Thus far we have viewed geography in its traditional forms, either field or

exploration oriented, or as cartographically represented and later analyzed

through cartographic measurements or separate spatial-analytical and statistical
techniques. Together these traditions have contributed to an understanding of
how spatially distributed earth features operate. With the advent of the
quantitative reolution in science, combined with developments in computer
technology, geographers began to experiment with automated methods of
inquiry. These methods included both cartographic analysis and spatial analysis
of cartographic phenomena. It is difficult, or even impossible, to separate either
of these methods of inquiry from the development of GIS. Nor does it serve any
useful purpose. Both are part of a large body of investigative tools for automated
geography.
Many commercial GIS packages contain direct links to a variety of statistical
packages allowing analysis apart from the map itself. Others use particular
arrangements of data (data structures ) that allow map-based data to be passed
easily to freestanding statistical or analytical software for separate analysis. In
both cases the reason is the same to allow the geographer access to the largest
set of techniques possible for answering quetions about spatial data. This
consolidation of automated techniques is likely to increase as the industry
matures and as users become more familiar with the capabilities of automated
geography. As GIS professionals, you should welcome these changes and even
encourage more mergers to include, for example, geostatistical packages,
special modeling software, and the like.
A basic understanding of the structural makeup of the GIS, whether in isolation
or in tandem with other software, is essential to enable us to perform our work
efficiently. Each system has its own unique structures, methods of
representation, and ways of analyzing spatial data. Fortunately these can be
grouped into relatively small number of bacis data structures within which a
particular system will fall. Because you will likely move from system to system
throughout your career, you should become familiar with all these basic types.
You will have plenty of opportunity to focus on the system you use most often as
you work with it.
The representation of spatial data is another formalism not unlike the ones we
have already examined when moving from actual earth features to a limited set
of definable objects called points, lines, areas, and surfaces. Nor is it unlike the
cartographic abstractions of these objects and their measurement levels into
mappable objects. The difference is merely in how we can represent the data
inside a digital computer in such a way that they can be edited, measured, and
analyzed, and output in some useful form. In this chapter we will examine some
basic computer file structures. Then we will move to database structures that
enable large amounts of data to be organized, searched, and analyzed. We will
look at the basic concept involved in the representation of space and its objects
by graphic data structures. Then we will develop more comprehensive data
models that allow multiple sets of cartographic data and their attributes to be
linked to form a complete GIS database system.

As you read this chapter you will be introduced to these structures in increasing
complexity. Spend time understanding the major types of cartographic data
structure before moving on to the more complex GIS data models. If you have a
number of GIS programs available, you should determine which structures each
one exemplifies and how the respective program work. As you examine the
programs, ask your self what the advantages of one type over another might be.
Which would be best for saving storage space? Which is more spatially accurate?
Which is best for representing points, lines, areas, or surfaces? What are the
advantages of each system for geographic question of the type you will want to
ask? The answers to these questions will prove useful to you as an analyst and
invaluable if your career path involves system design for potential users of GIS.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
When you are finished with this chapter you should be able to :
1. Understand the difference between simple graphics (analog or digital) and a map
2. Know the different types of file stucture and indicate the advantages and
disadvantages of each for computer search
3. Be able to identify the differences among network, hierarchical, and relational
database structures and know the advantages and disadvantages of each
4. Be familiar with the terminology of relational database management systems,
including such terms as the primary key, tuple, relation, foreign key, relational join,
and normal forms
5. Describe the basic methods of representing graphic entities on a map using raster,
vector, and quadtree systems, and understand their advantages and disadvantages
6. Describe the three basic raster data models used for multiple coverages in a GIS, and
understand their advantages or disadvantages