Interaction

1 Read and discover.

We perceive the world through our senses.
Sight, touch, smell, hearing and taste allow
us to explore the environment around us.
All the information received by our senses is
processed by our most important organ, the
brain. The brain is home to the conscious
and unconscious mind, as well as our
emotions and memory. It controls our
involuntary actions, such as breathing, or
digesting our food, as well as our thinking
and decision making. What other types of
involuntary actions do we have?

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 hy is the brain so important? What information does

2 W
it process?
3 What are feelings and emotions?

 hy are our senses important? What would happen

4 W
if we lost the use of one or more of them?
 hich body parts or organs do you associate with the
5 W
function of interaction?
brain

stomach

sense organs

muscles

heart

skeleton

kidneys

lungs

 ur body moves in response to the information sent from

6 O
the brain. Which system enables us to move?
 hat is the difference between a voluntary and involuntary
7 W
muscle? Give an example of each.
 hy is it important to keep fit and healthy? What happens
8 W
if we do not look after our bodies?

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Analyse and organise

 tudy the different parts of the body in the box. What functions
1 S
do they have? Copy and complete the table in your notebook.
bones brain eyes neurons skin muscles skeleton
taste buds joints spinal cord nerves nostrils tongue
receiving information

processing information

giving a response

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

 ook at the photos. Do they show someone receiving

2 L
information or giving a response?
a

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 ead the text about how the brain compensates for loss of
R
vision, then decide if the sentences below are true or false.
Stevie Wonder and Ray Charles are both examples of well-known
musicians who lost their sight at an early age. It is impossible to
know if this lack of sight has contributed to their excellence in
music, but more and more studies are showing that those who are
born blind or who lose their sight early in life are better at nonvisual tasks than those who can see.
In tests, sighted and blind volunteers were asked to localise the
source of different noises. It was found that the blind participants
performed much better than those who could see. The unusual part, however, was that when the
participants brains were scanned while they were performing the task, it was discovered that the blind
participants were using the part of the brain associated with vision to process the information. In effect,
they were seeing with their ears. So, their brains were helping them navigate a world without sight.
This is just one of the ways in which scientists believe the brain adapts to overcome injuries or the loss
of senses.
a. All blind people are great musicians.
b. Tests show blind people are better at certain
tasks than sighted people.
c. The participants had to say where a sound was
coming from.

e. The participants brain activity was observed

during the test.
f. The blind participants had a more developed
audio processing area.
g. The brain can adapt itself.

d. Both groups performed the task well.

4 How else might our bodies compensate for the loss of a sense or a limb?
5 

Who is Maria Lyle? Listen to the recording and complete

the sentences in your notebook.
a. Cerebral palsy is usually caused by ..... damage.
b. Maria Lyle, who suffers from cerebral palsy, won two
sprint races in August .....
c. She is only ..... years old.
d. Maria holds two world .....
e. Maria was diagnosed with cerebral palsy when she was .....
f. Her mother, who is a ..... teacher, convinced Maria to
take up running.

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The nervous system

Living organisms are made up of cells. Cells that perform the same
function come together to create tissue. Tissues group together to
form organs. Organs that work together form the systems which
make up the bodies of organisms. One of these systems is the nervous
system.
The nervous system sends messages from the brain to different parts of
the body, such as the locomotor system (or musculoskeletal system)
which allows us to respond to the stimuli from our senses. It also controls
our internal systems such as the digestive or respiratory systems.

What are
reflex
actions?

Did you know?

The average adult human brain
weighs about 1.5 kilograms and
contains about 86 billion neurons!

The central nervous system

The brain and the spinal cord make up our central nervous system.

Brain
The brain controls our nervous
system. It is protected by the
skull (or cranium). It is made up
of three main parts.

cerebrum

skull (cranium)

The cerebrum is the biggest

part of our brain. This is where
we process the information from
our senses and where we do our
cognitive thinking. We use the
cerebrum to take decisions, to
study or to play a game.
The main role of the cerebellum
is controlling our movements,
coordination and balance.

cerebellum

The brain stem is the

continuation of the spinal
cord. It controls involuntary
actions such as our heartbeat
breathing and sleeping.

spinal cord

Spinal cord
The spinal cord is made up of
nerve tissue and runs from our
brain down our spine. The spinal
cord is protected by the vertebrae.
It controls our reflex actions.

brain stem

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llum

The peripheral nervous system

axon

The peripheral nervous system is made up of nerves. Nerves are made

up of tiny cells called neurons that transfer information through the
nervous system using electrical and chemical signals. Different neurons
carry out different tasks.

dendrites

A neuron

nerves

Sensory neurons collect

information from our sense
organs (eyes, ears, nose, tongue,
skin).

The brain interprets the

information and sends signals to
the rest of the body.

 hat other systems do you know? Work

1 W
with a partner. Write down the names of
the systems of the body and what they do.
2 What protects our brain?

 hat would happen if we did not have a

3 W
peripheral nervous system?

Motor neurons send messages

from the brain to our locomotor
system.

 ow do reflex actions differ from other

4 H
actions?
 ecide if the following movements are
5 D
voluntary (V) or involuntary (I).
a. breathing

c. blinking

b. playing the guitar

d. reading

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The senses
An eye uses a
lens to focus.
What else uses
a lens to focus?

Our sense organs allow us to interact with the world around us. They
detect information which is then transmitted to the brain. Here, the
information is deciphered and the brain then reacts to the stimulus.

Sight
1. Light reflected from an object
enters our eyes through the
cornea and pupil.
2. The amount of light entering
our eyes is controlled by the
iris. The iris gives the eye its
colour.
3. The lens focuses the light on
the retina at the back of the
eye.
4. Nerve receptors in the
retina transmit the
information to the optic
nerve which then sends the
information to the brain.

eyelid

retina

optic nerve

pupil
lens
cornea
iris

eyelash

blind spot

The place where the optic

nerve leaves the eye is called
a blind spot. This area does
not respond to light.

Hearing
1. Sound waves enter the
auditory canal in the outer
ear and cause the eardrum
to vibrate.

middle ear

2. In turn, these vibrations make

the three small bones in the
middle ear vibrate.

auditory nerve

cochlea

3. The vibrations finally reach

the cochlea in the inner ear,
where they become electrical
signals.
4. The auditory nerve then
sends the signals to the brain
for processing.

auditory
canal

eardrum

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Smell
nerve
receptors

Chemicals in the air enter our nose through our

nostrils. The chemicals then come into contact
with nerve receptors which send the information
to the brain via the olfactory nerve.

Taste
Substances enter our mouth and come into
contact with our tongue. The tongue is covered
in taste buds which have receptor cells. These
receptor cells detect the different tastes (salty,
sweet, bitter and sour) and send the information
to the brain.
Chemicals from substances in our mouths also
enter the nose which is why if we have a blocked
nose, food often tastes different or bland.

taste bud

tongue

Touch
The skin covers and protects our whole body.
The middle layer of skin, called the dermis,
contains nerves and blood vessels. These detect
sensations such as heat, pressure and texture.
The nerves in the skin send information to the
brain through the peripheral nervous system and
the spinal cord.

 hy do eyes have eyelashes and eyelids?

1 W
What are they used for?
 e use our ears to hear. What other
2 W
function do our ears have?
3 What do we use contact lenses for?

dermis

nerve
blood
vessel

 ow are our senses of smell and taste

4 H
connected? What can happen if we have
acold?
5 What do sensors in our skin detect?

 hat healthy habits can protect our sense

6 W
organs?

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How we move

Our body moves in response to signals from the brain. These signals
travel through the nervous system to our muscles. These contract and
relax to allow us to move, hold objects, kick balls and make other
movements. The muscles are supported by the skeleton and joints. The
whole system is called the locomotor or musculoskeletal system.

The skeleton

skull
(cranium)

The skeleton is made up of bones.

There are three types of bones.
Short bones, such as the
vertebrae in the spine, provide
support and stability. Vertebrae
also protect the important
nerves which run through the
centre of the spine.
Flat bones, such as ribs and
the pelvis, protect the internal
organs.
Long bones shape limbs and
are used for movement.

Look at
the picture
of the skeleton.
Identify the
flexible joints.

clavicle
sternum

scapula

humerus
vertebral column
(spine)
radius
ulna
pelvis

Joints
Our bones are connected at the
joints by strong elastic tissue
called ligaments. The ends of
the bones at the joints are
covered in strong, flexible tissue
called cartilage. There are three
types of joints.
Fixed joints do not move.
The parts of the skull are
connected by fixed joints.
Semi-flexible joints, such as
the vertebrae in the spine, only
allow a small amount of
movement.

femur

patella
tibia

fibula

Most joints in the body are

flexible joints which are
important for movement.

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Muscles
Smooth muscles are found in organs such as
the intestines or stomach.

There are over 600 muscles in the human body.

These muscles are controlled by the nervous
system which makes the muscles contract and
relax. There are three types of muscles.

The cardiac muscle makes up our heart.

Skeletal muscles are voluntary muscles. We can
move them at will. Smooth muscles and the
cardiac muscle are involuntary muscles. They
work automatically and we cannot control them.

Skeletal muscles are joined to the bones by

tendons. They work in pairs. For example, when
the biceps contract, the triceps relax.
frontal muscle

trapezius
deltoid
pectoral muscle
biceps
abdominal muscles

dorsal muscle

triceps
gluteus

biceps femoris

quadriceps

calf muscles

1 What are the functions of the skeleton?

 hich bones protect the respiratory

2 W
system?

5 Which muscles do we use to:

a. eat our food

c. kick a ball

b. throw a ball

d. sit on a chair?

 hat is the difference between a ligament

3 W
and a tendon?

 hat happens to our muscles if we do not

6 W
do sufficient exercise? Why is it important
to keep fit?

 ive examples of different flexible joints.

4 G
Which joints do you think are most
flexible?

 hat should we do to keep our bones

7 W
healthy?

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Science project:

How does smell affect taste?

Aim
Discover how the senses of smell and taste are linked.

Hypothesis
I think that ...
I can taste food more when holding my nose, or
I can taste food less when holding my nose, or
I can taste food the same when holding my nose.

a blindfold
different foods (for
example, slices of fruit
and vegetables, sweets,
chocolate, flavoured
yogurts)
spoon (if needed)
water (if needed)
a partner

Method
1. Blindfold your partner.
2. Ask your partner to hold their nose closed. No cheating!
3. Offer some food to your partner one type at a time.
4. Ask your partner if they can identify the food.
5. Make a note of their answers.
6. Now ask your partner to let go of their nose, and repeat
the process with the same foods.
7. Swap roles with your partner and repeat the experiment.
Now compare your results. Are they the same?

Test
Did your partner identify the food correctly when holding
their nose?
Were the answers different the second time?

Conclusions
1 Which foods could be tasted when holding your nose?
2 Which foods had no taste when holding your nose?
3 How important is our sense of smell when we taste food?

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Fragile world:

Emotions and teenagers

Where are emotions located?

The mind is incredibly complex, but we cannot open up the
brain and see emotions, dreams and memory at work.
Psychologists study human behaviour to try to understand
how our minds work. However, we do know that the parts of
the brain involved with emotional responses and memory are
very active. This is the limbic system which is found below the
cerebrum on both sides of the brain.

Growing up
Adolescence is often a difficult time for humans. Teenagers can be
confrontational and rebellious; arguments between teenagers and
their parents or teachers are common. However, by early
adulthood, these tendencies almost completely disappear.
Scientists believe that adolescence is such a difficult period
because the emotional part of the brain develops much faster than
the cognitive part of the brain, the cerebrum, which keeps growing
into adulthood. Teenagers act impulsively and emotionally, but have
not developed the ability to think things through or consider the
consequences of their actions. On the other hand, teenagers are
usually very sensitive and empathetic. It is a period when people
often form strong bonds and friendships.

 hich part of the brain is mostly responsible for emotions

1 W
and feelings? Why do you think we have feelings?
2 What happens to the teenage brain? What are the results?

 hat functions does the brain have? How can we study

3 W
these different functions?
 hy do you think it is important for teenagers to rebel?
4 W
Why is this a transitory phase?
5 

With a partner, think of the physical and emotional

changes which occur during adolescence.

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Revise
Study skills
1 Classify the words in the box below.

brain cartilage cerebrum tissue joints ligaments neurons

cells biceps skull spinal cord tendons brain stem

nervous
system

locomotor
system

 ead the text below about Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (A). Then, read the text about Joseph
2 R
Lister on page 98 (B). In your notebook, decide whether the sentences below refer to
text A, B, or both.
Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi was born in Al Andalus in ad 936. He
spent his whole life working as a surgeon in Crdoba and is
considered to be the father of modern
surgery. His greatest legacy was an
encyclopaedia of medicine in
which he described over 300
illnesses and their treatments.
He also created an
illustrated guide, On
Surgery and Instruments,
which described surgical
procedures and contained
diagrams of specific
surgical tools. Some of his
techniques and tools are still
used today. He died inad 1013.

a. He wrote books about his

work.
b. He developed new
techniques.
c. He changed the way things
were done.
d. He was a pioneer in his
field.
e. He is still relevant today.
f. He used someone elses
ideas.
g. He became famous in his
lifetime.

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Review
1 In your notebook, label the parts of the
brain using the words in the box. There are
some extra words.

brain stemcerebellumcerebrum

4 Identify the odd one out.

a. cerebrum tissue

cerebellum

b. cornea

cochlea

pupil

c. clavicle trapezius deltoid

d. scapula fibula ligament

dermistendonspinal cord

e. gluteus

rib

f. femur

quadriceps retina

deltoid

 alk about the nervous system. Use the

5 T
diagram to help you.

central
the
nervous
system

peripheral

brain
spinal cord

nerves

2 How do we see? In your notebook, write the

6 Complete the summary on page 99.

sentences in the correct order.

a. Information travels along the optic nerve to
the brain.
b. The lens bends the light.
c. The light produces an image on the retina.
d. Light enters the eye through the cornea and
the pupil.
 opy the chart into your notebook and put
3 C
the words into the correct columns.
pelvisradiusbiceps
gluteusdeltoidtrapezius
ribpatellahumerustriceps
bones

muscles

.....

.....

Checklist
I can identify and describe
the main characteristics of
the function of interaction.
I understand how different parts
of the body interact.
I can identify the organs of senses,
thenervous system and the locomotor
system.
I can describe how the body moves.
I understand how emotions
and feelings form part
of the body.

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Reproduction

1 Read and discover.

Humans, like many living things, reproduce
by sexual reproduction. Reproductive cells
in male humans are called sperm while in
females they are called ova. When they
meet, they produce a zygote which
eventually becomes an embryo, which
turns into a foetus and then finally into a
baby! However, humans, like most animals,
have to reach sexual maturity before they can
reproduce. This happens in adolescence the
stage between childhood and being an adult.
What do we call this process?

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 hy do we need to reproduce? What would happen if we

2 W
did not? Can you think of any examples of animals that
did not reproduce enough?
3 Look at the photo above. What does it show?

 ow do we pass on genetic information? Why do you think

4 H
this is important?
5 In many animals, including humans, offspring
stay with their parents for some time.
Why does this happen?

 umans reproduce by sexual reproduction.

6 H
What is another type of reproduction?
7 In the past many children died
during infancy. Why do you think this was?
What has happened that has changed this?
Is this true of everywhere in the world?

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Analyse and organise

 ur lives have different stages which we pass through from

1 O
birth to death. Each stage has its own characteristics and marks
our passage through life. Copy the table in your notebook. Use
the words from the box to complete the life stages.
adolescent adult baby child elderly person toddler
stage

characteristics and approximate age

Stage 1: .....

cannot walk or talk (012 months)

Stage 2: .....

starts walking and talking (13 years)

Stage 3: .....

fully mobile, learning to function in society (313 years)

Stage 4: .....

becoming independent (1319 years)

Stage 5: .....

fully independent (1975 years)

Stage 6: .....

declining health, may be dependent on others (75+ years)

2 Which stage of life do you associate these photos with?

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 ead the text about the reduction in infant mortality rates,

R
then decide if the sentences below are true or false.
In the past, infant mortality rates (the number of children under
the age of one who died per 1000 births) was very high. A number
of major scientific developments reduced this rate to what it is
nowabout 4 per 1000 births in Spain. Firstly, understanding the
nature of diseases, how they spread through infected water or
materials, and the importance of hygiene was highly significant. Another reason for this
improvement was the development of vaccines for common childhood illnesses
such as whooping cough, polio and tuberculosis. The discovery of antibiotics and
their widespread use in the second half of the 20th century further helped combat
the spread of disease in babies and young children. Finally, the huge
improvements in hospital care and widely available health care reduced mortality
rates to their present all-time low level. While these advances are true for the
developed world, the infant mortality rate remains high in parts of Asia, South
and Central America, and in Africa, particularly Sub-Saharan Africa.

a. In the past many babies died.

b. Spain has a high infant mortality rate.
c. Humans have always understood how
diseases spread.
d. Vaccinations are an important tool in
combating childhood illnesses.

e. Antibiotics are dangerous for babies and

young children.
f. Medical care has improved.
g. Infant mortality rates are low all over the
world.

 hat steps can we take to lower infant mortality rates in

4 W
developing countries?
5 

What is an ultrasound scan? Listen and complete the

sentences in your notebook.
a. An ultrasound scan creates images of organs using .....
b. It is used in .....
c. Pregnant women usually have ..... ultrasound scans
during their pregnancy.
d. The first scan is called the ..... scan and takes places
when a woman is about ..... weeks pregnant.
e. The second scan takes place between ..... weeks and .....
weeks.

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The female reproductive system

What physical
changes do
girls experience
during
puberty?

Sexual characteristics
The physical differences between men and women are called sexual
characteristics.
Primary sexual characteristics are the differences between male and
female reproductive organs.
Secondary sexual characteristics are other physical differences
between men and women, for example women usually have wider
hips and men often have more body hair. These characteristics appear
during puberty.

The female reproductive organs

Most of the female reproductive organs are internal. They are located in
the lower abdomen.

Ovaries
The ovaries produce female
reproductive cells called ova.
One ovum matures each
month. Women are born with
all the ova they will need for the
rest of their life.

Uterus
The uterus is an organ with
muscular walls. During
pregnancy a fertilised cell
develops into a baby in the
uterus. The part of the uterus
that leads to the vagina is called
the cervix.

Fallopian tubes
The fallopian tubes connect
the ovaries to the uterus.

Vagina
The vagina is a muscular tube
which connects the uterus to
the outside of the body. The
vulva is on the outside of the
body and covers the opening to
the vagina.

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Puberty in girls
When girls approach sexual maturity, their bodies undergo a
series of changes. These changes happen during puberty,
usually when a girl is between 10 and 16 years old. The breasts
begin to develop and pubic
hair grows. They grow taller
and their body fills out;
glands in the skin and scalp
produce more oil which can
cause spots or acne. Armpit
hair begins to grow and
menstruation typically
starts between 10 and 15
years of age.

The menstrual cycle

Once a girl reaches puberty, the ovaries, in response to
hormones released by the brain, start to release ova.
An ovum is released from the ovaries into one of the
fallopian tubes about every 28 days. This process is
called ovulation. The walls of the uterus get thicker
with extra blood and tissue in preparation for
fertilisation. However, if fertilisation does not happen,
the ovum dries up and leaves the body through the
vagina about two weeks later. Blood, and the
thickened lining of the uterus comes away too, and
this is what women experience as menstruation.
Menstruation typically lasts from three to five days.
Women menstruate until they have no eggs left. This
usually happens when a woman is about 50. This
period is called the menopause.

1 What role does the brain play during puberty?

2 What secondary changes occur in girls during puberty?
3 Explain what happens to an ovum if it is not fertilised.
4 What happens when a woman has no ova left?

Link it up
What organs can you name?
Where are they located? What
functions do they perform? Look
at Units 1 and 2.

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The male reproductive system

What
What physical
physical
changes
changes
dodo
boys
boys
experience
experience during
during
puberty?
puberty?

Sperm
The male reproductive system
produces and transports sperm
cells. A sperm cell has an oval
shape and a tail. The tail allows
it to move up the females
fallopian tubes and fertilise the
ovum. Men produce millions of
sperm every day.

The male reproductive organs

Most male reproductive organs are external and are
located on the outside of the body.
The testicles produce and store sperm. The
testicles are located in a bag of skin called the
scrotum. The scrotum regulates the temperature
of the testicles. They need to be a bit cooler than
the rest of the body in order to produce sperm.
S
 perm travels through two tubes called the vasa
deferentia to the seminal vesicles. The seminal
vesicles produce a liquid that forms part of semen.

The prostate produces a liquid that also forms part

of semen. Semen carries the sperm and gives it
nutrients.
The penis contains the urethra. The sperm travels
through the urethra to the outside of the body. The
urethra also expels urine.

seminal vesicle

vas deferens

prostate

scrotum

penis

urethra

testicle

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Puberty in boys
When boys reach puberty, the brain
secretes hormones which activate the
testicles to produce testosterone. This
hormone brings about many physical
changes. Firstly, the testicles enlarge and
the scrotum becomes larger and coarser.
The penis grows longer and thicker, and
boys become fertile. Sperm mixes with
seminal fluid to form semen which is
ejaculated from the penis. Secondly, pubic
hair begins to grow, and boys become
taller and heavier. The voice deepens, and
hair starts to grow under the arms and on
the face. The skin becomes coarser and can be oily or develop acne.
Boys may also ejaculate spontaneously in their sleep.

Genes
Human beings pass on
some characteristics
to their offspring
through genes.
Humans have about
24000 genes. Parents
pass onto their
children
characteristics such as
eye and hair colour.

Link it up
Which part of the eye gives it its
colour?
Look at Unit 1.

 hich part of the body secretes

1 W
testosterone? What does testosterone do?

 hat two functions does the penis

4 W
have?

 hat changes do boys experience during

2 W
puberty?

 rite the words in the correct order from

5 W
the production of sperm to ejaculation.

 ow are male and female sex cells

3 H
different?

urethraseminal vesiclesprostate

vasa deferentiatesticles

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Pregnancy and birth

How long
does
pregnancy
last?

Human reproduction involves two different sex cells: a female ovum and
a male sperm. Each cell carries different genetic information which is
why children are unique; they have genetic code from both parents. Male
and female reproductive systems are different: the males is designed to
produce and deliver sperm, while the females is designed to produce ova,
as well as housing, nourishing and protecting a developing foetus.

1. Fertilisation

2. Development of the embryo

Fertilisation of the ovum can occur after the egg

is released into the fallopian tubes. During
sexual intercourse the mans penis is inserted
into the womans vagina, and the sperm are
deposited there. Then, using their tails they swim
up the vagina to the ovum in the fallopian tube.
Only one sperm can fertilise an ovum. Once the
ovum is fertilised, the cells will start to divide
and multiply. This ball of cells is called a zygote.

After fertilisation, the zygote travels to the uterus

where its cells carry on dividing and multiplying
until they become an embryo. The embryo fixes
itself onto the lining of the uterus where it will
continue to grow. At eight weeks, the embryo is
about the size of an adults thumb.

fertilisation

sperm

zygote

ovum
embryo

zygote

foetus

zygote

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3. Development of the foetus

4. Birth

After about nine weeks, all the organs have

formed and the embryo develops into a
foetus. The foetus floats in a sac of amniotic
fluid which protects it from knocks and
bumps. The foetus receives oxygen and
nourishment from the mothers placenta.
Waste matter and carbon dioxide are
transferred from the foetus to the mother via
the placenta. The baby is connected to the
placenta by the umbilical cord.

Pregnancy lasts about 280 days. When the foetus

is ready to be born, it pushes against the cervix,
which starts to open and widen. Amniotic fluid is
released which is often the first sign that birth is
about to start. The muscles of the uterus begin to
contract and the cervix opens sufficiently to allow
the foetus, now a baby, to pass. The baby is pushed
through the cervix and along the birth canal.
Babies are usually born head first. The umbilical
cord comes out with the baby. This is cut and tied,
and forms our navel or belly button. The placenta
or afterbirth comes out after the baby.

3 months

5 months

 hich of the following is not used in

1 W
fertilisation?
penisovumplacenta
ovariesvaginasperm

 ow many sperm are needed for

2 H
fertilisation to occur?
3 Put the stages in the correct order.

babyembryofoetuszygote

7 months

9 months

 hat protects the foetus during

4 W
pregnancy?
 hat precautions should mothers take
5 W
during pregnancy?
 ow does the foetus receive oxygen and
6 H
nutrients during pregnancy?
7 In which position should a foetus be for
birth? What might happen if this is not
the case?

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Science project:

Life expectancy

Aims
Find out about life expectancy around the world.
Draw a graph representing the differences between different
countries.

Hypothesis
I think life expectancy in developing countries is
lower than in developed countries, or

paper
a pencil
a pen
a ruler
a computer
Internet access
felt-tips

higher than in developed countries.

Method
1. Use the Internet to search for information on life expectancy
at birth. Collect data for life expectancy from ten countries from
different continents. Collect data for both men and women.
2. In groups, prepare your data and draw a graph representing life
expectancy in the countries you have chosen. Use different colours
to represent life expectancy for men and for women.
3. Compare your results with other groups.

Test
Which countries have the highest life expectancy?
Which countries have the lowest life expectancy?

Conclusions
 o developing or developed countries have
1 D
a higher life expectancy? Why do you think
this is?
 ho tend to live longer: men or women?
2 W
Why do you think this is?
 ind out about life expectancy in Spain.
3 F
What is the life expectancy for men and
women in Spain?
 ow has life expectancy in Spain changed
4 H
over the last few decades?

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Fragile world:

Gender equality

A basic right
Gender equality is an important part of the United Nations Universal
Declaration of Human Rights. According to this, men and women
should be treated equally; and no one should be discriminated against
on the basis of their gender. Several laws have been passed to
guarantee this, particularly in developed countries. This has led to
many changes over the past 50 years. For example, these days, women
can vote, they can inherit property, they have the right to be paid
as much as men for doing the same work, and they can participate
in government. Women can also expect to have paid time off
when they have a baby (maternity leave). Changes have affected
men too. These days, they are expected to play a part in
housekeeping, and take more responsibility for parenting. Many
men now take paternity leave so they can help look after their
children. Also, more and more men are doing jobs that were
traditionally carried out by women, such as nursing and cleaning.

A long way to go
In spite of all the laws, there is still a lot of discrimination based on
gender. This is particularly the case in developing countries. So, why
is this the case? Several issues can lead to women being treated as
second-class citizens. These include poverty, religion and a lack of
education. Violence against women is also a problem, even in
developed countries. In general, women are much more likely to
suffer violence than men.

1 Why is it important to legislate for equality?

2 Why do developing countries have less gender equality?

 hink of some examples of jobs which women do today

3 T
which they didnt do in the past.
4 Why do mothers need to take maternity leave?
5 

What can be done about domestic violence?

Think of some ideas with a partner.

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Revise
Study skills
1 In your notebook, copy the table and classify the words.

prostate
semen
vagina
uterus
fallopian
vasa
prostate gland sperm vagina uterus fallopian vasa
seminal

urethra
urethra

ovaries

ovaries seminal

reproduction
female reproductive system
.....

ova

male reproductive system

.....

testicles

..... tubes

..... deferentia

.....

..... vesicles

cervix

.....

.....

penis

vulva

.....

 ead the text below about identical twins (A). Then, read the text about fraternal twins on
2 R
page 98 (B). In your notebook, decide whether the sentences below refer to text A, B, or both.
Identical twins, siblings who look the same, occur when an
ovum is fertilised, and subsequently the zygote splits into two.
It then goes on to form two embryos. These embryos share
identical genetic material, so the babies
look the same. The chance of
conceiving identical twins
naturally is the same all around
the world: about 3 per 1000
births. However, zygotes are
often split as part of in-vitro
fertilisation treatment to
ensure success in pregnancy.
Splitting a zygote can also
result in conjoined twins.
This is when the embryos are
not completely separate, but
may share limbs or organs.

a. They develop from one

zygote.
b. They have the same genes.
c. They can be of different
genders.
d. Any woman can conceive
this type of twin.
e. They are more common in
some parts of the world.
f. Older mothers are more likely
to have this type of twin.
g. They can be created
artificially.
h. Sometimes the twins can
be connected physically.

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Review
1 In your notebook, complete the diagram
with the sexual characteristics.

a. The breasts develop.

 hat happens during pregnancy? In your

6 W
notebook, put the stages in order.
a

b. The voice deepens.

c. Facial hair grows.

d. The skin can develop acne.

e. Menstruation begins.
f. The skin gets oily.
g. Hair grows under the arms.

boys

girls

 alk about human reproduction. Use the

7 T
diagram and the pictures from Activity 6 to
help you.
fertilisation (ovum and sperm)
zygote
reproduction

 hat happens during the menstrual cycle?

2 W
Put the sentences in the correct order.

embryo
foetus
birth

a. The lining of the uterus thickens.

b. Blood and the lining of the uterus leave the body.
c. The ovum leaves the body.

8 Complete the summary on page 99.

d. An ovum is released by the ovaries.

 hat is the difference between identical
3 W
and fraternal twins? Explain the difference
to a partner.
4 In your notebook, put the stages of life in
order.

a. toddler

d. adult

b. adolescent

e. baby

c. elderly person
 hat measures can we take to ensure
5 W
gender equality? What changes could we
make in our own lives?

Checklist
I can identify and describe the
characteristics of human
reproduction.
I can identify and describe the different
characteristics of male and female
reproductive organs.
I can describe the process of fertilisation,
pregnancy and birth.
I can identify different factors
which have improved health
and life expectancy.

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