Back to Basics: The Success of Traditional Pit Latrines in Angola

Author: Mel Smith, HSP - Public Health Engineering Team

Traditional pit latrines are often utilised in first-phase emergencies due to their
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speed of construction , and the availability of local materials. As programmes
or situations develop, a move towards the use of improved latrine models is
usually seen. This paper explores how Oxfam GBs public health programme
in Angola is successfully going back to basics, emphasising the development
of traditional pit latrines in place of improved concrete slab latrines.
Introduction
The Oxfam GB programme in Angola is going through a transition from humanitarian
response towards sustainable development programmes. This shift has begun as a
result of the on-going peace process following the death of the UNITA leader Jonas
Savimbi in February 2002, and the signing of a cease-fire agreement between
UNITA and the government forces in April 2002. Since the fighting ended, many of
the displacement (IDP) camps and the demobilisation areas have closed. During,
and just following, the conflict, Oxfam GBs work was focused in these areas,
ensuring the provision of water, sanitation facilities and hygiene promotion.
Following the closure of these camps, their populations have started returning to
their areas of origin. Thus, over the past six months there has been a shift in the
emphasis of the Oxfam GB public health programme to prioritise working within
these returnee communities.
Many families in these communities have prior knowledge of latrines, either as a
result of their time in the camps, or from the few families who had previously
constructed them in their own homes.
In the camps, provision was made for 1 latrine per 20 people as per the SPHERE
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standards . Mobilisation and sensitisation techniques were used to encourage the
hygienic operation and maintenance of these latrines as part of the health promotion
programme, but as often happens some families were unwilling to participate,
and a number of the latrines were not cleaned or maintained.
When the public health programme started within the return communities, a similar
methodology employing concrete latrine slabs was introduced. The budgetary
constraints of the programme were still only allowing for the same ratio of 1 latrine
per 20 people, and with the memory of the problems within the camps communities
were unenthusiastic to participate unless a solution could be found to allow each
household to construct a latrine of their own. Concerns about latrine provision for
those families who have not yet returned to the community were also raised.
This paper discusses how the Oxfam sanitation team in the Province of Huambo has
identified and responded to these changes by leading the programme in the use of
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local materials, and increasing their outputs nearly seven-fold .
The Process
Mobilisation
A community consultation and sensitisation process was carried out by the
mobilisation teams using participatory methods. Community members were
encouraged to discuss any problems they had related to water and sanitation, and to
suggest potential solutions.

In relation to sanitation, the discussion between community members and the Oxfam
team focused on finding an alternative solution to the existing sanitation programme
and on gaining a better understanding of what was stopping the families from
constructing latrines without external support.
The outcome of these discussions was the formulation of an understanding that the
communities were able to construct traditional family latrines using locally available
materials, the reduced cost of which would allow every family to construct one, but
that they do not have all the necessary tools and expertise to do this. With the
support of Oxfam in the provision of toolkits and advice on latrine construction, the
community can construct their own latrines. Resources, toolkits, and know-how will
remain in the community after Oxfam has left, and will be available to families who
are yet to return to the community.
The main link between Oxfam and the communities during the process is the GAS,
or Grupo de Agua e Saneamento. The GAS are community water and sanitation
committees, which are created and trained following the construction of a new water
point or sanitary facility. These committees play a very important role in all of
Oxfams interventions. They are involved in all stages of the sanitation programme,
with special emphasis on community mobilisation and on control of the toolkits.
The Toolkits
One of the main areas of support that communities requested from Oxfam was with
tools to assist with the digging of the pit, construction of the squatting platform and
the superstructure. A system of rotation of toolkits was agreed and implemented,
with each kit being shared between 10-15 households. Table 1 shows the list of tools
contained in each toolkit. The kits are signed over either to a representative of the
GAS committee or to a community mobiliser. The recipient of the toolkit is
responsible for ensuring that all households wishing to construct latrines have
access to the tools, and that they are returned when the household has finished,
allowing rotation to the next household.
Once all the households have finished construction, the majority of the toolkits are
returned to Oxfam for use in a new community. Approximately 1 kit per 100 latrines
constructed is left with the GAS or other representative of the community to allow
newly-returning families to be able to construct their own latrines, drawing on the
advice and knowledge gained by the GAS committees or other community members.
Table 1. Community Toolkits
Contents of the community
toolkit
Each kit shared between
approx. 10-15 families
1. no. Shovel
1 no. Pickaxe
1 no. Metal Bucket
1 no. Hoe
1 no. Machete
1 no. Axe
5m Rope
COST = Approx. $100

The Pilot Latrine

Following the sensitisation and mobilisation of the communities, the Oxfam team
together with the GAS and other community members construct a pilot latrine. The
latrine is constructed for a community member usually elderly who is chosen by
the community itself. The pilot latrine is an opportunity for community members who
have never constructed a latrine before to learn how its done, and for those who
have constructed one before to share methodologies and ideas with other
community members. Oxfam facilitates this process, and ensures that a number of
basic principles are followed, and that technically the latrines are safe.
The Design
The design varies very little from known designs for simple traditional pit latrines. It
has a pit, a wooden platform covered with soil, and a grass superstructure. The
design is flexible in that it allows individuals to incorporate their own variations and
preferences.
The areas in which Oxfam insists on consistency are:
The depth of the pit being as close to 3m as possible to ensure longevity. The
teams also recommend a size of 1m x 1m to keep the wood needed for the
platform to a minimum.
The number and size of pieces of wood that are used, to ensure the stability of
the squatting platform.
The platform should be raised to prevent damage from surface water.
Households wishing to build a latrine collect wood from the surrounding area and
construct the slab as shown in Diagram 1. A minimum of four pieces of wood are
placed across the pit with a space for the squat hole. Small sticks can be placed over
the top to fill any gaps. Grass is placed over the wood to allow packing of the gaps
before covering the platform with the soil excavated from the pit, which is then
compacted.
Diagram 1. Construction of latrine slab.

The superstructure is then constructed as designed by the families. The usual

method is very simple, using poles and grass to create a traditional thatched
structure including a roof. The disadvantage of such a structure is that in the rainy
season the grass will last for only 6 months before it has to be replaced. As families
are becoming more settled, and as the dry season allows, people are starting to
make adobe blocks for their houses and are planning to make additional blocks for
the latrines which will ensure a degree of durability.
Observation of the fully constructed latrines by the programme staff has shown that
they are used, and are kept clean and well maintained. When asked, a number of
women replied that they clean the latrines twice a day by brushing the squatting
platform; some throw ash into the pit.
Not all families have made lids for their latrines, but due to the current enthusiasm to
clean and maintain the latrines there has been little difference in terms of smells and
flies between those with lids and those without. This is an aspect of the programme
which has to be carefully monitored.
Photo 1. Example of a completed family latrine

Community members say that they spend approximately 4 days to construct the
latrine, 2 days to dig the pit, and 2 days to construct the superstructure (once the
materials have been collected). If made with grass, the process is longer for those
who are constructing with adobe blocks.
A system of support for those who are unable to construct the latrines for themselves
such as the elderly, people with disabilities, or female-headed households is
being implemented. For example, in the community of Canjili II, a team of four men
is available to assist such people. Those who are able to do so pay for the
assistance in rations of food. This aspect of the programme needs to be carefully
monitored by Oxfam, to ensure that vulnerable people and their families are not
being excluded from the programme, or being requested to pay more than they can
afford for the service.

Reasons for success

Traditional latrines have been used in many countries with mixed success. When
asking ourselves, and members of communities participating in the programme, why
there has been such a high uptake in such a short time in our target communities in
Angola, the following answers were put forward:

Traditional latrines represent a solution that is currently appropriate for the

context in Angola, where return communities are still increasing and unstable,
and the access to basic services is very poor. These latrines allow know-how and
tools to remain in the community, ensuring that newly returning families will have
the opportunity to create basic sanitation infrastructure without the need for
Oxfam to intervene. Flexibility in the design and construction process allows the
participants to determine what style suits them best and to determine their own
work pace and timing. It also emphasises the use and sharing of knowledge and
skills already present in the community.
Oxfams public health programme in Angola, as in many other countries,
integrates components of water, sanitation and hygiene promotion. In the
communities where the traditional latrine programme is being implemented
Oxfam is already known and trusted as a result of previous interventions in water
provision, hygiene promotion, and malaria.
The cost of constructing a latrine using the local materials is approximately 1/9th
of the cost of producing the concrete domed slabs. The only significant cost
involved in the traditional latrine programme is the toolkits. Cement and transport
add significant costs to the cement slab, and in addition the concrete slabs show
a high level of breakage during transport - a problem that is intensified now that
many of our target communities are in remote return areas. .
Despite initial scepticism, as a result of the high levels of uptake and enthusiasm
for the programme in the first target communities, the Oxfam Huambo team is
now committed to the new approach.

Table 2. Advantages and Disadvantages/Challenges of the Traditional Latrine

Programme
Advantages
Use of locally-available materials
Inexpensive
Replicable: can be constructed by the
community themselves,
while the
knowledge and tools stay within the
community.
Flexibility of design and process, can be
adapted by individuals and communities
to suit local preferences,

Adaptation of traditional approach to

latrine building means that programme
emphasises the use of local knowledge
and skills

Disadvantages/Challenges
Possible contribution to deforestation
Cleaning of slab more difficult than with
concrete slab
Reliance on mobilisation, and thus
reliance on the commitment and
acceptance of the Oxfam team to
promote the methodology
Not all community members or
households will be physically or
materially able to construct their own
latrine. Solutions to enable such
households to participate need to be
identified and implemented within target
communities.

Challenges and Concerns

Deforestation is a problem in rural Angola, where communities rely heavily on
charcoal both as the primary fuel sources, and also as a source of small income. A
concern has been identified regarding the possible contribution of the traditional
latrine programme towards deforestation, as a result of the increased use of wood
for the latrine platform. Oxfam is trying to counteract this through working together
with the Department of Forestry to support the replanting of trees and the training of
the Oxfam mobilisers to incorporate a resource-management element into the
hygiene promotion programme.
A second concern, already raised, is in relation to ensuring that all community
members who wish to are able to participate in the programme. The Oxfam
mobilisers and the GAS have an important role to play in identifying households for
whom construction of a latrine will be difficult or impossible, and in working with
those households and with other community members, to identify possible solutions
to this. While this approach appears to be working, it will be important for Oxfam and
the GAS to undertake regular monitoring and mapping of the participation of
individual households, as the programme develops.
Conclusion
The programme is still in the early stages, and close monitoring will be needed to
ensure that the methodology continues to be appropriate to the context. However,
the first 8 months have been very successful, with high community uptake and
interest from other local NGOs requesting assistance from Oxfam in training their
staff in our approach and design. Despite initial concerns about the use of traditional
latrines, the Provincial water and health departments have both officially accepted
this design following field visits with Oxfam. These initial successes are to the credit
of the teams for their commitment to working with target communities to develop
alternative and appropriate sanitation solutions.

Acknowledgements
The author acknowledges the hard work and enthusiasm of the Oxfam GB Angola
Huambo team with special mention of Zacarias Tchitumba, Manuel Quingani, and
George Barreras. The views expressed in this paper are solely those of the author,
however, and should not be taken as representing the views of Oxfam GB.
References/Notes
1. Harvey, P. Baghri,S. Reed, B. (2002) Emergency Sanitation, assessment and
program design. WEDC.
2. The Sphere Project (2000), Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in
Disaster Response. The Sphere Project.
3. Between January-December 2002, 440 latrines were constructed whereas
between January-April 2003, 1,047 latrines were constructed.