JOURNAL

OF APPLIED

DEVELOPMENTAL

PSYCHOLOGY

16,253-282(1995)

Relations Between Teacher and

Classroom Activity Variables and the
Classroom Behaviors of
Prekindergarten Children in
Chapter 1 Funded Programs
MARTHA B. BRONSON
Boston College

TERRENCETIVNAN
Harvard University

PATRICIAS. SEPPANEN
RMC Research Corporation

This study of 586 children in 54 Chapter 1 funded classrooms in five geographical

areas wos part of o national observational study of early childhood programs. The
study examined relations between eight teacher and classroom activity variables and
14 child variables. Correlational
analyses indicated significant relations between
program and teacher variables and childrens experiences in the classroom. More
program ond teacher variables were associated with childrens mastery than social
experiences. Results indicated some benefits ond trade offs when more teacher and
classroom time wos spent on teaching and on cognitively focused activities.

A growing body of research has demonstrated that children from low-income or

high-risk environments benefit from participation in high-quality early childhood
programs and that these benefits translate into reduced risk of school failure and
economic benefits to society in terms of lower school expenditures for special
education, savings in the criminal justice system, and greater economic independence through employment and earnings (Balasubramaniam
& Tumbull, 1988;
Bamett & Escobar, 1987; Berrueta-Clement,
Schweinhart, Barnett, Epstein, &
Weikart, 1984; Lazar, Darlington, Murray, Royce, & Snipper, 1982; McKey et
al., 1985; Weikart, 1989). Research has also suggested that differences in program philosophy and curriculum have differential effects on childrens behavior
Support for this study was provided by the U.S. Department of Education, Offke of Policy and
Planning under Contract No. EALC890980.
Correspondence
and requests for reprints should be sent to Martha B. Bronson, School of
Education, Boston College, 201B Champion Hall, Chestnut Hill, MA 02167-3813.

253

254

BRONSON,

TIVNAN,

AND SEPPANEN

and development (Clark-Stewart,

1980; Prescott, 1973; Snow, 1983; Weikart,
198 l), but relatively little is known about how specific aspects of programs affect
children. Researchers have lamented their inability to connect specific program
elements with outcomes (Barnett, Frede, Mobasher, & Mohr, 1987; Powell,
1987; Sigel, 1990) and to disentangle the effects of curriculum content, specific
activities, and teaching techniques (Miller, Bugbee, & Hybertson, 1985). This
study examines relations between a set of observed teacher and classroom activity variables, and child characteristics, including observed social and mastery
behaviors in the classroom. Teacher and classroom activity variables with direct
policy implications were selected for analysis.
The study was part of the Observational Study of Early Childhood Programs,
a national study of programs for disadvantaged children which had two related
components: (a) a descriptive study of 119 early childhood classroom environments, including Head Start programs, school-sponsored programs, and day-care
centers (Layzer, Goodson, & Moss, 1993) and (b) a substudy of approximately
750 children enrolled in 55 prekindergarten
classrooms funded all or in part
through Chapter 1 of the Hawkins-Stafford
Elementary and Secondary School
Improvement Amendments of 1988 (Seppanen, Godin, Metzger, Bronson, &
Cichon,
1993). The overall intent of the national study was to provide
observation-based
empirical data on programs for young children.
This study was part of the Chapter 1 substudy. Chapter 1 of Title 1 of the
Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 19652 is one of the oldest, most
well-established
federal education laws intended to provide supplemental instruction to low-achieving
students in schools with low-income students. A
small, but growing segment of the student population at the prekindergarten level
is served through Chapter 1 funded programs. The increasing role of Chapter 1 in
early childhood education has raised a number of issues for state and local
education officials. Among these has been how best to create programs with
characteristics that promote basic and advanced skills for young children at
risk for school failure.
To remedy the lack of connectedness between the long-term effectiveness of
programs and specific program variables, there is growing interest in trying to
determine how these effects occur by examining childrens experiences in these
programs (Clarke-Stewart & Fein, 1983; Powell, 1987, Takanishi, 1979). A
major goal of the Chapter 1 substudy was to provide empirical information about
relations between Chapter 1 funded prekindergarten environments and childrens
cognitive and social-emotional
development,
as revealed in a variety of
observation-based
measures. This study focuses on describing the relations be-

U.S. Department of Education, Off& of Policy and Planning, Contract Number EALC890980.
ZReauthorized by Congress as part of the Hawkins-Stafford
Elementary and Secondary School
Improvement Amendments of 1988.

OBSERVATIONAL

STUDY OF CHAPTER 1 PREKINDERGARTEN

PROGRAMS

255

tween specific child-level and classroom-level observation data gathered in the

Chapter 1 component of the Observational Study of Early Childhood Programs.

METHOD
Participants
The sample consisted of 586 children in 54 classrooms3 distributed over 16
school districts in five states (Florida, Texas, California, Michigan, and New
Jersey). The sample of classrooms was considered to be representative of the
range of quality in Chapter 1 funded prekindergarten
programs in urban and
suburban settings.
Demographic characteristics of the sample of children4 are listed in Table 1.
Slightly more than half of the children were girls. Eighty-five percent were from
racial or ethnic minority groups, but teachers reported that English was the
primary language spoken at home by over three fourths of the mothers (or
primary care givers). Seventy-eight percent of the sample were eligible for free or
reduced lunch.
Thirty-five percent of the mothers of sample children and 27% of the fathers
had at least some college experience. Approximately 22% of the mothers and
fathers had completed less than 12th grade. About 30% of the mothers were
under 19 years of age when they gave birth to their first child. Only about half of
the parents were currently married.
Teachers reported that approximately 14% of the families of sample children
needed assistance due to substance abuse, economic problems, or behavioral,
emotional, or mental problems. Teachers also indicated that 12% of the sample
children needed assistance for a behavioral, emotional, or mental problem and
that 9% had resided with someone other than their natural mother for more than 1
month since school had started. Only small percentages of sample children were
reported by teachers to have physical, emotional, or mental conditions that
required frequent medical attention and treatment or that limited and prevented
regular school attendance (6%) or participation in all school activities (5%).
Classrooms
Staff in the Chapter 1 funded prekindergarten classrooms were relatively highly
educated. All teachers had at least a 4-year college degree and 42% had a
masters degree or higher. Forty-five percent of the assistants and aides had some
3The total number of children in the Chapter 1 substudy was 783 in 55 classrooms, but not all of
these children had complete sets of test scores and classroom observations.
4These characteristics
are not necessarily representative of all Chapter I preschool children for
two reasons: (a) the Chapter 1 substudy did not randomly sample Chapter 1 prekindergarten programs
and (h) children were eligible for participation in the Chapter 1 substudy if they were simply enrolled
in a class funded all or in part with Chapter 1 funds.

256

BRONSON, TIVNAN, AND SEPPANEN

Demographic
Background

TABLE 1
Characteristics of Chapter 1 Samplea

Characteristics

% of Sample

Gender
Female

52

Ethnicity
African-American
Hispanic
White
Other

48
31
15
7

Primary language Spoken at Home

Mostly English
Mostly Spanish
Mixed English and Spanish
Other

77
8
10
5

Eligibility for Free or Reduced-Price

Lunch
Eligible
Data not available

78
14

Education of Father
Grade 11 or less
Grade 12 or GED
At least some college
Unknown

22
44
27
7

Education of Mother
Grade 11 or less
Grade 12 or GED
At least some college
Unknown

22
41
35
1

Mothers Age at Birth of First Child

13-15
16-18
19-21
22 or older

5
24
34
35

Marital Status
Married

50

Evidence Family Needed Help Due

to Substance Abuse, Economic
Problems, Emotional, or Mental
Problems

14

Evidence Child Needed Help Due to

Behavioral, Emotional, or Mental
Problem

12

(continued)

OBSERVATIONAL

STUDY OF CHAPTER 1 PREKINDERGARTEN

PROGRAMS

257

TABLE 1 (Continued)
Background Characteristics

% of Sample

Child Resides Apart From Mother

(> 1 Month)

Evidence of Conditions That

Limit/Prevent
Regular school attandance
Participation in all classroom activities
Usual childhood activities

6
5
4

Evidence of Conditions That Require

Frequent medical attention or treatment
Regular medicine or drugs
Use of special equipment

6
2
1

aParent and teacher

records.

questionnaires

and review

of student

college, 18% had a bachelors degree, and only 8% had less than a high-school
diploma. Seventy-one percent of the teachers held a state early childhood certificate or license and 87% held a state elementary education certificate or license.
Eighteen percent of the assistants and aides held a state early childhood education
certificate or license and 6% held an elementary license.
Teachers had taught in early childhood for an average of 9.6 years, assistants
and aides had 7.8 years of experience, and both had taught about two thirds of
this time at their current programs. Both staff groups had an additional few years
of grade-school teaching experience; teachers averaged 3.4 years and assistants
and aides averaged 2.8 years.
The average enrollment across all classrooms was 19.1 (SD = 4.3) but the
average attendance was 16.0 (SD = 3.2). Almost all classrooms had two staff
members (one teacher and one assistant or aide) so the observed child:staff ratio
children per class on any given day was 9.3 (SD = 2.7), which is within the
National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) guidelines
for 4-year-olds (10: 1 for a group of 20).
The majority (71%) of the Chapter 1 funded classrooms were half-day programs, with the rest providing an extended day (with lunch and a rest period) of 4
to 6 hr.
Measures
A number of instruments were used to collect both child-level and classroomlevel data. Because the overall study was observation based, the measures were
selected after extensive review of available classroom-level (Goodson, 1990) and
child-level (Seppanen & Love, 1990) observation instruments. In addition to

258

BRONSON,

TIVNAN,

AND SEPPANEN

observational measures, a standardized cognitive test was selected and information was collected on child and family background characteristics.
Child and Family Background Characteristics. Background information was
collected from three sources: a parent questionnaire, a teacher questionnaire, and
examination of student records. A number of children in the sample had characteristics associated with risk for school failure. Other studies have suggested that
although the effect of any one background variable may be negligible, the cumulative effect of a number of them may affect childrens performance on the
child-level measures (Hauser-Cram, Pierson, Walker, & Tivnan, 1991; Sameroff, 1975; Sameroff, Seifer, & Zax, 1987). Schorr and Schorr (1988) found that
it takes more than a single risk factor to elicit an adverse outcome (p. 25).
To analyze the cumulative effects of child and family background risks on the
child-level variables, a risk composite variable was used that was composed of
nine child and family background variables. It was not possible to collect data on
some of the more potent risk variables examined by Schorr and Schorr (1988;
such as low birth weight, substance abuse, or child abuse), but nine available
variables conceptually associated with risk were included. The variables included in the composite were: (a) English not spoken in the home, (b) limitation
of school activities, (c) special education requirements, (d) teacher rated behavioral or emotional problems, (e) family problems, (f) living away from mother,
(g) mothers age, and (h & i) parents education. The criterion for each risk
variable component was based on analysis of the Fall 1990 family background
data and on analyses of the distributions of background data collected during
Spring 1991. Children were given one risk point if an aspect of their background
met the established risk criterion for that variable. Each child received a composite risk score that could vary from 0 to 9.
Child-Level Measures. The design of the Chapter 1 study called for individual assessment of children in the fall and spring of the prekindergarten year. In a
fall pretest and spring posttest, child characteristics were measured with a standardized cognitive index, the Preschool Inventory (PSI) (Caldwell, 1976), and a
teacher rating scale, the Child Behavior Rating Scale (CBRS; Bronson, Goodson, Layzer, & Love, 1990). In the spring, behavioral observations in the classroom environment were done using the Bronson Social and Task Skills Profile
(BSTSP), 1991 revision (Bronson, 1991). This study examines data from the
spring data collection. Table 2 lists the child-level variables included in the
analyses.
The PSI is a brief, 32-item assessment of cognitive achievement designed to
be administered individually to children in the age range of 3 to 6 years old in
either English or Spanish. It was developed originally to provide Head Start with
a practical measure of preschool achievement. Correlations between PSI test
scores and the Stanford Binet Intelligence test ranged (in the five age groups)

OBSERVATIONAL STUDY OF CHAPTER 1 PREKINDERGARTEN PROGRAMS

Child-Level
Variable

Variables

Categories

Standardized

TABLE 2
Included in the Analysis of Data From the Chapter

259

1 Study

and Variables

Cognitive

Indicator

(PSI)
Score in the fall
Score in the spring
Teacher Rating (CBRS)
Mean competence rating in the fall
Mean competence rating in the spring
Classroom Behavior Observations
(BSTSP)
Mastery variables
Time in mastery activities (proportion of all observation time spent in a task with
a goal)
Use of organizing and planning strategies (rate of use of organizing and planning
strategies during tasks with goals)
Tasks completed successfully (proportion of tasks tried that are finished successfully)
Time distracted in mastery (proportion of mastery time spent distracted)
Social variables
Time in social activities (proportion of all observation time spent in social
interaction)
Time in organized social interaction (proportion of social time spent at the
organized and cooperative level)
Use of organizing strategies with peers (rate of use of strategies which organize
interactions with peers during time in social activities)
Use of accomodating strategies with peers (rate of use of social accomodating
strategies, like sharing and taking turns, with peers during time in social
activities)
Success in influencing peers (proportion of attempts to influence peers that were
successful)
Use of verbal means to influence peers (proportion of attempts to influence peers
that were verbal)
Self-management
variables
Time uninvolved (proportion of all observation time not involved in any focused
activity)
Resists rules or teachers (rate of resisting rules or teachers during all observation
time)

from .39 to .65, with .44 being the correlation for the entire standardization
sample. Split-half reliability, estimated with the Spearman-Brown
formula, was
reported as .95 on an earlier version of the PSI. The measure was selected
because it had been used in numerous national early childhood studies in recent
years. It yields an overall summary score that was included in the analyses for
this study.

BRONSON,

260

TIVNAN,

AND SEPPANEN

The CBRS is a 32-item behavioral rating scale designed to assess categories

similar to the BSTSP. An earlier version of the CBRS was created by RMC
Research Corporation for use in a Head Start evaluation (Meleen, Love, &
Nauta, 1988). The CBRS is designed to evaluate a childs task behavior and
social behavior with peers and adults. The 32 behaviors are rated on a 5-point
scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (usually/always)
to indicate how frequently
they occur. It was used in the Giant-Step evaluation (Abt Associates, 1988) in
which items on task orientation and strategies were more strongly correlated with
the PSI than were the adult and peer interaction items. There was a fall-spring
correlation of .67 for ratings of 364 Giant-Step children by their teachers. Internal consistency (Cronbachs alpha) was .96 overall for the Giant-Step sample. A
mean rating for all the items was computed to create the summary score used in
these analyses.
The BSTSP is an observation measure that was adapted from an earlier
version of the instrument (Bronson, 1985) for use in the Chapter 1 substudy.
The BSTSP uses structured categories to record a childs performance in planning and organizing mastery activities (puzzles, matching and sorting tasks,
number and letter tasks, etc.) and carrying them out successfully, in interacting
cooperatively and successfully with others, and controlling and directing oneself
appropriately in the school setting.
Social and mastery task behaviors are recorded in structured categories by an
observer who had been trained to a criterion of 90% interobserver agreement in
every category. A modified time sampling method is used in which half of the
observations are begun at the beginning of a social interaction and half are begun
at the beginning of a memory task. Whenever possible, observations are carried
out when children have some choice and control over the selection and direction
of their activities. In this study, observations were carried out in the natural
setting of the classroom with each child being observed for four to six lo-min
periods over 1 to 2 weeks. Technical information from the use of the BSTSP in
several studies is available (Bronson, 1985, 1994).
Because the focus of this study was on documenting
relations between
classroom-level
variables and the childs classroom experience, data from 12
BSTSP child-behavior variables were included in the analyses. Variables in three
areas (mastery, social, and self-management)
were selected on the basis of their
usefulness in other studies (Bronson, 1994; Bronson, Pierson, & Tivnan, 1984;
Hauser-Cram, Bronson, & Upshur, 1993; Pierson et al., 1983). These are listed
in Table 2 and described more fully in Appendix A.
Classroom Level Measures. A number of instruments measuring the classroom environment,
classroom activities, and teacher interactions with children
were included in the descriptive component of the Observational Study of Early
?See Seppanen,

Bronson,

and Metzger (1992) for a description

of the adaptation

procedures.

OBSERVATIONAL

STUDY OF CHAPTER 1 PREKINDERGARTEN

PROGRAMS

261

Childhood Programs, which studied 119 early childhood classrooms (Abt Associates, 1991). Seven of these instruments were used in the Chapter 1 substudy
(Seppanen et al., 1993). This article includes data from variables selected from
two of the instruments, chosen on the basis of their relevance to specific educational practices. Table 3 lists the eight classroom-level
variables selected for
inclusion in the study.
In the Abt Associates Adult-Focused Observation (Abt Associates, 1991), an
observer records the behavior of the classroom teacher in structured categories on
a time-sampled basis. Observers were trained to a criterion of 85% interobserver
agreement in each category. Recorded information includes the type of involvement with children (teaching, management, etc.), the number of children with
whom he or she is involved, specific verbalizations, the content of teaching, and
techniques for communicating.
The instrument was developed for the Observational Study of Early Childhood Programs and no psychometric analyses have
yet been done. Two variables from this instrument were included in the analyses
(see Table 3).
The Preschool ClasSroom Snapshot (adapted by Abt Associates, 1991, from
Stallings, 1975) provides a means for recording, in 24 categories, the types of
activities and groupings that are in evidence in a classroom at a given moment.
Observers were trained to a criterion of 85 percent interobserver agreement in
each of these categories. Multiple snapshots were recorded in classrooms at

Classroom-Level

Instruments

Variables

TABLE 3
included in the Analysis of Data From the Chapter
Study

and Variable Categories

Variables From Abt Associates

Adult-Focused Observationa
Proportion of time teacher spends teaching
Proportion of teaching focused on cognitive concepts
Variables From Preschool Classroom
Snapshotb
Proportion of goal-directed activities (a composite of math and language, science and
natural world, sewing, woodworking, cooking, block construction, table games and
puzzles, looking at books)
Proportion of math and language activities
Proportion of activities involving block construction
Proportion of sand and water play
Proportion of dramatic and fantasy play
Average child : staff ratio in observed snapshot instances
avariables derived from the Abt Associates Adult-Focused Observation instrument
are based on brief time samples of adult behaviors.
bvariables derived from the
Preschool Classroom Snapshot are proportions of snapshot instances in which the
event occurred.

262

BRONSON,

TIVNAN,

AND SEPPANEN

regular time intervals and aggregated to produce activity and grouping scores.
Versions of the instrument were used in the National Day-Care Study (Stallings &
Porter, 1980) and by the New York City Board of Education (BOE) to describe
environments in BOE preschool and kindergarten programs (Jarvis, 1989). No
additional technical information is available. Six variables from this instrument
were included in the analyses for this study (see Table 3).
The classroom-level instruments, and their use in the descriptive part of the
Observational
Study of Early Childhood Programs, are described in detail in
Layzer, Goodson, Layzer, and Levin (1991) and in Layzer et al. (1993).
Rationale for Classroom-Level Variable Selection
The two instruments previously described included many more classroom variables (see Layzer, Goodson, & Moss, 1993) than the subset selected for inclusion in this study (Table 3). The two teacher variables from the Abt Associates
Adult-Focused
Instrument were selected because they showed ways teachers
spend time in classrooms that seemed likely to be related to childrens experiences and cognitive or social outcomes. The five classroom activity variables
from the Preschool Classroom Snapshot were selected to reflect the variety of
activities typically found in classrooms for young children. The sixth variable
from the snapshot instrument, child:staff ratio, was selected because variations in
ratio have been associated with observed behavior differences in children in
previous studies (Prescott, 1973; Ruopp, Travers, Glantz, & Coelen, 1979; Vandell & Powers, 1983). All eight variables provide information on specific educational practices that could be influenced by public policy.
Data Collection Procedures
This study focuses on data from the child-level
obtained during Spring 1991.

and classroom-level

measures

Collection of ChiM-Level Data. The data collection team at each site consisted of child assessors who were trained to complete either the cognitive measures or the BSTSP, data collectors who were trained to complete the full battery
of classroom-level
measures, and a field coordinator. The BSTSP observations
were completed by child assessors who spent approximately 2 weeks in each
class on days in which PSI administrations or classroom-level observations were
not scheduled. During each data collection period, teachers completed the CBRS
rating forms.
The quality of data collected was monitored by both the field coordinator and
the data-analysis team. Observer reliability for the BSTSP was monitored twice
in the field to be certain that the observers maintained the standard of 90%
interobserver agreement in each category achieved during training.
Collection of Classroom-Level Data. The classroom-level data collection was
completed over a period of approximately 1 week per class. Each data collector

OBSERVATIONAL

STUDY OF CHAPTER 1 PREKINDERGARTEN

PROGRAMS

263

completed the full battery of classroom-level observations for a particular classroom and also interviewed classroom staff.
The quality of classroom-level observation and interview data was monitored
primarily by the field coordinator at each of the sites. The initial training of the
observers was reinforced subsequently in weekly review meetings among field
coordinators and data collectors. Field coordinators collected field reliability data
for the time-sample observation measure (Abt Associates Adult Focused Observation) by observing and coding with every observer at least once during the data
collection period.

RESULTS
Observed

Variable Scores

Chill-Level Variables. Table 4 lists the means and standard deviations of the
child-level variables. The PSI mean score was 20.3 (SD = 4.9) and the CBRS
mean score was 3.8 (SD = .68).
The BSTSP classroom observation mastery variables showed children involved in mastery tasks during approximately 38% of their overall observation
time and distracted during these tasks about 4% of the time.6 While working on
tasks, children used organizing and planning strategies (gathering appropriate
materials, grouping materials according to a criterion, sequencing activities appropriately) at a mean rate of 1.6 per min. They completed tasks successfully
almost 83% of the time.
Under the structured observation conditions that maximized time in mastery
or social interactions, approximately 50% of the childrens time over all observations was spent in social interactions,
with 38% of this time (19% of total
observation time) spent in social interactions with roles, rules, cooperative interaction, or true conversation (organized interaction). Involvement in social and
mastery activities could occur at the same time (a child could be working on a
puzzle and talking to a peer), so the time in social activities does not indicate that
the child was engaged exclusively in social interaction or a mastery task. During
interactions with peers, children used organizing strategies (Lets play store,
You be the mother) at the rate of approximately .6 instances per min (or about
once every 2 min) and accommodating
strategies (You can share mine, We
could take turns using it) at the rate of about .15 times per min (about once
every 7 min). Children were successful in their attempts to influence peers 82%
of the time and used verbal means to influence them 81% of the time.
Variables reflecting lack of adequate self-management
(time uninvolved and
resisting rules or the teacher) were relatively low in frequency. Children in this
6Time allocated to either mastery or social behaviors is partially an artifact of the data collection
procedures that require that half the observations begin in a social interaction and half begin in a
mastery task. Therefore, time allocations do not necessarily reflect how a childs behavior is distributed in time during the ordinary course of a classroom day.

264

BRONSON, TIVNAN, AND SEPPANEN

Means and Standard

TABLE 4
Deviations of the Child-Level Variables=

Child-Level Variable
PSI
Spring score
CBRS (Teacher Rating)
Spring summary score

SD

20.3

4.9

3.8

.68

BSTSP (Classroom Observations)

Mastery variables
Proportion time in mastery activities
Rate organizing and planning strategies
Proportion tasks completed successfully
Proportion time distracted in mastery

37.6
1.6
82.7
4.0

13.5
1.0
22.2
5.9

BSTSP (Classroom Observations)

Social variables
Proportion time in social activities
Proportion social time at organized level
Rate uses organizing strategies
Rate uses accomodating strategies
Proportion success in influencing peers
Proportion use of verbal means to influence

49.8
38.3
.58
.15
81.5
81 .O

16.4
29.1
.54
.20
13.6
13.7

BSTSP (Classroom Observations)

Self-management
variables
Proportion time uninvolved
Rate resists rules or teacher

1.7
.05

3.0
.I3

aN = 586 children.

sample were uninvolved less than 2% of the time and resisted rules or the teacher
at the rate of .05 instances per min.
Classroom-Level
Variables. Table 5 shows the mean classroom scores on
each of the eight classroom-level variables selected for this study.
Information from the Abt Associated Adult-Focused Instrument indicated that
39% of all teacher-child interactions were focused specifically on teaching (individuals or groups) and 44% of the teaching interactions involved teaching cognitive concepts (language, reading, math, science). Mean percentages of activities
from the Preschool Classroom Snapshot records indicated that children were
involved in goal-directed activities 34% of the time. On average, 7% of all
observed activities involved math and language, 4% involved block construction
Goal-directed activities included math and language activities, science and natural world activities, block construction, sewing, cooking, woodworking, table games and puzzles, and looking at
books or pictures.

OBSERVATIONAL

STUDY OF CHAPTER 1 PREKINDERGARTEN

Means and Standard

TABLE 5
Deviations of Classroom-Level

PROGRAMS

Variables8
M

SD

Variables From Abt Associates

Adult-Focused Observationb
Time teaching
Teaching focused on cognitive concepts

39
44

16
17

Variables From Preschool Classroom

Snapshotc
Goal-directed activities
Math and language activities
Block construction activities
Sand and water play activities
Dramatic and fantasy play activities
Average child : staff ratio

34
7
4
4
10
9

13

Classroom-Level

Variables

265

a
5
5

5
3

aN = 54 classrooms.
bProportions based on time samples.
CProportions based on presence or absence of event in total number of classroom snapshots.

4%

involved sand and water play, and 10% involved dramatic or fantasy play.
The average enrollment across all the sample classrooms was approximately 19
(SD = 4.3), but the average attendance was only 16 so the observed child:staff
ratio was about nine children per adult in the classroom.
Table 6 gives the intercorrelations among the eight classroom-level variables.
Over all classrooms, teacher time spent in teaching was positively related to
teaching focused on cognitive concepts (r = .40, p < .Ol) and to the proportion
of snapshot instances in which goal-directed activities were observed (r = .36,
p <, .Ol). Teaching focused on cognitive concepts was positively correlated with
the proportion of goal-directed activities (r = .33, p < .05) and math and
language activities (Y = .40, p < .Ol) in the classrooms. The proportion of goaldirected activities was related positively to the proportion of math and language
activities (r = .63, p < ,001) and negatively to the proportion of sand and water
activities (r = - .38, p < .Ol). The proportion of math and language activities
was negatively related to both the proportion of sand and water (r = -.30,
p <
.OS) and dramatic and fantasy activities (r = - .45, p < .OO 1). The proportion of
sand and water activities was negatively correlated with higher child:staff ratios
(r = -.33,
p < .05).
Correlations Between Child-Level Variables and Selected
Background Characteristics of Children
Table 7 shows the relation between the child-level variables and age, gender, the
composite risk variable, and entering cognitive ability as measured by the fall
PSI. Most of the variables were positively related to both age and the fall PSI

266

BRONSON, TIVNAN, AND SEPPANEN

Correlations
Variables

Time teaching
Teaching cognitive
concepts
Goal-directed
activities
Math and language
activities
Block construction
Sand and water
activities
Dramatic and
fantasy activities
Child : staff ratio
aN = 54.
*p < .05.

TABLE 6
Among the Classroom-Level

**p

Variablesa
5

.40**
.36**

.33*

.27

.40**

.63***

.I3
-.12

-.02
-.Ol

.I7
-.38**

-.13
-.30*

-.07

-.I3

-.I4

-.45***

.Ol

< .Ol.

-.20

***p

.07

.24

-.I1
.26
-.08

.23
-.33*

-.15

< .OOl.

score. The BSTSP variable, rate of resisting rules or the teacher, also showed a
weak positive correlation with age (r = .lO, p < .05), although it had a weak
negative correlation with the PSI (r = - . 11, p < .05). The CBRS was more
strongly correlated with the entering PSI (r = .34, p < .OOl) than with age (I =
.15, p < .OOl).
Gender was weakly related to two of the BSTSP classroom behaviors, rate
uses social organizing strategies (r = - . 11, p -=c.Ol) and proportion success in
influencing peers (r = -.08, p < .05), with girls having higher scores. The
spring PSI and CBRS were not related to gender.
The risk composite score was negatively related to the spring PSI (r = - .20,
p < .OOl) and the CBRS score (r = - .09, p < .05). In the BSTSP data, children
with more risks spent less time in social interaction (r = - . 10, p < .05), more
time uninvolved (r = -. 10, p < .05), and resisted rules or the teacher more
often (r = -. 14, p < .OOl).
Because the entering PSI score was related to almost all the child-level variables and maintained a range of variance when aggregated to the classroom level,
it was controlled using partial correlations when the child-level variables were
related to the classroom-level
variables. Controlling for the entering PSI was
intended to improve the chances of finding program effects that were not confounded with the (classroom average) cognitive ability of the children in the class.
Correlations Between Child-Level Classroom Average
Variables and Classroom-Level Variables
All child-level data were aggregated to classroom averages for these analyses. A
random-effects analysis of variance model was used to estimate the intraclass

267

OBSERVATIONAL STUDY OF CHAPTER 1 PREKINDERGARTEN PROGRAMS

Significant

Correlations

TABLE 7
Between Child-Level Variables
Characterists of Childrena

and Selected

Background

Risk Level
Child-Level

Variables

Age

Gende+

(O-9)

Entering
(Fall) PSI

PSI
Spring score

.21**

-.20***

.73***

CBRS
Spring score

.15***

-.os*

.34***

BSTSP Mastery
Proportion time in mastery activities
Rate organizing and planning
strategies
Proportion tasks completed
successfully
Proportion time distracted in
mastery
BSTSP Social
Proportion time in social activities
Proportion social time at organized
level
Rate uses organizing strategies
Rate uses accomodating strategies
Proportion success in influencing
peers
Proportion use of verbal means to
influence
BSTSP Self-Management
Proportion time uninvolved
Rate resists rules or teacher
aN = 586.
*p < .05.

.15***
.19***

.11**
.16***

.12**

.12**

-.10*

.os*
.13**
.11*

.14***
-.11x*

.11**
.10*
.13**

-.08*

.lO'

.10*
.14***

-.11*

bNegative correlations indicate that girls had higher scores.

l**p < ,001.

l*p < .Ol.

correlation for each variable. In addition, the reliability of the sample classroom
means as estimates of their true population means was examined for each variable. The percentage of the total variation that was potentially explainable by
classroom-level
factors was then estimated. Partial correlations between the
child-level variables (controlling for the average entering fall PSI score of the
class) and the classroom-level
variables were used to explore the relations between the data sets.
Proportion of Overall Variance Between Classrooms in the Child-Level
Variables. Table 8 lists all the partial correlations between the classroom-level
and child-level variables, controlling for the classroom average PSI scores, for
reference. Table 9 presents a summary of the significant partial correlations

.04
.08
-.30*
.32*

.20

.17

.40**

.31*
.28
.04

.09

CBRS
Spring score

BSTSP Mastery
Proportion of time in mastery activities
Rate organizing and planning strategies
Proportion of tasks completed
successfully
Proportion of time distracted in
mastery

.23

-.05.

.36*
.07
.20

.21

.19

GoalDirected
Activity

.02

.33*
.Ol
.17

.39* *

.35*

Math and
Language
Activity

-.I3

.06
-.08
.30*

-.Ol

-.03

.I1

-.32*
-.37*
-.18

.28

.08

Sand
and
Water
Activity

-.02

-.24
-.02
.12

.Ol

.09

(continued)

.02

.I3
.36*
.12

-.17

-.21

Average
Child :
Staff
Ratio

Test Score

Dramatic
and Fantasy
Activity

for Entering Cognitive

Block
Construction
Activity

TABLE 8
and Child-Level Variables Controlling
(Fall PSBb

Teacher Time
Focused on
Cognitive
Concepts

Level Variablesa

Teacher
Time
Teaching

Between Classroom

PSI
Spring score

Child-Level Variables

Partial Correlations

-.04
-.I2
-.20
-.I9

.30*

-.Ol
-.I2
.I8

.03
-.Ol
.24
.35*

.07
.I9

-.42**
.20

-.I7
-.I5

.08

.06
.I9
.25

-.I8
.21

-.I7
-.I9

-.Ol

.23
.I9
.I0

.04
.I8

.I1
.I4

-.02

-.I0
.Ol
.06

-.I1
.04

.46* *
-.I4

.12

-.I4
-.08
-.29

-.07
-.25

.15
.03

-.I2

-.09
-.12
.04

.lO
-.I0

-.31*
.51***

-.04

.I9
.I6
.05

.I6
.33*

aClassroom variables from the Abt Associates Adult-Focused Observation Instrument include proportion of time teacher spends teaching and
proportion of teaching focused on cognitive concepts. Classroom variables from the preschool Classroon Snapshot Instrument include Proportion of goal-directed activities, proportion of math and language activities, proportion of activities involving block construction, proportion of
sand and water play activities, proportion of dramatic and fantasy play activities, and average child : staff ratio. bN = 54 classrooms.
*p < .05. **p < .Ol. ***p < .OOl.

BSTSP Self-Management
Proportion of time uninvolved
Rate resists rules or teacher

BSTSP Social
Proportion of time in social activities
Proportion of social time at organized
level
Rate uses organizing strategies
Rate uses accomodating strategies
Proportion of success in influencing
peers
Proportion of uses verbal means to
influence

(continued)

3.8

CBRS
Spring score

Rate organizing and

planning strategies
Proportion of tasks
completed successfully
Proportion of time
distracted in mastery
44
10.87
3.55

82.06

4.03

7.85

.32

2.30

Class
SD

1.55

38.04

20.29

PSI
Spring score

BSTSP
Mastery
Proportion of time in
mastery activities

Class
M

.30

.I7

.64

.28

.28

.12

.80

.66

94

.79

.82

.61

Reliabilityc

24

11

60

22

23

% of
Total*

and

activities

Teacher time in teaching

Snapshot time in goal-directed activities
Snapshot time in math and language activities
Snapshot time in sand and water activities
Snapshot time in sand and water play
Snapshot average child : staff ratio
Teacher time focused on cognitive concepts
Snapshot time in block activities
Teacher time focused on cognitive concepts

Snapshot time in math and language

.31*
-36
.33*
-.32*
-.37*
.36*
-.30*
.30*
.32*

.39**

.40**
.35*

Partial Correlations With Classroom-Level

Variables

Variables

Teacher time focused on cognitive concepts

Snapshot time in math and language activities

Significant

TABLE 9
and Reliability of Classroom Means With Significant Partial Correlations Between Child-Level
Classroom-Level Variables Controlling for Entering Cognitive Test Score (Fall PSl)a

Child-Level Variables

lntraclass Correlations

10.29
8.70

81.62

80.83

.07

.I0

.I4

.05

.32

.59

1.60

22.34

37.13

1.74

6.63

49.87

.22

.28

.35

.51

.22

.27

.52

.41

.74

.70

.84

.91

.74

.78

.91

.88

16

20

29

46

16

21

47

.36

: staff ratio

Snapshot time in sand and water activities

Snapshot average child : staff ratio
Snapshot average child : staff ratio

Teacher time in teaching

Teacher time focused on cognitive concepts

Snapshot average child

Teacher time in teaching

.46**
-.31*
.51**

.35*
.30*

.33*

-.42**

aN = 54 classrooms.
%traclass correlation = between-classroom
variance and between-classroom
variance and within classroom variance. CReliability (A) of sample classroom M as estimates of true population means.
dPercent of the total variation potentially explainable by
classroom-level factors (p x X)
p < .05. **/_I < .Ol.

BSTSP
Self-Management
Proportion of time
uninvolved
Rate resists rules or
teacher

BSTSP
Social
Proportion of time in
social activities
Proportion of social time
at organized level
Rate uses organizing
strategies
Rate uses accomodating
strategies
Proportion of success in
influencing peers
Proportion of uses verbal
means to influence

272

BRONSON,

TIVNAN,

AND SEPPANEN

between the child-level and classroom-level variables as well as intraclass correlation coefficients, reliability estimates for the classroom means, and the percentage of total variation which is potentially explainable by classroom-level
factors. The reliability estimates range from a low of .61 for the PSI scores to
highs of over .90 for several BSTSP variables. There is also substantial variation
in the between-classroom
variance, with the amounts of variation which could be
explained by between classroom variables ranging from only 7% (for the PSI) to
much higher levels for the BSTSP observation variables. The overall pattern
seems to indicate that the variables under greater levels of teacher control do
indeed show slightly higher levels of between-classroom
variability.
Partial Correlations Between Child-Level
Controlling for Fall PSI.

and Classroom-Level

Variables

PSI and CBRS. The spring PSI was related to two of the classroom-level
variables; teacher time focused on cognitive concepts (r = .40, p < .Ol) and the
proportion of classroom snapshots in which math or language activities were
observed (r = .35, p < .05). The spring CBRS was related only to the proportion
of math or language activities observed in the classroom (u = .39, p < .Ol).
BSTSP Mastery Variables. The classroom average proportion of time spent in
mastery activities was positively related to teacher time spent in teaching (r =
.3 1, p < .05), the proportion of snapshot instances in which goal-directed activities were observed (r = .36, p < .05), and the proportion of instances in which
math or language activities were observed (r = .33, p < .05). It was negatively
related to observed instances of sand and water play (r = -.32, p < .05).
The class average rate of use of organizing and planning strategies during
mastery activities was negatively related to the proportion of snapshot instances
in which sand or water play was observed (r = - .37, p < .05) and positively
associated with higher child:staff ratios (r = 36, p < .05). It should be noted that
these ratios did not vary much and were generally within NAEYC guidelines
(Bredekamp, 1987) for appropriate practice (see Table 5).
The average proportion of tasks completed successfully in classrooms was
negatively related to teacher time focused on cognitive concepts (r = - .30, p <
.05) and positively related to larger proportions of snapshot instances in which
block construction activities were observed (r = .30, p < .05).
The average proportion of time children were distracted during tasks was
positively related to more teacher time focused on cognitive concepts (r = .32,
p < .05).
BSTSP Social Variables. Very few of the classroom-level variables were significantly related to the BSTSP social variables. The average proportion of time

OBSERVATIONAL

STUDY OF CHAPTER

1 PREKINDERGARTEN

PROGRAMS

273

children were observed in social activities was negatively associated with the
amount of time teachers spent in teaching (r = -.42, p < .Ol). The classroom
average proportion of social time in which children were involved in organized
(higher level) interactions
with peers was positively related to the average
child:staff ratio in the classrooms (r = .33, p < .05). The average rate of use of
organizing strategies (Lets play spaceship, The oldest gets to be captain),
accommodating
strategies (We could share the crayons), and childrens average proportion of success in their attempts to influence peers were not significantly associated with any of the classroom-level
variables, though a negative
relation between success in influencing peers and the proportion of sand and
water play instances observed approached significance (r = - .29, p < .06). In
contrast, childrens classroom average proportion of attempts to influence peers
using verbal means was positively related to both the proportion of teacher time
spent in teaching (r = .35, p < .05) and the proportion of teacher time focused
on cognitive concepts (r = .30, p < .05).
BSTSP Self-Management
Variables. The average proportion of time children
spent uninvolved in classrooms was positively associated with the proportion of
snapshot instances in which sand or water play was observed (r = .46, p < .Ol)
and negatively related to the average child:staff ratio (r = - .3 1, p < .05). The
classroom average rate of resisting rules or the teacher was positively associated
with higher average child:staff ratios (r = .51, p -=c.Ol).

DISCUSSION

AND CONCLUSIONS

Child Level Perspective

PSI and CBRS. Although most of the variance in the PSI scores was accounted for within rather than between classrooms, the PSI averages were related
to both teacher time spent in teaching cognitive concepts and classroom time
spent in math or language activities. This is congruent with the findings of the
Head Start and Follow Through Planned Variation studies that showed that
program outcomes were usually consistent with program goals and content (Bissell, 1973; Stallings, 1975).
It was surprising that the CBRS teacher rating averages were related only to
classroom time spent in math and language activities because the scale contains
both social and mastery items and 23% of the total variation in the total scores
was potentially explainable by between-classroom
variables. Teachers may have
been focusing more on cognitive skills in their ratings of children, although the
classroom-level
variables with a cognitive focus had more significant relations
with the BSTSP variables as well.
BSTSP VurzizbZes. Many BSTSP child-observation
variables had relatively
large percentages of variance that were potentially explainable by classroom-

274

BRONSON,

TIVNAN,

AND SEPPANEN

level variables (Table 8), but the mastery variables had more associations than the
social variables with the classroom-level variables. The proportions of teaching
time focused on cognitive concepts and the relative frequency of goal-directed
activities in comparison to the proportions of time spent in block construction,
sand and water play, and dramatic and fantasy play (Table 5) suggest a relatively
cognitive emphasis in these classrooms. In addition, the classroom-level variable
intercorrelations
(Table 6) suggest that when there were more goal-directed and
math and language activities in the classroom, there were fewer sand and water
and dramatic and fantasy activities.
The pattern of partial correlations of BSTSP variables with classroom-level
variables that reflect a more cognitive emphasis (teacher time in teaching, teaching time focused on cognitive concepts, proportion of snapshot instances in goaldirected activities, and in math and language activities) suggests some interesting
trade offs that may be associated with this focus (Table 9). More teacher time
spent in teaching was associated with children spending more time in mastery
tasks and less time in social interactions with peers, although their efforts to
influence peers were more verbal. More teaching time focused on cognitive
concepts was also associated with the use of more verbal means to influence
peers, but was related to higher levels of distraction and children finishing fewer
tasks successfully as well. It is possible that the cognitive focus may have been
somewhat difficult or stressful for children (Burts, Hart, Charlesworth, & Kirk,
1990; Elkind, 1987). More classroom snapshot instances in which goal-directed
or specific math and language activities were recorded were also associated with
children spending more time involved in mastery as opposed to social activities,
as was suggested by the intercorrelations
among the classroom-level
variables
(Table 6).
The classroom-level variables that reflected more traditional early childhood
activities (snapshot time in block construction, sand and water play, and dramatic
and fantasy play) were related to few or none of the BSTSP variables. The
proportion of snapshot instances in which dramatic or fantasy play was observed
was not related to any of the child-level variables and the proportion of instances
in which block construction was recorded was related only to the proportion of
tasks children completed successfully. Because block play is assumed by the
early childhood community to have cognitive as well as social benefits (Bredekamp, 1987) and was included as one of the goal-directed activities in the
snapshot instrument, it is not surprising that the inclusion of more block construction in classrooms was associated with greater success in tasks. It is somewhat surprising, however, that block activity was not related to any of the social
interaction variables.
The proportion of observed instances of sand or water play also had an
unexpected pattern of associations with the BSTSP variables. It was negatively
associated with both time spent in mastery activities and the use of strategies in
tasks. Intercorrelations
among the classroom-level variables (Table 6) showed

OBSERVATIONAL

STUDY OF CHAPTER 1 PREKINDERGARTEN

PROGRAMS

275

that sand and water play was negatively associated with snapshot instances of
goal-directed activity. In addition, the proportion of sand and water play activities had a negative correlation with success in influencing peers that approached
significance and was positively associated with time uninvolved. It appears that
in classrooms where children spend more time in sand or water play by the spring
in the year before kindergarten,
lower levels of social and mastery skills are
observed. By this period, children may be reducing their involvement in exploration in favor of more goal-oriented activities.
It is somewhat surprising that none of the three traditional, early childhood
classroom activity variables (block construction, dramatic and fantasy play, and
sand and water play) were associated with time in social interaction with peers
and increased skill in social interaction because such activities are usually carried
out in the company of other children. It is possible that the limited opportunities
for involvement in the activities (see Table 5) did not allow children time to
develop complex sociodramatic play sequences.
In classrooms with higher average child:staff ratios, children had higher average rates of independent strategy use during mastery activities and they spent
more time in organized (cooperative) social activities. In past studies, the use of
more strategies in tasks and involvement in higher (organized and cooperative)
levels of social interaction has been associated with increasing age (Bronson,
1994) and child competence (Bronson, 1985; Bronson et al., 1984; Hauser-Cram
et al., 1993; Pierson et al., 1983). Positive associations with age and entering
(fall) PSI scores were also found in this study (Table 7). It is possible that more
available adults may have become more involved in the direction of childrens
tasks, which suppresses the use of independent strategies because it reduces the
need for them. The Hauser-Cram et al. (1993) study also found that, for young
children with disabilities, reduced involvement with adults was associated with
increased involvement with peers. The presence of more adults interacting with
children, or available for interaction, may reduce opportunities or incentive for
extended periods of organized sociodramatic play with peers.
Children in classrooms with higher child:staff ratios also spent less time
uninvolved, but had increased rates of resistance to rules or the teacher. In the
BSTSP measure, time uninvolved has been found to be negatively related to time
in social activities (Bronson, 1985), as was the case in this study (I = - .25, p < .Ol).
Policy Implications
The classrooms included in the Chapter 1 study were considered representative
of the range of quality found in urban and suburban settings. They were selected
on the basis of their Chapter 1 funding and were not categorized according to
model or program types. This study bypassed the model label and attempted to
move to a more descriptive level by documenting relations between specific
observed teacher and classroom variables and observed behaviors of children in
the classrooms in addition to cognitive test and teacher rating data.

276

BRONSON,

TIVNAN,

AND SEPPANEN

Overall, the relations between the child-level and classroom-level variables

suggest that more teacher time spent specifically in teaching and a cognitive and
academic and goal-directed focus in the classroom are related to higher cognitive
test scores, more mastery experiences for children in the classroom, and children
using more verbal means to influence peers. There appear to be trade offs,
however, because more teaching time was also associated with fewer social
experiences with peers, and a focus on cognitive concepts during teaching was
associated with increased distractibility and children finishing a lower proportion
of tasks successfully. Some in the early childhood community have suggested
that a focus on academic teaching in early childhood is not developmentally
appropriate (Bredekamp,
1987; Bredekamp & Rosegrant, 1992) and can be
stressful for young children (Burts et al., 1990; Elkind, 1987).
If the primary measure of success for children at risk for school failure is an
increase in cognitive test scores, the associations found in this study suggest that
an academic focus in the classroom may increase the probability of this outcome.
If the use of independent strategies and success in mastery tasks and social
interactions in the classroom are major goals, then an academic focus must be
viewed with caution. There is also some evidence from past studies using the
BSTSP as an outcome measure that children who show higher levels of mastery
and social skills in kindergarten continue to demonstrate these skills in the
second grade (Bronson et al., 1984; Pierson et al., 1983). By the spring of the
second-grade year, children who had adequate skills in these areas were less
likely to be retained in grade, to be placed in special services, or to have low
cognitive test scores (Bronson et al., 1984).
None of the more traditional early childhood classroom activities (block construction, sand or water play, and dramatic or fantasy play) was related to the PSI
or CBRS ratings, and only block construction was associated with improved
performance on any BSTSP variable (a higher proportion of tasks completed
successfully). Larger proportions of sand and water play activities in classrooms
were negatively associated with average skill levels, suggesting that by the end of
the prekindergarten year more advanced or mature children are focusing more on
mastery than exploratory activities.
More traditional activities were also relatively infrequent in this sample of
Chapter 1 classrooms. Block and sociodramatic play with peers are the usual
situations chosen for BSTSP social observations at this age level (Bronson,
1985, 1991), but these accounted for relatively small proportions of the overall
classroom activities. Observers in the field reported more difficulty in completing the required number of social than mastery observations (Seppanen, Bronson, & Metzger, 1992). It is possible that if more classroom time had been
allotted to sociodramatic and block play associations with the child-level social
skill variables might have been observed.
Three of the four associations between child:staff ratios and BSTSP variables
suggested benefits for children with ratios on the higher end of the range in this

OBSERVATIONAL

STUDY OF CHAPTER 1 PREKINDERGARTEN

PROGRAMS

277

sample. Because the ratios were generally within the limits considered appropriate for the age group, the generally positive pattern of relations does not indicate
that very high ratios are desirable. It does raise questions for future research
about relations between very low ratios and reduced opportunities for children to
be independently
involved in mastery tasks and social interactions with peers.
An interesting pattern of relations among variables from both child-level and
classroom-level
instruments was found in this study. A number of studies in the
past have suggested that there are no differential changes in child outcomes
among different program models (House, Glass, McLean, & Walker, 1978;
Lazar et al., 1982; Schweinhart, Weikart, & Lamer, 1986), whereas other studies
have found differences (DeVries & Goncu, 1987; Kames, Shwedel, & Williams,
1983; Marcon, 1992; Miller & Bizzell, 1984). Because program models may not
be uniformly implemented, a more precise and descriptive evaluation approach
may be to examine specific program and teacher variables for evidence of differences as this study has done.
Although it is not clear that the relations found in this study will result in longterm outcomes for the children in the sample, the patterns of associations that
emerged provide suggestive information about the point of contact where this set
of Chapter 1 programs touched childrens lives. A number of the relations raise
questions for researchers and policy makers that need to be addressed in further
studies. The impact of a cognitive focus in classrooms and the apparent trade off
between cognitive and social experiences needs further exploration. The longterm effects of an increased focus on teaching versus an emphasis on opportunities for independent action and self-direction also needs to be examined, with
an accompanying
search for the types of teacher behaviors which lead to more
versus fewer organized and independent social and mastery activities.
This study also shows the usefulness of an observational approach and supports combining data from a variety of sources when attempting to understand
relations between child experiences and outcomes and classroom and teacher
characteristics.

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Definitions,

Variables
Proportion
time in
mastery
activities

Rate task organizing

and planning
strategies

APPENDIX Al
Behavior Examples, and Calculation
of BSTSP Masterv Variables

Definitions

and Behavior Examples

Child engages in any nonsocial task

with a recognizable goal (should allow
scoring of successful or unsuccessful
at task completion). The child may be
attempting to master a skill, construct
a product, or solve a problem. Tasks
may include puzzles, matching and
sorting, counting, prereading, or number tasks, writing letters or numbers,
and any school-like tasks.
Child gathers materials before beginning a task, groups materials
according to a criterion, finds an appropriate work place, or lays out
materials in an orderly fashion. Child
shows a consistent, coherent, rulegoverned, orderly, and sequenced
behavior-picking
the correct piece
sequentially or making correct moves
in a sequence.

Proceduresa

Calculation

Procedures

Divide the amount of

time the child spent in
mastery activities by
the total time the child
was observed.

Divide the number of organizing and planning

strategies the child
used by the amount of
time the child spent in
a task with a goal.

(continued)

OBSERVATIONAL STUDY OF CHAPTER 1 PREKINDERGARTEN PROGRAMS

APPENDIX
Definitions

Variables

Al (Continued)

and Behavior Examples

Calculation

Proportion
of time
distracted
in mastery

aAll calculations are based on summing

observations of each individual child.

Definitions,

APPENDIX A2
Behavior Examples, and Calculation
of BSTSP Social Variables

Definitions

Proportion time
in social activities

Child engages in activities that

have at least a partial goal of interaction with a peer.

Proportion time
in organized
social activities

Child engages in an organized social interaction with a peer with

roles or rules or reciprocal conversation (cooperative
sociodramatic play, coorperative
block or other construction,
structured games such as checkers).
Child suggests play direction or activities, assigns roles or
resources, or states rules in interaction with peers.

Rate uses organizing

strategies

Divide the amount of

time the child was distracted by the amount
of time the child spent
in mastery activities.

data from each variable

Variables

and Behavior Examples

Procedures

Divide the number of

tasks the child completed successfully by
the number of tasks
the child attempted.

Child completes an attempted task successfully (sometimes after making and

correcting mistakes). The child may
complete a puzzle, a block structure, a
matching or sorting task, or any of the
types of tasks with a goal noted
above.
Childs attention wanders from the task
being attempted. The child may begin
to play with pencils or other materials
in a way that indicates a change of focus, or orient gaze or body away from
the task. Cases in which the childs attention is demanded elsewhere (by
the teacher, a child asking for help, an
accident in the classroom, etc.) are
not listed as distraction but as a
change in focus.

Proportion
of tasks
completed
successfully

281

over all lo-min

Procedures=

Calculation

Procedures

Divide the amount of time

the child was in social
activities by the total
time the child was observed.
Divide the amount of time
the child was in organized social activities by
the time the child was
engaged in social activities.

Divide the number of

strategies the child used
by the time the child
spent in social activities.
(continued)

282

BRONSON, TIVNAN, AND SEPPANEN

APPENDIX

A2 (Continued)

Variables

Definitions

Rate uses accomodating

strategies

Child initiates sharing, trading, or

taking turns while interacting
with peer.

Proportion success in
influencing
peers

Child is successful in attempts to

influence peers. Includes all comments or activities intended to
get attention or response from a
peer including use of strategies.
Child uses words in attempts to influence peers

Proportion
uses verbal
means to influence peers

and Behavior Examples

aAll calculations are based on summing

observations of each individual child.

Definitions,

Procedures

Divide the number of

strategies the child used
by the time the child
spent in social activities.
Divide the childs successful sttempts to influence
by all the childs attempts to influence
peers.
Divide the childs verbal
attempts to influence by
all the childs attempts
to influence peers.

data from each variable

over all IO-min

APPENDIX A3
Behavior Examples, and Calculation Proceduresa
of BSTSP Self-Manaaement
Variables

Variables

Definitions

Proportion
time uninvolved

Child is not engaged in any clearly

focused activity (mastery, social,
exploratory, fantasy, focused
watching, etc.).
Child fails to behave according to
the constraints of the setting (actively resists the teachers
directions or violates clear and
explicit rules of the classroom).

Rate resists
rules or
teacher

Calculation

and Behavior Examples

=All calculations are based on summing

observations of each individual child.

Calculation

Procedures

Divide the amount of time a

child was uninvolved by the
total time the child was observed.
Divide the number of times
the child resisted rules or
the teacher by the total
time the child was observed.

data from each variable

over all lo-min