Doped semiconductors: donor impurities

A silicon lattice with a single impurity atom (Phosphorus, P) added.

As compared to Si, the Phosphorus has one extra valence electron which, after all
bonds are made, has very weak bonding.
Very small energy is required to create a free electron from an impurity atom.
This type of impurity is called donor.
Note, that there is no hole created when a free electron comes from the impurity atom.

Free electron concentration in donor - doped semiconductors

When donor atoms are introduced into the semiconductor material, they are all ionized.
Each donor atom creates one free electron.
If the concentration of donor impurity (e.g. Phosphor) in Si is ND,
the concentration of free electrons,

n ND
For Si and other semiconductors, the typical doping levels are:
ND = 1015 cm-3 .1018 cm-3
nD = 1015 cm-3 .1018 cm-3 (compare to ni = 1.31010 cm-3 in intrinsic Si)
nD >> ni
Doping provides a flexible control over semiconductor conductivity.
The vast majority of microelectronic devices are based on doped semiconductors

Resistance of Donor-Doped Silicon sample

How much would be the resistance of the (1 cm1cm 1cm) Si sample
doped with donor impurities with concentration 21016 cm-3?

= qn ;
L 1 L
R= =
A A

n = 21016 cm-3
n = 1000 cm2/(V s)
q = 1.6 10-19 C

= 1.6 10-19 C 21016 cm-3 1000 cm2/(V s)

= 3.2 (Ohm cm)-1
= 0.325 Ohm cm
R = 0.325 (Ohm cm) 1 cm /(1cm 1cm) = 0.325 Ohm

The resistance of a doped Si crystal can be significantly lower

than that of intrinsic Si

Doped semiconductors: acceptor impurities

A silicon lattice with a single impurity atom (Boron, B) added.

Boron has only three valence electrons, one electron less than the Si atom.
Having only three valence electrons - not enough to fill all four bonds - it creates an
excess hole that can be used in conduction.
This type of impurity is called acceptor.
There is no corresponding free electron created from acceptor impurity

Hole concentration in acceptor - doped semiconductors

If the concentration of acceptor impurity (B atoms) in Si is NA, the hole concentration

pA NA
For Si and other semiconductors, the typical acceptor doping levels are:
NA = 1015 cm-3 .1018 cm-3
pA = 1015 cm-3 .1018 cm-3 (compare to ni = 1.31010 cm-3 in intrinsic Si);
pA >> ni
The vast majority of microelectronic devices using hole conductivity,
are based on doped semiconductors
In doped semiconductors, the concentration of intrinsic electrons and holes can be
neglected as compared to those coming from donor and acceptor impurities.

Concentration temperature dependence in doped

semiconductors
n, cm-3

Impurity electrons

ND

Intrinsic electrons,
intrinsic holes

T
100 K

200 K

300 K

400 K

Typical dependence for n-Si (i.e. donor-doped)

(for p-Si (i.e. acceptor doped) the dependences are similar

Mobile charge carriers energy

In semiconductors, the mobile charge carriers are
the free electrons and holes
Ec
Bound
electron

Ev
Atom

Intrinsic material at low temperature. There are no free

electrons or holes no free carriers.
The mobile charge energy does not make sense.

valence
band

Conductance band energy

Hole

Ec

conductance
band

Free
electron

Ev
Atom

When the electron in the valence band acquires sufficient extra

energy, it can be detached from its parent atom and reaches
reach the
conductance band
The minimum energy of the conduction band is denoted as EC

Energy Band Gap (Eg)

Ec

Band-gap
Ev

Forbidden
Energy
region

Generally no electron can have the energy between Ec and Ev

The band-gap is the energy difference between Ec and Ev:
Eg=Ec-Ev

Mobile charge carriers energy

conductance
band

Hole

Ec
Free
electron

Ev
Atom

valence band

Intrinsic material at high temperature. Temperature generates

free electrons and holes in equal concentrations.
The energy of free electrons is close to EC; the energy of holes is
close to EV

Average free carrier Energy Fermi energy

conductance
band

The average energy of all

the mobile charges in
semiconductor:
Eave Average [(Electron
Average Energy + Hole
Average Energy)]
(EC + EV)/2.
The average energy of all
the mobile charges in
semiconductor is called
Fermi energy EF.
In intrinsic semiconductor:
EF (EC + EV)/2.

Ec

EF
Ev

valence band

The energy of free electrons is close to EC; the energy of holes is

equal to EV

n-type semiconductor
Extra free electron

Phosphorus (P)
has 5 outer
shell electrons.

In the n-type material most of

the mobile charges are free
electrons.
Therefore, the average energy
of mobile charges is close to
EC:
EF EC

EC
EFn

EV

p-type semiconductor
Extra electron
vacancy or hole

Boron (B) has 3

outer shell
electrons.

In the p-type material most of

the mobile charges are holes.
Therefore, the average energy
of mobile charges is close to
EV:
EF EV

EC

EFp
EV

Carrier Concentration and

Fermi level: n-type material
Electron concentration:

nn N D
Fermi energy level:

Hole concentration
in the n-type
material:

ND - Donor atoms
concentration

EF EC

ni2
pn =
nn

pn nn = ni2

Carrier Concentration and

Fermi level: p-type material
Hole concentration:

pp N A
Fermi energy level:

Electron
concentration in the
p-type material:

NA - Acceptor atoms
concentration

EF EV

ni2
np =
pp

pn nn = ni2

Compensation
If both donor and acceptor are added to an intrinsic
semiconductor then the semiconductor is said to be
compensated
If ND > NA, the free electron concentration:
n = ND-NA
If ND < NA, the hole concentration:
p = NA-ND

Drift Current
The electric current due to electric field is called the
Drift Current.
The electron current density (current per unit area):

J n ,drift = q n nE

n is the electron mobility and

n is the electron
concentration.
Similarly the hole current
density:

J p ,drift = q p pE
p is the hole mobility and p is
the hole concentration.

Jn,drift
Jp,drift

cont Drift Current and conductivity

The total (electron + hole) drift current density:

J drift = J n ,drift + J p ,drift

= q n nE + q p pE

J drift = q( n n + p p ) E
Conductivity:

Resistivity:

= q( n n + p p )
=

1
q( n n + p p )

J drift = E

Diffusion Current

Concentration

Gradual concentration change

Concentration

Abrupt concentration change

Diffusion is due to concentration difference between two

regions of a semiconductor
The carriers will move from higher concentration region to
the lower one.

continued Diffusion Current

The electron diffusion current density:

J n ,diff

dn
= qDn
dx

Dn is the diffusion coefficient of electrons

J p ,diff

Dp is the diffusion coefficient of holes

Electron
Hole diffusion
diffusion
Jn,diff
x

Hole
Concentration

Electron
Concentration

The hole diffusion current density:

dp
= qD p
dx

Jp,diff

Total Currents in semiconductors with both

electric field and concentration gradients
Electron current density

J n = J n ,drift + J n ,diff

dn
= q n nE + qDn
dx

Hole current density:

J p = J p ,drift + J p ,diff

dp
= q p pE qD p
dx

Total current density:

Total electron
current

In = J n A
Total hole
current

Ip = Jp A

J = Jn + J p

Total current: I = J A = ( J n + J p )A

A is the sample
cross-section area