Mody and Marchildon: Chemical Engineering Process Design

Chapter 11 BULK TRANSPORT AND STORAGE P:/CEPDtxt/CEPDtxtCh11

STORAGE
11.1. Choose The Phase Of The Material To Be Stored:
The phase (liquid, gas, solid) of the material to be stored is usually dictated by the form it
takes at ambient pressures and temperatures; in some cases it may make economical
sense to convert the material to another state for storage. For instance, in the case where
large quantities of gases are to be stored (greater than about 1500 std cu M), liquefaction
of the gas may become economical. Liquefaction of gases (in cryogenic storage) often
involves allowing a portion of the liquid to boil off to maintain temperature and pressure
in the tank. Thus, losses from this type of storage system can make the system
environmentally or economically less desirable.
Other phases such as absorption onto solids, dissolving into a liquid, or conversion to
solids via chemical reaction may be considered.
11.2. Choose The Volume Of Storage Required:
Large use plants may utilize pipelines with minimal or no storage to supply the process.
Railcars may be temporarily used to store chemicals, thus reducing or eliminating onsite
storage. Hazardous chemicals may be enough of a safety liability that minimal storage is
preferred or possibly on-site or in-situ production of the material can be used. Extremely
hazardous chemicals may require a secondary deinventory storage tank in the event a
problem develops in the primary storage system. However, for average materials the
following guidelines may be used to determine storage requirements.
Raw Material Storage is provided to ensure the plant never (or rarely) shuts down
because the raw materials are unavailable. Thus, the reliability of the supply system must
be examined. Baasel (ref 1) presents the following guidelines:
Amount of feedstock that should be kept onsite= (date delivered date ordered )* feed
rate
Storage Size = Max amount that COULD be present when delivery arrives + Amount
Ordered

Example:
A plant requires 20,000 lb of feedstock per day. The supplier will guarantee shipping the
order in 15 days of order receipt. The time to ship the material is anywhere between 2
and 5 days. The mode of transport is 36,000 gal jumbo rail cars. The specific gravity of
the material is 0.85.
Solution:
Examine the two possibilities (no delays and maximum delay)
Maximum Delay:
Our plant takes 3 days to process our order (over a long weekend)
The supplier ships 15 days after receipt of the order
The shipping takes 5 days to travel to site
Thus the amount of feed stock that should be on site when the order is placed should be:
(3 days + 15 days + 5 days ) * 20,000 lb/day = 460,000 lb
No delays:
A jumbo rail car (36,000 gal) could arrive in 2 days
If the railcar arrives in 2 days, when we had 460,000 lb of material onsite at the time of
order then the amount of storage we need on site is:
460,000 lb 2 days transit * 20,000 lb/day + 36,000 gal (0.85 * 62.4 lb/ft3 / 7.48 gal/ft3)
= 676,000 lb of storage (34 days)
The logistics of when a second railcar must be ordered is left to the reader.

11.3. Choosing A Design Pressure

In the situation where a liquid is to be stored, there are two ways to approach the choice
of design pressure: first by determining the maximum expected pressure in the tank due
to fluid thermal cycling which minimizes looses, or secondly by arbitrarily choosing a
design pressure for a standard tank and then dealing with the loses in some other way.
The normal day to night thermal cycling of a tank causes the pressure in the tank to rise
and fall. If the tank were open to atmosphere, the increased pressure is dissipated by the
gases (rich with the fluid being stored) in the tank escaping. As the tank cools, the
pressure drops and air is drawn in to maintain atmospheric pressure. In a freely vented
tank, the factors that affect how much gas is expelled through the vent are: 1) the change
in the temperature in the vapour space, 2) the change in the vapour pressure of the fluid
(thus the change in the stored fluid temperature, which is likely different than the vapour
space temperature), and 3) the change in liquid level due to the change in the stored fluid
temperature/density. A tank can be provided with a pressure and vacuum vent system
(often called a conservation vent). If the designer chooses a large enough difference
between the pressure and vacuum set pressure, all thermal cycling losses can be
eliminated.
By selecting an initial pressure to begin with (typically a small value consistent with the
low vacuum capabilities of a storage tank), you can use these factors to determine the
maximum expected operating pressure. If a design pressure in excess of the max
operating pressure is used, you will have eliminated losses due to thermal cycling.

11.4. Selecting A Tank Type

The choice of tank depends partly on the required design pressure and partly on the
amount of material to be stored.
The reader is cautioned that there is sometimes confusion in stating whether a container is
x volume as determined by its dimensions or by volume as determined by the amount of
fluid (ie. gas at high pressure) that can be stored in the container. For instance, a
container 2 ft in diameter and 20 ft long has a dimensional volume of about 1.8 cu M, but
can store 300 std. cu M of gas when filled to a pressure of 2450 psig. In the table below,
the dimensional volume is used to state the capacity of the containers.
Gases, due to their low density, tend to be stored under pressure to minimize the cost of
the container.

11.5. Gas Storage

Comparison of Tanks for Storage of Gases
Situation
Typical
Possible
Occurrence
Equipment
Gas Storage

Selection
Criteria &
Alternatives

Small
For low
quantities (0 to pressure Tank
1000 cu M)
or drums can
be used.

High Pressure
Bottles
Bullet Tanks

ASME VIII
vessels can be
designed and
fabricated by
approved
pressure vessel
shops
Generally
ASME Section
VIII vessels
are used.
Choice of
container size
depends on
consumption
rates. Section
VIII Code
allows design
pressures up to
3000 psig and
for vessels
above 10,000
psig.

Up to 35000
cu Meters

ASME
Spheres /
Spheroids

Mid to large
storage

Consider
liquefied

Suppliers

Spheroids are
typically for
30 psig or less.
Spheres
(typically
between 32 to
120 ft dia)
have typical
design
pressure up to
about 200 psig

For integrated
supply of gases
and storage (i.e.
by tube trailer)Air Liquide, Air
Products,
Praxair, etc.

Chicago Bridge
and Iron Works
www.cbiepc.com

Situation

Typical
Occurrence

Possible
Equipment

capacities
Very Large
Quantities

storage.
Caverns

For very high

consumption
rates or gases
with
hazardous
properties

Conversion to
other
compounds or
states
Consider onsite generation

Selection
Criteria &
Alternatives

Suppliers

Caverns may
be economical
in situations
where natural
geography
allows. Refer
to Gas
Processors
Suppliers
Association
Engineering
Data Book

Select on-site
generation by
economic
analysis
Select on-site
generation
when process
hazards
analysis
indicates risk
is too great.

11.6. Liquid Storage:

The combination of tank operating pressures (as dictated by the vapour pressure of
the fluid) and required storage volume drives the selection process.

Vapour
Pressure

ASME VIII
Vessels
Spheres
ULC

Floating
Roof API
API
Tanks

Caverns /
Undergroun
d
Size

Comparison of Tanks for Storage of Liquids

Situation Typical
Possible
Selection Criteria & Alternatives
Occurrence Equipment
Liquid
Long-term -ULC tanks
Determine the tank volume requirements first.
Storage storage (in
excess of 1 -API type tanks Determine type of tank based on fluid vapour pressure or
day), Tank (cone roof),
tank working pressure.
Farms, or
storage
-Floating roof
external to tanks,
Fluid vapour pressures less than atmospheric
the process
unit.
-Spheres
ULC Storage Tanks

Suppliers

ULC:
http://www.g.t.machineandfab.com/

-Underground
Storage

Typically
found in
gas
station
type applications these tanks can be provided with double
wall construction thus eliminating the need for dikes.
Cone Roof Tanks (API)

Situation Typical
Possible
Occurrence Equipment

Selection Criteria & Alternatives

Suppliers

are used with fluids that have very low vapour pressures
(usually less than 1.5 psia) and have air in the head
space . Tank designs are generally for working pressures
< 2.5 inches water gauge (0.09 psi) positive pressure and
0.5 oz/in2 (0.86 in H20 , 0.03 psi) vacuum, but can be
designed for pressures up to about 15 psig for smaller
tanks.
The US EPA organization requires that a vapour recovery
system be provided when storing more than 40,000 us gal
of a fluid that has a vapour pressure in excess of 1.5 psia
when stored in a cone roof tank. For fluids with vapour
pressures between 1.5 and 11.1 psia a floating roof tank
can be used without a vapour recovery system.
Designs are according to API 650 or 620. See table
below for a selection of different sizes.

Situation Typical
Possible
Occurrence Equipment

Selection Criteria & Alternatives

Suppliers

Floating Roof Tanks

have no headspace, the roof of the tank floats on top of

the liquid and rises and falls as the liquid level changes.
The lack of headspace ensures there are no breathing
losses from the tank. A seal (of which there are a variety
of different types) ensures neglible evaporation of the
liquid even with fluids that have close to atmospheric
boiling points. This type of tank design is required in the
US (as stated by EPA stds) for fluids with vapour
pressures greater than 1.5 psia and less than 11.1 psia.
Designs are according to API 650 or API 620.

Situation Typical
Possible
Occurrence Equipment

Selection Criteria & Alternatives

Suppliers

http://www.superiortank.com/

Variations on the standard floating head tank include a

hybrid cone/floating roof that ensures rain and snow are
kept away from the tank contents. Consideration to
venting this secondary headspace may be required to
eliminate flammability issues.
Bolted Tanks
Suitable for fluids with low vapour pressures bolted tanks
are transported in segments and bolted together at site.
Tanks can be erected by hand and easily transported later.

10

Situation Typical
Possible
Occurrence Equipment

Selection Criteria & Alternatives

Suppliers

Spheres: Chicago Bridge and Iron

Company (www.cbiepc.com)

11

Situation Typical
Possible
Occurrence Equipment

Selection Criteria & Alternatives

Suppliers

Fluid vapour pressures greater than atmospheric

Spheres and Spheroids

for operating pressures from 15 psig, but up to 250 psig

are technically possible.
Designs are generally to ASME Section VIII Div 1
Drums (a.ka. Bullet Tanks)
Cylindrical with torispherical heads these thanks are
suitable for high pressure applications. Standars for
pressures up to 3000 psig are covered by ASME Section
VIII Div 1. Asme Section VIII, Div 3 covers designs for
tanks greater than 10,000 psig.
Underground storage
is particularly useful for high vapour pressure fluids and
large volumes of liquid. No formal standards for design
exit, refer to GPSA handbook for further information.

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Situation Typical
Possible
Occurrence Equipment

In plant
day
storage.
Waste
Storage

Selection Criteria & Alternatives

Suppliers

3.1.1. Alternatives
Consider cooling the liquid to reduce vapour pressure and
utilize a less expensive tank tank.
See above selection, but typically a horizontal or vertical
drum (Bullet tank) is used.

Generally
smaller tanks,
where costs are
less sensitive to
the tank design
Lined Ponds
Used for the disposal and evaporation of fluids

13

The API standard has listed some typical tank sizes.

Tank
Diameter
ft
m
15
4.6
20
6.1
25
7.6
25
7.6
30
9.1
35
10.7
45
13.7
70
21.3
100
30.5
120
36.6
200
61.0

A Selection of Typical API Field Constructed Tanks

Tank
Approx Capacity
Height
L/D
Total Volume
gal/ft
m3/m
ft
m
US Gal
US Barrels
1320
16.4
18
5.5
1.2
23800
567
2350
29.2
18
5.5
0.9
42300
1007
3670
45.6
18
5.5
0.7
66100
1574
3670
45.6
24
7.3
1.0
88100
2098
5290
65.7
24
7.3
0.8
127000
3024
7190
89.3
30
9.1
0.9
216000
5143
11900
147.8
36 11.0
0.8
428000
10190
28800
357.6
54 16.5
0.8
1550000
36905
58700
728.8
36 11.0
0.4
2110000
50238
84500
1,049.2
30
9.1
0.3
2540000
60476
190000
2,359.1
18
5.5
0.1
4230000
100714

cu M
90
160
250
333
481
818
1620
5867
7987
9615
16012

11.7. Solids Storage

Solid storage is typically done either by piling on the ground (possibly inside a
building i.e. in the case of hydroscopic materials), or in bins or silos.
Baasel suggests:
1. Its cheapest to build bins with a cylindrical cross section.
2. Provide one large bin wherever possible rather than multiple small bins to save on
supports, materials, fabrication costs and conveyors
3. Bins larger in diameter than 11 ft 6 in are difficult to transport by road and should
thus be avoided if possible. A practical length is about 30 ft.
4. Coarse, uniform-particle size materials flow easily (i.e. plastic pellets). Fine,
relatively uniform materials are almost fluid (i.e. kitchen starch). The greater the
distribution of particle sizes in a mixture, the greater the tendency to compact and
to resist flow.
5. To ensure materials freely flow out the bottom of a bin (to avoid bridging), make
the bottom an eccentric cone with one straight vertical side.
This Authors experience:
6. The cone angle should always be the greater of the angle of slide, or the angle
of repose.
Angle of Slide This is determined by a simple test whereby the material is place on
flat plate made from the materials and same finish the bin is to be constructed from.
The plate is tipped up, and the point at which the material begins to slide is noted.
Angle of Repose - The angle of the pile when material is poured onto a flat surface.
7. For materials that may be hydroscopic, sticky, or fuses together (i.e. ice), seek
advice from experts such as Jennike and Johanson (http://www.jenike.com) or
Jerry Johanson (http://www.jrjohanson.com).
References (section 3.1)
1. Baasel, William D Preliminary Chemical Engineering Plant Design Elsevier North
Holland, 1980, ISBN 0-444-00152-2.
2. Amrouche, Dave, Gursahani, Lee and Montemayor; General Rules for Aboveground
Storage Tank Design and Operation; Chem Eng Progress (Dec. 2002) pp 54-58.
3. Gas Processors Supplies Association; Engineering Data Book; 11th Edition
(http://www.gasprocessors.com/); Vol 1 pp 6-1 to 6-26.
4. Steve E Sizing up the Storage Bin Chemical Engineering (July 2000) pp 84 88.

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BULK SHIPPING
The ideal transportation method for materials and chemicals is dependant upon:
- the volume of material to be used on a weekly or monthly basis
- the pressure required (for gases)
- the state of the material to be used (i.e. if liquid nitrogen is required for freezing,
then vapour delivery is of little use)
- Proximity to existing pipelines, proximity to rail, water or roads and suppliers of
the material.
The common bulk shipping methods for Gases, Liquids and Solids are:
11.8. Cylinder
o Usually transported by truck, cylinders provide a convenient method of
moving small volumes of gases (up to 10 m3 per cylinder).
o Where slightly larger volumes of gases are required, liquefied gas
transported in dewars (insulated vessels) is utilized (nitrogen liquid has 4x
the density of nitrogen gas at 2450 psig, hydrogen a factor of 5x ).
11.9 Container
o Although not a mode of shipment, containers may be shipped by road,
rail or water.
o There are a series of standardized sizes for containers, but all containers
are 8 ft wide. The most widely used containers are the general purpose
(dry cargo) containers having a nominal length and height of 20' x 8.5', 40'
x 8.5', and 40' x 9.5'.
o The capacity of a 20' dry cargo container is 24,000 kg (52,900 lbs.), and a
40' is 30,480 kg (67,200 lbs.). The containers themselves weigh 2400 kg
and 3900 kg respectively.
o Containers are available for carrying bulk gases, liquids, bulk solids, and
refrigerated products.
11.10. Truck
o Generally, a transit distance within 1,000 kilometers using road freight is
competitive compared to rail and air freight.
o Maximum weight allowable on Canadian roads is a complex calculation
based upon tire widths, axel distances, number of tires, and time of year.
However the weight is generally in the 18,000 to 34,000 kg range.
o Bulk Gases delivered by tank truck (usually hydrogen or helium) are
utilized when consumption rates are 25,000 to 150,000 std ft3 / month.
o Liquefied gases may be transported where higher volumes of gas must be
handled (usage rates 30,000 to several million std ft3 / month).

17

11.11. Rail
o Rail Cars are typically 40 to 89 ft long and each car is limited to a weight
of 120 metric tons (typical range 60 to 120 metric tons). When handling
containers, a typical 50 car train can haul 3 million kg.
o Hopper cars have typical volume capacities of 4750 to 5150 cu ft.
o General information about rail transportation can be found at the CN
website at http://www.cn.ca/en_index.shtml.
o The guidelines for transportation of dangerous goods can be found at the
transport Canada web site http://www.tc.gc.ca/tdg/menu.htm.
o Rail Cars can be insulated (for liquefied gases) and they may have
pressure ratings for pressurized gases.
11.12. Ship
o Suitable where easy access to water is available
o Suitable for large volumes and especially heavy cargo
o Economical for large distances
o Ships commonly utilize containers (approximately 100 million, 20 ft long
containers, are handled by the worlds ports every year)
Containers are available for carrying bulk gases, liquids, and bulk
solids
o Ships are generally limited to 900 ft in length and 105 ft in width (to fit the
panama canal).
o Essentially there are no weight restrictions. Size restrictions apply to
shipments using containers (see section below) however, recently built
double walled tankers (Conoco) have a capacity of 727,100 barrels (about
98 million kg).
11.13. Pipeline
o Commonly used method of delivering fluids and gases (i.e. tap water or
natural gas to houses).
o Provides the lowest cost per lb transportation charge for large capacities
o Where an existing pipeline infrastructure is nearby, economic and inherent
safety (minimal site inventory) advantages exist.
o Pipelines exist for water, natural gas, oil, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen (the
later three in the gulf coast area).
o For instance, natural gas pipelines send gas to central Canada at a rate of
2,362 million std. cu ft of gas per day.
o Steam distribution from central heating centers is less common today due
to the use of natural gas instead, but can be economical in certain
situations.
o Liquid pipelines are designed with velocities up to 10 ft/sec and maximum
pressures to 1000 psig. Gas pipelines have higher velocities.

18

11.14. Conveyor Belt

o Conveyor belts are typically used in mining applications where large
masses of material must be transported over reasonable distances.
o Conveying Distances of 8 to 20 km have been commercially proven.
o Example : 750 metric tons / hr over 6 km distances, energy use = 0.4 kW/
metric ton / hr (0.68 BTU/lb), at a electrical cost (0.07 $/kW hr) of about
3.1E-5 $/kg of material.
o See http://www.conveyor-dynamics.com/
11.15. Air
o Air freighters like the Boeing 747-400F can carry loads weighing up to
110.67 metric tons. It can carry 30 standard air containers (dimension 96"
x 125" x 118") and 32 smaller Type 8 containers (lower deck container,
dimension is 60.4" x 61.5" x 64").
o Generally, air freight is perceived as being expensive as compared to other
forms of transportation.
11.16. On-site Generation
Although not really a mode of transport this is commonly grouped with transportation
methods for comparison purposes.
o On site generation of standard gases (nitrogen, oxygen ) can provide for
significantly larger consumption rates.: oxygen plants of 100 to 135,000
std ft3/hr (72,000 to 100 million std ft3 /month) and typical nitrogen plant
sizes are 5000 to 160,000 std ft3/hr.
A comparison of transportation methods by capacity

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