75
100
126
150
175
201
225
250
275
300
325
350
375
400
425
450
475
500
If (A)
Vf (V)
T (K)

1.02
1.38
1420
Error Va
(V)
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1.49A

+/+/+/Ia (mA)
0.003
0.005
0.008
0.010
0.013
0.015
0.018
0.020
0.023
0.025
0.028
0.030
0.033
0.036
0.038
0.040
0.043
0.045
0.048
0.050

Va (V)
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
275
300
325
350
375
400
425
450
475
500

1.25
1.92
1560
Error Va
(V)
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

+/+/+/Ia (mA)
0.003
0.005
0.008
0.010
0.013
0.015
0.018
0.020
0.023
0.026
0.028
0.030
0.033
0.035
0.038
0.040
0.043
0.045
0.048
0.050

0.01
0.01
20
Error Ia
(mA)
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001

1.77 +/0.01
3.42 +/0.01
1860 +/20
Error Va
Error Ia
Va (V)
Ia (mA)
(V)
(mA)
If (A) 26
1.991 +/- 0.014
0.01
0.001
Vf (V)50
4.161 +/- 0.018
0.02
0.001
T (K) 75
19101 +/- 0.022
20
0.001
Ia
100 Error Va1
0.025 Error
0.001
Va (V)
Ia (mA)
(V) 1
125
0.027 (mA)
0.001
20
1
0.061
0.001
150
1
0.030
0.001
40
11 0.093
0.001
175
0.033
0.001
60
11 0.095
0.001
201
0.035
0.001
80
11 0.102
0.001
225
0.039
0.001
100
11 0.106
0.001
250
0.041
0.001
120
11 0.111
0.001
275
0.044
0.001
140
11 0.115
0.001
300
0.046
0.001
160
11 0.120
0.002
325
0.050
0.001
180
11 0.124
0.002
350
0.052
0.001
201
11 0.120
0.002
375
0.055
0.001
220
11 0.125
0.002
400
0.057
0.001
240
1
0.129
0.002
425
1
0.060
0.001
260
11 0.136
0.002
450
0.062
0.001
280
11 0.137
0.002
475
0.065
0.001
300
11 0.140
0.002
500
0.068
0.001
320
1
0.143
0.002
340
1
0.144
0.002
360
1
0.146
0.002
380
1
0.154
0.002
400
1
0.154
0.002 xxiii
420
1
0.154
0.002
480
1
0.155
0.002
500
1
0.160
0.002

xxiv

If (A)
Vf (V)
T (K)

2.13 +/0.01
4.64 +/0.02
1960 +/20
Error Va
Error Ia
Va (V)
Ia (mA)
(V)
(mA)
5
1
0.009
0.001
10
1
0.035
0.001
15
1
0.065
0.001
20
1
0.097
0.001
30
1
0.161
0.001
40
1
0.217
0.010
50
1
0.260
0.010
60
1
0.282
0.010
80
1
0.289
0.010
100
1
0.301
0.010
120
1
0.302
0.010
140
1
0.320
0.010
160
1
0.321
0.010
180
1
0.330
0.010
200
1
0.338
0.010
220
1
0.347
0.010
240
1
0.342
0.010
260
1
0.355
0.010
280
1
0.351
0.010
300
1
0.365
0.010
0.010
If (A)320
2.431+/- 0.362
0.01
380
1
0.370
0.010
Vf (V)
5.78 +/0.02
400
1
0.376
0.010
T (K)
2300 +/40
425 Error Va 1
0.379Error
0.010
Ia
Va (V)
Ia (mA)
(V)
(mA)
475
0.403 0.001
0.010
5
11 0.030
500
0.400 0.001
0.010
10
11 0.070
15
20
30
40
50
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
380
400
420

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

0.126
0.171
0.295
0.413
0.542
0.69
1.00
1.31
1.56
1.83
1.97
2.18
2.26
2.35
2.57
2.49
2.50
2.56
2.71
2.66
2.80
2.61

0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01

475
500

1
1

2.70
2.71

0.01
0.01

If (A)
Vf (V)
T (K)

2.27 +/0.01
5.15 +/0.02
2010 +/20
Error Va
Error Ia
Va (V)
Ia (mA)
(V)
(mA)
5
1
0.018
0.001
10
1
0.050
0.001
15
1
0.091
0.001
20
1
0.136
0.001
30
1
0.232
0.001
40
1
0.328
0.001
50
1
0.434
0.010
60
1
0.506
0.010
80
1
0.630
0.010
100
1
0.740
0.010
120
1
0.783
0.010
140
1
0.805
0.010
160
1
0.825
0.010
180
1
0.830
0.010
200
1
0.840
0.010
225
1
0.865
0.010
250
1
0.879
0.010
275
1
0.93
0.01
300
1
0.90
0.01
325
1
0.90
0.01
0.01
If (A)350
2.591 +/- 1.01
0.01
425
1
1.07
0.01
Vf (V)
6.40 +/0.02
0.01
T (K)450
24001 +/- 1.07
40
475 Error Va1
1.10 Error
0.01
Ia
Va (V)
Ia (mA)
(V)
(mA)
5
1
0.031
0.001
10
1
0.082
0.001
15
1
0.140
0.001
20
1
0.195
0.001
30
1
0.315
0.001
40
1
0.455
0.001
50
1
0.601
0.001
60
1
0.76
0.01
80
1
1.12
0.01
100
1
1.50
0.01
120
1
1.93
0.01
140
1
2.39
0.01
160
1
2.77
0.01
180
1
3.17
0.01
200
1
3.62
0.02
220
1
3.96
0.02
240
1
4.34
0.02
260
1
4.48
0.02
280
1
4.68
0.02
300
1
4.98
0.02
320
1
5.19
0.02
380
1
5.48
0.02
400
1
5.71
0.02
420
1
5.77
0.02
475
500

1
1

5.97
5.94

0.02
0.02

xxv

If (A)
Vf (V)
T (K)
Va (V)
5
10
15
20
30
40
50
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
380
400

2.73
0.01
6.97
0.02
2460
40
Error Va
Error Ia
Ia (mA)
(V)
(mA)
1
0.038
0.001
1
0.086
0.001
1
0.158
0.001
1
0.216
0.001
1
0.347
0.001
1
0.483
0.001
1
0.630
0.001
1
0.796
0.001
1
1.20
0.01
1
1.63
0.01
1
2.09
0.01
1
2.61
0.01
1
3.15
0.01
1
3.69
0.01
1
4.26
0.01
1
4.88
0.01
1
5.44
0.01
1
6.07
0.02
1
6.66
0.02
1
7.31
0.02
1
7.91
0.02
1
9.75
0.05
1
10.09
0.07

xxvi

xxvii