Pure Mathematics (Sixth Form) Vol.2

CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY
PRESS
CI
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a
F.
GERRISH
PURE MATHEMATICS
AN
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VOLUME
II
ALGEBRA
TRIGONOMETRY
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COORDINATE GEOMETRY
This two-volume text-book on Pure Mathematics has been designed to cover the whole of
the mathematics required for Part
London
B.Sc. General
of the
Degree and for any
first-
year degree courses containing subsidiary pure
mathematics.
the only book of
is
It
addressed
primarily
student.
also covers
It
matics required
Diploma
the
to
its
kind
General Degree
most of the Pure Mathe-
by the recently introduced
Mathematics of the Mathematical
in
Association.
This book does not assume a complete mastery

of earlier work, and
much
of
it
school
pupils
preparing
for
suitable for
is
the pure mathematics required
by grammar
scholarships
in
Natural Sciences, as well as for the mathematics
However, though
specialists.
aimed to supply a
students at these
Mr
Gerrish has
need of examination
real
levels,
he has treated his
subject in a serious fashion and this book
cram book
sense a
goes a
little
for examinations.
is in
no
Thus he
beyond the requirements of the
examination syllabus.
By a
natural division the subject-matter
conveniently into
two volumes which,
falls
despite
occasional cross-references, can be used inde-
pendently as separate text-books:

I.
Calculus and diiVerential equations, with appli-
cations
to
topics such as areas,
centres of gravity,
moments of
arc-lengths,
inertia,
and
geometry of plane curves.

II.
Algebra and convergence, trigonometry and
coordinate geometry of
sions, in
when
two and fhree dimen-
which calculus methods are
illustrated
instructive.
Finally
the
book contains
many
sets
of
exercises for the reader', often with hints for

solution.
Each chapter includes a Miscellaneous
Exercise for revision purposes.
Answers are
iho provided.
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-0 4^
8EDGLEY PARK COLLEGE,

PRE8TWIGH.
MANGHE8TER.
PURE MATHEMATICS
VOLUME
II
Uniform with
VOLUME
I:
this
Volume
CALCULUS
PURE
MATHEMATICS
A UNIVERSITY AND
COLLEGE COURSE
BY
F.
GERRISH,
M.A.
VOLUME II
ALGEBRA, TRIGONOMETRY
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
CAMBRIDGE
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
1960
PUBLISHED BY
THE SYNDICS OF THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Bentley House, 200 Euston Road, London, N.W, 1
American Branch: 32 East 57th Street, New York 22, N.Y.
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

1 <><><>
Printed in Great Britain at the University Press, Cambridge

{Brooke Crutchley, University Printer)
CONTENTS
General Preface
p a g e xy ji
Preface to Volume
II
xi x
References and Abbreviations
xxi
Chapter
363
10.1
10. Algebra of Polynomials

The remainder theorem and some consequences
10.11
363
Long
division; identities, p. 363. 10.12 The remainder

theorem, p. 364. 10.13 Factorisation of a polynomial;
'equating coefficients
10.2
',
p.
366
Exercise 10(a)
ggg
Polynomials in more than one variable
370
10.21 Extension of the preceding results, p. 370,

10.22 Symmetric, skew and cyclic functions, p. 371
Exercise 10(6)
10.3
373
Polynomial equations relations between roots and

:
coefficients
374
summary, p. 374. 10.32 Theory of enbic
10.33 Quartic equations, p. 377
10.31 Quadratics: a
equations, p. 375.
10.4
Exercise 10(c)
37 g
Elimination
378
10.42 Common root of
p. 378,
10.43 Repeated roots, p. 381
10,41 Further examples,
equations, p. 380.
10.5
two
Exercise 10 (d)
382
The
382
10.51
h.c.f, of
The
theorom,
two polynomials
h.c.f. process, p. 382.
p. 385.
10.53
10.52
An important algebraic
Theory of partial
fractions, p. 386
Exercise 10(e)
388
Miscellaneous Exercise 10(f)
388
Chapter 11. Determinants and Systems of

Linear Equations
11.1
Linear simultaneous equations
Two
equations in two unknowns, p. 391. 11.12 Three

equations in three unknowns, p. 392, 11.13 Structure of the
solutions, p. 392
11.11
391
391
CONTENTS
VI
11.2
page 393
Determinants
11.21 Determinants of order 2, p. 393. 11.22 Determinants of

order 3, p. 394. 11.23 Other expansions of a third-order
determinant, p. 395. 11.24 Properties of A, p. 396.
11.25 Examples, p. 397
11.3
11.4
Exercise 11(a)
399
Minors and cofactors
401
11.31 Definitions
and
alien cofactors, p.
403
notation, p. 401.
11.32 Expansion by-
Determinants and linear simultaneous equations

The
404
when A = 0:
11.43 Homogeneous
case
11.41 Cramer's rule, p. 404. 11.42

inconsistency and indeterminacy, p. 406,
linear equations; solution in ratios, p. 407
Exercise 11(6)
410
Factorisation of determinants
411
Exercise 11(c)
413
11.6
Derivative of a determinant
413
11.7
Determinants of order 4
414
Exercise 11 {d)
415
11.5
Miscellaneous Exercise
Chapter
12.1
12.
416
1 1 (e)
Series
419
419
The binomial theorem

12.12 Properties of the binomial expansion, p. 420.
12.2
Exercise 12(a)
422
Finite series
422
12.21 Notation
for
summing
binomial
and
12.22 General methods

12.23 Series involving
12.24 Powers of integers, p. 426.
definitions, p. 422.
finite series, p. 423.
coefficients, p. 424.
12.26 'Fraction' series, p. 429.

trigonometric series, p. 431. 12.28 Mathematical
12,25 'Factor' series, p. 428.
12.27
Some
Induction, p. 433
12.3
Exercise 12(5)
425
Exercise 12 (s)
432
Exercise 12(d)
435
Infinite series
436
12.31 Behaviour of
properties, p. 43*J
an
infinite series, p. 436,
12.32 General
CONTENTS
12.4
vii
Series of positive terms
page 43^
Comparison tests, p. 439. 12.42 d'AIcmbert's ratio

1243 Speed of convergence of a aeries, p. 446.
12.44 Infinite aeries and infinite integrate, p, 447
12,41
test,
p. 443.
12.5
Exercise 12(e)
442
Exercise 12(f)
446
Exercise 12(g)
450
Series of positive
and negative terms
451
12.51 Alternating signs (theorem of Leibniz), p. 451,

12.52 Absolute convergence, p. 452, 12.53 The modified ratio
test, p. 456.
12.54 Rogroirping and rearrangement of terms of
an
12.6
infinite series, p.
457
Exercise 12(A)
459
Maclaurin's series
460
Expansion of a function as a power series, p. 460.

12.62 Expansion of c x sinx, cosx, log(l +x), (1 +x) m , tan -1 a?,
12.63 Note on formal expansions, p. 464
p. 461.
12.61
Exercise 12
12.7
465
(i)
Applications of the series in 12,62
466
12.71 Binomial series, p. 466. 12,72 Exponential series, p. 470.

12.73 Logarithmic series, p. 472. 12.74 Gregory's series and
the calculation of n, p, 476
12.8
Exercise 12(j)
468
Exercise 12(A)
472
Exercise 12(1)
475
Scries
and approximations
476
12.81 Estimation of the error in s = s nt p. 476. 12,82 Formal

approximations, p. 479. 12.83 Calculation of certain limits,
p. 480
Exercise 12 (m)
Miscellaneous Exercise 12
481
(w)
482
Chapter
13. Complex Algebra and General

Theokt of Equations
13.1
Complex numbers
Extension of the real number system; ^/( 1), p. 486.
13.12 Tiv&b stage: formal development, p. 487,
13.13 Second stage: geometrical representation, p. 488,
13.11
486
4S6
CONTENTS
viii
13.14 Third stage: logical development, p. 489.

13.15 Importance of complex algebra, p. 492. 13.16 Further
possible generalisations of 'number', p. 493
page 493
Exercise 13 (a)
13.2
The modulus-argument form of a complex number

13.21 Modulus and argument, p. 494. 13.22 Further
definitions, notation, arid properties, p. 490. 13.23 The
494
cube
roots of unity, p. 497
493
Exercise 13(6)
13.3
Applications of the Argand representation

13.31 Geometrical interpretation of
13.32 Constructions for the
p. 499.
490
modulus and argument,

sum and differ once of z v z v
13.33 The triangle inequalities p. 501.

13.34 Constructions for the product and quotient of & XJ z, p. 502.
13.35 Harder examples on the Argand representation, p. 504
p. 500.
500
Exercise 13(c)
13.4
Factorisation in complex algebra
507
3
13.41 'The fundamental theorem of algebra, p. 507.

13.42 Boots of the general polynomial equation, p. 507.
13.43 Principle of equating coefficients, p. 509. 13.44 Repeated
roots and the derived polynomial, p. 509. 13.45 Equations
with
13.5
'real' coefficients;
conjugate complex roots, p. 510
Relations between roots and coefficients

13.51
relations, p, 512.
Exercise 13
012
13.52 Unsymmetrical
13.53 Transformation of equations, p. 513
Symmetrical
relations, p. 512.
514
(d)
r
13.6
515
Factorisation in real algebra
Roots of the general polynomial equation, p. 515.

13.62 Location of roots in real algebra, p. 510
13.61
520
Exercise 13(e)
13.7
Approximate solution of equations
(further methods)
521
The method of proportional parts, p. 521. 13.72 Horner's

methods p. 522. 13,73 von Graeffe's method of root -squaring,
13.71
p.
523
Exercise 13 (/)
524
Miscellaneous Exercise 13 (g)
52o
Chapter
CONTENTS
de Moivre's Theorem
14.
ix
astd
some
Applications
14.1
p.
528
The values of (eos# + i sin
14.12
14.2
page 528
de Moivre's theorem
14.13 Examples,
p. 529,
530
Exercise 14(a)
532
Use of the binomial theorem
534
14.21 oos m
sin # in terms of multiple angles, p. 534.

14.22 oasnd, sinnfl, tanri.0 as powers of circular functions,
14.23 tan (O L + 2 + ...+& n ), p. 537
p. 535.
fl
Exercise 14(6)
14.3
14.4
538
Factorisation
14,31
xn -l,
14,33
2n
538
p. 539.
14.32
-2a;"costta+
1,
8*+l,p.
539.
14.34 sin n(9, p. 542
p. 640.
Exercise 14(c)
544
Roots of equations
545
14.41 Construction of equations with roots given trigonometrically, p. 545. 14.42 Results obtained by using relations
between roots and
coefficients, p.
546
Exercise 14(d)
14.5
547
Finite trigonometric series:

14.51 Cosines
and
summation by C + iS
sines of angles in A. P., p. 548.
548
14.52 Other
examples, p. 549
Exercise 14(e)
14.6
Infinite series of
550
complex terms. Some
single -valued
functions of a complex variable
550
and absolute convergence, p. 550. 14.62 The

infinite c,.i\, p. 551.
14.63 The exponential series, p. 552.
14.64 The modulus -argument form of expz. p. 554.
14.61 Convergence
14.65 Euler's exponential forms for sine, cosine, p. 554.

14.66 Examples, p. 555. 14.67 Generalised circular and
hyperbolic functions, p. 557, 14.68 Relation between circular
and hyperbolic functions: Gsborn's
rule, p.
558
Exercise 14(/)
556
Exercise 14 (g)
560
Miscellaneous Exercise li(h)
561
CONTENTS
Chapter 15. Survey or Elementary Coordinate
page
Geometry
15.1
15.11
15.2
565
Oblique axes
polar
15.14
15.16
565
Advantage
15.12 Cartesian and
coordinates, p. 565. 15.13 Distance formula, p. 566.
Section formulae, p. 566, 15.15 Gradient of a line, p. 567.
Area of a triangle, p. 568
of oblique axes, p, 565.
Forms
of the equation of a straight line
570
through [$v jfj, p. 570.

15.21 Line with gradient
15.22 Gradient form, p. 570. 15.23 General linear equation
Ax + By + C = 0, p. 571. 15.24 Intercept form, p. 571.
15.25 Line joining P lt P 2 p. 572. 15.26 Parametric form for
the line through [v lr y ) in direction 6 p. 572. 15.27 General
parametric form, p. 573. 15,28 Perpendicular form, p. 573
,
15.3
573
Further results
15.31 Sides of
a point from a
line, p.
line, p. 573.
15.32 Perpendicular distance of
575
575
Exercise 15(a)
15.4
Concurrence of straight
576
lines
15.41 Lines through the meet of two given lines, p. 576,

15.42 Condition for concurrence of three given lines, p. 577
15.5
Exercise 15(6)
578
Line-pairs
579
15.52 The
15.51 Equations which facte rise linearly, p. 579.
locus ax 1 + 2hxy + fc^ 2 = 0, p. 580. 15.53 The general line-pair
to the meets of the line
$ = 0, p. 581.
15,54 Line-pair joining
Ix + my 1 and the locus s = 0, p. 584
15.6
Exercise 15 (c)
585
The
586
circle
15.61 General equation of a circle; centre and radius, p. 586.

15.62 Circle on diameter I\P 2r p- 586. 15.63 Tangent at Pv
15.64 Chord of contact from P 1? p. 587.
p. 587.
15.65 Examples polar, p. 589. 15.66 Orthogonal circles, p. 591
;
15.7
Exercise 15(d)
592
Conies
594
15,71 Definitions, p. 594. 15,72 The equation of o very conic is

of the second degree, p. 595. 15.73 Change of coordinate axes,
p, 595,
15.74
K eduction
of 3
to standard forms, p. 598
Exercise 15(e)
600
Miscellaneous Exercise 15 (/}
601
Chaptee
16.1
The
CONTENTS
The Parabola
16,
locus y 1
page 603
4ax
003
Focus -directrix property,

representation, p. 603
36.1
XI
p. 603.
16.12 Parametric
Exercise 16(a)
16.2
go 5
Chord and tangent
605
Chord Px P 2 p. 605. 16.22 Chord t^, p. 606.

16.23 Tangent at F 1} p, 607.
16.24 Tangent at the point
16.25 Tangency and repeated roots, p. 008.
p. 607.
16.21
>
t,
Exercise 16(6)
16.3
610
Normal
p.
612
Normal at the point
16.31
t,
p. 612.
16.32 Conormal points,
612
Exercise 16(c)
16.4
614
Diameters
615
16.41 Corporal definition, p. 615.
16.42 Diameters of
parabola, p. 615
Exercise lG(d)
616
Miscellaneous Exercise 16(e)
616
Chapter
The Ellipse
17.
619
17.1
17.11
x*la*
&P = e.PM,
+ y*jb - l p.
2
x s fa?-ij z fb 2
p. 621.
ellipse
17.2
p.
619.
620.
17.12 Focus- directrix property of
17,13 Focus-directrix property of
1, p. 620.
17.14 Second focus and directrix,
17.15 Further definitions, p. 621. 17.16 Form of the
a 2/a z + i/ 2/& 2
I,
p. 621.
Other ways of obtaining an
17.17 Circle
and
ellipse, p.
622
ellipse
623
17.21 Auxiliary circle, p. 623, 17.22 Focal distances, p. 624.

17.23 Orthogonal projection of a circle, p. 625, 17,24 General
properties of orthogonal projection, p. 626
17.3
Parametric representation
17.31 Eccentric angle
Exercise 17(a)
g5,
p. 027.
627
17.32
The point
t,
p.
628
629
CONTENTS
Xii
17.4
Chord and tangent
page 630
Chord PjPj, p. 630. 17.42 Chord 0$, p. 631.

Chord
17.44 Tangent at P p. 632.
p. 63 L
17.45 Tangent at 0, p. 632. 17.46 Tangent at t, p. 632.
17.41
17.43
Exercise 17 (b)
17.5
Normal
p.
636
Equation of the normal,
17.51
17.6
634
p. 636.
17.52
Conormal
points,
636
Exercise 17(c)
637
The
637
distance quadratic
17.62 Chord having midpoint I\, p. 638. 17,63 Diameters,

17.64 Conjugate diameters, p. 639
p. 639.
Exercise 17
C41
(d)
Miscellaneous Exercise 17 (e)
Chapter
18.1
18.
The Hyperbola
The hyperbola -g fj
18.1
Form
18.2
The
1;
645
asymptotes
645
of the curve, p. 645.
definition, p. 645.
18.14
642
18.12 Asymptote: general

18.13 Asymptotes of the hyperbola, p. 646.
bifocal property:
SP-S'P =
2, p. 647
Properties analogous to those of the ellipse
+
tir
18.3
18,32 The point

18,34 Another algebraic
18.33 The point 0, p. 650.

representation, p. 650
18.5
18.31 Hyperbolic functions, p. 649.
18.4
D2
648
649
t,
p. 650.
Chord, tangent, and normal
651
Exercise 18(a)
651
Asymptotes further properties
653
an asymptote meet the hyperbola on!y

once, p. 653. 18.52 The equation of the tangent at Pi tends to
the equation of an asymptote when P -* co along the curve,
p. 653. 18.53 The family %ya*-y*fb 2 = ko hyperbolas has the
same asymptotes for all k, p. 654
18.51 Lines parallel to
18.6
The conjugate hyperbola

18.61 Definitions, p. 654.
Exercise 18(5)
654
656
CONTENTS
18.7
Xlii
Asymptotes as (oblique) coordinate axes
18.71
xy
18.73
The rectangular hyperbola,
2
,
p. 657.
page 6o7
18.72 Parametric representation, p. G5S.

p.
6S9
Exercise 18(c)
659
Chapter
19.1
The General Conic;
19,
The locus
19.
= Jcs'
664
664
Scheme of procedure,
P,P 2
19.13 Chord
19.2
661
(d)
of s
p. 664.
0, p.
19.12 Notation, p, 664,
666
Joachimsthal's ratio equation.
666
19.21 The ratio quadratic for $

19.22 Sides of
0, p. 666.
eonic, p. 666. 19.23 Tangent at
667.
19.24 Pair of
p.
v
tangents from t ,p. 667. 19.25 Chord of contact from v
Examples; polar of P l wo s = 0, p. 668.

19.27 Chord whose mid-point is PJf p. 669. 19,28 Diameters,
p. 668.
19.26
p. 669.
19.3
The distance quadratic
670
19.4
Tangent and normal as coordinate axes
671
Exercise 19(a)
672
19.5
Number
673
19.6
The equation s = ks'

19.61 Number of possible intersections of two conies, p.
19.62 s = ks' p. 674. 19.63 Degenerate cases, p. 676.
of conditions which a conic can satisfy
674
674,
19.64 Examples, p. 677.
19.7
two
Equations of a type more general than
conies, p. 679
= ks'
680
Exercise 19(&)
681
Miscellaneous Exercise 19(c)
682
Chapter
20.1
19.65 Contact of
The
20.
Polar Equation of a Conio
684
684
straight line
20.11 Distance formula, p. 684. 20.12 Line joining two points,

p. 684. 20.13 Line in 'perpendicular form', p. 685.
20.14 General equation of a line, p. 685
20.2
The
686
circle
20.21 Polar equation, p. 686. 20.22 Chord

tangent at v p. 686. 20.23 Examples, p. 687
of r
2acoa0;
Exercise 20 (a)
688
CONTENTS
XiV
20.3
Conies: pole at a focus
page 68S
20.31 Polar equation of all non-degenerate conies, p. 688.

20.32 Tracing of the curve Ijr = 1 + ecos0, p. 690.
20.33 Examples, p. 691. 20.34 Chord and tangent, p. 693
Exercise 20(6)
696
Miscellaneous Exercise 20 (c)
698
Chapter 2L Coordinate Geometry in Space:

the Plane and Line
21.1
Coordinates in space
700
21.11 Rectangular cartesian coordinates, p. 700

coordinate systems, p, 701
21.2
21.12 Other
Fundamental formulae
21,21 Distance formula, p. 702.
Exercise 21
21.3
702
21,22 Section formulae, p. 703
704
(a)
Direction cosines and direction ratios of a line

21,31 Direction cosines, p. 706. 21.32 Angle between two
21.33 Direction ratios, p. 707
p. 706,
Exercise 21
21.4
700
705
lines,
708
(&)
The plane
709
21.41 Equation of a plane in 'perpendicular form p. 710.

21.42 General linear equation Ax + By +
0, p. 710.
21.43 Conditions for two linear equations to represent the same
plane, p. 711. 21.44 Plane having normal I twin and passing
Cz+D-
through t , p. 711. 21.45 Plane P^Pj, p. 712.

21.46 Intercept form, p. 713. 21.47 Angle between two planes,
p.
713
Exercise 21
21.5
The
713
(c)
714
line
21.51 Line through Pj^ in direction l:m:n, p. 714.

21.52 Parametric equations of a line, p. 715. 21.53 Line of
intersection of two planes, p. 717. 21.54 Distance of a point
feom a plane, p. 718. 21,55 Areas and volumes, p. 719
Exercise 21
21.6
721
(d)
Planes in space
21.61 Planes through a
of three planes, p. 724
Exercise 21(e)
723
common
line, p. 723,
21.62 Incidence
726
CONTENTS
21.7
Skew
XV
lines
page 727
21,71 Geometrical introduction, p. 727. 21.72 Length of the

common perpendicular, p. 728. 21.73 Equations of the common
perpendicular, p. 729. 21.74 Alternative method, p. 729.
21,75 Standard form for the equations of two skew lines, p. 731
Exercise 21(f)
732
733
(g)
Chapter 22. The Sphere; Spherical

Trigonometry
22.1
733
Coordinate geometry of the sphere
736
22.11 Equation of a sphere, p. 736.
22.12
Some
from pure geometry, p. 736.

737. 22.14 Examples, p. 738
22. 13
Tangent plane at
results
p.
definitions
and
Pu
Exercise 22(a)
22.2
= hs'
22.21
22.4
742
The
a given
22.3
740
general principle, p. 742.
circle, p.
22.22 Spheres through
742
Surfaces in general
744
Exercise 22(b)
745
The
747
spherical triangle
22.41 Some definitions and simple properties, p. 747.

22.42 Sides and angles, p. 748. 22.43 Polar triangle;
supplemental relations, p. 749.
22.5
22.44 Area, p. 750
Triangle formulae
751
22.51 Cosine rule, p. 751. 22,52 Sine rule, p. 752.

22.53 Supplemental formulae, p. 754. 22.54 Triangb on the
general sphere, p. 755
Exercise 22(c)
755
Answers to Volume
Index to Volume
756
(d)
II
(25)
II
xxiii
PM
II
xvii
GENERAL PREFACE
This two-volume text-book on Pure Mathematics has been designed
to cover completely the requirements of the revised regulations for the
B.So. General Degree (Part I) of the University of London. It presents
a serious treatment of the subject, written to
been evident at this
fill
a gap which has long
The author
believes that there is
way
to further progress.
no other
book addressed primarily to the General Degree student which covers
the ground with the same self-contained completeness and thoroughlevel.
ness, while also indicating the
On
the
any examination is from above',

the book has been constructed so that those students who do not
intend to take the subject Mathematics in Part II of their degree
course will find included some useful matter a little beyond the
prescribed syllabus (which throughout has been interpreted as an
examination schedule rather than a teaching programme); while
those who continue with Mathematics will have had sound preparaprinciple that 'the correct approach to
tion.
As
it is
the author's experience that
a degree course have received hasty
many
students
and inadequate
who
training,
begin
a com-
knowledge of previous work has not been assumed.

Although written for the purpose just mentioned, this book will
meet the needs of those taking any course of first-year degree work in
which Pure Mathematics is studied, whether at University or Technical College. For example, most of the Pure Mathematics required
for a one-year ancillary subject to the London Special Degrees in
plete
Physics, Chemistry, etc.
is
included,
two years' work ancillary to Special
and
also that for the first of the
The relevant matter

some of Part II) of the B.Se. Engineering Degree is
covered. The book provides an introduction to the first year of an
Honours Degree in Mathematics at most British universities, and
would serve as a basis for the work of the mathematical specialist in
Statistics.
for Part I (and
Grammar School. Much of the material is suitable for pupils

preparing for scholarships in Natural Sciences.
By a natural division the subject-matter falls conveniently into two
the
volumes which, despite occasional cross-references can be used

independently as separate text-books on Calculus (Vol. I) and on
Algebra, Trigonometry and Coordinate Geometry (Vol. II). According
,
to the plan of study chosen, the contents
may
be dealt with in turn,

b-z
GENERAL PREFACE
XViii
or else split up into
two or even three courses of reading in Calculus,

Algebra-Trigonometry and Geometry taken concurrently. Throughout
it has been borne in mind that many students necessarily work without
much
and
hoped that those of even moderate

be able to use this book alone.
A representative selection of worked examples, with explanatory
remarks, has been included as an essential part of the text, together
direct supervision,
it is
ability will
many sets of 'exercises for the reader' spread throughout each

chapter and carefully graded from easy applications of the bookwork
to 'starred' problems {often with hints for solution) slightly above the
ultimate standard required. In a normal use of the book there will
with
not be time or need to work through every 'ordinary* problem in

each set; but some teachers welcome a wide selection. To each chapter
appended a Miscellaneous Exercise, both backward- and forwardlooking in scope, for revision purposes. Answers are provided at the
end of each volume. It should be clear that, although practice in
solving problems is an important part of the student's training, in no
is
sense
is this
who
a cram-book giving
drill
in examination tricks. However,
many part-time and evening

students in the Te clinical Colleges unfortunately are) may have to
postpone the sections in small print and all 'starred' matter for a
those
are pressed for time (as so
later reading.
Most of the problems of 'examination type* have been taken from

Pinal Degree papers set by the University of London, and I am grateful to the Senate for permission to use these questions. Others have
been collected over a number of years from a variety of unrecorded
{and hence unacknowledged) sources, while a few are home-made.
It is too optimistic to expect that
a book of this size will be comfrom typographical errors, or the Answers from mathematical ones, despite numerous proof readings. I shall be grateful if
readers will bring to my notice any such corrections or other suggestions for possible improvements.
Finally, I thank the staff of the Cambridge University Press for
the way in which they have met my requirements, and for the expletely free
cellence of their printing work.
P.
DEPARTMESX OT PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS

TECHNICAL COLLEGE
KINGSTON -UPON -THAMES
THJE
GEBBISH
xix
PREFACE TO VOLUME
II
Although for convenience of reference the pagination and section

numbering are continued from Volume I, this does not imply dependence of the present volume on the first. Apart from occasional backward references, Volume II is a self-contained text-book on Algebra,
Trigonometry and Coordinate Geometry of two and three dimensions,
in which calculus methods are illustrated when instructive.
Beginning with a chapter which leads from revision of previous
algebraic work to an introduction to formal algebra, an early start
on determinants can be made in the next, thereby assembling all the
equipment necessary for the subsequent geometry (which throughout
is real and euclidean) Certain widely-used general theorems on systems
of linear equations have received more explicit statement and
emphasis than is customary at this level.
In Chapter 12 the passage from finite to infinite series lays the
foundations of convergence \ a subtle subject so often misunderstood
.
and mishandled by
beginners. It
is
hoped that the many somewhat
negative cautionary remarks will stimulate rather than shake the

reader's confidence.
Chapter 13 sets complex numbers on a logical footing by first briefly

mystery
retracing the historical steps in their development from
through 'diagram' to the concept of 'ordered number-pair*. The

is often approached from only one of these standpoints, but
subject
the present inclusive treatment combines the advantages of all.
The
opportunity is also taken of setting up a general theory of factorisation

and polynomial equations. Despite some repetition, it is felt that this
can be appreciated only
after the provisional
clusions in 10.13, 10.3 has been realised.
The
nature of the con-
following chapter, con-
cerned with trigonometrical applications of the preceding algebraic

theories,
also
introduces some genuine functions of a complex
variable.
An anticipated criticism
of the book
is
that complex numbers and
the complex exponential have been introduced too late, with a con-
sequent loss of freedom of method in the Calculus section in topics

such as the solution of linear differential equations. This delay was
intentional,
and could almost be claimed
as a special feature; for the
author believes that (with the exception of confessedly symbolic
PREFACE TO VOLUME
XX
II
methods in which "anything is fair') only confusion of principles can

arise by incautiously mixing the real and the complex, especially in
calculus techniques.
Since
many
students
come
to the course regarding Coordinate
Geometry as merely a mixture of 'graphs', Pure Geometry, and easy

Calculus, an attempt in Chapter 15 has been made to review the
'known' parts of the subject more as an illustrated account of linear
and (real) quadratic algebra. Use is made of oblique axes when
appropriate.
In the next three chapters, which contain a fairly detailed treat-
and hyperbola by means of their

'standard' equations, the emphasis is on parametric methods and
ment of the parabola,
ellipse,
the consequent elegant applications of the
(real)
theory of equations
given in Chapter 10. Joachimsthal's ratio equation and the distance

quadratic are also used incidentally.
Owing
to the algebraic analogy
between ellipse and hyperbola, the discussion of the latter is centred

mainly on properties of the asymptotes.
The unifying influence of a systematic treatment of 'the general
conic' by Joachimsthal's method is too valuable to omit. This and
the powerful s = ks' principle' are the themes of Chapter 19.
A short chapter on polar equations, first revising the straight line
and circle in this form, develops in more detail their application to the
conic, and thus gives the geometrical complement of the calculus
methods illustrated for various 'polar' curves in Volume I.
In principle, Chapter 21 returns to the fundamentals of cartesian
coordinate geometry, this time for three dimensions. The treatment,
designed to emphasise whenever possible the analogies between the
two- and three- dimensional cases, while also pointing out important
contrasts, revises the methods of linear algebraic geometry, and may
well be left until fairly late in the course. Finally the sphere is briefly
treated^ first geometrically by methods resembling those already used
for the circle in Chapter 15, and then trigonometrically.
e
xxi
REFERENCES AND ABBREVIATIONS

In a decimal reference such as 12.73(2),
12 denotes
12.7 denotes
12.73 denotes
12.73(2) denotes
chapter (Ch.
12),
section,
sub-section,
part.
in the
same
refers to
equation
refers to
worked example
(ii)
in the same section.
refers to
worked example
(ii)
in sub-section 4.64.
Ex. 12 (6), no. 6
refers to
problem number
wo
means
with respect
(ii)
ex.
(ii)
4.64, ex.
(ii)
In the
text,
matter in small type
(ii)
{other
'
omitted at a
first
reading
6 in Exercise 12
(b).
to.
examples) and in starred worked examples is

'
section,
than 'ordinary' worked

subsidiary,
and may be
if time is short.
In an exercise
no. 6
refers to
a 'starred' problem
problem number 6 in the same Exercise.

either
depends on matter in small type

in the text, or on ideas in a
or
is
for the solution of a problem,
later chapter;
above the general standard of

difficulty.
matter in
matter in
. .
. .
is
a hint
is
explanatory comment.
363
10
ALGEBRA OF POLYNOMIALS
10.1
The remainder theorem and some consequences
10.11
Long
division; identities
The reader will be familiar with the process for dividing one polynomial by another of lower degree; we use it here to lead up to an
important algebraic theorem.
Example
Find the
quotient
and remainder obtained by dividing ax 2 + bx + cby x k.
x k )ax 2 + bx
ax
+c
ax + (b+ak)
akx
+ ak) x + c
(b + ak) x k{b + ak)
(6
ak 2 + bk + c
Observe that the remainder
the original expression with x replaced
is
by
k.
If only the remainder is required in the above example, we can

proceed as follows. Let the quotient be Q{x) (a function oix) and the
remainder be
R (a constant). Then we have

ax2 + bx + c
If
we now put x =
k in
this,
{x-k)Q{x) + R.
we obtain
ak 2 + bk + c
since the
(i)
term involving Q(k)
is
=R
(ii)
zero.
Remarks
may
be objected that the division process has established

x except k, so that the substitution x = k
is not justified. The validity of (i) for all x can be shown by the following
method, which also identifies R. We have
(a) It
relation
(i)
for all values of
{ax 2 + bx + c)
26
- {ak 2 + bk + c) =
a{x 2 - k2 )
+ b{x - k),
GFMII
364
[10.12
so that the right-hand side has the factor x k. If the other factor
is
denoted by Q(x), then

(ax2 + bx + c)- (ak 2 + bk + c)
which
= (x-k) Q(x),
is equivalent to
with R given by
We may regard the 'long division as a process for constructing
(i)
(ii).
'
(ft)
from the given polynomials x k and ax 2 + bx + c another polynomial

Q(x) and a constant R which satisfy (i) for all values of x. (A similar
principle, justified in 10.13, ex. (v), holds for
although when the divisor

of degree
The
n 1
or
is
of degree
n >
any pair of polynomials,
1,
R will be
a polynomial
less.)
which holds for all values of x, is called an identity

an equation in x, which holds only for certain special
values of
The sign = between two polynomials in x is used to denote
'equal for all values of
and is read 'identically equal to'. Thus
(i) would be written
relation
(i),
in x (in contrast to
ax 2 + bx + c
= (x- k) Q(x) + R.
(i)'
The result of substituting a; = k would still be written with the ordinary
sign because
we may
ever,
a relation between special numbers only.
(ii) is
continue to use the sign
are in fact identically equal, unless
= even when
we
How-
the expressions
specially wish to emphasise
their identity.
10.12
The remainder theorem
We now obtain the remainder when the general polynomial

=p
p(x)
is
divided by x k.
p(x) -p(k)
xn +p 1 xn
~1
+ ... +p n-!X +p n
We have
=p
(xn
n
)
~
+p 1 (xn 1 - k
71
-1
)
By direct multiplication we can verify that,
+ ... +p n - 1 (x - k).
for
(iii)
any positive integer
m and any x and k,

xm -km
(When x
4= k,
= (x- k) {x-1 + xm ~ 2 k + xm ~s k 2 +...+ km ~x
this is equivalent to the
the second bracket.) Thus

(iii).
a;
&
is
).
sum-formula for the
g.p. in
a factor of the right-hand side of
Denoting the other factor f by Q{x), we have

p(x) -p(k)
t
Which
will
(x
be a polynomial in
k) Q(x).
a;
of degree
(iv)
n 1
if
n>
1.
10.12]
365
Hence the remainder when the polynomial p(x) is divided by x k is

number p(k) obtained by substituting k for x in this polynomial.
Also from (iv) we have
The factor case. If p(k) = 0, the polynomial p(x) has x k for a
factor. Conversely, if x k is a factor, then p(k) = 0.
the
Examples
(i)
+nx- 6.
Factorise 2xs -llx 2
Calling the polynomial p(x), we seek numbers k for which p(k) = 0. Only
those numbers k which are factors of the last term 6 need be tried, for any
other number could not be the constant term in a factor of the polynomial, f
p(l)
= 2-11 + 17-6
p{2)
= 16-44 + 34-6 =
To find the other

2x*-lx + 3, so
Find
a:-
1 is
not a factor.
/.
a factor.
polynomial by x 2; the quotient
by
a and b
if 6x*
remainder) by 2x 2 + x
+ ax 2 + bx 2
(iii)
7,
Find
the
remainder when p(x)
Since the divisor
say
Ax + B.
= 1.
p(x) has degree greater than
lfQ(x)
is
is divided
by (x a)(x b), a
4= 6,
where
2.
quadratic in x, the remainder will in general be linear in x,

the quotient, then (cf. 10.11, Remark (yff))
= (x-a)(x- b) Q(x) +Ax + B.
a:
p( a )
= Aa + B.
6:
p(b)
= Ab + B.
Solving these equations for
A
so the remainder
are factors of the
which give
a + &-,
Put x =
a;
2x-l
0,
is
p{x)
Put
is divisible (i.e. exactly
1.
= a-b-8,
=
A and B, we find
_p(a)-p(b)
ab
IS
ap(b)-bp(a)
ab
is
{ p(a)
-p(b)} x + ap(b)
- bp(a)
ab
t
is
inspection.
Since 2x3 +x~l = (x + l)(2x-l), both x+1 and

given polynomial p(x). Hence p( - 1) = andp(J) =
and so a
is
(a:-2)(a;-3)(2a?-l)
factorisation
the values of
divisible, without
/.
= (x-2)(2x*-lx + 3),
=
(ii)
0,
factor, divide the
p(x)
on completing the
#: 0,
A general result of this kind is proved in
13.62(1).
26-2
366
[10.13
10.13 Factorisation of a polynomial; 'equating coefficients'
We
continue to write
p(x)
where p
,
. .
. ,
#= 0.
Theorem I.
av a 2
= p xn +p 1 xn ~ 1 + ... +p n
is zero
Ifp{x)
when x has any one of the n distinct values
an then
,
= Po( x ~ a i) (x-a 2 )...(x- an
P(x)
(v)
).
by hypothesis, therefore x a x is a factor

of p(x). Let the quotient when p(x) is divided by x a x be Q n -x{x)\
*1
it will be a polynomial in x of degree n 1 whose first term is p^x
Then
p(x) = (x- a t ) Qn ^{x)
Proof. Since p(a x )
11
Since p{a 2 )
by
hypothesis,
we have
= ((h-c^Qn-Mand therefore
a x (also by hypothesis), hence Qn -i(a 2 ) =
x-a 2 is a factor of Q n ^ x {x). The other factor Q n _ 2 ( x )> obtained by
n - 2 thus
division, is a polynomial whose first term is p x
As a 2
4=
Qn-ifr)
and so
p(x)
= (x-a 2 )Qn - 2 (x),
(x -
ax )
(x
- a 2 Q n - 2 {x).
)
can continue step by step to remove the factors x a3

until we reach x an after which the other factor will be Q (x) whose
only term is^ a; = p The result (v) follows.
Corollary I (a). A polynomial of degree n in x cannot be zero for
We
more than n distinct values of x.

Proof. Expression (v) cannot be zero when x takes any value
different from a v a 2 ...,a n for no factor would then be zero, and
,
pQ
=(=
by
hypothesis.
n ~1
p xn +p 1 x + ...+p n is zero for more than n
distinct values of x, then p = p t = ... = p n = 0, and so p(x) = 0.
Proof. Either all of p ,Pi, --,Pn are z ^TO
or there is a first p which is not zero,' say pk (k < n).
Theorem
II.
//
>
In
this case the expression reduces to
p k Xn
+P k+1 Xn
-k - 1
+..-+P n
(Pk*
0),
a polynomial of degree n k in x. Hence by Corollary I (a),

cannot be zero for more than n k values of x. However, we are
which
it
~k
is
10.13]
367
given that it is zero for more than n values of x. Our second alternative
thus leads to a contradiction, and so only the
first
alternative
is
possible.
when p = p x =
Finally,
for all x,
i.e.
p(x)
...
= pn =
0,
the given polynomial
is
zero
0.
Coeollary II (a). // p x n +p 1 xn ~1 +
Po=Pl =
For since the polynomial is
. .
+pn =
= 2> =
0,
then
0.
identically zero,
it is
zero for
more than
n distinct values of x.
Corollary II (6). //
~
p xn +p 1 xn 1 + ...+p n =
for more than
n distinct
Po
n
q x +
q^-
+...+qn
values of x, or for all values of x, then
Pi
qo,
Pn
$v
qn
>
For we have
1
n
(Po-q )x + {p 1 -q1 )x^- +... + (pn -qn ) =
0,
and the results follow from Theorem II or Corollary II (a).

Corollary 11(6)
is
the basis of the
principle*)"
an identity between polynomials.
cients' in
polynomials of degree n are equal for
all
of 'equating
It asserts that if
values of x
(i.e. if
nomials have identical values for corresponding values of
x),
two
the poly-
then they
they are identical in form). Without this

would be conceivable that two quite distinct polynomials
agree term
result it
by term
coeffi-
(i.e.
might take the same values

numbers.
same
for the
x,
as x ranges over the real
Corollary II (c). //
~
p xn +p 1 xn 1 + ... +pn =
(where
then
1
m
q x + q^-
+ ...+qm
m > n)for more than m distinct values of x, or for all values of x,
= qm _ n _ 1
p = qm _ n
In particular, the polynomial on the right has

The proof is like that of Corollary II (b).
degree n.
Examples
(i)
Find
constants a,
n =
8
b, c,
dfor which
an(n +
1) (n
+ 2) + bn(n + 1) + cn + d.
f Already illustrated in 4.62.
p n = qm
368
The right-hand
[10.13
side
= a(n 8 + 3n 2 + 2n) + b(n z +n) + cn+d

= an3 + (3a + b)n* + (2a + b + c)n + d.
This
is
identically equal to
and only
if
3a + 6
1,
i.e.
(ii)
nz
Show that x% cannot
2a + 6 + c
0,
1,
if
= 3,
1,
d=
0,
a*
0,
0.
be expressed in the form
a(x+l)(x + 2) +b(x + 3)(x + 4:).
= a(x s + Bx + 2) + b(x 2 + Ix + 1 2)
= (a + 6) x z + (3a + 76) x + (2a +126),
The expression
which
is
identical with
x%
if
and only
a + 6=l,
The
first.
if
3a + 76
2a+126 =
0,
0.
two equations give a = 0, 6 = 0, and these values fail to satisfy the

The three conditions cannot be satisfied, and so x 2 cannot be written in
last
the form stated.

(iii)
If a,b, c are
all distinct,
(x b)(x c)
(a 6)(a c)
and deduce
prove that
(x c)(x a)
(x
(6 a)
(c
(6
c)
a)(x 6) _
a)(c 6)
relations between a, b, c by equating coefficients of the various
powers
of x.
When x =
a,
the left-hand side reduces to
Hence the polynomial
1.
(x c)(x a)
(b c)(b a)
(x b)(x c)
(a b){a c)
(x a)(x b)
(c
a)(c-b)
zero when x = a. Similarly, it is zero when x = 6 and when x c. Thus this

quadratic in x vanishes for three distinct values of x. Hence it vanishes for all
values of x.
By equating coefficients of x2 , x and the constant terms, we obtain
is
(a-6)(a c)
(a
6+c
b)(a c)
(a
6) (a c)
(6-c)(6-a)
(b
c+a
c)(b a)
(6
c)(6 a)
1
a)(c 6)
a+b
_
(c a)(c b)
ab
If ax s + bx % + cx + d contains (x+
l) 2
o,
(c
ca
be
(iv)
(c
a)(c 6)
as a factor, obtain relations between
a, b, c, d.
If (x + 1 ) 2
Hence
is
a factor, the other factor must be linear and of the form a(x + k)
ax* + bx* + cx+d
.*.
= a(x+l) 2 (x +
= oa;8 + a(A! + 2)a; 2 + a(2fc+l)a;-l-afc,
a(k + 2),
Jc)
a(2& +1),
= ak.
10.13]
369
By eliminating h from the first and third, and from the second and third,
b = d + 2a, c=2d + a.
is
*(v) Given two polynomials f(x), g(x) of degrees m, n (m > n), prove that there
a unique pair of polynomials Q(x), B(x) such that E(x) has degree less than n and
f(x)=g(x)Q(x) + B(x).
(a)
of degree m n and
The process of dividing/(a;) by g(x) gives a quotient Q(x)

a remainder B(x) of degree less than n such that (a) holds for
except possibly those for which g(x) = 0. Thus the polynomial
all
values of x
f(x)-{g(x)Q(x) + B(x)},
whose degree certainly does not exceed m, is zero for more than m values of x.
Hence by Theorem II it is identically zero, which proves (a). Compare 10.11,
Remark
(fi).
had we proceeded in a different way,

obtained another pair of polynomials q(x), r(x) such that
It is conceivable that,
f(x)
where r(x) has degree
less
than
we might have
= g(x)q(x)+r(x),
n. Subtraction of (b)
B(x) - r(x)
g(x) {q(x)
(b)
from
(a)
gives
- Q(x)}.
(c)
of (c) has degree < n, while (unless q(x) Q(x) = 0) the right
^ n (the degree of g{x)); and by Corollary II (c) this is impossible.
Hence q(x) Q(x) = 0, and therefore by (c), B(x)r(x) = 0. This proves the
The
left side
has degree
uniqueness.
Exercise 10(a)
Factorise
1
2x3 + Sx 2 -l.
4 Solve x
2 6a8 -a; 2 -19:c-6.
4:X + x + 6 =
2
5 Find the values of a
x* + 2x 3 + x 2 - 4.
0.
and
6 if
6a; 8
+ 7a; 2 + ax + b is divisible by 2x 1 and by
x+1.
6 The remainder when (xl)(x 2)
a and b.
divides x* + ax3 + b
is
a;+l.
7 A polynomial gives remainder 2x + 5 when divided by (x 1) {x +

the remainders when it is divided by x 1, x + 2 separately.
2).
Find
Find
8 A polynomial gives remainder 2 when divided by x + 1 and remainder 1

when divided by x 4. Find the remainder when it is divided by (x + 1 (x 4).
*9 A cubic polynomial gives remainders 5x 7, 12a; 1 when divided by
)
x2 x + 2, x 2 + x
respectively.
Find the polynomial.
When divided by x 2 + 1 a polynomial gives remainder 2x + 3, and by x 2 + 2

gives remainder x + 2. Find the remainder when it is divided by (x 2 + 1) (x 2 + 2).
* 10
Find values
11
of a,
b, c,
d for which
n 8 + 6n = an(n-l)(n-2) + bn{n-l) + cn + d.
12 x3
a(x+2)* + b(x+l) 2 + cx + d.
13 If x* 6x3 + ax 2 + 30* + 6 is a perfect square, find a and 6 and write

the square roots of the polynomial.
down
370
2x + l
14 Express
If a,b,c are
^
16
15 Express
m the form
.
(x-l)(x + 2)
b
H
-D m the form
.
2x+l
-.
x*+l
prove
a(x b) (x c) b(x c)(x a) c(x a)(x b)

_i
L
-+ =
+(a b)(a c)
{c a)(c b)
(b c)(b a)
+ b + x) (b + c + x)
(b c)(b a)
(a
x-1 x + 2
a
bx- + c
{2x+l)(x* +
all distinct,
[10.2
(b
+ c + x) (c + a + x)
(c a)(c b)
(c
x.
+ a + x)(a + b + x) _
~
{a b)(a c)
18 (i) Prove that there cannot be two different quadratic expressions in x

which take the values A, B, C when x has the distinct values a, 6, c respectively,
Verify that
(ii)
(x-c){x-a
(x-b)(x-c)
{x-a)(x-b)
B
c
c)(b a)
(b
(c a)(c b)
)
(a
b)(a c)
has the required properties, and deduce from
(i)
that this
is
the only such
quadratic.
*19 Write down the (unique) cubic polynomial in x which takes the values
A, B, C, D when x has the distinct values a, b, c, d respectively.
20 (i) If x3 +px + q contains a factor (x a) 2 prove 4p 3 + 21q % 0.
3
prove the converse of (i).
(ii) By writing q = 2a
,
21
If a;4 + px + q contains a factor (x a) 2 prove 27p 4
(i)
256q3 and express
x, y,
we may arrange
q in terms of a.
(ii)
10.2
Prove the converse of
(i).
Polynomials in more than one variable
10.21 Extension of the preceding results

If p(x, y)
it
is
a polynomial in the two variables
according to powers of x, say as
%nPo(y) + x^Piiy) +
+p n (y)>
to be a polynomial in x whose coefficients are polypreceding theories can then be applied, f Similar
The
y.
considerations hold for more than two variables.
and consider
it
nomials in
Examples
(i)
P rove
If
ax2 + 2hxy + by* + 2gx + 2fy + c

a
a',
b',
c',
+ 2h'xy + b'y* +
+ Wv +
f=f, g = g', h = h'.
a'x*
Arranging both expressions as quadratics in

ax* + 2(hy + g) x + {by* + 2fy + c)
a'x*
x,
+ 2{h'y + g')x + (b'y* + 2f'y + c')
t The proof in 10.12 is valid when p j> x ...,pn are polynomials

number of variables); therefore the deductions in 10.13 still hold.
,
<>'>
in y (or in
any
10.22]
Equating
a
we have for all y:
coefficients,
2(hy + g)
a',
371
2(h'y + g'),
by 2 + 2fy + c
b'y 2
+ 2f'y + c'.
By equating coefficients of like powers of y in the last two identities, we obtain

all
the results stated.
Show that 2x 2 + 5xy Zy 2 -x + lly-6 has
(ii)
Since
2* 2 + 5xy - 3y*
(x
linear factors,
and find them.
+ Zy) (2x - y),
try putting
2x 2 + 5xy-Zy 2 -x+lly-6
(x
+ Zy + a){2x-y + b),
where a and 6 are constants to be determined.
The right-hand side

2x
is
+ 5xy - Zy 2 + (2a + b) x +
36 - a) y + ah.
This will be identical with the given polynomial if and only if a, 6 can be chosen
to satisfy
"
The
,
= -\, 36-a=ll,
ab = -6.
give a = 2, 6 = 3; and these values do
2a + b
two equations
Hence the given polynomial has linear
first
third.
satisfy the
factors
(x+Sy-2)(2x-y + Z).
Factorise
(iii)
Regarding
xy(x + y)
+ yz(y + z) + zx(z + x) + 2xyz.
a quadratic polynomial in x whose

put x y: the expression becomes
this as
nomials in y and
z,
+ yz(y + z) - yz(z -y)- 2y2z Hence x + y is a factor. Similarly, x + z is a factor.
coefficients are poly-
0.
Next, regarding the expression as a polynomial in y whose coefficients are

polynomials in x, z, we may put y = z and show that y + z is a factor.
Hence (y + z) (z + x) (x + y) is a factor. Since this product and the given
polynomial each have total degree 3, any other factor h must be numerical,
LHCL
SO
xy(x + y)
+ yz(y + z) + zx{z + x) + 2xyz =
k(y + z)(z + x) (x + y).
0,
We obtain k =
1.
To obtain k, we may either substitute numerical values for x,

y
1,
1) in
both sides, or compare coefficients
10.22 Symmetric,
skew and
(e.g.
of x 2y).
y, z (e.g.
cyclic functions
In 1.52(4) we defined a homogeneous function of two or more

variables,
(1)
variables
and we now give further useful
definitions.
function (not necessarily a polynomial) of two or more

is
symmetrical in these variables
if it is
unaltered
by the
interchange of any two.
For example, x + y and x2 + y2 are symmetrical functions of (x,y);

a + b + c, bc + ca + ab are symmetrical in (a, b, c); and the expression
in 10.21, ex. (iii) is symmetrical in (x,y,z). The polynomials x y + z,
a2 + b % + 2c 2 are not symmetrical.
372
[10.22
Bemarks
(a)
The only symmetrical function of (x, y, z) of the first degree is a

ofx + y + z. For if Ix + my + nz is unaltered by inter-
constant multiple
change of x,
y,
then
Ix
i.e.
so
+ my + nz =
(l
+ mx + nz,
m)x+(m l)y =
= m. Similarly, we find I =
+ y + z).
l(x
ly
n,
and the
0,
linear function reduces to
The most general symmetric polynomial in (x, y, z)

second-degree terms can likewise be shown to have the form
(/?)
k(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
(2)
consisting of
+ l(yz + zx + xy).
A function of two or more variables is skew or alternating if an
interchange of any two of them changes only the sign of the function.
For example, x y
a skew function of
is
(b
(x,
y)
and
c) (c a) {a b),
xy(x -y)
+ yz(y -z) + zx(z - x)
skew functions of their respective variables.

The reader should satisfy himself that the product
are
or of two skew functions is
of two symmetric
a symmetric function, while
symmetric and a skew function
is
the product of
skew.
Considerations of symmetry, skewness and homogeneity often save

algebraic manipulation,
and will be helpful in Ch.
11.
Example
Factorise x3 + y z + z 8 3xyz. (Also see Ex. 10(/), no. 3.)
Regarding this as a polynomial in x, we find that when x = (y + z) the
expression is zero. Hence x + y + z is a factor. The other factor could be found
by long division, or as follows.

The given expression and the factor x + y + z are both symmetric
directly
in (x,y,z),
therefore so is the remaining factor.

Since the given polynomial is homogeneous of degree 3 and x + y + z is homogeneous of degree 1, the other factor must be homogeneous of degree 2 in (x, y, z).
By Remark (/?) above, the most general symmetric homogeneous polynomial of degree 2 in (x, y, z) has the form
k{x2 + y % + z 2 )
+ l(yz + zx + xy),
and so
x* + y* + z z -Zxyz
(x
+ y + z) {k{x 2 + y* + z 2 + l(yz + zx + xy)}.

)
10.22]
We can find the constants k,
Hence
by substituting numerical
0,
0,
give
k;
0,
y=l,
give
2{2k + l},
xP + y^+z 3 3xyz
(3) Cyclic expressions.
:.
= - 1.
Consider again
+ yz(y -z) + zx(z - x),
letters x, y, z are
of a circle as shown.
values:
= (x+y+z) (x* + y 2 +z 2 yz zx xy).
xy(x - y)
and suppose the
373
When
the
arranged around the circumference
first
term xy(x y)
is
given, the next
can be obtained from it by replacing each letter by

the one which follows it on the circle. Repetition of
the process gives the third term, and further repeti-
back to the first term. The given sum

thus consists of the term xy(x y) together with the
two similar terms obtainable from it by cyclic interchange ofx, y, z\ it can be written
tion leads
Lxy{x-y).
The number of letters involved has either to be stated explicitly, or

must be clear from the context; otherwise the S-notation is ambiguous.
Observe that the complete sum is unaltered if we replace x by y,
y by z, and z by x; for this cyclic interchange merely alters the order
in which the three terms occur. The expression (y z) (z x) (x y) has
the same property.
Definition. An expression in x, y, z which is unaltered by cyclic
interchange of these letters
in (x, y, z).
similar definition can be given when there are
is cyclic
more than three

For convenience of reference and comparison, it is desirable
to write expressions with their terms in cyclic order whenever possible.
Thus we prefer to write bc + ca + ab rather than ab + ac + be.
Remark (y). To test an expression for symmetry or skewness we
interchange letters two at a time. A cyclic interchange involves change
of all the letters. Thus a function may be cyclic but not symmetric,
e.g. I,xy{x-y), bc 2 + ca2 + ab 2 See also Ex. 10(6), no. 16.
letters.
Exercise 10(6)
Prove that the following expressions have linear factors, and find them.
1
2x2 -Zxy-2y i + 7x + 6y-'t.
x*-y i + 2xz-14yz-48z*.
374
3
[10.3
Find the values of a for which 2a; 2 5xy 3y 2 x + ay 3 has

[The factors must be of the form (x 3y + 3k) (2x + yllk).]
linear
factors.
4 Show that x 2 + Axy + 3y 2 + 2x 2y + 6 does not possess linear

Using
the
remainder theorem, together with considerations of degree, symmetry
and skewness when

5
(x + y + z) 3
helpful, factorise
-(x3 + y3 + z 3 ).
+ zx(z 2 x 2 +xy(x 2 y 2
x(y-z) + y(z-x) 3 + z(x-y) 3
(x + y + z) 5 -{x 6 + y 5 + z 5
6 yz(y 2
7
factors.
).
).
9 Write the expressions in nos.

10 Write in
(i)
full
Zx 2
6, 7
in the S-notation.
the following expressions, assumed

lLx 2 y 2 ;
(ii)
S6c(6-c);
(hi)
(iv)
to involve three letters:
Sa 2 6c;
(v)
26c2
[In (v), cyclic interchange gives bc + ca + ab which is only half the number
of terms implied by S, meaning 'sum of all terms of the type "letter x another
letter squared'".]
2
11
Prove that
(i)
S(6-c)
a(6
(iii)
12 Prove S(6 - c) 3
=
2
0;
-c
Xbc(b-c)
(ii)
2
)
= Sa 2 (6-c);
(b-c)(c-a)(a-b).
3(6 - c) (c - a) (a -
6).
Sa 8 (6 2 -c 2 = -(b-c)(c-a)(a-b)(bc + ca + ab).
14 Prove that Sa n (6 c) contains the factor (6 c) (c a) (a 6)
positive integer n ^ 2.
13 Prove
*15
By taking x = 6 c, y = c a,
(i)
duce no.
12.
(ii)
16
(c
- a) 5 + (a - 6) 5
Prove that a symmetric or skew function of three variables
[If/(a, 6, c) is
any
a b in the example in 10.22(2). deSa 3 (6 c) 3 (iii) Use the result of
Similarly, deduce the factors of
no. 8 to factorise (6 - c) 5 +
for
is
also cyclic.
symmetric,
= f(b,a,c) =f(b,c,a);
-f(b, a, c) = - { -/(&, c, a)} = /(&, c, a).]
f(a,b,c)
if it is
10.3
skew,
f(a. 6, c)
Polynomial equations: relations between roots and
coeffi-
cients
10.31 Quadratics: a
If the equation ax
reader will
know
summary
+ bx + c =
that
has roots
a+/3 =
a,
fi
a/?
-.
He will have used these symmetrical relations to

of other symmetric functions of
(possibly equal), the
a and
ft
calculate the values
(such as
a 2 +/? 2
a//?
+ /?/a),
and to construct quadratics having prescribed functions of a and ft

as roots (e.g. 'form the equation whose roots are 3a /?, 3/? a').
We now extend this work to cubic and quartic equations.
10.32]
375
10.32 Theory of cubic equations

If the distinct
numbers
a,
/?,
satisfy
ax3 + bx 2 + cx + d
(i)
0,
then by Theorem I of 10.13,
ax3 + bx 2 + cx + d
numbers a,
Theorem x-cc and x-fi are
If the unequal
division the other factor
= a(x-a){x-fi)(x-y).
ft
satisfy
then by the Remainder
(i),
factors of the left-hand side,
'
Similarly,
that the factor x-fi appears twice in (ii).

the roots of (i) we mean that the right-hand side of
'
(ii)
if a,
holds in
/?,
all
and by
seen to be linear and of the form a(x y).

are the roots of (i) we mean that y = fi, so
is
By the statement
Thus,
(ii)
by
3
(ii) is a(x - a)
(not necessarily distinct) are the roots of
cases.
a are
'a, a,
Expanding the right-hand
side
(i),
by
then
direct
multiplication,
ax3 + bx 2 + cx + d
Equating
axa -a(a+/3 + y)x 2 + a(fiy + ya + afi)x-aafiy.
coefficients,
we find
a + p + Y = -^,
PY + Y + P =
Conversely, the cubic having roots x
a,
(x-a)(x-fl){x-y) =
i.e.
in
^
ft,
a PY =
P)
y is
0,
x3 -(a+fi + y)x 2 + (py + ya, + afi)x-otfiy
0,
which
and
the coefficient of x3
is
the coefficient of x2
is
the coefficient of x
is
the constant term
is
+1,
(sum of roots),
(sum of the products of the
roots taken in pairs),
(product of roots).
of the signs.
Observe the sequence
Remark. The relations (iii) do not help us to solve the cubic equation,
because ehmination of (say) and y from them leads to
-|
act3
+ b<x 2 + ca + d =
0;
they are equivalent to the information that

of(i)'.
'a, /?
and y are the roots
376
[10.32
Examples
(i)
If a,
/?,
are the roots of pa? + qx +r
Sa 2
(a)
We have
S^,
(6)
Sa =
Sa 2 =
(a)
.Firs*
method. Since
S/?y
0,
express in terms of p, q, r:
0,
Sa 5
(a*)
(e)
S/? 2?-
a^y = --.
-,
(Sa) 2 -2S/?y
a
(c)
Sa 3
(c)
= 0-2?- =
a/>y
a is a root of the given equation,

pot 3
there are similar relations for
/?,
+ q<x + r =
0;
y. Adding,
pSa 3 + gSa + 3r =
Sa 8 =
.-.
0,
By the example in 10.22 (2),

+ y 8 -3a/y = (a+/? + y) (a 2 +/#2 + y 2 -/?y-ya-ayff)
Second method.
+/ff
0,
Sa =
since
0.
3r
Sa 3 = 3a#y =
.-.
P
(d)
From the given
pa.
Adding
this to the
0,
+ qu + ra =
0.
equation, >a 8 + qoc + r
two
similar relations for
fi,
y,
2>Sa 8 + gSa 3 + rSa 2
and hence
0.
and so Sa 6 = 5qr/p 2
2
(e) Consider (Sa)(S/tfy). A term like y# y occurs only once, as the product
ft .[iy. The terms a/?y arises in three ways, from a./ffy, fi.ycc, y.afi. Hence
by using
(a)
and
(c),
(Sa)(S/?y)
:.
= S/?^
3r
,
p
Form the cubic whose roots are
S^ +
Sa/Jy.
and
Efi*y
Sr
= -.
p
(a) ft + y, y + a, a
(b) fly/a, ya//?, ccfify,
fl
+x 2 24% 16 = 0.
We have
Sa = -1, S/?y = -24, a/?y = 16.
(a) /? + y = Sa-a = -1-a. Similarly y + a = -1-/?, a + /? = 1-y. We
require the cubic whose roots are 1 a, 1 ($, 1 y.
(ii)
where a,
are
roofe o/ x 3
10.33]
= I x, i.e. x = 1 y:
In the given equation put y
(-l-2/)
i.e.
377
+ (-l-2/)2-24(-l-2/)-16 =
y* + 2y* - 2Sy - 8 = 0.
0,
(A)
The values of y which satisfy this are related to the values of a; which satisfy
the given equation by the formula y = 1 x. Since these values of a; are a, fi, y,
1 y; therefore (A) is the required
hence the values of y are 1 a, 1
cubic. (We could also say that
xs + 2x*-2Zx -8
is
the required equation, because the letter used for the unknown
are given.)
(b) fiyfoc = afiyloc* = 16/a 2 Put y = 16/x*, i.e. x 2 = 16/y:
is
immaterial
this is the required equation;
but see the
when the roots
\y
so
by
64cc a
squaring,
^-3j =
*(?-.)
y\y
The argument used
in (a)
Remark at the end
of 13.53.
shows that
16 2
^1-^
=M
a
,
y)
y* 38t/ a +
which reduces to
4% 16 = 0.
10.33 Quartic equations
By reasoning
as in 10.32
we
find that if a,
ax* H-foe3 + cx % + dx + e
a + fi + y + 8 = --,
then
y,
0,
afi+a,y + a8+fiy+fiS+y8
-,
= --,
i.e.
i.e.
aBy8 = -
Hafi
-,
Ea^y = --,
Cb
and
8 are the roots of
Sa = --,
i.e.
fiy8+y8a + 8<xfi + afiy
/?,
Qi
Again notice the alternation of the
signs.
Applications of the theory given in 10.31-10.33 to coordinate
geometry are illustrated in 16.22 (2);
and elsewhere.
16.26, ex.
(i);
16.32; 16.12, ex.
(ii);
378
[10.4
Exercise 10(c)
If a,
ft
are the roots of x 2 5x + 3
a 2/? + a/? 2
(i)
(v) (a-/?) 2 ;
2 If a,
roots are
(ii)
are the roots of
/?
(i)
(iii)
^ + ^;
(vi)
i/ a ,
calculate
(a-l)(/?~l);
a3 +
(vii)
+ 2* 4 =
3a; 2
a2
(ii)
0,
/?
(viii)
a 2 +/? 2
a4 +
/ff*.
a+
/?+ 1/a.
1//?,
Write down the conditions for both roots of ax + bx + c =

2
z
14a; 24 = 0, calculate
/?, y are the roots of x +
to be positive.
construct the equation whose
0,
(iii)
/ff
(iv)
4 If a,
(a + l)(/?+l)(y+l);
(i)
(v)
Za 3
(vi)
(iii)
(ii)
2a 4
(i)
P+y, y + a,
a+fi;
(iv)
(ii)
a2
-j^
,
/ff
2
,
-L,
2
;
^;
(v)
(iv)
0y
S^;
(vii)
5 If a, /?, 7 are the roots of x + 4a; + x 2

whose roots are
3
Sa 2
(iii)
a" 2
0,
a(/?
/?~ 2 ,
construct the equation
+ 7), /% + <*), 7(+A);
7~ 2
6 If a, /?, 7 are the roots of 6a; x 6x 2 = 0, form the equation

roots are a + \, /? + \, y + \. Hence solve the given equation.
3
has two roots equal, prove

7 If x 3 + BHx + G =
roots be a, a, /?; then 2a +/? = 0.]
G 2 + 4H3 =
3Hx + G = are in a.p., prove G = 0.

+ px 2 + qx + r = 0, find the condition for the roots
8 If the roots of x z +
9 If
a;
0.
[a + 7
whose
[Let the
to be in
2y#.]
(i)
a.p.
g.p.
(ii)
10 If a, /?, 7 are the roots of a; 3 + px 2 + qx + r = 0, construct the equation whose

roots are a 2 fiy, P 2 ya, y 2 ocfi, and comment on the special cases (i) p = 0,
2
2
2
(ii) q 0. Also write down the value of (a - Py) (fi - yet) (y - a/?).
a 2 -fiy = a 2 + a
J_
I
3
= a +r =
pct 2 q<x
= -(pa + q).
,
~|
_|
has roots a, /?, 7, 5, construct the equation whose roots

If xi + px 3 + q =
a + ji + y, ft + y + 8, y + d + ct, 8 + a + fi.
has three equal roots, prove that p 2 + 12r = and
12 If a; 4 + px 2 + qx + r =
2 =
value of the repeated root is 3g/4p.
that
the
and
show
32pr;
9g
11
are
10.4
Elimination
10.41 Further examples
When a
is
system of equations is given and the number of equations

number of unknowns, then in general the equations
be satisfied unless the coefficients are related in some way.
greater than the
cannot
all
10.41]
379
There may be more than one such relation. Each is called an eliminant
of the system of equations. Owing to the importance of elimination,!
especially in coordinate geometry,
No general methods
(i)
Use of an
we
some further examples.
give
can be laid down; but see 11.43.
identity.
Eliminate x, y, z from
x + y+z
a,
From the identity

x
b2
x3 + y 3 + z3
c3 ,
xyz
= d3
(10.22, ex.)
+ y + z -3xyz =
3
+ y + z)(x 2 + y 2 +z 2 -yz-zx-xy)
c - 3d 3 = a(b 2 - Hyz)
= Ea: 2 + 22yz, so Xyz = %{a 2 -b 2
2(c3 - 3d3 = a(36 2 - a 2
(x
we have
(Sz) 2
and
Hence
(ii)
x2 + y 2 +z 2 =
).
).
Use of theory equations.
nfrom (y-mx) 2 = a 2m 2 + b 2 (y nx) 2 = a 2n 2 + b 2 mn = 1.

The first two equations show that m and n are the roots of the quadratic in t
Eliminate m,
= a2t 2 + b 2
+ 2xyt + (6 2 - y 2 =
(y-tx) 2
(a
i.e.
-x
2
)
0.
The third equation shows that the product of these roots

b
-y =
1, so
a2 x2
x 2 +y 2
i.e.
is
a2 + b 2
For the geometrical interpretation see 17.47,

The method illustrated in ex. (ii) can sometimes be used to solve a system of
equations as in ex. (iii) following. See also Ex. 10(d), nos. 12-14.
(ii).
(iii)
Solve for x, y,z:
x + ay + a 2z
a*,
These equations show that
x + by + b 2z
a, b, c
Since the coefficient of
Hence
is
c*.
zero, the
sum
0.
of the roots
is
zero,
and hence the
(a + b + c). Then
x = product of roots = abc(a + b + c)

y = sum of the products of the roots taken in threes
= abc (a + b + c)(bc + ca + ab);
z = sum of the products of the roots taken in pairs
= bc + ca + ab (a + b + c) (a + b + c)
= -(a 2 + b 2 + c 2 + bc + ca + ab).
x = abcZa, y = abc-(Za) (Hbc), z = E(a 2 + 6c).
f It
27
3 is
x + cy + c 2z
are three roots of the quartic in
t*-t2z-ty-x
remaining root
bi ,
has already been used in this book.
GPMII
380
Common root
10.42
of two equations
The necessary and
(1)
sufficient condition that the quadratics
ax 2 + bx + c
have a
[10.42
0,
a'x 2 + b'x + c'
common root is
{ab'- a'b)
-b'c)
{be'
-c'a) 2
{ca'
is a value of x which satisfies both equations,

then by treating them as simultaneous equations in x 2 x and elimin-
Necessary. If there
ating
first x,
and then x 2 we obtain

,
(ab'
a'b) x 2 =
{ab'- a'b)
be'
{be'
b'c,
-b'c)
a'b) x =
{ab'
{ab'-a'b) 2 x 2
ca'
c'a.
{ca'
-c'a) 2
so that the condition follows.

Sufficient. If ab'
a'b
=(=
the condition
0,
(ca'-c'a\ 2
be'
Put A = {ca'-c'a)l{ab'-a'b)\ then A 2 =

{ab'
{ab'
- a'b) A 2 =
be'
- b'c,
- a'b) {aX 2 + bX) =
{ab'
a{bc'
(i)
-b'c
{be'
-b'c)/ {ab' -a'b),
- a'b) X =
{ab'
a'b) (aA 2 + bA + c) =
0;
and
ca'- c'a.
- b'c) + b{ca' - c'a)
c{ab' a'b)
Hence
can be written
and
on simplifying.
similarly
{ab'-a'b) (a'A 2 + 6'A + c')
0.
a'b #= 0, these show that x = A satisfies both quadratics.

a'b = 0, then the given condition (i) shows ca' c'a = 0.
Hence a:b:c = a' :b' :c', and so the quadratics are not independent.
Since ab'
If ab'
In this case the result holds trivially.

Remark. Direct calculation will verify that
4{{ab'
- a'b) {be' - b'c) - {ca' - c'a) 2}

=
The condition
(i) is
{b 2
(6
- 4ac) (6' 2 - 4aV) - {2ac' + 2a' c - bb'f.
therefore equivalent to
- 4ac) {b' 2 - 4aV) =
{2ac'
+ 2a' c - bb'f.
(ii)
10.43]
381
When the given equations are of degree higher than the second,
(2)
we ehminate the highest powers step by step until two

with a common root are obtained. For example, if
quadratics
/ = ax3 + bx 2 + cx + d =
and
have a common
root,
(
root
if
like
(i)
then this root also
(iii)
satisfies
pb aq)x2 + (pc ar)x+pd
p / ax
.
0, i.e.
(iv)
0.
and p.f ax.g = is also a

root of g =
and / = 0. Hence / = 0, g = have a common
and (iv) have a common root, and a condition
common
Conversely, a
common root
= px 2 + qx + r =
of g
and only
if (iii)
will express this fact.
10.43 Repeated roots
With the notation of

p(x)
where g{a)
4= 0.
root
a,
r.
// p(x)
0,
(x-ct) r g{x)
(1
<
<
n),
not a factor
We say that the polynomial p(x) has a repeated
and that the equation p{x) = has an r-fold

r equal roots a, a root x = a, of multiplicity r, or a root x = a
If r = 1, we call # a a simple factor of p(x), and x = a a
simple root ofp(x)
p'(x)
g(x).
x a of order
of order
suppose that
Then by the Remainder Theorem x ocia
of the polynomial
factor
10.13,
r;
0.
has a root x
of order
=a
of order
r,
then
=a
is also
root of
rl.
Proof.
#'(a:)
r(x a) r_1 g(x)
+ (x a) r g'{x)
= (x- a)'-1 {rg(x) + (x - a) gr'(z)}.

Since ^(a)
=# 0,
the contents of the last bracket are non-zero
when
= a is a root of p'{x) = 0, of order exactly rl.

Conversely, if p'{x) =
has a root x = a of order rl, then provided
x = a satisfies p(x) = 0, it is a root of p(x) = of order r.
of order s. Then the
Proof. Suppose x = a is a root of p(x) =
preceding theorem shows that a is a root of p'(x) =
of order 51.
Hence rl =31, i.e. r s.
x
a.
Hence
a;
These two results show that the necessary and

to have a repeated root is that p(x) =
for p(x)
common
sufficient condition
0, p'{x)
have a
root.
27-2
382
[10.5
Exercise 10(d)
Eliminate
from
2 x = a(l-t 2 )/(l + t 2 ),y = 2bt/(l + t 2

+ l/t?.
2
3 Eliminate x y from x + y = a, x + y 2 = b 2 x* + y* = c 4
4 If a 2 + x 2 = b 2 + y 2 = ay bx = 1, prove a 2 + 6 2 = 1.
[(a 2 + a: 2 + (& 2 + 2/ 2 )-2(GM/-&a:) = 0, i.e. (x + b) 2 + (y-a) 2 = 0, ;. x = -b and
V = ]
5 If a3cc + 6 3 i/ = xy, b 3x a 3y = x 2 y 2 and x 2 + y 2 = 1, prove a 2 + b 2 = 1.
t-ljt, y
).
[Solve the
first
6 Eliminate
(i)
y + nx
8
two equations
x, y, z
Eliminate
= b 2 zx = c 2
3
y + Ix = al + 2aZ,
third.]
a 2 yz
= d2
= aw3 + 2am, and
x2 + y 2 + z %
i/
+ ma;
Interpret geometrically.
*(ii)
Eliminate m, n from
m x my + a = 0,
n 2x ny + a
*(ii)
a3 b z using the
from
x,
= an 3 + 2an.
(i)
from xy
for
m n = c(l +mn).
0,
9 Eliminate
m, n from the equations in no.

fi from
Z,
and Im =
b.
10 Eliminate A,
a2 + A
11
62
+A
a 2 +^
Solve the following equations for
x + ay + a
=
a+b+c =
x+y+z =
12 Solve a + b + c
13 Solve
14 Solve
= a3
x
to
the necessary
x + cy + c 2z
c3
and
2px 2 + 2qx + r
and
is
sufficient condition for
x2 +px + q
and
Spqr + p r + q =
3
0.
sufficient condition for the following to
+px + q =
0. (Cf.
Ex. 10(a), no.
20.)
0. (Cf.
Ex. 10(a), no.
21.)
b3
= 7, abc = 3.
-2, a + b 2 + c 2 = 30, abc = -10.
3
3
3
2
2
2, x + y + z = 14, x + y + z = 20.
x*+px + q =
16 x
17
bc + ca + ab
5,
have a common root
Find
x. y, z:
x + by + b 2z
15 Prove that the necessary

3
6 2 +/t
18 Find the common root condition
for
axz + bx + c
have a double
0,
root.
px 3 + qx + r =
0.
[Eliminate x, x 3 in turn.]
*19 If b 2 # c and (x 2 + 2bx + c) r_1 is a factor of p(#) and of p\x), prove that
+ 2bx + c) r is a factor of p(x). Explain why the restriction b 2 4= c is needed.
(x 2
10.5
The
h.c.f.
10.51
The
h.c.f. process
The
of two polynomials
last result in 10.43
any) of p(x)
0,
we must
shows
find
that, to find the repeated roots (if
all
factors
common
top(x) andp'(x).
10.51]
We now show how to find the
common
highest
383
factor (h.c.f.) of
any
pair of polynomials f(x), g(x). It will be convenient to write deg/
and so on.
m and deg g = n, where m ^ n. Then we can divide
obtaining the quotient q x (x) and remainder rx (x), wheref
for 'the degree of f(x)
Suppose deg/ =
f(x)
by
g(x),
=g(x)q x (x) + rx (x).
f(x)
The degree of rx (x) must be less than that of

degrx ^ n 1. We can therefore divide g(x) by r x (x),
q 2 (x) and remainder rz (x), where
3W
getting quotient
(ii)
degr2 ^ n 2.
i.e.
Similarly, dividing rx (x)
rJx),
and hence
g(x),
=rx {x)q 2 (x) + r 2 (x)
g(x)
and degr2 < degr1?
(i)
where
by
.
r x (x)
r 2 (x) gives
quotient q3 (x) and remainder
n~\
(m)
=r 2 (x)q3 (x)+r3 (x)

,
and deg rz ^ n 3.
Proceeding thus,
and
where
rs+1 (x)
applications:]:
First,
0.
we eventually
V-aO*)
=rs- 1 (x)qs (x)+rs (x)
rs_ x (x)
The
rs (x)qs+1 (x)
stage
is
suppose f(x) and g(x) have a
identity
(s)
+ rs+l (X),
(8+1)
reached after at most
n+l
of the successive division process
f(x)
The
obtain
(i)
rx (x)
=fx (x)h(x),
common factor h(x),
g{x)
so that
gx (x)h(x).
shows that
= f{x) - g(x) qx (x) =
h(x) {fx (x)
- g x (x) qx (x)},
is
is also a factor of r x (x). Identity (ii) then shows that h(x)

a factor of r2 (x), and so on. Finally, identity (s) shows that h(x)
is
a factor of rs (x). Hence
so that h(x)
any common factor
off(x), g(x) is also
a factor of r8 (x).
lc(x) is a factor of rs (x). Then identity (s+

a factor of rs _ x (x); hence by identity (s), k{x)
Secondly, suppose that
shows that
k(x) is also
(A)
t Cf. 10.13, ex. (v).

% This is seen from the degrees of the successive remainders.
1)
is
384
a factor of r8_ 2 {x)

g(x),
and hence by
etc.
Thus from
(i) it
is
any factor of rs (x)
From
(B)
it
and g(x);
must also be a
see that k(x)
is
a factor of
a factor off(x). Therefore

is
a common factor of f(x) and
follows that rs (x) itself
and (A) shows that every
f(x)
we
(ii)
[10.51
g(x).
(B)
must be a common factor of

common factor off(x) and g(x)
factor of rs (x). Consequently,
(a) if rs (x) == constant,
then f(x) and g(x) can have no algebraic

g(x) are coprime polynomials;
common factor, and we say that f(x),
a polynomial, then rs (x) is the (algebraic) highest

common factor f off(x) and g(x). It has been found as the last non-zero
(6)
if rs (x) is
remainder in the process of successive division just described (the h.c.f

process or Euclid's algorithm).
Examples
(i)
Find
the h.c.f. of
2a;
- 4a;8 + 5a; 2 + 2a; -3 and Xs - x* + x* + 4a; 2 - 2x + 3.
We begin by dividing
2(x6 -x i + x 3 +
4x*-2x + S)
by
2a;
- 4a; 8 + 5a; 2 + 2a; - 3,
in order to avoid introducing fractional coefficients. The introduction or

removal of numerical common factors at any stage is permissible since this
does not alter the algebraic factors, f

g
2xl -4x3 + 5x 2 +
2x* + 2x 3 - 6a; 2 +
2x-
18a;
2a;
-6a; 3 +lLr a -16a;- 3
-6x 3 -
6a;
+ 18a; -54
-34a; + 51
2
2x+ 3 = r2
17a; 2
Remove
factor 17:
The K.c.v.
(ii)
is
a;
2a; 6
- 2a;4 + 2a;8 + 8a; 2 -4a; + 6 = /

- 4a;4 + 5a;3 + 2a;2 - 3a;
8
2
2a; 4 - 3a; + 6a; - x + 6
2x* - 4a; 8 + 5a; 2 + 2a; -3
xa + x 2 -3x + 9 = r 1
x3 -2x 2 + 3x
3a; 2 -6a; + 9
3a; a -6a; + 9
= r,
the last non-zero remainder ra viz. x 2 2x +

,
Test the equation

4a; 5
- 20a;4 + 25a;8 + 10a; 2 - 20a; - 8 =
for repeated roots, and hence solve it.

repeated factor off = 4a; 5 20a;4 + 25a; 8 + 10a;2 20a; 8
3.
is
Numerical factors are regarded as irrelevant; Xrt (x), where

f
constant, would also be called the h.c.f.
common factor
is
any non-zero
10.52]
H.C.F.
- 16a;3 + 15a; 8 + 4x - 4). We therefore

process to/and
4
3
2
g s 4a; - 16a; + 15* + 4a;-4.
of / and /'
5(4a; 4
4a; 4
-16a; 3 +15a; 2 + 4a;-4
4a; 4
- 14a;3 +
- 2ar*+
- 2a;3 +
The
it
h.c.f. is 2a; 3
4a; B
-4a;-4
that
begin by applying the
- 20a;* + 25a; 3 + 10a; 2 - 20a; - 8 = /

-16a;4 +15a;3 + 4a; 2 - 4a;
- 4a;4 + 10a;3 + 6a; 2 - 16a;- 8
- 4a; 4 +16a; 3 -15a; 2 - 4a; + 4
- 6a;3 + 21a; 2 -12a;-12
Remove 3:
3
2a; - 7a; 2 + 4a; + 4 = r x
4a;
+ 8a;
lx 2 - 4a; 8a; 2
7a: 2
385
r9
7a; 2 + 4a; + 4. By
using the Remainder Theorem,
we
find
has a factor x 2; hence

H.CB-.
From
10.43
it
(x -2) (2a; 2 -3a; -2)
follows that
(a;-2) 2 (2a;+
x 2, 2x+l are repeated
and that x = 2, x = \ are roots of/

there can be no other roots.
in/,
of orders
1).
factors of orders 3, 2
3, 2.
Since/ has degree
5,
An important algebraic theorem

The identities (i), (ii), ... in 10.51 show that
10.52
ri
ra
and so
on.
=
=
f+bo g,
where
(hf+brf,
where
ax
We thus see that

rs
where a, b are polynomials in x.

Writing/ = rs <J>, g = rt f, then by
1
where 0,
\Jr
//
Theobem.
af+bg,
(C)
(C)
a<j>
+ bxjr,
factor. Since a<fi + bijr has no algebraic

are coprime.
constant, then we may divide (C) by rs and get the important
If f, g are coprime polynomials, then other coprime polynomials
1),
hence
B exist for which Af+ Bg =
A,
= -qx
b t = l + q1 qa
have no algebraic common
factor (being identically

(a)
= 1,
= -q 2
a, b
1.
If rs is a polynomial in x, then we have:

The h.c.B". of two polynomials f, g can be written in the form af+bg, where a, b
are coprime polynomials.
polynomial is said to be irreducible when it has no algebraic
Definition.
factor of lower degree than itself.
Cobollaby. If f is irreducible and g, h are polynomials such that f is not a
factor of g but f is a factor of gh, then f must be a factor of h.
Proof. ^ Since / is not a factor of g, the degree of any common factor of/, g
is less than the degree of / and is therefore zero since by hypothesis / has no
such factor. Hence /, g are coprime and, by the theorem, polynomials A,
exist such that
, _
,
(6)
= Af+Bg,
h = Afh + Bgh.
therefore gh = fk for some polynomial k, and so
h = (Ah + Bk)f,
.
and so
Since / is a factor of gh,
i.e.
/ is a factor of h.
t
The
result is 'intuitively obvious'.
386
[10.53
Remarks
(a)
The polynomials
a, 6 in
a,
(where c
is
identity (C) are not unique, for clearly
and
a-\
any polynomial) would
0,
also satisfy (C).
There are arithmetical results (important in the Theory of Numbers)

analogous to the preceding; they can be formulated by replacing 'polynomial',
'irreducible', 'degree' by 'integer', 'prime', 'magnitude' respectively.
(/?)
10.53
Theory of partial fractions
An application of the theorem in 10.52 is to prove the possibility of resolving

a rational function into partial fractions. In 4.62 we stated and illustrated the
practical methods for doing this in any particular example, but we did not
attempt a general justification of our statements.
Definitions. The rational function f/g, where / and g are polynomials in a;, is
called (a) irreducible if /, g are coprime; (6) proper if deg/ < deggr.
Iff, g have H.c.s\ h (found as in 10.51), then / = hfx and g = hgx so that
(except for those values of x which make g = 0) f/g = fx /gx emdf1 ,g1 are coprime. We shall therefore always assume that the rational function is irreducible.
Iff/g is not proper, we can express it as the sum of a polynomial and a proper
fraction in the form q + r/g, by finding the quotient q and remainder r when
,
/ is divided by g.
Theorem. If p x p 2 are coprime polynomials,
f/(PiPz) can oe expressed uniquely in the form
the (irreducible) rational function
+ r-,
rx
3+
Pi
Pi
where qis a polynomial and rx /p x r 2 /p 2 are irreducible proper fractions.

Proof. Since p x , p 2 are coprime, polynomials A, B exist such that
,
APi + BP2 =
_/_
J(APl + Bp = Bf + Af^
2)
PiPz
By
division,
where deg rx
<
Bf =
q x p x + rx
deg p x and deg r 2
Pi'
PlPi
Pi
and Af =
q2p z + r2 ,
< degp 2 Hence

.
?i
+ ?2 + +
(i)
Pi
Pi
PiPi
where rx /p x r2 /p 2 are proper. They are also irreducible', for if (say) rx /p x reduces
to rx /p x then result (i) shows that//(p 1 p 2 ) is equal to a fraction with denominator p'xp % where deg (p[p 2 ) < deg (p x p 2 ); this contradicts the hypothesis
,
that f/(p x Pi) is irreducible.

To prove uniqueness of the decomposition
?+
+ =
Pi
then
Pi
(i),
?'
suppose
if
+ +;
PiPi
(q - q') p x p 2 + (r x - r^) p 2 =
Pi
Pi
(r 2 - r 2 p x
)
possible that
10.53]
Since
p2
is
a factor of the left-hand
p2
side, therefore
387
a factor of
is
(r2
r2 )p x
As p 2 is prime to p x by hypothesis, it follows from the corollary in 10.52 that

p 2 must be a factor of r2 r2 This is impossible unless r2 r 2 = 0, for p 2 has
higher degree than r'2 and r 2 and so certainly degp 2 > deg(r2 2 ). Thus
r2 = r2 and similarly we can show r'x = rx It then follows that q' = q.
.
p n are polynomials every two of which are coprime,

rational function f/(p x p 2 ...p) can be expressed uniquely
Corollary. If p lt p 2
then the (irreducible)
in the form
q-\
1-
Pi
...
Pn
Pi
r n /p n are proper and irreducible.

where qisa polynomial and rx \p x
This is proved by repeated applications of the preceding theorem:
,
Pi(Pi---Pn) to give
gi
then to p 2 (p 3
. . .
pn
first
to
+ -+
J1
Pi
Pz---Pn
to give
f
~
= ?2+
+;
p 2 P 3 ..-Pn
^*2
/i
p 2 ...p n
on. The uniqueness is proved by the same argument as in the theorem.

Remark. For their application to a given rational function f/g, the preceding
results depend on the factorisation of the denominator g into irreducible factors
PiP 2 ...p n (of. 4.63). In 13.61 we shall prove that a polynomial g(x) can be
factorised into the product of linear and irreducible quadratic factors like
(x a) r {(x b) 2 + c 2}*. Assuming this, the above corollary shows that
and so
f- =
q+
^ +S-
X
{(x
(x-a)
r
1*.
2
6)
(ii)
+ c 2 }*
where q and the rx r2 are polynomials and degrx < r. degr2 < 2s.
By division, any polynomial $(x) of degree m can be written in the form
,
<f>(x)
where
is
constant and
<f> x
(x)
on.
Combining
<f>(x)
all
a)$ 1 [x)+A a
has degree
$ x (x) =
and so
(x
Similarly
1.
(x-a)<f> 2 (x)+A x ,
these results,
we havef
= A +A x (x-a)+A 2 {x-a) 2 + ...+A m (x-a) m
Hence the proper fraction rx /(x a) r can be expressed as

Aft
J^L-t
a) r
any polynomial
Similarly,
<fi(x)
where A Q
4>(x)
(a;
$(x) can be written
{(x-b)* + c*}4> x (x)+A x + B0>
are constants. Proceeding likewise with
(4
a;
. . ,
a)
(j>
x {x),
+ + (^ 1 a; + 1 ){(a;-&) 2 + c 2 } + ...
+ (A s _ x x + Bs -X
etc.,
we obtain
This
is
the
Lemma in
6.41.
{(x
- 6) 2 + c 2}*-*
388
has degree 2s
can be decomposed as
if <j>(x)
x+B
{{x-b) 2 + c 2 }'
By
(iii),
A ^x + B
x + B1
+ c2}
s.x
(x-b) 2 + c 2
K
'
'
theorem shows that each of the
in proving the
unique.
(iv) is
combining
{{x-b^ + c 2 }*- 1
The argument already used

reductions
fraction rj{(x b) 2
Hence the proper
or less.
[10.53
and
(ii), (iii)
(iv),
we completely prove
in 4.62 (assuming, of course, the facts in 13.61;
the statements
made
but see the Remark in that
section).
Exercise 10(e)
Find
1
the h.c.f. of
x 3 + 3x z -8x-24, x3 + 3x 2 -3x-9.
2 2x 3 + 7a; 2 + lOx + 35, 2xi + 7x 3 - 2x 2 -3x +

3
- a: 2 + 4a: + 15,
2a: 3
a;
14.
+12a;-5.
Test for repeated factors, and hence factorise completely
a:
- 9a: 2 + 4a; +12.
x*
- x 3 + 4a; 2 - 3x + 2.
6 x - 3x 5 + 6a;3 -3x 2 -3x + 2.

Test for repeated roots,
and hence
+ 54
*9 Find polynomials A,
12a:
+ 4a:
-45a:
solve completely
8 x6 - 5x 3 +
0.
of least degree
^(2a;3 -3a; 2 + 4a;-l)
5a:
-2 =
0.
such that
+ B(a: 2 + 2a:-3) =
1.
Miscellaneous Exercise 10(/)

1 Prove a(x y ) 2hxy always has linear factors.
2 If 3x 2 + 2Axy + 2y 2 + 2ax 4y+ 1 has linear factors, prove that A must
satisfy A 2 + 4aA + 2(a 2 + 3) = 0. Is this sufficient?
2
Establish the identity

(i)
Expand
{x
+ y) to
3
Hx z 3xyz = (Sa;) (Lx 2 1>yz) as follows:

show x 3 + y 3 = (x + y) 3 3xy(x + y).
Deduce that x 3 + y 3 + z 3 3xyz = (x + y) 3 + z 3 3xy(x + y + z), and facsum of two cubes.

(i)
Verify
that x 2 + y 2 + z 2 yz zx xy = %{(y z) 2 + (z x) 2 + (x y) 2 }.
4
3
3
3
(ii) If x + y + z > 0, prove x + y + z
> 3xyz unless x = y z.
3
3
3
(iii) If x + y + z = 0, prove x + y + z = 3xyz.
5 If a: = b + c a, y = c + a b, z = a + b c, prove (using no. 4 (i))
(ii)
torise the
x3 + y3 + z 3 3xyz
4(a 3 + 6 3 + c 3 3abc).
4
4
(ii) Sa(6 - c
+ 21uyz to prove
2
2 =
(i) S(6 - c) 2 = 2E(a - 6) (a - c)
(ii) Sa (6 - c)
2S6c(a - 6) (a - c).
1~
3
3
Eliminate t from x = t 2 + 1~ 2 y = t +
Eliminate x, y from x y = a, x 2 y 2 = b 2 x 3 y3 = c3
If pa: qy = 2 y 2 py + qx = 4xy, x2 + y 2 = 1, prove (p + g)* + (p g)* =
6 Factorise
(i)
S(6 3 + c 3 ) (b-c);
7 Use the identity
(2a:) 2
).
Sa: 2
10
[Solve the
a;
first
two equations
for p, q, using the third.]
2.
389
11 'The equation (x l) 2 = A(a; 2/i) (x 4) has equal roots.' (i) If /t has a

given value, prove this statement holds for A = and one other value, (ii) If
A has a given non-zero value, prove the statement is true for two values of
ft only if A < 1. If A = 15, find the two sets of equal roots.
to divide the distance

12 Find the condition for the roots of ax 3 + bx + c =
between the roots of a'x % + b'x + c' = internally and externally in the same
ratio.
*13 If {a1 x 2 + b 1 x + c1 )/(a i x* + b 2 x + c 2 ) takes the same value

by aa x 2 + b a x + c3 = (6 2 > 4a3 c3 ), prove that
when x has
the
values given
a1
a2
&l
&jj
63
C\
C2
Cg
"
0.
[If the value taken is k, then (a 2'k a 1 )x 3 + (b 2 k b 1 )x + (c 2 k c 1 ) =

must have
the same roots as aa x 3 + b a x + c3 = 0. Hence corresponding coefficients are
proportional.]
14
(i)
What can be said about the coefficients in an equation whose roots are
a,fi,ccfi;
(ii)
where 61 + 6 2 + 6a
is
(iii)
0,a,,fi,y;
an
a/b,b/c, c!a;
*(iv)
tan dv tan
a,
tan ds ,
integral multiple of 7r?
If a line cuts the curve x = at 3 , y

the values tv t2 tz , prove Ti2 ta = 0.
15
= at?
ia.
three points for which
has
16 If one root of x* + ax + b
prove that the roots are
is
twice the difference of the other two,
= 0.
-136/12a, 136/3a, -136/4a, and that 144a3 + 21976 s

17 If a,
of p, q.
18
ft,
are the roots of x
+px + q =
0,
express a +fi
i
+ yt
in terms
Obtain the equation whose roots exceed by 3 the roots of

x* + 12x*
+ 49a;2 + 78x + 42 = 0,
and hence solve the given equation.

19 If a, ft are the roots of ax 2 + 2hx + b
roots are 1/tx, 1//3.
20 EUminate
x2
A,
y*
fi,
0, find
the quartic equation whose
from
x2
y3
z2
x2
y3
z2
+
-+^+
-=1,
+
= 1,
= 1
+ -?+
6+A c+A
a+/t e
b+/i c+/i
a+v b+v c+v
and
\/iv = abc.
s
3
=
If
21
x + Sax + Sbx + c
has a repeated root, prove that this root also
satisfies x 3 + 2ax + 6 = 0. Hence show that the repeated root is (c a6)/2(a 2 6).
22 Prove that x* +px + q = cannot have a repeated root of order 3.
a+A
'
23 Prove that
'
x3
x3
xn
= only when x = 1 if n is even, and

- 1) 0.]
Find k so that 2a;4 3a; 2 2x + k = has (i) a double root; (ii) a triple root;
cannot have a repeated root. [p'(x)

p'(x)
24
rt
4=
and solve
if
n is odd.
Clearly p(
in each case.
=t=
390
*25 Determine
the values of m and c for which the line y mx + c is
(i)
an
a double tangent, to the curve y = x 2 (x 2 + 4x 18).

has two double roots.]
[In (ii), the equation x 2 (x 2 + 4x 18) mx c =
and if ax 2 + bx + c, a'x 2 + b'x + c' have a common factor,
26 If 2ac' + 2a''c =
prove that at least one of these quadratics is a perfect square. [See 10.42 (1),
Remark.]
27 If a, b, c, d are constants such that ad 4= be, and /, g, p, q are polynomials
in x such that p = af+bg, q = cf+dg, prove that /, g and p, q have the same
h.c.f. What happens if acZ = bet
inflexional tangent,
(ii)
*28 If p{x,y) is a symmetrical polynomial in {x,y) having factor x y, prove

that actually (x y) 2 is a factor. [p(x,y) = Hars (xry s + x syr ). The conditions
for p to be zero when x = y are the same as those for dp/dx to be zero when
y.]
*29 Cubic equations : Cardan's method^ of solution. Every cubic can be reduced
(see Ex. 13 {d), no. 15) to the standard form
x* +
The identity in no.
shows that
BHx + G =
*/ y, z
(a)
0.
can be chosen so that
yz = -H,
3
3
=
that
Prove
then x
y z will be a root of (a).
y z must be the roots of
3 =
2
0.
t -Gt-H
z
y + z = G and
3
(b)
(c)
*30 (i) If O +
> 0, show that there are distinct numbers y, z satisfying (b),
so that x = y 2 is a root of (a). Use no. 4 (i) to show that there are no other
2
4Z?3
roots.
C 2 + 4H3 = 0, show that the right-hand side of the identity in

no. 3 becomes (x + 2y) (x y) 2 so that (a) has three roots, two of which are
equal, viz. - 2y, y, y.
3
2
(iii) If Q + 4H < 0, numbers satisfying (6) do not exist. The following
(ii)
If
trigonometrical method can then
Put x
= kcosd
in (a),
be used.
and choose h so that k 3 :3HJc
4:
3. Show
that
then becomes cos 30 = Q/{2H*J( H)}. Verify that condition (iii) ensures
that 3d can be found from this, and hence that three values of cos 6 = x/k are
(a)
obtainable.
f So-called, although discovered
by
Tartaglia.
391
11
DETERMINANTS AND SYSTEMS

OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
11.1
Linear simultaneous equations
11.11
Two
equations in two unknowns
The usual method of solving

ax x + bx y
cx ,
a2 x + b 2 y
c2
by elimination shows that

(ax b 2
-a 2 b x )x =
cx b 2
-c 2 b x
and
(a x b 2
-a2 b x )y =
a x c 2 -a 2 c x
(i)
If a x b 2 a 2 b x
4= 0, these give unique values for x and y.

a x b 2 a 2 b x = 0, we may assume throughout that a x and b x
= b x the first
(and likewise a 2 and b 2 ) are not both zero; for if a x =
= c x which is either false or trivial. Two cases
equation becomes
When
arise.
(a)
If at least one of c x b 2 c 2 b x a x c 2 a 2 c x
,
contradiction.
The given equations
is
not zero,
therefore have
no
(i)
gives a
solution,
and
are said to be inconsistent.

(b)
If a x b 2 a 2 b x
cx b 2
c2 b x = ax c2 a2 cx =
0,
then
(i)
gives
no
information. Since a x b x are assumed to be not both zero, suppose

,
ax
The
#= 0.
first
of the given equations can then be solved for x in
terms of y. When y
x be xn then
is
given the value y
X~
ax
Cl
+ b 2 y - c2 = ^ a
CT
a2 x
let
the value obtained for
Since
CT
2 Cl
+ b 2 y - c2
x
~ ai C2 +
a l & 2 ~ CT2 frl) t/0
ax
by hypothesis
(6),
any values of x, y satisfying the first equation also satisfy the second.
The solution is said to be indeterminate. (Roughly, hypothesis (6)
DETERMINANTS, LINEAR EQUATIONS
392
[11.12
coefficients are 'proportional', so that the
shows that corresponding
equations are not distinct.)

If
Geometrically, the given equations represent straight lines.
ax b 2 a 2 b x
the lines are not parallel, and the above solution (i)
represents their unique point of intersection. In case (a), the lines are
4= 0,
parallel, while in (b) the equations represent the
11.12 Three equations in three
to
same line.
unknowns
Here we obtain only the general form of the results corresponding

(i), and postpone discussion of details until 11.4.
Elimination of z from the first and second of
gives
(a x c 2
ax x + b x y + cx z
dx
a2 x + b 2 y + c2 z
d2
as x + b 3 y + c 3 z
d3
-a 2 c x )x + (b x c 2 -b 2 c x )y =
d x c 2 -d 2 c x
and ehmination of z from the second and third gives

(a2 c 3
-a 3 c 2 )a; + (& 2 C3-&3C a )^ =
d 2 c 3 -d6 c 2
Now ehminate y from these last two equations:

{(b 2 c 3 - 63 2 (a x c 2 - 2 c x - (b x c 2 - b 2 c x (a 2 c 3 )
(b 2 c3
- 63
2)
(d x c 2
On simphfying we find that the

c 2 (ax b 2 c 3
3 c 2 )}
2 cx )
- (b x c 2 - b 2 c x
coefficient of
(d 2 c 3
a x b 3 c 2 + a 2 b 3 c x a 2 b x c 3 + a3 b x c 2 a3 b 2 c x ),
similar expression.
a i h c 3 - a i &3 c 2 + a 2 &3 c i -a2 b x c 3 + a3 b x c 2 - a3 b 2 c x

should find similarly that this
expressions for y
3 c 2 ).
x is
and that the right-hand side reduces to c 2 times a

The solution for x therefore has denominator
We
and
is
also the
(ii)
denominator in the
z.
11.13 Structure of the solutions
Instead of proceeding to higher eliminations,

properties of the expression
we notice the following
(ii).
There are six terms. In each term there is just one a, one b and
one c; and in each term the suffixes 1 2, 3 all occur, without repetition.
The signs preceding the terms are alternately +
(a)
11.2]
393
(/?) The suffixes of the letters a, b, c in each term form one of the six
permutations of the numbers 1, 2, 3. For example, consider a z b x c3 if
we interchange the suffixes in pairs until they are in natural order
:
we
1, 2, 3,
find that the
number of interchanges
the term a3 b x c2 the number
terms for which the number

those for which it
that the
is
is
is
odd. Similarly, for
even. It is easily verified that all the
is
odd are preceded by the
evenf have
(For a given term
number of interchanges
is
either always
it
sign
while
can be proved
odd or
else
always
even, no matter how the rearrangement to natural order is carried out.)
Hence the sign of each term in
(ii) is decidable by the parity of the number

interchanges
of
of its suffixes from the actual to the natural order.
Determinants
1 1 .2
11.21 Determinants of order 2
The symbol
A=
ax
bx
a9
b9
called a second-order determinant, is defined to
mean a x b 2 az b x The
.
following five properties^ of A are easily verified.
The value of A
That is, if
(1)
is unaltered
A'
then A'
A.
by interchange of rows and columns.

a-,
b2
We call A' the transpose of A.
By use of this result, any property proved for rows extends at once
to columns,
and conversely. The following
will therefore
be stated for
rows only.
(2)
Interchange of two rows alters only the sign of A.
That
is,
a2
b2
ax
bx
= -A.
A=
(3)
// two rows are identical, then
(4)
Multiplication of any one row by k multiplies
For example,
t
X
is
kb x
a9
ft,
A by
k.
= M.
reckoned as even.
With the wording
minants
kax
0.
(11.22).
used, they hold without modification for third-order deter-
394
(5)
Addition
to
[11.22
any row of a multiple of another row does not
alter
the value of A.
For example, by adding k times the second row to the
we obtain
a x + ka 2
+ kb a
bx
a9
first
row,
A.
b9
11.22 Determinants of order 3
The symbol
ax
A=
a 2u
b9
called a third-order determinant,

c2
defined to
is
-&1
c3
a2
Co
as
c3
mean
+ CX
a%
b2
a3
b3
(i)
which (by using the definition of the second-order determinants)
is
equal to
~ b i( a 2 c 3 ~ % c 2) + Ci(a 2 6 3 - a3 b 2
= a 1 & 2 C3-a 1 63C 2 + a 2 63C 1 -a 2 6 1 c 3 + a3 6 1 c 2 -a36 2 c 1
a i(h c 3 ~ h c z)
on rearranging. This
is
the expression
(ii)
of 11.12,
and
is
(ii)
sometimes
referred to as the expansion of A.

c3 are called the elements of A; with
The numbers a x b x c v a 2
our notation, the suffix denotes the row and the letter denotes the
column in which a particular element lies.
The remarks in 11.13 show that the expansion of a third-order
,
determinant consists of 6 terms, each of which involves an element from

each row and each column but no two elements from the same row or the
same column. The sign before each term

according to the rule in 11.13 (/?).
shortly as
The
â
definition expressed
by
define determinants of fourth
how
(i)
bj ck
ax
is
determined by the suffixes

write the expansion of
above can be readily generalised to
and higher orders
the second-order determinants in
coefficient of
is
We may
(i)
(see 11.7). Observe
are constructed
the determinant obtained from
from A: the
A after deleting the
row and column containing a x the determinant in the middle term

is got by omitting the row and column containing b x from A; and
;
Since the elements a x b x c x appear as

multipliers of the second-order determinants, the expression (i) is
consequently referred to as the expansion of A from the first row.
similarly for the last term.
11.23]
395
The diagonal running from top left to bottom right is called the
leading diagonal, and the product a x b 2 c z of the elements in it is called
the leading term in the expansion of A.
Examples
(i)
+3
= 4(8-42)-5(4-21) + 3(12-12)
= -51.
(ii)
-h
+9
= a(bc -/) - h(ch -fg) + g(hf- bg)

= abc + 2fgh - a/ 2 - bg 2 - ch\
The reader should now do Ex.
11 (a), nos. 1-10.
11.23 Other expansions of a third-order determinant
We may arrange the expression
(ii)
of 11.22 according to elements
from any row of A and the corresponding second-order determinants

formed by deletion as described above. Thus, grouping by elements of
the second row,
A = -a a (6 1 c3 -63C 1 + 6 a (a 1 C3-a3 c 1 )-C2(a1 63-a 3 6 1

)
= -a 2
which
is
b3
+h
c3
ax
cx
ax
bx
as
c3
az
bz
(iii)
the expansion of A from the second row. Similarly,
A=
az {\ c 2 - 6 2 c x ) - b z {ax c 2 -a 2 c x ) + c 3 (a x b % -a z b x )
bx
cx
b2
c2
-h
ax
cx
a2
c2
+ cz
ax
bx
a2
b2
(iv)
the expansion from the third row.

Likewise,
we may arrange
A=
=
is
(ii)
by elements of any one column
e.g.
a x (b 2 c z -b z c 2 )-a 2 (b x c z -b z c x ) + az (b x c 2 -b 2 c x )
a.
a*
the expansion from the
first
+ 0-
(v)
column.
The reader should not attempt
to memorise these results because

they are all easily obtainable from the definition of A in expanded form.
28
GPMII
396
11.24 Properties of
We now
[11.24
show that the
properties (l)-(5) in 11.21 hold for third-
order determinants. In view of the
first, all
subsequent properties
hold for columns as well as for rows.
Proof of
(I).
A'
i a
az
bx
b2
b3
Ci
Ca
Co
&3
c3
C3
^2
+ 3
a.
a^&gCg - 6 3 c 2 )
- a2
& i c3
bx
&2
Cl
C2
by
definition,
~ & s c i) + %( & i c 2 - &2 c i)
= A by the line preceding
(v) in 11.23.
Proof of (2). Interchange of two rows is equivalent to interchanging

two of the suffixes 1, 2, 3. Results (i), (iii), (iv) show| that the sign of
changed in every case.

start from the definition;
and third rows gives
the determinant
Alternatively,
of the
first
is
we may
-6
a
bx
e.g.
interchange
Cj
3 (&2 C l _ &1 C 2) -
i(& 3 c 2 - b 2 c 3 )
Ma
2 Cl
- a l C t) + C 3
a2
- a i 6 2)
- h(a 3 c 2 - 2 c3 + c i( a 3 & 2 - H h)
)
on arranging by elements of the first row of A; and this is clearly A.

A similar direct proof would hold for other row interchanges.
Proof of (3). By interchange of the two identical rows we obtain
A, by (2). However, interchange of identical rows clearly leaves the
same determinant A as before. Therefore A = A, so A = 0.
Proof of (4). Since each term in the expansion of A contains exactly
one element from each row, multiplication of each element in a given
row by k causes every term in the expansion to be multiplied by k.
Hence the value of the new determinant is &A.

Proof of (5). We expand the new determinant by the row which
f Using the corresponding property already
sary.
proved for second order when neces-
11.25]
has not been mentioned. Thus,

first
row,
we
get
a x + ka 2
397
if
we add k times the second row to the
bx
+ kb 2
cx
+ kc 2
(vi)
The row
'not mentioned'
expand from
b t + kb 2
it,
cx
the third; using an equation like
(iv)
to
we see that the new determinant is equal to

a x + ka 2
+ kc2
60
is
+ kc
cx
ax + ka 2
a2
bx
+ kb 2
b2
+ c.
a9
b9
by using Property (5)

Again by equation (iv),
CL
C2
for each of the second-order determinants.

this expression is A.
Remarks
many extensions of Property (5). Three are indicated

in Ex. 1 1 (a), no. 22; but see the Remark about random manipulations
(a)
There are
after no. 29.

(/?) The operation by which determinant (vi) above is obtained
from A can be denoted by r1 -> r x + kr 2 With this notation, properties
(4) and (5) can be combined in a single statement:
.
//
rt
-^k 1 r1 + k2 r2 + k3 r3
A -> kt A
then
(i
or 2 or
3).
11.25 Examples
ways of simplifying a determinant when

direct application of the definition would be clumsy owing to the large
numbers or heavy algebra involved,
Properties (2)-(5) give
(i)
By
By
Evaluate
rs -> r3 - ra ,
we
get
35
29
86
36
31
87
38
32
89
35
29
86
36
31
87
35
29
86
ra -> ra rx , this becomes
(These two steps
may be
condensed into one by saying r8

'
r.
r2
followed
28-2
398
The
last
determinant
is
now
expanded, according to the definition, as
easily
-29
35
[11.25
+ 86
= 35.3-29.0 + 86(-3)
= - 153.
(ii)
Prove
+c
By rx
->
l*x
+ r2 the determinant
is
a+b
+a
0.
equal to
a+b+c a+b+c a+b+c
(a + b
=
(iii)
+ c) a
on removing the factor (a + b + c)

from the first row,
since the last determinant has
Evaluate
Xs
z3
two rows
identical
Direct expansion would be easy, but the following method has the advantage
of giving the result in factorised form.
By c 2 c 2 c l5 followed by c 3 -> c 3 c x the determinant is equal to
,
y-x
z
z
x
xz
= (y-x)(z-x)
y 2 + xy + x 2
Xs
by removing the
factor y x
pandingt from the
first
from column
2,
and
row, the only non-zero term
%
y + xy + x
2
x) (z x) (z 2 + xz y 2 xy)
(y x)(z x)(z y)(z + y + x)
= (y - z) (z - x) (x - y) (x + y + z)
=
=
x from column
3.
Ex-
is
1
(y-x) (z-x)
+ xz + x 2
z2
z*
+ xz + x 2
(y
f Before expanding a determinant

as here. Also see ex. (v) below.
it is
on
factorising the last bracket,
on arranging
cyclically.
helpful to get zeros in a
row
or column,
11.25]
(iv)
399
Without expanding either determinant, prove
a2
ca
ab
c2
be
Introducing a factor a in row
we have
be
6 in
1,
a2
a3
63
row 2, and c in row
abc
ca
bz
abc
62
63
a6c
aa
a"
62
6s
abc
abc
abc
ab
3 of the left-hand side,
on removing the factor abc from the
first
column of the middle determinant,
(v) 'Triangular' determinants.
ax
62
o2
62
63
C8
Ca
&3
the product of the elements in the leading diagonal. Similarly, a determinant

whose elements below the leading diagonal are all zero is thus readily evaluated.
Remarks
(a) In expanding a determinant from a given row (or column), the amount
of calculation is reduced if row- and column-operations can be used to introduce
one or more zeros into that row (or column), or indeed elsewhere also.
(ft) A determinant having a complete row or column of zeros has the value 0.
Exercise 11(a)
Evaluate the following determinants by direct expansion.
Ill
4
-h
-9
-2
-3
-2
xs
Xi
a?
2/i
2/2
~f
7 Show that
1
cos(w l)x
coanx
cos(n+l)a;
sin(w
sin
nx
sin(n+l)a;
l)o;
(1
2acosa5 + a2 )sina?.
Verify the following equations by expanding each side.
a2
62
c2
ca
ab
ax
by
cz
zx
xy
be
ax
by
cz
yz
abc
111
y
be
ca
ab
400
a+A
10 Verify that
+A
+A
= \* + (a + b + c)X 2 + (bc + ca + ab-p-g*-h*)\ + {abc + 2fgh-af i -bgi -ch*).
Using
the properties of determinants, evaluate the following.
13
11
14
10
15
16
12
12
b c ca a b
14
15
101
19
102
20
12
cab
103
20
bc
ca
15
b+c
c+a
20 Prove
EE
a2
x1
Xs
{a
+ b + c)(a 2 + b2 + c*-bc-ca-ab).
bx
19
a2
22 Prove
X*
Deduce an identity by comparing this

Prove
16
111
18
cab
21
13
13
a b a+b
17
result
(6
with that of no.
6.
c) (c a) (a 6).
ax
Cj_
a2
o2
a3
+ la x
6 2 + la 2
6 3 + las
bx
c1 + mb 1 + na1
+ m& 2 + na 2
c 3 + m& 3 + na8
ct
(This shows that to each column we may add multiples of the preceding columns.)
What
are the values of
a 1 + Xa 2 +/iai
(i)
bj^
a 2 + ra8
+ Xb^ + fiba
K + vb.
Cj^
+ Xc^+flCg
c2 + vcs
b,
+ A&i
&!
C!+/t&i
a 2 + A6 2
62
c 2 +/t& 2
&3
c 8 +/t6 3
aj
(ii)
a8 + A& 8
23 Solve
[c x ->
3-*
2-a;
4-jk
0.
c x + c 2 + c8 and remove 9 x; then r 2 -> rt rlt r3 -> r8 rx .]

,
11.3]
401
24 Without expanding, prove that

be
1
1
ca
ah
and hence evaluate the
first
a+x
b+x
aa
62
+ c)
ca(c + a)
ab(a + b)
bc(b
+c
c+a
a+b
b
determinant.
+x
a+y b+y c+y =
25 Prove
abc
(b-c) (c-a){a-b)(x-y).
ca
[Use the result of no. 21.]
JfA,B,G are the angles of a triangle, prove that

1 cos C cos B
1 cos A =0;
cos G
1
cos B cos A
26
and by expanding, obtain a

a
relation
between cos A, cosB, cosC. [Use
b cos C + c cos B, etc.]
27 Prove
c^
+ a^
6i
+ 2/x ^ + 2!
a2
62
Cjj
a3
63
cs
2/i
+
a.
&8
a general property.
If each element of A consists of the sum of two terms, prove that A
^tote <Ais reswft cw
28
(i)
equal to the
is
sum of 8
deteraainants. [See no. 27.]

(ii) If each element of A consists of the sum of three terms, how many
determinants are there in the expression for A as a sum of determinants?
29
By
using no. 28
D=
(i),
show that
a1 + A6 1
fti+ztCj
c1
a 8 + A6 2
6 2 +/tc 8
c2
a3 + A68
&3 +/*c3
+ va1
+ m2
c3 + va z
=(l+\/iv)
ax
6X
cx
o2
62
c2
a8
6S
c3
tempted to say that D is formed from A by the operations c t -> c x + Ac 2 c 2

c 2 + /tc3 and c 3
c3 + w^. A choice of A, [i, v such that
Xfiv = 1 makes D = 0, and appears to prove that A = 0; but the compound
manipulations of columns just described are a misuse of Property (5) and have
Remark.
We may be
not left the value of A unaltered. It is essential in applying Property (5) or its
extensions to leave at least one row or one column unaltered at each step.
11.3
Minors and cofactors
11.31 Definitions
and notation
The expansions of A from

in 11.23)
all
its
various rows or columns (written out
follow a pattern similar to the original definition: the
three terms each consist of an element from the particular
column from which the expansion
is
row or
being made, multiplied by the
[11.31
second-order determinant obtained from A by deleting the row and
column which contain that element, and prefixed by the sign + or
In some cases the signs run + instead of the standard H
402
1-
We now introduce a notation which will make all this systematic.

Definitions
The minor of an element of A is the second-order determinant

obtained from A by deleting the row and column in which that element
(a)
For example, the minors of b x a2 are respectively
lies.
(b)
The
a2
c2
az
c3
>
element in the
cofactor of the
the minor of that element multiplied

cofactor of b x which
,
(_
is
c3
ith.
by (-
the element in the first row, second column,
is
is
a2
1)1+2
az
^3
that of c z
row and jth column is

<+
the
1) *. For example,
ax
=+
(-1) 3+3
c3
a2
&2
Cofactors are 'signed minors'.

c 3 in A by the
We denote the cofactors of ax b v c a
expanvarious
The
A
C
A
B
C
letters
capital
corresponding
2 ,...,
z
v
x
Notation.
sions of A can
first,
2,
lf
now be written concisely and uniformly: those from the
second and third rows are
A=
and
1?
for
a-Â-^
+ b-^B^c^
(i)'
a 2 A 2 + b 2 B 2 + c 2 C2
(iii)
a 3 A s + b s Bz + c z C3
(iv)
'
'
columns we have
A=
a x A x + a 2 A 2 + az A z
bx
B + b 2 B2 + b z Bz
cx
Cx + c 2 C2 + cz Cz
(v)'
The reader should verify the last two as in
11.23.
These six results are
summarised in the following rule.

The expansion of a determinant from any row {or column) is the sum
of the elements of that row {column) each multiplied by the corresponding
cofactor.
11.32]
11.32 Expansion
by
403
alien cofactors
Consider the determinant
a2
b2
a9
b9
a3
^3
two rows identical, and consequently is zero. By expanding

from the first row according to the definition, we have
It has
=
=
c2
a2
-b 2
c3
c2
a3
a 2 A x + b 2 Bx + c 2 C1
+ c2
az
A x Bx Cx are cofactors in
where
A=
u-2
u2
a*
bo
In this way a total of 12 expressions each equal to zero can be formed by

sum of the elements in any row (or column) each multiplied by
the cofactor of the corresponding element from a different row (or
column). These results, which may be called 'expansions' of A by
'alien cofactors, are useful when employed in conjunction with those
taking the
'
of
1 1 .3 1
for expansion of
A by
'
true cofactors.
'
Examples
(i)
A=
If we interchange rows and columns, we obtain the same determinant; A is said

to be a symmetric determinant, meaning that it is identical with its transpose.
The cofactors are
B = ac-g
C = ab-h
A = bc-f
F = gh-af, G = hf-bg, H =fg ch.
2
Owing to the symmetry, we shall get only three

and six expansions by alien cofactors:
different expansions
cofactors,
A = aA+hH+gG = hH + bB+fF = gG+fF + cC;

= aH + hB + gF = aG + hF + gC
= hA + bH+fG = hG + bF+fC
= gA +fH + cG = gH+fB + cF.
by true
404
[11.4
This determinant arises frequently in coordinate geometry, and the use of

the above relations often saves much algebraic manipulation. The reader is
invited to verify some of them by direct substitution (see 11.22, ex. (ii)).
(ii) The proof of Property (5) in 11.24 can be expressed more concisely in the
notation for cofactors.
a x + ka 2
6X
+ Jcb z
CT<j
62
aZ
^3
cx
+ Jcc s
Cjj
C3
= (a 1 + ka 2 A x + (6 X + kb % Bx + (c t + fcc2 Gx
= (a 1 A 1 + b 1 B 1 + cx Cj) + Ha^ + 6 a B x + c 2 Cx
= A + k.O = A.
)
No. 27 of Ex. 11
11.4
can be done in a similar way.
(a)
Determinants and- linear simultaneous equations
We now return to the subject of systems of linear equations
(11.1),
and apply our knowledge of determinants to the problem of solving

them.
11.41 Cramer's rule
Consider again the system
ax x + bx y + cx z
a2 x + b 2 y + c 2 z
= d2
a3 % + b3 y + c3 z
dx
d3
Multiply these equations by the cofactors of a x a 2 a 3 in

,
ax
bx
^3
cx
A=
and add:
(a x
A x + a2 A + a3 A 3
2
x+
(b x A x + b 2 A 2 + b 3 A 3 y + (c x A x + c 2 A 2 + c3 A 3
= d x A x + d2 A 2 + d3 A 3
)
The
coefficient of
y, z are zero.
is
A, while
by
alien cofactors the coefficients of
Hence
dx
X
bx
d2
d3
b3
cx
Co
sum d x A x + d 2 A 2 + d 3 A 3 is the expansion from the

column of the determinant obtained from A by replacing its
because the
first
first
11.41]
405
column by the elements dv d2 dz appearing on the right-hand

,
sides
We may therefore write
of the given equations.
Az = A
(1)
where
(1)
A with its first column modified as just indicated.

the given equations by the cofactors of b x b 2 b s in A
denotes
Multiplying
^=
and adding gives

and
=|=
0,
A
= -
A
(1)
The
case
(3)
.
the solution of the given equations
A=
will
A< 2>
'
A(2)
=A
Az
similarly
If A
is
=A
unique and isf
(3)
Z
'
be considered later
'
(11.42).
Example
5,
3x-8y + 6z =
4,
Sx-2y-9z =
12.
2x + 4y-Sz
Solve
Here
A=
= 6x
2x 3x
-1
-4
-1
-3
by cx -^Cj-Cg,
followed by c 2
->
c a + 2c
= 6x49;
and
A<
-3
-8
-2
-9
12
= 2x3x2x
-2
-1
12
12 x
-2
12
-1
= 12x7(6+1)
-3
12 x 49.
=A
(1)
/A
2.
f Strictly, what we have just proved is that, if there are numbers x, y, z

satisfy the three given equations, then these numbers also satisfy Ax
A (1> , Ay
which
=A
(2)
,
Az = A <3) What we are now asserting is the converse of this, viz. that if there are
numbers x, y, z which satisfy these three derived equations, then they also satisfy
the given equations; see Ex. 11 (6), no. 16. The checking of solutions is thus not only
a practical precaution but a logical necessity.
.
406
Similarly
(2)
and
5-3
12
The
11.42
case
3 x 49,
so
-h
2 x 49,
so
z-
3-8
-2
12
-9
4
2
(3)
[11.42
when A = 0:
and indeterminacy
inconsistency
The proof of Cramer's rule shows that, if the given equations are satisfied by
(x,y,z),
then
Aa;
When A =
it
=A
Ay =
(1)
,
A< 2>,
Az
A< 3 >.
follows that, if the system possesses a solution,
A<
A<
2>
A<
3>
we must have
0.
(i)
If one or more of the determinants A(1) A(2) , A (3) is non-zero, there can be no
common solution; the equations are inconsistent.
Assuming that the consistency requirements (i) are satisfied, two cases arise.
,
(1)
At
least
Suppose
C8
one cofactor in A is non-zero.

4= 0,f and consider the two equations in two
a^ + ^y =
a2 x + b 2 y
unknowns J x, y:
dx c x z,'
(")
d 2 c 2 z.
C3 4= 0, these can be solved for x and y (as in 11.11) in terms of z. When

given the particular value z let the values obtained for x, y be x , y
We may actually solve (ii) for x and y, and show by direct substitution that
the values x Q y z do satisfy the third equation of the system. More elegantly,
however, we can prove this as follows.
Since (x ,y ,z ) satisfies (ii),
Since
z is
+ b x y + c x z -d1 =
+ c.2 z d 2 =
a3 x + b s y + c s z da =
a1 x
a z xQ + b y
and
fl
Suppose that
To show that
prove u = 0.
0.
u.
these values satisfy the third equation of the system
we have
to
Multiply the above equations by the cofactors of the elements in the last
column of
A =
(3)
dx
ax
6X
a2
62
<2 a
a3
6,
'3
dn
and add:
(a x Ci
Hence
+ a 2 C 2 + a 3 Gs x + (b G x + 6 2 C z + b 3 Gh
)
-A<
>=C3 w,
f This can always be made the case if necessary,

rearranging the equations.
% Associated with the elements in G 3
The reader may try this for himself.
.
+ Az -A< 3 = C3 u.
>
by renaming the unknowns and
11.43]
407
by
the coefficients of x and y being zero by 'alien cofactors', and A =
hypothesis. Also C3 4= by hypothesis, and A<3) = by the assumed consistency
of the equations. Therefore u = 0, which proves that the solution of the first
two equations for x, y in terms of z will be also satisfy the third.
Since the value of z is arbitrary, we say that the solution is indeterminate
with one 'degree of choice', or that there are oo 1 solutions.
(2)
All cofactors in
A are zero,
We may suppose a1
4= 0.
x in terms of y and z.
obtained for x be x then
for
but at least one element of
Then the
When
y,
Lis non-zero.
of the given equations can be solved

let the value
z are given the values y z
first
Xq
and
so
a2 x
+ b2 y + c2 z d2 =
î-fri2/o- c i go
,
a *(di - &i y
- Ci z + ai 6 2 Vo + ai c 2 2 o - a i d 2
a 2 d1 a 1 d 2
+ G3 y B3 z
a 2 dx a 1 d2
by
hypothesis. Similarly
a3 dj
The given equations
will therefore
a1
dx
aa
d2
a1 d 3
be inconsistent unless
ax
dx
a3
d3
If both conditions are satisfied, the solution of the first equation (with y and z
arbitrary) will satisfy the second and third also. The solution is indeterminate
with two 'degrees of choice'; we may say there are oo 2 solutions.
The results just proved are intuitively evident; for when all cofactors in A
are zero, the coefficients in the left-hand sides of the given equations are
'proportional'. Clearly the equations will not be consistent unless the righthand sides are in the same proportion; and then the three equations are equivalent to only one.
In 21.62 we shall illustrate the results of this section geometrically.
11.43
(1)
Homogeneous
When
linear equations
the numbers on the right-hand sides are
obtain the homogeneous system
Clearly this
is
always
a^ + bj^y + ^z =
0,
a 2 x + b^y + c 2 z
0,
a3 x + b a y + c 3 z
0.
satisfied
by x =
0,
0, z
0.
all zero,
we
408
Theorem
x, y, z
I. If the homogeneous system

which are not all zero, then A = 0.
Proof. Proceeding as in 11.41,
which
satisfies
is satisfied
[11.43
by values of
we find that any set of values
(x, y, z)
the given equations must also satisfy
Ax =
Since x, y, z are not
0,
all zero,
Ay =
Az
0,
0.
we must have A = 0.
only solution is x =
Corollary 1(a). If A
=j=
In the particular case z
= 1 we obtain the non-homogeneous equations
0, the
ax x + b x y + c x
0,
a2 x + b z y + c2
0,
a3 x + b 3 y + c3
0.
0,
0, z
0.
have a common solution, say (x y ), then the corresponding

homogeneous equations have the solution (x y 1) which is certainly
not all zero, whatever x y may be. Hence
Cobollary I (b). If the non-homogeneous equations possess a common
If these
solution, then
A=
0.
direct proof of this result
Corollary
1(c).
If
is
4= 0,
indicated in Ex. 11
the
(b),
no. 14.
non-homogeneous equations are
inconsistent.
For by Corollary I (a), the only solution of the homogeneous system

so (x, y, 1) can never be a solution for any choice of x, y.
is (0, 0, 0),
sometimes called the eliminant of the non-homogeneous

A = is the necessary and sufficient relation between the
coefficients in order that the three equations in two unknowns x, y can
is
system; for
be
satisfied simultaneously (cf. 10.41).
Geometrically, the results of Corollaries 1(6),
with concurrence of lines in a plane

to
Theorem
7/ A =
by values of x,
are associated
Theorem I we have
As a converse
II.
(c)
(15.42).
0,
then the homogeneous equations are satisfied
y, z not all zero.
First proof. The discussion in 11.42 shows that, when A = 0, we have a

solution containing at least one arbitrary unknown which can be chosen to be
non-zero. (The homogeneous equations are automatically consistent because
they have the solution (0, 0, 0).)
Second proof. Independently of 1 1 .42, we can prove the theorem by

actually writing down a solution of the required type.
11.43]
(1)
Suppose that at least one cofactor in A is non-zero, say Bz
x = XA Z
= AB3
a solution not all zero, where A is non-zero but otherwise

For
(alien cofactors),
ax A z +b x B z + c x Cz =
is
and
(ii)
a2 A z + b 2 Bz + c i Cz
(alien cofactors)
az A z + b z B z + c z Cz
(A
Suppose
all cofactors
of A is non-zero, say c x
x
Choose
Ac 1?
Let
=# 0.
in
=j=
0.
Then
= AC3
409
by
arbitrary.
hypothesis).
are zero, but that at least one element
y have arbitrary non-zero values
x,
= /ic x
(so
and
4=
/i =# 0).
z to satisfy the first equation:

z
-(Aaj +/&!).
With these values, the left-hand side
of the second equation
is
ai Xc 1 + biix& x c % Xa x c^pib x
X{a % c x -a x c^+iL$ 2 c x -b x c^
= XBz -fiA z
=
by
hypothesis. Similarly the third equation
is satisfied
by the above
values.
Two homogeneous equations in three unknowns

If A z Bz Cz are not all zero, then the equations
(2)
solution in ratios.
ax x + b x y + c x z
have a non-zero solution x
alien cofactors, or
a2 x + b 2 y + c 2 z
0,
= XA Z y =
,
by proceeding
written
AjB 3 z
,
= AC3
as in 11.11.
The
this is clear
by
solution can be
y_
B
i.e.
61
c2
c2
ax
ax
a2
a2
61
where if a particular denominator is zero, the corresponding numerator

must be interpreted as also.
This simple result will be useful
later, especially in
Ch. 21.
410
Exercise 11(6)
Solve the following systems of equations by
1
2x-y + 5z =
x + ly-IOz =
a? + f/ + z =
*4 If a,
6, c
2.
Zx + y- 4z
2,
x-2y-3z =
Zx y + 5z =
1,
of determinants.
vise
x-y-z =
2,
5x-y + Zz =
oj + y z =
1,
4.
13,
5,
3.
are all different, solve
x+y+z
aa;
1,
+ 6t/ + cz =
= d2
a 2a; + b 2y + c 2z
(2,
[Use Ex. 11(a), no. 21.]

5
Prove that the following system of equations

Bx + y-z
[Solve the
the third.]
Show
first
two
for x,
x-4y + 2z =
0,
y in terms of
z,
inconsistent:
is
4x-Zy + z =
9,
and
l.
substitute in left-hand side of
that the solution of the system
xyz
3x + Zy-z
0,
2x + y-z
Q,
indeterminate, and can be written
is
where A
7
is
1 + 2X, y= 1-A,
arbitrary. [Solve the first
Show that the
two
3A,
equations for x,
y in terms of z.]
solution of
3x + y z
0,
can be written
x y + 2z
2A,
7A
=
;
4x 3y + z
0.
13A.
8 Find the values of A for which the equations
have a solution other
=
=
V2 + V22/ + (A-2)z =
than x = y = z = 0. Find
\x + y + j2z
0,
x + Xy + j2z
0,
also the ratios x-.y.z
which
correspond to each of these values of A.
9 Find the values of A for which the equations

3x + Xy
5,
Ax 3y
are consistent. Solve the equations
10 Solve
(if
4,
when A has
3x y
=l
these values.
possible) the equations
= 4k,
= 2,
2x + y + z = -2
when (i) k * 0, k
1; (ii) k = 0; (iii) * = 1.
11 Eliminate x, y, z from # + &S/ + cz = 0, ax + y + cz = 0, ax + by + z = 0.
12 Solve Ex. 11 (a), no. 26 by regarding a = b cos C + c cos B, etc. as homox + y + kz
x + ky + z
=f=
geneous equations for
a, b, c.
11.5]
13 If the quadratics ax 2 + bx + c
common root, show that
[If
is
the
ax + by + c
common
0,
px z + qx + r =
2
0, lx
411
+ mx + n =
have
0.
then the non-homogeneous system of equations

has the solution (<x 2 ,a); use
Q, lx + my + n =
root,
px + qy + r =
0,
11.43, Corollary 1(6).]
14 Find from
the condition that the equations
first principles
a 1 x + b 1 y + c1
a2 x + b 2 y + c 2
0,
are satisfied by the same values of x

the last two for x, y in the form
b2
c2
b3
c3
a3
substitute these solutions in the

If the
15
a3 x + b 3 y + c3
0,
[Assuming a 2 b3 a3 b a
y.
-y
and
and
4= 0,
c3
first,
a2
62
a3
63
getting
A=
0.]
homogeneous system
a 1 x + b 1 y + c1 z
0,
a2 z + b2 y + c
ji
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z
0,
has a solution other than x = y = z = 0, show by means of no. 14 that

[If z 4= 0, the equations can be written a^x/z) + b x (ylz) + c x = 0, etc.]
Verify in detail that
16
solve
satisfy the equations.
when A
[The solution
#= 0,
is
Az
the solutions given in 11.41 actually
given
Ax = dî + dzAz + dsAs,
A=
0.
do
by
Ay = d 1 B 1 + d 2 B 2 + d3 B3
d 1 C1 + d z Cz + d3 C3
Hence
A(a 1 x + b^y + ^z)
d1 (a 1 J. 1 + 6 1 B1 + c 1 C 1 ) + c?2(a1 ^4 2 + 6 1 j52 + c 1 C 2 )
+ d3 {a1 A 3 + b 1 B3 + c 1 C3
= eÂ
by true and alien
cofactors.]
Factorisation of determinants
11.5
In
11.25, ex.
determinant
it directly.
is
(iii)
and Ex.
11
(a),
no. 21
we have examples in which a
expressed as a product of factors without expanding
Here we consider various methods of factorising a deterwhen other methods
minant. Direct expansion should be used only
cannot be further applied.

(i)
Use of the Remainder Theorem.
Factorise
A=
29
a2
62
c2
GPM II
412
[11.5
If A were expanded, we should obtain a polynomial in a, 6, c which is homogeneous of degree 3 (for each term in the expansion consists of a product of
factors taken one from each row and one from each column). We may regard
this polynomial as a quadratic in a whose coefficients are polynomials in 6 and c.
When a = 6, A = since it has two columns identical. Hence by applying
the Remainder Theorem to A regarded as a polynomial in a, we see that a b
is a factor.
Similarly 6 c, c a are factors. Hence
A=
k(b
c) (c a) (a b),
A and (6 c) (c a) (a b)
are both polyof total degree 3. To obtain the value of k, either compare
coefficients of a particular term, say 6c 2 or substitute particular values for
find k = + 1, and so
a, 6, c, say a = 0, 6 = 1, c = - 1.
where k must be numerical because

nomials in
a, b, c
We
A = (b-c)(c-a)(a~b).
Considerations of symmetry and skewness.
(ii)
Factorise
A=
a2
62
example (i), the Remainder Theorem shows that b c,c a,a b are
The determinant is a homogeneous polynomial of degree 5 in a, 6, c,
while the product (6 c) (c a) (a 6) is homogeneous of degree 3; hence the
remaining factor P must be a homogeneous polynomial of degree 2 in a, 6, c.
Since A and (6 c) (c a) (a 6) are both skew functions of a, 6, c, hence P
must by symmetric in a, 6, c.
Hence by 10.22, Remark (/?), P must be of the form
As
in
factors.
k(a z + 6 2 + c 2 ) + l(bc + ca + ab),

numerical.
where k, I are
Clearly the expansion of A contains no term in a4 while the factorised form
does unless k = 0. Hence
,
A=
By comparing
a, 6, c,
l(bc
coefficients (e.g. of 6 2 c 3 ), or substituting particular values for
we find I = + 1. Hence
A=
(iii)
+ ca + ab) (6 c) (c a) (a 6).
(6
c)(c a)(a b) (bc + ca + ab).
Use of row- and column-operations
to
make known factors appear
explicitly.
One example has already been given in 11.25, ex. (iii). As another
we factorise A in ex. (ii) above by this method.
The Remainder Theorem indicates the factors 6 a and c a. By c 2 c 2 cx
and removal of 6 a, followed by c8 - c3 cx and removal of c a, we have
1
A=
(6
a) (ca)
(6
6+a
a2
3
+ 6a + a
6+a
a) (c a)
6
+ 6a + a
+a
+ ca + a 2
c
+a
+ ca + a 2
c
on expanding by the
first
row,
11.6]
=
=
(b
(6
+ c+a
+a
a)(c a) (b c)
+a
+ ca + a2
by c x
by
r 2- r i
= (b-a)(c-a)(b-c)
b+a
c 2 and
removal of 6 c,
r2
a2
cx
413
c) (c a) (a 6) (6c + ca + a6)
on expanding and rearranging
cyclically.
Exercise 11(c)
Factoriae the following determinants.
1
a2
62
c2
6c
ca
a6
6+c
111
c+a a + 6
c
2
a3
63
c8
be
ca
ab
+c
2
(6 + c)
1
1
b+c
+c
+ a2
a2 + 6 2
6
+a
a+b
1
*8
a
(6
64
*9
c2
(c
+ a) 2
+ c) 2
(c
+a
a+6
(a
+ a) 2
(a
+ 6) 2
ab
ca
6c
+ 6) 2
c2
6
a*
6*
c*
<SoZe the following
systems of equations by use of determinants.
x + ay + a z = az
x + by + b 2z = 6 3
* + cy + c 2z = c8
2
10
11
=
a +6 +c z =
a 3a; + b zy + c3z =
ax + by + cz
a;
?/
1,
1,
1.
*12
+ 6za; + ca^/ = 0,
?/z + zsc + a*/ = ajyz,
a2 /a; + b z /y + c 2/z = j9 2
a?/z
Derivative of a determinant
11.6
If the elements of A are functions of x, then dAjdx is equal to the sum

of the three determinants obtained from A by deriving one row at a time
ax
cx
&2
^2
^2
da x db x dc 1
dx dx dx
d_
dx
a3 6 3
a*
ba
Ca
a-,
da%
db 2
dc 2
dx
dx
dx
Q/<*
&q
Co
bx
c1
b2
c2
da 3 db z dc s
dx dx dx
29-2
414
Proof. It
is
[11.7
convenient to use the notation (mentioned in 11.22)
A = I a
l
for the expansion of A.

cZA
^ = S
bj ck
Then
da,
.,
^ + Sa^
dbi
6
rfx
dc k
^-
+ Sa' 6
The first sum is the expansion of the determinant obtained from A

by replacing the top row a x \, c x by dajdx, dbjdx, dcjdx; the other
two sums are interpreted similarly. This proves the theorem.
A similar result holds with 'rows' replaced by 'columns'.
,
Example
If three rows of a determinant whose elements are polynomials in x become
when x a, then (x a) 2 is a factor of A.
First solution. dAjdx sum of three determinants each having two rows
because each determinant in
the same as A. Therefore when x a, dA/dx =
the sum has two identical rows. Hence x a is a factor of dA/dx. Since also
identical
A=
when x = a, (x a) 2 is a factor of A by 10.43.

Second solution. Subtract any one of the rows from the remaining two rows.
When x = a, each element in each of these new rows vanishes; hence by the
Remainder Theorem x a is a factor of each row, so (x a) 2 is a factor of A.
Determinants of order 4
11.7
dx
The symbol
d2
d3
d.
called
a,
fourth-order determinant,
&2
K
&4
This
is
a2
c2
a3
d3
c4
d,
is
defined to
d2
c2
d3
+ <a
d,
c4
mean
a2
&2
d2
a2
c2
a3
h
K
d3
-d, a3
c3
d*
a4
a4
c4
a direct generalisation of the definition of 'third-order determinant' in
11.22.f
We mention fourth-order determinants because they arise occasionally in

the coordinate geometry of three dimensions. It can be shown that
(i) the properties (l)-(5) in 11.21 continue to hold;
(ii) the determinant can be expanded from any one row or any one column;
(iii) the concept of cofactors is still valid and useful;
(iv) there are expansions by true and alien cofactors.
They can be used to solve systems of four linear equations in four unknowns
by the obvious extension of Cramer's rule (11.41), and in elimination problems.
'
t Determinants of order
'
n can be defined
similarly in terms of those of order
n 1.
11.7]
415
The
proofs of these statements are not always easy, and for determinants of
order four or more it is better to approach the subject from a more advanced
point of view than we can consider here.
Exercise 11 00
Write down the derivative of
1
2x
4 If u'
3x 2
= du/dx,
etc.,
X3
log a;
x*
1/x
2x
ljx*
-2
prove
w'
u'
w'
w"
u'"
dx
5 If u,
v,
w are polynomials in x whose degrees do not exceed

U V w
A=
w
3,
prove that
w"
is
also a polynomial in x of degree not greater
than
[Derive
3.
A wo x four times,
rejecting zero determinants at each stage.]
6 Prove
a2
dxdy
X
7 If
A=
X
X2
by rows, regarding
[Derive
2(y-x).
prove
3A
SA
8A
ox
oy
oz
z2
8/8x + 8/8y + d/8z as operating
on the rows.]
8 If
8A
A=
find
8x
xs
y*
8A
8y
8A
8z'
zA
Evaluate the following fourth-order determinants.
*9
*10
-3
*11
-1
*12 Prove
= pA- (Al 2 + Bm 2 + Cn 2 + 2Fmn + 20nl + 2Hlm),
where the notation is that of 11.32, ex. (i). [Expand by the last column, then
by the last rows of the third-order determinants so obtained.]
416
*13 Solve
by determinants:
3x +
2/
-5z
+ 2z + Zt
y + Bzx + 2y
Prove
(i)
(ii)
z--2f
o,
o,
14.
r3
r2
r4
r3
r*
r5
r2
r4
r6
r3
r6
r9
r3
Factorise
= r* (r- l) 3 (r 2
A=
x%
a2
ft
c2
a3
63
c8
a;
Obtain identities by considering the cofactors of

cients of Xs x 2 x in the product.
,
a?,
x 2 x in
,

1
Without expanding the deteraiinant, explain why
is
the equation of the line joining the points (x u yj, {x it y a ).
Without expanding, prove
c2
62
ca
62
a2
ah
be
c
a+6
Z
+m
p+q
abc
+c c+a
m+n n+l
r+p
q+r
A and
the
coeffi-
417
Factorise
be
b+c
ca
ab
a2
62
c2
+a
a+b
1+a8
1 + 68
1+c8
62
+ c) 2 (c + a) 2 (a + 6)
& 2 c 2 + a 2d 2
bc + ad
1
2 2
2 2
c a + & a"
ca +
1
a 2 6 2 + c 2d 2 a& + ca" 1
(6
fta"
Show that a and a + 6 + c are
(6
factors of
+ c) 2
62
(c
ca
+ a)
c2
62
and hence
+ 6)
By factorising the determinants, prove that

2
a+6
a2 + 6 2
1
1
a + b a 2 + 6 2 a8 + 6 8
a 6
c2
a2
62
c2
cos 6 are factors of
10 Prove that sin 6, cos 6, sin
and
(a
factorise it completely.
cos d
sin 20
cos 2
sin 6
sin 2(9
sin 2 6
sin
sin 2
cos 2 6
find the remaining factor.
11
Express
ap + br
aq + bs
cp + dr
cq + ds
as the sum of four second-order determinants,
X
(This gives a rule for multiplying
and hence show that it is equal to
two second-order determinants.)
Solve
12
x+1
2x
Sx-2
2x
13
0.
X2
a3
62
as -6
(assuming that
a, b, c are
non-zero and distinct).
a8 c8
14 Prove that the vertices of the triangle formed
a 1 x + b 1 y + c1
0,
a 2 x + b 2 y + c2
0,
by the lines
az x + b 3 y + c3
418
Show that g,f,
15
cannot be found so that the equation
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c
is satisfied
by the values
Show that
16
(1, 1), (0,
- 2),
of
(2, 4)
=
(x, y).
the equations
2x + 3y
can be consistent whenever
= 1, Ax-2y
4c 156c 439 > 0.
3x + Xy
4,
c satisfies
17 Discuss the equations

a;
when
(i)
+ + 3z = 4,
2; (ii) a = 1,
+ 2?/ + 4z = 5. a-y + az =
= 2; (iii) a = 6 = 1.
a;
2/
18 Find the conditions which A, /i must satisfy for the following system of
equations to have (i) a unique solution; (ii) no solution; (iii) an infinity of
solutions:
x + y + z=
x + 2y + 3z
e,
10,
x + 2y + Az
= p.
19 Prove that, for two values of A, the equations
= 6,
= 12,
3x+12y + (X+10)z = k,
unless k is suitably chosen. When
(\ + 2)x + 4y + 3z
2x + (\ + 9)y + 6z
have no solution
is
thus chosen, find the
general solution for each of the values of A.
20 If/,
g,
h are functions of x which

d
L ==f+g + 2h,
^=
satisfy the differential equations
8^ = 7/+8sr + 24fc,
2g + 2h,
Xx
Xx (where A is independent
find all solutions of the form/ = a eAa! , g = b e , h = ce
ratios of the
corresponding
and
the
of
A
values
of x), giving all the possible
constants a,
b, c.
21 If
W(x,y,z)=
where
of t and x
x, y, z are functions
W(x,y,z)
dxjdt, etc.,
prove that
x W(l.ylx,zfx).
22 Write
1
V1 =
a 38
b3
c3
x+b
x+a
and
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Prove
f(x)
v3 =
a2
b2
c2
x+c
+ b) (x + c) 2
(x + c) 3
(x + b) 3
(x + a) 3
= (x + a)(x + b) (x + c) Vz
(x + a)
f(x)=
(x
Calculate/'fa:),/^*),/'"^) as determinants,
and show/<r)(a;) = Oforr >
4.
Using Maclaurin's theorem, prove

f(x)
and deduce that

(x + a)(x + b)(x
Vr
(r
+ c)V3
=/(0)
1, 2, 3)
(Cf.
+ VyX + V2 x2 + Vs x3
is
the coefficient of xr in the expansion of
Ex. 11(d), no.
15.)
419
12
SERIES
12.1
The reader should already be familiar with the work in this section;
we include it for revision and completeness.

12. 11 If n is
(x
a positive
integer,
+ a) n = xn + n Cx xn ~ xa + n C2 xn ~ 2a 2 +
where nCr denotes the
number
+ n Cr xn-âr +...+an
. .
of selections ofr different objects from n, viz.
n(n 1)
...
(n r+ 1)
'
r\
Proof. Consider the product (x + a t ) (x + a 2 )

it
we must multiply each term
...
in each bracket
(x + an ). To expand
by the terms in the
other brackets. This can be done systematically as follows.
we obtain xn
If we multiply the x from each bracket,

If
we
multiply the a-term from one bracket and the a;-terms from
the other brackets, and do this in

(a 1
all
possible ways,
+ a 2 +...+an )x
we obtain
n-1
.
Next, multiplying the a-terms from two brackets and the a>terms
from the rest, and doing this in all possible ways, we obtain
(a x a2
+ a x a3 +
+ a2 a3 +
..)xn
~2
,
~
where the coefficient of xn 2 consists of the products of different
terals
taken two at a time. The number of terms in this
therefore nG2
from three brackets and

ways gives
Similarly, multiplying a-terms
from the
en-
coefficient is
rest in all possible
{a x a 2 az
+ a1 a 2 ai +
..)xn
ar-terms
~3
,
~
where the number of terms in the coefficient of xn z is n C3
In general, if we multiply a-terms from r brackets and aj-terms from
.
the remaining n r brackets in
all
possible ways,
(a1 a 2 ...ar +...)w
where the coefficient consists of n Cr terms.
-r
,
we get
series
420
by multiplying a-terms from
Finally, the product obtained
brackets
ax a2
is
...
an
[12.12
all
We now put a1 = a2 = ... = an = a. The original product then

becomes (x + a) n In the expansion, the coefficients of cn_1 xn ~ 2
xn ~z
xn -r ... become
.
nC a 2
2
na,
nC
and the constant term becomes
az
n C ar
r
an This proves the result stated.

.
12.12 Properties of the binomial expansion
The expansion of (x + a) n consists of n + 1 terms.

The (r + l)th term is n Cr arxn -r and is called the general term.
The coefficients of terms at equal distances from each end of
(1)
(2)
(3)
the expansion are equal.
For the (r+ l)th term from the beginning is

(r+ l)th term from the end is n Cn _r an -^xr and
nC
arxn ~r while the

,
nC
r\{n-r)\
= n Cw ~r
This fact saves work in numerical calculations.
by r =
(4) If
If n
is
odd, there are two (equal) middle terms given by r
(5)
We can obtain the expansion of (x + a) n in ascending powers of
is
even, there
is
a middle term, given
x by interchanging x and a in the

{x + a) n
This
is
a for a in
(x - a) n
= xn - n Cx ax
71
-1
. .
+ xn
(i)
Find
when x is small compared with a.

we obtain
+ n C2 a 2x n ~ 2
+ - l) r nCr arxn ~r +... + (- l) n an
the coefficient of x in the expansion of (2x
This will involve x 9
if
^_^
+ x- 3a; 2
5
)
(2c)
18 -'
18a'(
-3
r213 "ral8 ~ ar
)
13 2r
13
Expand
Bjx) ls
is
i3Cr
(2
Examples
The general term
(ii)
%(n 1).
12.11,
12.13
result of 12. 1 1
an + nCx an -xx + n Cz an 2x 2 +
useful in approximations
(6) If we write
\n.
= 9, i.e. if r = 2. Hence the required coefficient is

C 2 (-3) 2 2 n = 13.3 3 .2 12
.
+ x 3x 2 6 in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x*.

= {2 + *( 1 - 3a;)} 6
= 2 5 + 8 C X 2 lx{ 1 - 3a;) + 6 C2 2 82 1 - 3a;) 2 + 6 C3 2 2a;3 1 - 3a;) 3 +
(2
. .
series
12.13]
where the unwritten terms

such terms, we have
all
421
contain no power lower than
32 + 5. 16(x- 3a; 2 ) +
- Qx) + ^^4z*+ ...
8x 2 (l
32 + 80* - 160a 8 - 4408 +
On ignoring all
x*.
. .
after collecting like terms.

(iii) Find the numerically greatest term in the expansion of(l 3*)' if x =
J.
The terms in this expansion are alternately positive and negative, but the
numerically greatest term will be the same as the corresponding term in the
expansion of (1
+ 3a;) 7
If the latter expansion
is
u1 + ui x + u3 x + ...+uB x7
2
7!
then
ur
= _ __
7!
r!(7-r)!
(toy
/
v
'
(r-
1)1
(8-r)!
1
(3*)*v
'
= 8-r 3x
r
.-
if
l.
Now uf+1 ^ ur according as ur+1 jur ^

3(8 -r)
24- 3r gi
i.e.
1,
1, i.e.
according as
4r,
i.e.
3f
4r
Hence
if r
ur+1 < ur
i.e.
r.
3, ur+1 > ur i.e. w4 > u a u a > u 2 and u.2 > u v If r > 4, then
m 5 < uit m 6 < w6 etc. These inequalities show that w4 is greater
,
than the other terms. Thus the 4th term

7
(iv)
Cs(-i) 3
n
Prove
is
the greatest. Its value
is
-35x(f)3.
Gr _Y + n Gr =
n+1 G
r.
This can be verified directly, or obtained from the identity
+ x)(l+x) n = (l+x)+\
in which the coefficient of xT on the right is n+1 Cr On the left, terms involving
xr will arise from 1 x n Cr xr and x x "C^ xr~ x so the total coefficient is n Gr + n G -x.
(l
The
result follows.
When the coefficients n Gr in the expansion of (1 +x) n have been calculated,

the above relation shows how to obtain those in (l+x) n+1 The following
scheme, in which each number is formed by adding the two immediately above
.
it, is
called Pascal's triangle:
(l+x)
(1+x) 1
(l+x) 2
12
13
1
(1+*) 3
(l+x)*
(1+a;) 6
1
1
1
1
10
10
SERIES
422
[12.2
Exercise 12(a)
Write out the expansions of
2 (x+l/x) 5
(3*-2) 4
Expand 1 + 2x x 2
(l-x){l+x) i
in ascending powers as far as the
6
)
term in xl
Write down and simplify the
coefficient of x s in (2
coefficient of x~ in (x - 1 /2x 2 1B
term independent of a; in (2a; 2 1 fx) 12
10
6thtermin(3c+l/c) n
20
2 6
6 coefficient of a; 10 in
a; )
11
if
the coefficient of xr in
+ x) 19
coefficient of x 3 in (2
Evaluate correct to 4 places of decimals
12 Find r
1 \x
+ x) 20
(1-04) 5 ;
(i)
is
(ii)
+ x - 3a; 2
(0-98) 5
7
)
~
twice the coefficient of xf x
Find the greatest term in the expansion of (5 + 4a;) 11 when x

14 Find the greatest coefficient in the expansion of (5 + 4a;) 11
r
15 Obtain an identity by equating coefficients of x in
13
(l
+ 2a; +
a;
)(l+a;) n
(l+a;)"+ 2
+ x) n = 1 + x) m+n to prove
+
m C n C + m C _ n C + ...+ m G n Cr = + n Cr (r^m,r^n).
r
r x
1
By considering the coefficients of x n in 1 + x) n 1+ x) n = 1 + x) 2n prove
16 Consider the coefficient of xr in
17
x) m ( 1
where
cr
denotes
Cr
+ c + c +...+c =
2
^L,
18 Prove
(1
+x) n+1 -x n+1
(l+x) n + x(l + x) n - 1 +...+xr {l +x) n ~ r +
Deduce an identity by equating
Show that
19
(2
...
+x n
coefficients of x
+ ^3) 5 + (2 JS) 5
is
rational,
and
find its value.
20 Prove that
v
x + n(x + y)+
n(n
v
1)'
(x
n
+ 2y)+
x
n(nl)(n 2)
-(x + 3y)
+ ... to (w+1) terms
=
12.2
2 n ~\2x + ny).
Finite series
The reader
progressions,
will already have met arithmetical and geometrical

and perhaps other simple series. We now extend this
work.
12.21 Notation
ur denotes the
and
rth.
definitions
term of a
series.
n
s
T, ur denotes the sum of the first n terms, and is called the sum
n~ r=l
of the finite series
%, u 2
.
,
un
in the language of 2.71 ; but when a sequence

to its sum-sequence sn , it is usually called a series.
Or sequence
is
considered in relation
series
12.22]
If ur
= ar xr
Later
we
then the
series is called
shall write s
423
a power
series in x.
lim sn provided this limit exists, and
call
7l->00
the sum to infinity of the infinite series T,ur For example, the
.
the
first
n terms
1,
x2
x,
x3
and if
<
\x\
1,
then xn ->
n
= l-x
t^;
summing
Given a
series,
our problem
terms.
The methods
first
of
(x 4= 1)
...
when n-âo
12.22 General methods for
the
sum
of the geometrical progression
is
(2.72), so sn -> 1/(1
a).
finite series
to find a formula for sn the

,
(l)-(3) listed
below
will
sum
of
be illustrated
in this section.
known
power series and its

sum-function (followed perhaps by substitution of some particular
(1)
Derivation or integration of a
value for
(2)
finite
x).
The
difference method. If
a function /(r) can be found so that
ur ^f{r+\)-f{r),
then by taking r
n,
1,
n 2,
. .
.,
2, 1
un-i =f(n)-f(n-
in turn
we have
1 )>
/(-!)-/( -2),
2 =/(3)-/(2),
%=/(2)-/(l).
and
By
adding,
IX =f(n+ l)-f(l).
r=l
proving a stated
(3)
Mathematical Induction
(4)
Use of complex numbers and de Moivre's theorem. This method,

many trigonometric series, will be considered in 14.5.
applicable to
(for
result).
series
424
[12.23
12.23 Series involving binomial coefficients
As our standard form of the binomial theorem we take
= l+ n C1 x + n C2 x2 +...+ nCr xr +...+xn
(l+x) n
Used
thus, the
numbers
nf]
nfj
nf)
are called binomial coefficients,
and when the index n
is
nfl
and are sometimes written
0'
C).
all,
(:>
G)
evident from the context and
the same for
is
they are abbreviated to

c l>
c 0>
Thus
(1
The
+ x) n =
c 2
Cn-
'
+ qa; + c 2 a; 2 +
. . .
+ c n xn
(i)
following methods are useful in dealing with series involving
binomial coefficients:
Express the given

binomial expansions.
series as
(a)
a combination of two or more
Obtain the given series by derivation or integration of an

on the standard binomial expansion (i).
(c) Construct a function in which the given series is the coefficient
of a certain power of x, and evaluate this coefficient in another way.
(6)
identity based
Examples
(i)
Sum
Method
+ 2c1 x + 3c i x2 + ... + (n+l)c n x n
(a)
+ c1 x + c 2 x 2 + ...+c n x n + (c1 x + 2cz x i + ...+nc n x").

The first bracket = (1 + x) n The second is
n(n\){n 2)
n(n 1)
nx + 2--x* + 3
-x* + ...+nx n
The sum
(c
= nx\\ + {n-l)x +
{
(n-l)(n-2)
^-
.
,)
1
xt+.^+x"-
= nx(l+x) n -K
Therefore the given sum = (1 + x) n + nx(l + x)"- 1 =
Method
+ a;)"-1 {1 + (n + 1) x}.
(b)
Multiply both sides of the standard identity

c
a;
+c
a;
+ c2 a; + ... +
8
(i)
c n a; B+1
by x:
= x(l+x) n
1:
Derive both sides
wo x:
which gives the same
(iii)
not a power
series.,
2c 1
Sum
Method
+x) n + nx{l+x) n ~ 1
+ 2c1 + 3c 2 +... + (n+l)c B
(1
result as before.
Sum
is
425
+ 2c1 x + 3c2 x 2 +... + (n+l)c n x n =
This
series
12.23]
(ii)
but
it
can be obtained by putting x
...
+ (n+l)c B = 2"- 1 (n + 2).
3c a
in ex.
+ ic x + ic 2 + ... +^ c.
n+
(b)
Integrate both sides of identity
(i)
from
to
1
1
~|
c a; n + 1 l = [j(l +*)+ 1
[ c x + fax* + $ct x* +... + -!
n+ 1 n
[n + 1
Jo
Jo
L
+ cx + Jc2 +
i.e.
Method
=
=
cn
= -j- (2+ - 1).

n+1
n(n 1)...2.1
(n+l)n
(n+l)n(n-l)
^
h-^-r -+...+
1.2.3
1.2...n(n+l)
(n+1
J_
n+l {(
1
1)
(c).
...
+ cn _1 cB
Consider
Coefficient of x n
"i "n 2
(2+ 1 -l).
+ c1 a; + c 2 a;2 + ... + c B a B )(c + c1 :c+...+c B
"I"
1^3
+ 1) +i_l }
0^ + 0^ + 0^ +
Sum
*o "n i
n+1
+
nTT\"l~ ~r2~"
n+1
(c
..
n(n
n
1.2
Method
(a)
_
The given sum =
(iv)
(i)
~ x on the left-hand side

Coefficient of x n_1
+ c n _i c =
Cq Cj
on the right
a;
n
)
= (l+x) n (l + x) n
= (l+a;) 2 ".
is
+ Cj c 2 +
. . .
+ c B _j c B
because
cr
<?_,..
is
(2n)!
(n-l)!(n+l)!'
which is the value of the required sum.

Ex. 12 (a), no. 17 is another illustration of Method
(c).
Exercise 12(6)
1
Prove c
+ c 1 + c2 +...+c = 2 n
+ c 2 + c4 + ... = c 1 + c 3 + c5 +... =
2 Prove c
(i), then use no.
fl
1.]
2 B_1 .
[Put
a;
=1
in identity
^
series
426
3 Prove cx + 2c 2 x + 3c8 x 2
+ nc n x
. . .
n~x
[12.24
+ x) n_1 and deduce the sum of
n( 1
+ 2c 2 + 3c3 +...+nc n
c1
4 Find CJ-2C2 + 3C3 -... + ( -l) n_1 nc n

n
[Method (a); or write
5 Prove c + 3cx + 5c 2 + ... + (2w + l)c = (n+ 1) 2
backwards and add, as for summing on a.p.; or derive x(l + x 2 ) n .]
6 Prove 2 + 3c x o; + 4c 2 2 +
+ (n + 2) c n x n = (1 +)"- 1 {2 + (n + 2)a;}.
.
. . .
7 Prove
c cr
+ CiCr+1 + c 2 c +2 +
. . .
8 Using the identity (l+x) n (l x) n
What is the
value
if
9 Prove
cl
Sum
10
c c1
Find
11
when w
is
even,
(2n-l)\
,
,
_a _
=
+ Scl+...+ncl
+ 2cl
{(n-1)!} 2
,
+ 2c 1 c 2 + 3c 2 c3 + ...+nc n _ 1 c n
a;
(l-a; 2 )", prove that
oddl
is
x*
n
++ +
r2 Co+
F4 Ca
Ci
(w
'
and deduce that

Co
Ci
K_
. ,
1U
..to(n+l)terms
,
3.4
2.3
1.2
*12 Prove
c2
<h
2+ 2 -n-3
(n+l)(n + 2)
+ _ i)n-i! Cn = A + J+ + ... + I.
i.
...
+ c n x n ~ x = {(l+x) n - l}/x; integrate from - 1 to 0.]

6
13 (i) Find the sum of the coefficients in the expansion of (1 + 3a;)
6
(l + 3#) 6 = a + a1 x + ...+a 6 x and put a? = 1.]
(ii) Calculate a + a 2 + a 4 + a 6 and a i + a z + a s- L See no 2
[c x
+ c2 x +
. . .
[Write
*14 Let
(i)
ar
(l
+ a; +
2
t;
+ a1 x + a 2 x 2 + ...+a 2n x 2n
Deduce other expansions by writing
ljx, a; in
place of x,
and prove
a 2n -r-
(ii)
(iii)
Deduce the expansion of ( 1 + x 2 + # 4 n

Use the identity 1+ x 2 + x*) = ( 1 + x + x 2
)
al-a + a\-...+a n =
2
(iv)
(
Calculate a
v) Calculate
+ a3 + ...+ a 2n -i
+ 2ax + 3a 2 +... +
2n +
1)
) (
an
a 2n
- x + x2
to prove that
12.24 Powers of integers

n
We consider sums of the form ^p where p =
or 2 or 3.
r=l
n
(1) -2 r.
r=l
This
is
an
a.p.,
and the usual method gives

n
r=l
427
series
12.24]
n
(2)
2>2
First method.
From the identity
r=l
- (2r - l) 3 s
(2r + 1) 3
we have by putting r =
1 , 2,
. .
24r2 + 2,
w and adding
(2rc+l) 3 -l 3
= 24f>2 + 2w,
r=l
24 S r 2
/.
Snz + 12n 2 + 4n,
r=l
2>2 =
and
+ 1) (2n + 1).
r=l
Second method. Using
(r+l) 3 -r3
and summing
for r
1, 2,
. .
.,
n,
(rc+l) 3 -l 3
3r 2 + 3r+l
we have
= 32r 2 + 3r + rc.
r=l
r=l
From
(1) this
becomes
n3 + 3n2 + 3n = 3r2 +fw(tt + l) + n,

r=l
which leads to the
(3)
Sr 8 We
.
result just found.
have
r=1
Summing
+ 1)} 2 - {(r - 1) r} 2 = 4r3

this for r
1, 2,
. .
.,
n,
we get
{n(n+l)} 2 -0 2
= 42^,
r=l
a
S* = ia (+l)
so
r=l
Observe that this result
is
the square of
r=l
The sum could

(r
also
be obtained by using the expansion of
+ 1) 4 r4 together with the results of (1),

The preceding
series
have been summed by using the
method, described in general in 12.22

series
30
(2).
which can be treated in
this
(2).
difference
We next consider some other
way.
GPMH
SERIES
428
[12.25
12.25 'Factor' series
Sum
(i)
1.2 + 2. 3 + 3. 4 + ...+w(n+l).
The general term is ur = r(r+
1).
Consider
r(r+l)(r + 2)-(r-l)r(r+l)
This
is
r(r
3r(r+l)
+ l){(r + 2)-(r- 1)}

= Zur
.
a suitable difference relation, and by summing
for r
1, 2, ...,n,
32r(r+l) = w(ra+l)(n + 2)-0,

r=l
r(r+l) = n(n+
i.e.
1)
(w +
2).
r=l
(ii)
The
Sumton
1.2.3 + 2.3.4 + 3.4.5 +
terms
general term isf

r(r
+1
wr =
)
(r
r(r
+ 1) (r + 2).
....
Consider
+ 2) (r + 3 - (r - 1
)
r(r
+1
(r
+ 2)
r(r+l)(r + 2){(r + 3)-(r-l)}
4r(r+l)(r + 2)
4wr
Hence
r(r+
r=l
1) (r
+ 2) = n(w+l)(w + 2)(ra + 3)-0,
|; r ( r+ i)( r + 2)
i.e.
= in(n+l)(w + 2)(w + 3).
r=l
The same method can be used for any series in which the terms consist of
the same number of factors and the first factors in each term form an a.p.
having the same common difference as the successive factors in each term.
To obtain a difference function f(r +1), insert an extra factor at the end of the
rth term. Observe in exs. (i), (ii) how the sum can be written down from the
form of the general term.
Other series may be reducible to this type.
(iii)
Sum
.2.3 + 2.3. 5 + 3.4.7 +
...
to
n terms.
ur = r(r+l)(2r+l)
= r(r+l){2(r + 2)-3}
=
/.
**r
r=l
22
r=l
r(r+l)(r + 2)-32 r(r+l)

r1
2 x \n(n +
%n(n +
Alternatively,
2r(r+l)(r + 2)-3r(r+l).
1)
1)
(n + 2) (n + 3)
(n + 2)
ur
-3
x \n{n +
1)
by exs. (i), (ii),
(n + 2)
after factorisation.
2r8 + 3r 2 + r,
f Here and elsewhere we write down the simplest formula which

the terms given; cf. Remark (a) in 2.71.
is
consistent with
series
12.26]
n
r=l
r=l
r=l
2 x n2 (n +
429
n
r=l
2
1)
+ 3 x \n{n + 1) (2n + 1) + |n(n + 1)
by the results in 12.24, and this reduces to the expression just found.
The second method is inconvenient if uT is of degree higher than 3 in r, unless
n
we know formulae
for
2
r=l
-4
*
etc.
12.26 'Fraction' series

(1)
(i)
ill
++
Examples.
o
tfwm
by
method
terms.
r(r+l)
r+1
this decomposition is of the form f(r) f(r + 1). The

therefore applicable, so that on putting
1,2, ...,n
"11
is
and adding,
y\ut =
T^ +
^ z^
+
ur =
n+1
r=i
Sum
tow
+...
o 4
Z o
^5
and
partial fractions,
difference
n+1
tontervm
r(r+l)(r + 2)
Partial fractions are less suitable here because their use

fractions.
would lead to
three
We may decompose ur into two fractions by omitting the last factor:

l
11
(r+l)(r + 2)
r(r+l)
Hence
1.2
and the required

sum
H
{r
(n + l)(n + 2)
is
+ 2)-r
r(r+l)(r + 2)
n
*"
2 T\ u
f
2(n+l)(n + 2)
The terms of the series just considered are the reciprocals of those illustrated
The same method as in ex. (ii) here can be used to obtain a difference
function f(r), viz. write down ur and omit the last factor in the denominator.
This gives ur in the form/(r) f(r + 1 which, although not exactly the difference
considered in 12.22 (2), does enable the method to be used.
in 12.25.
Other
series
may be reducible to the above.
(r
r+l
+ 2)(r + 3)(r + 4)
(r
+ 3)(r + 4)
vr
-w
r,
(r
(r + 2)-l
+ 2) (r + 3) (r + 4)
1
(r
+ 2) (f + 3) (r + 4)
say.
30-2
'
series
430
1
1
_
rT3~r + 4 ~
Since
aSince
(r
After reduction,
we
r + 2)(r + 3)(r + 4)
(
r _l
3.4
(n + 3)(n + 4)
2Y.wr =
hence
2n + 5
2(n + 3)(n + 4)'
riP'r-l' r=l^"24.
(2)
= 2wr
find
series
~~4~n + l'
2
+ 3)(r + 4)
(r
"
Vr '
+ 2)(r + 3)
[12.26
method will sum all
Direct use of partial fractions. This
summable by the
difference
method, although often
'
fraction
less easily.
Example
(iv)
Sum
T^ + ^r5 + si^ +
t0ntermS
'-
ABC
2r+l
= -+ T+
r
r+1 r + 3'
we find A = J, B =
C = f.
-
r(r+l)(r + 3)
and by the usual method
(4.62)
6w r
n
and
62*. =
1\
n+l n + 2 n + 3/
+ i + l) + 3(i + i) + -
2(l
^r) + (* + * + Sr + S+i)
\r = 4 r
r=i r
+ *+*+
/
n+3
i
22- + 3S
-5S
=2*"
*(
5
r+3
=ir+l--5S
rir+3
n+1
r=l*'
r+1
n
22- + 32
r-ir
n 1
r=i
2
-
n+1 n+1 n+2 n+3
37
n+1 n+2 n+3
ZuUr
r=1
To sum this
series
37
-
36
1
-
3(n+l)
by the method of
6(n + 2)
12.25
6(n + 3)
we should write uT
as
(2r+l)(r + 2)
r(r+l)(r + 2) (r+3)
in order to
make
the factors in the denominator successive terms of an a.p.,

in the form
and then express the numerator

2r 2
+ 5r + 2 =
2r(r+
1)
+ 3r + 2.
431
series
12.27]
Thus
2
r
and each
(r
+ 2)(r + 3)
(r+
1) (r
+ 2) (r + 3)
r(r+
1) (r
+ 2) (r + 3)'
fraction can be dealt with separately.
Success of the 'partial fraction' method in this example depends on the fact
that the sum of the numerators of the three partial fractions is zero, so that the
major part
- f tne
sum
cancels out. This will always be the case
when the
r=4 r
degree of the numerator of ur is at least two lower than that of the denominator.
(3)
Sum
The
to infinity.
12.25 clearly have no

above do possess such a sum
series in 12.24,
limiting sum, but those in exs. (i)-(iv)
to infinity (12.21), viz.

(i)
Some
12.27
(ii)
(iv) ft.
a,
(iii)
trigonometric series
of sines or cosines of angles in a.p.
(1) Series
C=
(i)
i,
cosa + cos(a+/tf) + cos(a + 2yff) + ...+cos{a + (n-l)/ff}.
Multiply both sides
by
then since
2 sin
2 sin /?ttr = 2 sin %/3 cos {a + (r - 1) ft}

= sin {a + (r - J) fl} - sin {a + (r - f
by using one
of the formulae for products into sums,
the form/(r +
1) f(r),
we have by summing for r
S=
The
. .
0}
.,
n:
a product.
difference into
C = coa{* + $(n-l)/3}
(ii)
1, 2,
this expression is of
= sin {a + (n - ) fi} - sin {a = 2cos{a + (w-l)/?}sinn/?
2 sin \p G
by converting the
and
sin-Jnyff
"
sin/ff
sina+sin(a+yff)+sin(a + 2 ff) + ...+sin{a + (w-l)^}.
result
S=
sin{a + (n-
Sm
l)yff}
^f
sinf/J
can be obtained in various ways:
(b)
Put a 7r for a in ex. (i). (This shows that the multiplier

G must also suit S.)
Multiply both sides by 2sin/? (the same factor as for G).
(c)
Derive the result of ex.
(a)
2sin/ff for
finding
(iii)
(i)
wo a.
G'
= cosa-cos(a+^) + cos(a + 2yff)-...+(-l) n_1 cos{a + (n-l)yff},
S'
= sma-sin(a+
ff)
+ sin(a + 2^)-... + (-l)"- 1 sin{a-|-(n-l)/?}.
These can be deduced from exs.

or found directly
respectively by writing 7T+/? for

2 sin
+ /?) = 2 cos
(i), (ii)
by using the multiplier
/?;
series
432
[12.27
Other useful differences. Results like
(2)
= cot0-2cot20,
tan0
cosec 26
cot 6 cot 26,
tan 6 sec 26
tan 26 tan 6
are easily verified,
and can be used
sum
to
suitable trigonometric
series.
Example
(xv)
Sum
+ tan - sec - + tan - sec - + ...ton terms.
tan - sec
wr = tan-sec
If we write 0/2r for 6 in the last difference just mentioned,

u.r
tan
2r_1
2=1u
The sum to
infinity is
that
tan r
2
:.
we see
tan 6 tan
2"
tan d.
Exercise 12(c)
Find a formula for each

1
of the following sums.
23 +
3
... + (2n + l)
+
2
2
2
2 + 3 4 + ... to n
terms
if
l2
+ 3 2 + 5 2 + ... + (2w-l) 2
even;
is (i)
(ii)
odd. Give a formula
which includes both cases.

4 Prove that the sum of the products in pairs (without repetitions) of the
first n integers is -^n(w 2 1) (Bn + 2). [If s n is the required sum, then
(n
r=l
5
Expand
(r
\2
=2*+2> 2
Z')
.]
r=l
+ l) 4 r4 Using the formulae for

.
Sr,
2r2 deduce
,
2 rS
r=l
6
(i)
(ii)
By writing r2 =
Writing r 8
r(r+
r(r 2
1)
r,
n
obtain
r2
r=l
by using
l)+r = (r l)r(r+ 1) +r,
12.25.
n
obtain
f3
r=l
2/i
*"(*+
7 Calculate
r=+l
1).
8 Express r(r + 2) (2r
1)
in the
form
ar(r + 1) (r + 2)
hence calculate
2 r r + 2) (2r
(
1).
r=l
9 Calculate
2 (n-r) (r+1).
r=l
[ur
= n(r+ 1) -r(r+ 1).]
+ 6r(r + 1) + cr + d, and
series
12.28]
433
Sum the following series to n terms, and find the sum to infinity when it exists.
+ 2 2 .3 + 3 2 .4 + ....
10
l a .2
11
3.5.7 + 5.7.9 + 7.9.11
+ ....
[Method of
12.25.]
l +2 +3
l +2
I
+ ^ +
+ 2.5.8 + 3.6.9 + ....
14
+ + ^^ +
1.4
4.7
7.10
16
2r+l
Use partial fractions

18
r
19
r ti r(r
>Sm the following
to
7
h....
7.9.11
sum to infinity,
r +\
+ 2) (r + 3)
n terms.
sin 20 + cos 20 sin 30 + cos 30 sin 40 +
20 cos
+....
1-
5.7.9
sums, and also the
S
"7~T~o\*
+ 2)
f r(r
3.5.7
to find the following
+ ^r^+-,
ir-^
3.5.7 5.7.9 7.9.11
17
15
---
r(r+l)(r + 2)
13
12 1.4.7
...
= {sin (2r + 1) + sin 0}.]

[cos rd sin (r + 1)
= 4 + cos 20.]
[cos 2
+ cos 2 20 + cos 2 30 +
22 cosec 20 + cosec 40 + cosec 80 +
23 tan0 + 2tan20 + 4tan40 + 8tan80+....
24 sec 2 0+4sec 2 20+16sec 2 40 + 64sec a 80+.... [Use no. 23.]
25 sec sec 20 + sec 20 sec 30 + sec 30 sec 40 + .... [tan(r+ l)0-tanr0 = ....]
26 Prove that tan -1 (r + 1 tan-1 r = cot -1 1 + r + 2 and hence sum
cot"1 3 + cot- 1 7 + cot"1 13 +
+ cot-1 1 + n + ra a
is
the
sum
What
to infinity?
21 cos 2
. .
..
. . .
),
. . .
).
12.28 Mathematical Induction
This
is
a general principle
for proving a given statement
which
involves a positive integer n.
Let
TC
always
is
be such a statement. For example, n might be 'n(n+ 1) is

or 'the sum to n terms ofl.l! + 2.2! + 3.3! + ...
<f>
divisible by 2
(n+l)\-V.
by assuming the truth
If
(i.e. if
of
<j)
we can prove
the truth of
corresponding statement for the next integer), and
be true, then
we have
about
k+1
<j>
that
if
<$>
x is
known
to
1,
n is true for all positive integers n. For by taking h
= 2, 2 implies <j> z ; and we can
X implies <j> 2 taking 1c
\
continue thus until any positive integer
The
<f>
the statement for any particular integer always implies the
n is
reached.
principle holds for negative integers also, since a statement
n is equivalent to a statement about the positive integer n.
SERIES
434
[12.28
Examples
n
2 r% W n + 1) (2n +
Prove
(i)
1).
r=l
Suppose that,
some
for
integer k,
k
r =
2
i*(Jfc+l)(2Jfe+l>,
r=l
This
is
the induction hypothesis.

fc+ 1
Then
fc
^
r=l
!> + (&+l)
2
r=l
=
+ l)(2fc+l) + (&+l) 2 by
= (fc+l){fc(2fc+l) + 6(fc+l)}
= (fc+l){2fc 2 + 7fc + 6}
= $(&+l)(fc + 2)(2A; + 3),
the induction hypothesis,
is similar to the induction hypothesis, but with k + 1 instead of k. Hence

the result holds for n = k, then it also holds for n = k + 1.
When n = 1, the result is true because the left-hand side is l 2 = 1 and the
right-hand side is $ 1 2 3 = 1.
Hence by Mathematical Induction the statement is true for all positive
which
if
integers n.
(ii)
Prove
Write f(n)
that 3 2n
+ 7 is always divisible by 8.
7,
3 2n +
and consider
f(k+l)-f(k)
Iff(k)
is
divisible
by
16,
Also/(l) = 3 2 + 7
by Induction.
(iii)
Prove
Then
3 2 *(3 2 -l)
2 *+ 2
for
forr
+ 7)-(3 2 * + 7)
n = k:
k - far +...+a h
G
x
+ r
= (x + a) (x + a) k the
particular value
x k + k C1 x k - 1 a +
...
Cr ar + k Cr _ 1 ar =
k+1
which
The
is
a) k+1
a;*^
+ ^Câ +... +
k+1
when r =
Cr
x k -r+1ar
similar to the induction hypothesis, but with
result holds (trivially)
when n =
1.
or
k+ 1. Hence
+...+ a k +\
k+1
for k.
follows
Induction.
(iv)
of
Cr ar
12.13, ex. (iv). This expression is also correct
coefficient
1,2,...,^;)
k
(x
8.3 2 *.
by Induction.
some
in the expansion of (x + a) k+1
a-fc-r+iig
by
(3
relation shows that f(k+ 1) is also divisible by 8.

which is in fact divisible by 8. Hence the result follows
the binomial theorem
a) k
32fc+2_ 32*
8, this
Suppose the theorem holds

{x
Leibniz's theorem on d n (uv)/dx"
was proved by Induction in
6.62.
by
series
12.28]
435
Remark. Mathematical Induction applied to the summation of a

series is equivalent to the difference method. For to prove that, for
all positive integers n,
we assume that,
some
for
+^ _
^+^+
k,
...+U k =f(k),
and then show that
u x + Uz+ ...+uk+1 =f(k+l).
u1 + u2 + ...+uk+1 =
Since
(u1 + u2 + ...+uk )
+ uk+1
=f(k) + uk+1
showing that
this is equivalent to
* =/(*+!)-/(*).
so that/(r)
a suitable difference function.
is
Exercise 12(d)
Prove
1
by Mathematical Induction.
the following results
+3+5+
..
+ (2n-l) = n 2
2 1.1! + 2. 2! + 3. 3! + ..ton terms

.
+ 4 + 7 + ... + (3n-2) =
2
12
16
8
-+--...
4
5
6
7
3.5
5.7
(i)
n(n +
(i)
9" -
a?
2 " -1
8 If 2mx
1)
to
7.9
(w + 2)
is
1 is divisible
%n(Gn2 -3n-
divisible
by
8;
by
(ii)
6;
(ii)
n + 2n is
3
+3
divisible
- 8n - 1 is divisible by
9n
3.
64.
= b + u1 and 2u n+2 = u n +u n+1 (w ^

3w = a{l - + 6{2 + - )},
2u 2
by
by x + y.
1),
and
1).
n_1
n terms = ^,3 + ( mx
1)
2ra
?/2n-i jg divisible
= a + 6,
= (n+l)!-l.
find limw.
prove
n->oo
9 Prove
cos
sec
+ cos 20 sec 2 +
. . .
+ cos n0 sec" =
[Use the answer to construct a difference function: see
s
|
"*"^
_j
sin 6/ cos"
Remark in
12.28.]
10 Prove
cosec a cosec (a + /?)
to
n terms
is
+ cosec (a + /?) cosec (a +

+ cosec (a + 2/?) cosec (a + Bfi) + ...
cosec fi{cot a cot (a + w/ff)}.
2/ff)
SERIES
436
12.3
[12.3
Infinite series
12.31 Behaviour of
an
infinite series
n
(1)
= 2 ur an(* um
Convergence. If sn
r=l
we
defined s to be the
exists
and has the value s,
n-><
sm to infinity
of the infinite series T,ur (12.21).
We also say that the series Hur converges (or is convergent) to s, and
write
00
= ur
y
r=l
or
It will be clear
from the
^ + ^2 + %+....
definition that s is not a 'sum' in the
number of terms', but is the

such a sum. If we attempt to treat infinite series like finite
ones (i.e. without consideration of convergence), then paradoxical
ordinary sense of 'the result of adding a
limit of
results
may
arise.
For example, suppose x
>
and consider the
series
1
l+x + - + x* + 1z +xao + - + ....

1
One
is
tempted to regard
this as the
sum of two
l+x + x2 + x*+...
whose sums to
infinity are (see
end of
X3
Xs
...,
12.21)
llX
and
infinite g.p.'s
,111
+- ++
and
XT
1/x
x\'
We
which add up to
zero.
thus appear to have a series of positive terms whose
to infinity is zero. The explanation is simply that the first g.p. converges
(i.e. possesses a sum to infinity) only when \x\ < 1, while the second converges
only when l/x\ < 1, i.e. \x\ > 1; there is no value of # for which both converge,
sum
and hence the original

Another example is
series
has no
sum to infinity.
i++i+i+i+*+-= (i+i++ -) + (i
from which
+
i+i+
i.e.
= 1+4 + *+...,
a result clearly wrong since each term on the

one on the right.
When
sn does
left is less
than the corresponding
not tend to a limit when n -> oo, there are various

by the following example.
possibilities, illustrated
series
12.32J
(2)
The
If x
(i)
infinite g.p. 1
=f=
1,
if
then s n
1 < x <
=
1,
if
(iii)
if
then xn - oo
% is odd
a;
when n->oo, and so s -> 1/(1

and so sw -> + oo; we say $n is properly
then xn ->
x > 1,
divergent to +oo;
(ii)
437
+ x + x + x + ....
n )/(l -x). Hence by 2.72
-x
(1
2
TC
< 1, then #n -> + oo when n
sn
even and xn -+
is
- co when
oscillates infinitely;
x = 1, the series is 1 1 + 1 1 + ..., so that sn = if n

and 1).
is even and s n = 1 if n is odd: s TC oscillates finitely (between
If x = 1, the formula for sn is meaningless, but the series becomes
1 + 1 + 1 +
., so that sn = n and s n -> + oo when n->oo:s n is properly
(iv) if
. .
divergent to
+ oo.
In this book we shall not give a detailed study of the

behaviour of infinite series, and it will usually be sufficient if we
employ the term 'divergent' to mean 'not convergent'. Thus our
(3) Divergence.
'divergence' will cover proper divergence to +oo, proper divergence

to
oo,
We
finite oscillation
abbreviate 'Sr
and infinite
is
means Hur is divergent
oscillation.
convergent' to
(i.e.
ty
Lur
c'; similarly,
'wr d'
not convergent)'.
12.32 General properties

(1)
IfZu r converges, thenMmun =
0.
n><x>
For by hypothesis sn -+s when n ->

therefore un -> s s =
when n->oo.
(2)
The converse of this
oo;
result is false : if
and
un ->
since
0,
not converge.
Example
2(l/r) is divergent.
We have
i+i
> i+i =
i++*+i>+i++i = h
i+^+..-+^>i% = i,
etc.,
so that
> 1 + i + i = 1 + 2 x,
8 S > 1 + i+i + i = l + 3x h
s 16 > l + 4x,
etc.,
and
8&>>
s4
in general
Hence when p
-> oo,
jj>
-> oo.
+p x
un =
sn
sn _ v
the series 1>ur may
series
438
[12.32
Given a positive integer n>\, a positive integer p can be found so that

< n < 2 P and therefore (since all terms of the series are positive)
2 J'- 1
S^p-i
When n
-> 00, also 2 p
shows that the
00, i.e.
< *n ^ s
1/n ->
Remark.
cx>
because Sg*- 1
when n
is
(properly) divergent (to
+ 00), although
-> 00.
We have shown that %n ->
of T,ur but */ un -+> wAew

2wr
would be contradicted).
Thus Sr/(r + 1) d because ww = n\{n +
does not imply convergence
-> 00,
6e divergent (otherwise (1)
->
1)
when - -> 00.
(3)
Convergence or divergence of a series
(a)
removing a finite number of terms from the series;

multiplying every term by a non-zero constant.
(b)
This
uiiuu.
series
sometimes called the harmonic series,
un
a*-
p ^ cc; hence s n ->
is
unaltered by
These facts are clear from the properties of limits (2.3). Property
(a) is useful when the first few terms of a series behave irregularly,
and also shows that any test for convergence which we shall give need
apply only
definite
(4)
'for all
n ^
term of the
onwards.
If1iUr Svr both converge,
to
converges to as + bt, a
For
m\ where m is a fixed number; i.e. from some
series
and
sums
s, t
respectively, then T,(aur
+ bvr
b being constants.
if
r=l
r=l
n
then
2 (a>ur + bv = asn + btn

r)
r=l
-> as + bt
when
n -> 00,
by
2.3,
(ii).
Similarly, if one of
2vr converges and the other diverges, then
H(aur + bvr ) diverges. However, if both diverge, T,(aur + bvr ) may
possibly converge, e.g. if ur = r + 2~r vr r, a = 1, b = 1; roughly
,
speaking, the divergent parts
may cancel out.
If sn steadily increases when n increases, then T,ur either converges

or properly diverges to + 00. If also sn is bounded, then Ymt is convergent.
(5)
This follows from 2.77. In particular,

terms, then sn
is
if
Swr
consists of positive
certainly increasing since s n+1
sn
+ un+x >
sn
Hence
a series of positive terms is either convergent or properly divergent to
+ 00.
439
series
12.4]
The behaviour of the
series considered in 12.2
can be determined
directly because a formula for sn can be found; cf. 12.26 (3). When
no such formula is known, we resort to tests for convergence or
may show that the
divergence. Although these
do not help us to evaluate
We recall that
its
statement 'limsn
(2.71) the
series converges,
they
sum to infinity.
s'
means that
if
any
->co
positive
number e however small is given, then a number m

e) can be found such that, for all n ^ m,
(in general
depending on
e <
sn
<
s + e.
Series of positive terms
12.4
We suppose all terms of our series are positive in this section.

whose terms are
negative can be included
all
factor
-1
12.41
Comparison
by
first
Series
removing the
(see 12.32 (3) (6)).
tests
In these we compare the given series 2wr with a series T>vr whose
behaviour (c or d) is known. Roughly, a series which is less term by
term than a convergent series is also convergent, and one greater than
a divergent series term by term is divergent.
Test for convergence.
(1)
If 2iVr
either
or
and
c,
(a)
(6)
un ^
cvn for all
lim {ujvj
n ^ m, where
c is
a positive
constant,
= 1^0,
n>oo
then also lLur c.
00
Proof of (a). If 2 vr
t,
then since
all
the terms vr are positive,
for all n.
r=l
v1 + v2 +
By
...
+vn <
hypothesis,
Wm + Um +1+---+ Un <
<
<
Hence for
sn
all
C{vm
+ Vm+1 +...+Vn
c(v 1 +...+vm +...+v n )

ct.
n ^ m,
= u i + ...+OT + ...+ < ux + ...+um _ x + ct = K,
Therefore
by
12.32
(5),
Swr c.
say.
series
440
Proof of
Given
(b).
that
l
>
however
u
e <
< l+e
[12.41
small, there is a
for all
vn
number
m such
n ^ m.
The right-hand inequality shows that
un <
Taking
n ^ m.
for all
the result follows.
(a),
Test for (proper) divergence.
(2)
If
= l + e in
+ e) vn
(1
1>vr
and
i>,
either
(a)
or
(b)
un ^
n ^ m, where
c is
>
cvn for all
lim (ujvn )
(but
not
a positive constant,
0),f
n-*-<x>
then 1>ur d.
Proof of
Since T>vr d, then (see 12.32
(a).
vm + vm+1 +
By
+ vn
. . .
when
c(m
Swr
sn
.*.
^+
+ um +
. . .
>
(3)
(i)
m+1 +...+f;ft )
-> oo.
+ un -> oo when
n->co,
From the left-hand inequality in the proof of (1) (b),

un >
- oo.
d.
Proo/ of (b).
If
. . .
t;
when
-> oo
take c
hypothesis,
fn+^m+i + + >
i.e.
(5))
oo
0,
then
= I e in
e >
(a),
(l
e)vn
for all
n ^ m.
for all positive e sufficiently small;
we may
and the result follows.
Standard comparison
series are
the g.p. Zaf, which c
if
<x <
and d
if
x ^
(12.31 (2));
the harmonic series S(l/r) which d (12.32 (2)).

Another is E(l/rp ); for various values of p this gives a whole family
(ii)
of
series,
(hi)
W
/
which we now consider,

> 1 and d if p ^
X(l/rp ) c if p
5
=
<
111
+ + +
i^
2^
3^
(^ ^)
t The result may be false

yet E(l/r2 c (see (3) below).
1.
+^
+
(p
there being
+-+
^)
= 0;
e.g. S(l/r)
terms,
brackets;
+ -'
there being
if
(12.32(2))
and
(l/ra 2 )/(l/n)
-> 0,
series
12.41]
441
the inequality is clear since the first, second, third,
. . .
terms in sn have
Making
an upper estimate for the contents of each bracket, we have whenp > 0:
been replaced by brackets containing
*n
< Jt+
1
I?
1, 2, 4,
. . .
(p+p) + (&+ - + p) + 4
positive terms.
( brackets)
+ p + 4^ + 8^ + -
(n terms)
= 1 +2^1+ (2î) + (g^l)
3+
<
terms >
71
{l
- (î)
/{*
}
0n summing the G p "
~ 2^}
'
for all
'- 1
>
if
1,
l-(i) 2
common ratio () p_1 is less than 1.

Hence when p > 1, sn is bounded; so by 12.32 (5) the series c.
(b) The case p = 1 gives the harmonic series already investigated
since then the
in 12.32
(2).
p < 1, then mP < n when n > 1, so that

by comparison with S(l/r), S(l/rp ) d whenp < 1.
Alternatively,
series)
s
n
If p
<
=
0,
if0<p<
11
h-
IP
2p
1
h
...
nv
then clearly sn -
>
IjnP
If
(c)
1/n.
Hence
then (without referring to the harmonic
=
np
1
> nx
-> 00
when
w -> co.
Hence S(l/rp ) d when p <
00.
1.
Examples
(i)
Examine
the series
1.3.4
2.4.5
3.5.6
2n+3
Here
n(n + 2)(n + 3)
[When n is large, n 2n/(n.n.n) = 2/n2 ; so for large n, behaves like 2/n 2 .

It is therefore likely that Ew n c, and we try the comparison test for convergence.]
Using the 'inequality' form of the
2n + 3
Sn
n(w + 2)(w + 3)
n.n.n
u n < 3/na if n > 3. Taking v

(being the series S(l/r p ) whenp =
i.e.
test,
=
2).
if
n>
w n < 3v n
Hence 2w c also.
1/n2 , then
3,
for
n>
3,
and Zvc
series
442
[12.41
form of the
Alternatively, using the 'limit'
and taking v n
test,
l/w a as
before,
nôo v n
\n(n + 2) (n + 3)/
n-yoo
n2/
Hence Z B c
because- Jjv n c.
Mixamme
(n)
x
large,
is
1/n,
w n = n/2n 2 =
then u n
>
\-....
33
w8
,
>
2^
^=
hm
_oo w
frallM '
&i
TC
2n2
probably 2w d.]
l/2n, so that
%v n Therefore
^ftemotM*
and the same
+2+3
w3
tt -
+ 2 + ...+w _ n(n+l) _ n+1
We have
so if v,,
28
[When n
+2H
1
-\
'
lim
2w n diverges with S n
/n+l/l\
n->oo \
2n 2
/-)
n/
\,
result follows.
Exercise 12(e)
Show that the following series do

i
un
not converge because
f+f+ H....
lf!-l^ + l^?.
2
a;
a;
-+> 0.
a;
V(r+1)-Vr*
Using
the result of 12.41 (3)
(iii),
state
6 + !++*+....
Use
s
the
test to
2
32
42
^^
+
2
V( r -2r)
16 Prove that
? +
1+x
1
,
l+xz
1+x 3
3.4.6
K...
+l
6! \6/
if
<x<
1.
5/6
\1 2
6
1
stl.
r
3
14
JL+....
2.3.4
1.2.3
+j
11
h-...
13
r+1
r!
-1+-!-+-^+....
3
1
2a
series converge.
ascertain the behaviour of the following series.
i+i+^+^+^+.-.
10
comparison
which of the following
+ ...C if >
a;
17 Use the argument in no. 15 to prove that
1,
r>
11(x r jr\)
o for
all
0.
<
If Swr c, prove that
18
Ewa and 2{wr/( 1 + ur )} also c.
11,
prove Z(wr/r) also

19 IfZw*c,
r
20
443
series
12.42]
-<
Verify that
(i)
Deduce that
|_\
therefore
>
2.
=2
r=2 (r-l)r
1
1111,
and has sum to
(This shows that 2(l/r 2 ) converges
<
Prove
*(ii)
v
(r l)r
-<
r=lf
0,
(r+1) 2
'
<
r+1
<
2.
infinity a
when
"J
<
2.)
1,
r*
and deduce that

1
?*/
when
r2
sn
r(w--\ ^
c.
[Use the comparison test.]
+ 2i+--- + (Î)i + <
S^
<1 + 25 +
---
11
^-
(This shows that l/(n+ 1) < s-s n < 1/n. Taking n = 100, we see that the first
hundred terms give s correct to only two decimal places. It can be proved that
8 = ^n 2 see 14.34, ex. (ii).)
*21 If Swr c, prove u n+1 + u n+2 +
+ u n+v -> when n -+ 00, where p is any
:
. . .
fixed positive integer.
12.42 d'Alembert's ratio test
The
tests in 12.41 required
an auxiliary
be stated involves only the given
series
Evr that now

;
series itself.
1iUr is convergent if
either
(a)
or
(b)
un+1 /un < k <
for all
= <
lim (un+1 jun )
n ^ m, where k is
constant,
1.
n-*-ao
HtUr is (properly) divergent if
either
(a')
or
(&')
un+1 jun ^
for all
lim (un+1 /un )
n ^ m,
= 1>1.
n->ao
Proofs
(a)
By
hypothesis,
um+l ^ kum>
um+z < kum+1
and so
on.
s$
k 2um
from the previous
from the previous line;

um+3 ^ kum+2 ^
Hence each term of the series
um+l + um+2 + Um+Z +

is less
line;
than or equal to the corresponding term of the
g.p.
kum + k*um + k3um +

31
GPM II
to
series
444
< k <
which converges since
verges, since the first
by
[12.42
hypothesis. Therefore
terms u 1 + u2 +
+um
...
do not
Swr
con-
affect its
behaviour.
(b)
Given
>
0,
there
is
< l+e
l-e <
Since
<
= I+e
from
(a')
1,
we have
m such that
a number
+e <
for all
n ^ m.
for all e sufficiently small.
Taking
in the right-hand part of the inequality, the result follows
(a).
By
hypothesis,
um+l ^ um>
um+2 ^ um+l ^ um>
e^ c
Hence for n ^
we have un ^ um so that i*n -I* when n -> oo,
proving non-convergence of
The series.must actually be properly
divergent since it consists of positive terms (12.32 (5)).
(&')
Since
>
1,
we have Z e >
for all e sufficiently small.
left-hand part of the inequality in the proof of
^1>1
and the
result follows
by
for all
(6)
The
then shows
n > m,
(a').
Remarks
(a)
if
The complete condition (a)
is essential
the result
may be false
we merely have
^1<1
for all
n > m.
Thus although E( l/r) d,

*
/i
n+l/ n
un
"
n+1
<1
foralln.
No fixed k independent of n can be found for which

î-1 < k
because n/(n +
1)
and
k<l
can be made as close to
as
we
please
by taking n
sufficiently large.
(/#)
The
tests give
no information i/lim {un+1 /un )
1.
For example,
W->co
d and 2
but in both cases un+1 /un -> 1 when n -> oo.

If use of the 'limit form of the ratio test leads to the limit 1, then
S(l/r)
(l/r 2 ) c,
'
we must revert
to the 'inequality' form since this can give a decision
series
12.42]
when the
form
445
For a power series it is usually

best to treat this exceptional case from first principles.
{y) No conclusion can be drawn from non-existence of the limit of
un+il un- Thus for the seriesf
'limit'
is
inconclusive.
1+1 + i+ i+1 + 1+
2 42 2 3 4 4 2B 4
*"''
successive values of un+1 /un are

9
Jl
23'
so that
un+1 jun
_L
25
JL
93
27
'
29
oscillates infinitely.
vergent (because, roughly,
it is
the
I
1 1 1
2"^42"^2^^"4*"^"""^
95
'
The
97
*"'
'
series is nevertheless con-
sum of two convergent

1
2 2n_1
i 2
q.p.'s):
a-royi-an
42
22
->f+T when
^+1 =
andj
Hence the
that for
n -> co;
^ + 22^1^1^+
when
~>0-
Observe also
and has sum to infinity
un does not steadily decrease to zero when n -> 00
series converges,
tljis
series
Example
Examine the series 1 + 2x + Zx 2 + 4a;3 + for all positive x.
Ifx = 0, the series is 1 + + + ., which converges to the sum
~
If x 4= 0, then since u n = nx n x
. . .
. .
1.
= n+1 x -> x when n
w+i
un
The ratio
test
shows that
-> 00.
if
< x <
the series
c,
and
if
>
the series d.
f The reader may feel that an 'irregular' series like this is not a fair example;
but in fact the terms are constructed according to a quite definite law: 'the rth term
is the rth power of 2 or 4, according as r is odd or even '. In this example it is easy to
write down a formula for ur viz. ur {3 + ( l) r} _r
% See the footnote on p. 451.
,
31-2
series
446
[12.43
When x = 1 the test gives no information; but then the series is 1 + 2 + 3 +

which clearly d.
Hence the series c when < x < 1, d when x ^ 1. (See Ex. 12 (/), no. 12 for
a method of finding the sum to infinity.)
,
. . .
Exercise 12(/)
Test the following series.
1
22
1+
Tl
3
If a
32
2i
and
42
3i
23
22
+ '-
*+*+*+
6 are positive, prove that
q+1 (a+l)(2a+l) (a+ 1) (2a+ 1) (3a+ 1)

+
+
+ "'
6+1 (6+1) (26+1) (6+1) (26+1) (36 + 1)
converges
if
<
and diverges
if
6.
Test the following, assuming x to be positive.
1+
r.
a;
+ ii + Si + ""
a;
i-2
x*
9
10
+ --
3!
+ (l + 3)a: + (l + 3 2 )a: 2 + (l + 3 3 )a:3 + ....
a+l
a;
+
a:
+2
x+ %
-x
*(ii)
+ ...
(aj+l).
'
By showing that
1.3.5... (2n-l)
2.4.6... (2n)
prove that the

*12
374
....
1.3.5.7
1.3
1.3.5
(i)ix + -x2 + -x3 +
2.4.6.8
2.4
2.4.6
11
2!
8 a;+2 3a; 2 + 3 3a;3 + 4 3a: 4 +
series in
(i)
diverges
>
1.2.4... (2n-2)
2.4.6... (2n)
when x =
_
~
2n'
1.
By deriving the identity

l+a; + a; 2 +...+a: n
1x
1x
obtain a formula for 1 + 2a? + 3# 2 +

+ nx n ~ x , and hence verify from
principles the conclusions of the worked example in 12.42.
. . .
first
12.43 Speed of convergence of a series
A series is said to be 'rapidly convergent

mation to the sum to
sense the g.p.
infinity s for fairly
l+x + x 2 + x3 + ...
good approxismall values of n. In this
'
if sn
(\x\
<
gives a
1)
SERIES
12.44]
is
rapidly convergent
when
\x\ is
small, since
\xn
and x
|
447
xn
small for small n. It converges less rapidly
is
when x
is
just
less
than
1,(1 /r
2
)
1.
On
the other hand, Ex. 12(e), no. 20
(ii)
shows that
converges slowly.
These notions are necessarily vague since the terms a good approximation', 'fairly small n' have not been specified; they are relative
and not absolute notions, and can become precise only after we have
selected some definite series by which to fix our standard of rapidity '.
However, they are useful in a descriptive way.
The essence of the comparison test for convergence (12.41 (1)) is
that if 1ur is term by term less than a convergent series cLvr then
1ur will converge. We may say that 1ur converges at least as rapidly
as Hvr
and if lim (ujvn ) = 0, that '1un converges faster than 1vn \
'
'
'
Similar language would describe relative rates of divergence.
d'Alembert's test for convergence consists fundamentally of com-
paring the given series
1ur with a g.p.
rapidly than any g.p., the test
If Hur
happens to converge less

this is the case with
is ineffective;
Z(l/r 2 ) (and indeed with any of the series T,(l/rp ) for

usually so
when lim (un+1 /un
p> 1),
and
is
1.
Tests of greater delicacy than d'Alembert's can be formulated, but
no
finality
can be attained since
it
can be shown that, however

which that test is
delicate the test, a series can be constructed for
In 12.44 we give a test which is of no fixed standard of

delicacy, and which deals particularly easily with series like 2 (l/rp ),
S{l/r(logr) p } for which the ratio test is indecisive.
ineffective.
12.44 Infinite series and infinite integrals
The
'sum to infinity of a series' (as the limit of a

and 'value of an infinite integral' (as the
limit of the corresponding finite integral, 4.92) are somewhat similar.
For a certain class of functions f(x) we now give a theorem relating
definitions of
certain 'finite' sum, 12.21)

'
in
'
which convergence of one implies that of the other.
series
448
[12.44
The Maclaurin-Cauchy integral test.

is continuous and steadily decreases
(1)
If f{x)
oo
to zero
for x
1,
then
/*oo
2 /(**) and
r=l
converge or both diverge.
f(t) dt either both
When they con-
Jl
Ver9*>
co
/-co
/-co
S/(r)<
Jl
f(t)dt+f(l).
Jl
r=l
for all
Proof. Since /(a;) steadily decreases to zero, we have f(x) >
n
fx
x ^ 1 so that fix)> f(t)dt are increasing functions of n,x respectively.
< x < r + 1, then
If r
/(r+1) </(*)</(#).
Integrating this form r to r +
1,
V+1
/(r+l)<
/(a
)&
</(r).
(i)
Summing
for r
1,2, ...,nl,
im<
r=2
n
\
Jl
f{t)dt
< S/(r).
(ii)
r=l
The argument is illustrated geometrically by considering the sums of

the inner and outer rectangles in fig. 124.
/*n
/oo
of n,
/() eft is an increasing function

J
cannot attain its limit; therefore for each n,
Suppose!
(a)
it
f(t) coexists.
Since
jj(t)dt<jf(t)dt.
From
the
left
of
(ii),
f(r
r-2
< f7(0
Jl
series
12.44]
449
so that
r-2
is
bounded. Hence
(2.77) S/(r) converges,
and
S/(r) ^ f"/W*+/(l).
Jl
r=l
now follows from the right
It
of
(ii)
by letting n
-> co that
r=l
(6)
If S/(r) converges, then
V/(r)<
r=l
r-l
P /(f) iB < /(r),
By the right of (ii),
r=l
Jl
so that
bounded and therefore tends to a limit, say
f(t) dt is
Z,
when
,-> oo.
Sincef
/()
<ft
is
an increasing function of x, then if n
When X->co,
also
and so
oo,
/()
Since the series converges
exists, it
X < w,
<
rn
f(t)dt<jJ(t)dt<jj(t)dL
(c)
rx
rn-i
<ft
->
Z,
/(f)
i.e.
<Zf
exists.
when and only when the
integral
follows that divergence of one implies divergence of the
other.
(2)
The function
$(n)= if(r)r=l
steadily decreases as
Proof.
By
f(t)dt
when
and f(l) for
all n.
f(t)dt<f(l);
Jl
necessary because the fact that
a positive integer) does not by
rx
between
rn
S/(r)r=l
is
Jl
n increases, and lies
(ii),
0<
f This step
{ f(t)dt
itself
j 1 f{t)dt->l when
imply the existence of
X -> oo, X being a continuous variable)
cf.
f
I
n-+ oo
{n being
f(t)dt (the limit of
Remark (fi)
in 2.71.
Thus
J
j cos nt dt
for all integers n,
does not exist since
f
/
J 1
and hence its limit when w-> oo

1
cos
ittdt
is 0;
but
= sin nX, which oscillates when X-> co.

f
cos ntdt
series
450
[12.44
rn+1
also
0(n+l)-0(n) = /(n+l)-
f(t)dt
<
Jn
Hence <p(n) decreases as n increases, but < $(ri) < /(l).

Corollary. It follows that lim <fi(n) exists and is non-negative.
by using
The
(i).
corollary
is
particularly interesting
example
integral diverge, as in
(i)
when both
series
and
when n
- oo.
following.
Examples
Taking/(a:)
(i)
ljx in the corollary,
= l + + +...+--logn.
${n)
Hence <fi(n) tends

and S y < 1.
(ii)
to
some
Discuss the series
With/(a;)
then
limit
1 /r p )
if
by means of the integral
if
p=
1,
test.
1,
=j=
f*/(f)*
while
(Eider's constant: cf. 4.43 (8))
= _I-(l_X-M*)
/(*)
<ft
logX.
If p > 1, the integral tends to l/(p l), and if

 oo. Hence S (l/r) c if p > 1, D if p ^ 1
The general theorem also shows that when> > 1,
p1
00
In fact y\
J >
1,
which
is
the integral tends
(cf.
12.41(3)).
p1
rP
r =l
a better lower estimate when p
>
2.
Exercise 12(g)
Prove
2^ diverges.
2 Discuss 2
rlog(2r)
If a
>
0,
prove that the

1
a2
lies
between
4 If a
>
sum to
lie.
(a+l) 2
+ (a
+ 2) 2+
""
11
+
a2
must
'
infinity of
and l/a+ 1/a 2

find numbers between which the sum
1/a
0,
r(logr) J
a2 +
l2
a 2 + 2 2+
'"'
to infinity of
series
12.5]
Sketch the graph of y
= logx, and show that
logxdx
<
Jl
Deduce the value of lim
451
n
^,logr
r=2
log x dx + log n.
<
Jl
{(n!) 1/n /n}.
n-yoo
and negative terms
Series of positive
12.5
The special difficulty with such series is that sn is not necessarily

a steadily increasing function of n, so that the principle in 12.32 (5)
does not apply directly.
12.51 Alternating signs (theorem of Leibniz)
The simplest kind of series with terms of mixed sign is that in which
the signs are alternately

//
(i)
+ say
ui ~ u2 + % u* +
the terms are alternately
where each u
is positive,
un+1 < ur
(ii)
un steadily decreases to
i.e.
Km un =
(iii)
zero,
n->oo
then the series is convergent.
Prf
By
(ii),
s 2n
K-u
each bracket
+ {u3 - 1*4 +
)
2)
is positive.
. . .
+ {u2n _ x - u2n ).
Hence
s 2n is
a steadily increasing
positive function of n. Also

S 2n
= Ul ~ U 2 ~ Ua) ~ (^4 M s)
(
each bracket
is
positive
by
(ii),
(u2n-2 ~ U2n-l) ~ u 2n>
and u2n >
Therefore by 2.77 s 2n tends to a limit, say

Further,!
_
s 2n+l
and
since lim u2n+1
by
(iii),
I,
by (i). Hence
when n -> oo.
s 2n
< uv
s 2n + u2n+l>
therefore
n->oo
lim s 2n+1
n>oo
Hence, whether n
is
lim s2n
n><x>
I.
even or odd, sn -*l when n -
oo, i.e.
the series
converges.
f The fact that 2n -> I does not by itself show that the series converges. Thus for
the series 1 1 + 1 1 + ..., 2n =
and so lim s2n = 0; but the series does not converge since sa +1 = 1 it oscillates finitely.
:
series
452
Example
1 +
i+
[12.52
converges because the terms satisfy all three conditions of
The argument used in the proof shows that the sum to

between \ and 1; for s 2n <--*
-S;)
8.
If any one of the conditions

verge. Thus since the series
i
infinity
(i), (ii), (iii) is
omitted, the series
may not
con-
+ *+i+i+-,
d, c respectively, the 'difference series'
diverges (12.32(4)); conditions
(i), (iii)
are satisfied
by
but not
it,
(ii).
12.52 Absolute convergence
Consider the pairs of series

i
iii ^" ,iii

AT
The
+ i+i+i + -;
22
32
42
i-i
2a
'
i-
32
4a
"
of each pair converges, by 12.51; but in the corresponding

where all the terms are made positive, the first diverges (being
the harmonic series) while the second still converges (12.41 (3)).
It is convenient to distinguish between series which remain convergent when all their terms are made positive, and those which do not.
Definition. If the series TiUr is such thatf S \ur converges, then 1iUr
is said to be absolutely convergent (a.c).
Observe that nothing has been asserted in this definition about the
convergence of T>ur itself; it is a different series S \ur (i.e. Ewr with
all its terms made positive) which converges.
first
series
Examples
(i)
(ii)
1U )
^ + f 4+
1 i+
1
,111
- +
+
1
-2
3-2-
4l
is
not
A.c.
because
is a.c.
-" lsA
because
C! -
because
t See 1.14 for the
+ + % + % + ... diverges.
1 ++
... converges.
1
,111
+_ + _ + _ +
meaning of
\x\.
...
converges.
SERIES
12.52]
453
The importance of absolutely convergent

they behave like
series
Theorems II, III in 12.54.

Although the definition
we can
series is (roughly) that
of positive terms. For example, compare

states nothing
about the convergence of
an absolutely convergent
convergent in the ordinary sense. More explicitly
Ei*r ,
7/2
in fact prove that
series is also
\ur converges, then 2i*r also converges.

\
Before giving the proof of
Suppose that the
this,
we
illustrate
the underlying idea.
series 2i*r in question is
Ul + U2 U3 + Ui -U5 -1*6 + 0-W8 + U9 -U10 + U11 + U1Z + ....

Consider the following two
%+
i*
+ i*4 +
+0 +W3 + O
series:
+u9 +
+0 +0 +
+1*5 + 1*6 +
+ i*u + i*ia +
+i*10 +
+0 + ....
+ 1*8 +
The first is formed by replacing all negative terms in the given

by 0's; the second is obtained by replacing all positive terms by
series
and
changing the sign of the negative ones.
Compare each of these
%+
which
with c
1*
series of positive
terms with the
series
+ 1*3 + 1*4 + 1*5 + 1*6 + + 1*8 + 1*9 + 1*io + %i + %2 +-">
is
convergent by hypothesis. The comparison test (12.41
shows that each
series converges.
Hence by
(1))
12.32 (4) their
difference (which is the given series) also converges.
General proof. Consider the series

v 1 + v 2 + vs +
+ w2 + w3 +...,
where we define
and
(Thus relative to the given series Si*r Ei>r is the non-negative part, and
Swr is the non-positive part with its sign changed.)
\ur \. Comparing each of Svr 2t*?r (which
Clearly vr ^ |i*r and wr
,
are series of positive terms) with 2 \ur which is given to be convergent,

\
the comparison test with c

li{vr wr
converges;
i.e.,
shows that they converge.
since ur =
vr wr for all r,
Hence
Si*r converges.
The property just proved gives a possible test for convergence of a

terms with mixed signs, viz. prove it is a.c. For example,
series of
series
454
[12.52
However, the test is 'one-sided' because

a series which is not a.c. may yet be c e.g. 1 1 +
J+...is not a.c,
but is in fact c. Such a series may be called conditionally convergent
converges because
it is a.c.
(o.c.)
or semi-convergent.
Examples
*(iv)
The
'
triangle inequality 'ffor infinite series.
If YaUt is A.c, its
sum to infinity is numerically less than or
equal to the
sum of
Slid:
With the above notation we have ur

Sur Hwr converge,
vr tvr , \ur
vT + wr
Also, since
00
00
00
r=l
r=l
r=l
00
<
00
2 *V + r=l
Sw
r=l
sincef both these
K|.
r=l
The device used in
example can
this
\( f(x)dx\
a
\J
>
a and f(x)
if(x)
is
Then/1 (a;),/2 (a;)
be employed to prove that
also
where b
sums are positive,
<
continuous;
if
/(a)>0,
if
f(x)
=sj
( \f(x)\dx,
Ja
Ex.
cf.
7 (a), no. 5.
Define
-f(x)
0,
are non-negative functions,
\m\ =f (x)+f (x),

t
if
f(x)<0,
if
f(x)
>
0.
and
f(x)
=A(x)-Mx).
Also
f(x)dx\
I
Ja
f^dx-
=
\J
rb
^1
fz (x)dx
Ja
rb
/i(aj)cfa;+
Ja
=
(v)
v
( {fi(x)+A(x)}dx
Ja
( \f(x)\dx.
Ja
Discuss the series
1+ * +
/or aZZ values of x.
If a; = 0, the series
t See 1.14,
both integrals being non-negative,
fi{x)dx,
Ja
I
is 1
(i).
+ + +
. .
x2
2!
x3,
3!
+-
which converges to the sum

%
By
4.15(9).
series
12.52]
If x
>
the terms are positive and
0, all
455
we can use d'Alembert's ratio test:
n~X
U n+l _
I X
_X
n
w!/(w
un
1)!
Xn
^n+i
thus since
<
lim
or alternatively, since
n>
for ajj
2Xf
0,
the series converges for all positive x.

If x < 0, write x = y so that y > 0. The series becomesf
3!
2!
By the case just considered, this is A.c. for all

The given series
positive y,
therefore converges for all negative x.
Consequently, the series converges for

12.32(1) it follows that
also c.
2.74)
(cf.
xn
it is
all x.
N.B.From
lim
and hence
for all
x independent of n.
n-oo n\
(vi)
x +
Discuss the series
for
4- +
...
all values of x.
w2
First consider the series
2/
+ ~2
where y ^ 0. If y = 0, the series

If y 4= 0, the ratio test gives
y*
"*"~3"*"~4
is
+ *""
+ + +
n+x ly n
u
n+i
-^1
= y
/ = n
un
w+l/n n+1 y^-V
so
is
<
if
<
The
y-series therefore converges for
A.c. for
which converges to sum
. . .
when
0.
n->oo;
the series converges.
1 <x<
1,
and thus
<
<
hence the given
1;
series in
also converges in this range.
= 1, the given series is 1 | +

which c (12.51).
i+
= 1, the series is 1 | i i
which is properly divergent to
oo (it is 1 times the harmonic series).
If x < 1, each term of the series is negative, but its numerical value is
Hence the series
greater than that of the corresponding term of 1 + + J +
properly diverges to oo.
If x > 1, then x = 1 + c where c > 0, and
x n = (l+c) n = l+nc + in(n-l)c z + ... > n(w-l)c 2
If x
If x
. . .
since all the terms of this binomial expansion are positive. Therefore
> i(n l)c

n
2V
'
and sot+
The series cannot converge in this
x^
when
we
- oo.
case.
\x\ +
\x\ 2
f In fact
are considering
X This also follows at once from 2.73.
\x\ 3
. .
..
SERIES
456
[12.53
Summarising, the aeries c for 1 < x < 1, and d for x ^ 1 or x

range 1 < x < 1 is called the interval of convergence of this series.
The modified
12.53
>
\.
The
ratio test
We introduce here a modification of d'Alembert's ratio test which

makes
directly applicable to series
it
// either
or
then
Hur
(a)
(b)
u,n+l
^ k <
for all
=I<
lim
whose terms are not
n ^ m, where k is
all positive.
constant,
1,
converges.
For either condition ensures that S
\ur c,
\
applying the original ratio test to this
being what is obtained by-
series.
Hence
lLur is a.c.,
and
therefore c.
If EITHER
(a')
or
(6')
then
(i.e.
n ^ m,
for all
'n+l
lim
Ymt is divergent
=I>
1,
not convergent).
we can say is that 2 \ur d, i.e. that Y,ur is not a.c;

not prevent 1>ur from converging.)
Condition (a') implies that \un ^ \um for all n ^ m, so that Mn -f0
(At
first
sight all
this does
when n-^co. Given e > 0, condition

number m such that \un+1 > (l e) \un
\
follows from
(a')
implies that there
(&')
\
for all
is
n ^ m, and the result
as in the proofs in 12.42.
Examples
(i)
Discuss the series of 12.52,
ex. (vi)
in this way.
x the series converges to sum

when x 4= that
If
0.
|a;|
n+l
Since
u n = ( l)" -1 a; n /n, we have
when
00.
Hence if \x\ < 1 the series c; if \x\ > 1 the series n. Only the cases
remain to be investigated, and these are treated separately as before.
(ii)
Discuss the series
l+mx-\
m(m
1)
m(m-l)(ra-2)
#a + -
2!
If x
0,
the series
is 1
+ + +
. .
3!
x3 +
which converges to
\x\
SERIES
12.54]
If x
4= 0,
then from
457
m{m 1) ... (m n + 1)
n!
we
->
find
n+1
Hence */ ||
The cases
1 </ie series o; */
\x\
1,
>
|a;|
when
\x\
oo.
d.
1 the series
it
cannot be decided by means of the tests at our disposal.

can be proved that
if
if
1,
However,
and
<
re
m> 1
the series o if m Js
the series c
12.54 Regrouping
if
and
if ra
and
if
< 1;
m < 0.
and rearrangement of terms of an
infinite series
When dealing with finite sums it is permissible to group the terms in any
manner by means of brackets, or to rearrange the order of the terms, without
thereby altering the value of the sum. These properties
may
not extend to
infinite series, f
Example
(i)
The
series
(1-1) + (1-1) + (1-1) + ...,
+ + + ...,
i.e.
converges to zero. If we remove the brackets
we
obtain the series
1-1 + 1-1 + 1-1 + ...,

which diverges since
we
and
between
s B oscillates
1.
If we insert brackets as
+ (-l + l) + (-l + l) + ...,
obtain
+ + +
. .
which converges to 1.
This example shows that, in general, brackets cannot be removed or inserted
in an infinite series without altering its behaviour or its sum. However, the
following result is easily proved by using the definition of 'sum to infinity'.
Theorem I. // 2r converges to s, then it will still converge to s when brackets
are inserted in any way.
Proof. Let n x < n a < w8 < ... be any infinite sequence of positive integers,
and write
n%
fix
XM
r1
2 u
r=rii+l
r>
Then we wish to prove that 2^ converges to s.

Given e > 0, there corresponds a number N such that,
2U
^8 <
e.
for all
n ^ N,
(i)
r=l
f
They
but this
is
will hold if
we bracket
relatively trivial.
or rearrange only a finite
number of the terms;
SERIES
458
Let n v be the
N. Then
to
first
(i)
[12.54
integer of the above sequence which
holds for
all
2s
is
greater than or equal
n v and so
,
Tim
2u
s <
(ii)
r=l
m > p (since the integers n +1
for all
integers greater than
n +2
2u
r=l
(ii)
are a selection from the set of all
Tim
result
sum can be grouped in any way,
Since terms of a 'finite'
Hence
n P ).
2
i=l
becomes
<
for all
m ^ p;
i=l
i.e.
Y&i converges to
s.
The converse
of this theorem is false : if a series with the terms grouped is

convergent, the series obtained by removing the brackets may be divergent.
This
illustrated
is
by ex. (i), which also shows that there is no general theorem

Theorem I; but see Ex. 12 (h), no. 14.
for divergent series like
Example
If s n denotes the
(ii)
sum
of n terms of the series
W+W+i--,
and
tn
denotes the
sum of n terms of
1 _l_l_l_i_l_l-Ll
1
8 '5
2 4=13
6
10
A_
1__L
12 '7
(formed from the first by taking one positive term followed by two negative ones)
sum to infinity of the second is half that of the first.
Consider
then the
<.-(i-i)-i+(i-*)-i+(i-A)-A+.-- + (2^ri--4 n _2)
= *-* + *-*+...+
4n 2
4n
The first series is known to converge, say to

and therefore t3n -> %s. Since also
Wl =
hn+ *
therefore t n -> %s
Example
series
(ii)
when n
*3n
s;
hence when n
4n
-> 00, s 2n -> s
+ 2^T[-*2 S
= hn +
2nTl ~ 4^T2
-> 00; this is the result stated.
illustrates that, if
a convergent
series is rearranged, the
may converge to a sum different from the original.
It
new
can be proved that
can be rearranged so that the new series

(Riemann's
rearrangement theorem). For series of positive terms the situation is simpler;
and we shall prove that the same is true of a.c. series.
a given non-absolutely convergent
series
will converge to any pre-assigned limit ; and it can be arranged to diverge
series
12.54J
Theorem
II.
manner without
459
any
convergent series of positive terms can be rearranged in
altering the convergence or the
sum to infinity.
Swr be a convergent series of positive terms, with sum to infinity s.
Proof. Let
Let Zw^ be a rearrangement of Swr and write

,
Each term of Zt^ appears somewhere

a number
(all
ur ^
hence sm
<
function of n (because
s'
Thus
s.
and
all u' 3s
T
2u
r=l
'
Zwr Hence
.
for
a given n, there
is
m such that s' ^ sm
0),
in
s'
n
Since
ur is a steadily increasing function of w
r=l
is also a steadily increasing
so ^ < s. Since
0), therefore by 2.77 s'n tends to a limit *' where
and its sum is s'.

term of Zwr appears somewhere in Hu'r the preceding
~Lu' certainly converges,

r
Similarly, since each
argument will prove that s < s'. Consequently s' = 8.

N.B. Observe that we could not prove s ^ s' first because we do not know
whether Hu'r converges or not until we have proved s'n < *.
Theorem III. An a.c. series can be rearranged in any manner without altering
the absolute convergence or the
\u'
r
is
sum
to infinity.
a rearrangement of 2wr then certainly

a rearrangement of \ur \, and Theorem II applies.
Proof. If Hu'r
is
2>u' is A.c. since

r
We use the notation vr w r oi 12.52, and its extension^, w'r for the rearranged
,
Hu'r Then clearly Hv'r , Ett/ are respectively the rearrangements of Svr ,
TiWr entailed by the rearrangement lLur of Zwr Since T,vr , Ewr are convergent
series
seriesf of positive terms,
Theorem II
gives
00
00
00
00
2V
S < = r=l
r=l
Sw
r1
and
2 wf
r=l
'r
00
CO
00
00
00
00
CO
r=l
r=l
r=l
r=l
r=l
r=l
r=l
We shall not discuss the rearrangement of infinite series any further; but
enough has been said to caution the reader against treating infinite series
analogously to
finite ones.
Exercise 12(h)
Determine the behaviour of the following
1111
series.
i
_ i8 + i_
6
7 +
2
Z
1
1
1
1
1-V2 + W3-V4+--
logi+log|+logf+logf+log^+logi|+.-
+
1
2.3
1.2
3.4
4.5
+h
-f+i-f+-&-H+....
6 State which of the series in nos. 1-3 are a.c.

7
Show that 2 {(cos rx) jr2} converges
Under the conditions of Leibniz's rule
for all values of x.

(12.51),
Discuss the behaviour of the following series for
xz
x6
*-3 + 5-7 +
a;
2*
x2
10
'
<s <ux
all values of x.
x3
x7
prove ux u t
x6
x1
*-3! + 5r7l + '-
x*
+ 32 + 4^ + ""
f See the General Proof in 12.52.
32
GPM
II
series
460
[12.6
S^l + i + i+.-. + âf.
*12
pW = gWi
L w
*14 If ur
(n+l)aj
n!
S
1.3.5... (2n+l)
*13
L^
[The cases
\x\
may be omitted.]
nm
w<
then
<
*15 If Ewr
is
the converse of
<
i=l
series of positive terms.
conditionally convergent, prove that (with the notation of 12.52)
|~
Hvr and ?jwr diverge to +oo.

n
also
r=l
Theorem I holds for a
I)
m+1
i=l
and deduce that
11.
r=i rj
prove that (with the notation of 12.54, Theorem
for all r,
if
>wherea
Ifs
2 V =
Sw
r=l
Tiur ,t n
r=l
\ur \,
then s n -> sand
+oo;
r=l
~1
i(n-*n)-
r=l
*16 If the series
\ + % \ + \ ...
is
rearranged as
(taking two positive terms followed by one negative term), prove that the
of the new series is f times that of the original. [Prove t3n = s in + s2 nO
sum
Maclaurin's series
12.6
12.61 Expansion of a function as a
We
proved in 6.52 that
tinuity
and
f(x)
where
power
series
if f(t) satisfies certain
derivability for
<
= /(0) + xf>(0) + ^/"(O) +
conditions of con-
then
x,
. . .
+ ^-_^/(-i)(0) + Bn (x),
(see 6.54(1))
r
fx _
(*)
(Lagrange's remainder),
f(n)(0x)
x^l-d)
(n-1)
71
-1
n
f( \dx)
and 6 is some function of x and n
(in
(Cauchy's remainder)
general not the same function in
the two forms of remainder) which satisfies
< 6<
1.
In 6.53 we showed that (under suitable conditions)

a polynomial approximation tof(x).
by an
this result gives
We now use it to represent f(x)
infinite series.
Suppose that for each positive integer
n,
however
large,
(n
\t) is
series
12.62]
O^t^x;
continuous for
then the
Maclaurin's theorem hold for
/(0)
We have
sn (x)
461
all
conditions
for
of
validity
orders. Consider the infinite series
+ ^/'(0) + ...+^^(0) + ....
=/(0) + */'(0) +
(i)
+ ^^/<-i>(0),
...
= f(x)-Rn (x)
by Maclaurin's theorem. If Rn {x) -> when n-+ao (perhaps only
some range of values of a;, say \x\ < c), then
when
sn (x) -+f{x)
hence the
\x\
<
c.
infinite series
(i)
We write
/(z)=/(0) + */'(0) +
n -> oo,
for
<
\x\
c;
converges and has sum-function f(x)
(\x\
and call this series the expansion off(x) as a power series

interval
\x\
<
for
in
when
<c),
(ii)
x over the
c.
now be applied to obtain series for some of the

elementary functions; the results are important, and will be discussed
This idea will
in detail in 12.7.
only
of
We use the results on wth derivatives obtained in 6.6;
when such convenient formulae
are
known
is
direct discussion
Bn (x) possible.
some elementary
12.62 Expansion of
(1)
The exponential
ex
series.
then fin) {x)

Lagrange's remainder is
If f{x)
functions
ex for
every positive integer n, and
Rn (x) = ê* (O<0<1).

Since xn jn\ ->
when n->co for any fixed value of a; (2.74),

when n -> oo, for all x. As/ (0) = 1 for each r,
Rn (x) ->
e*=
(2)
+ *+^ + ^+.. .++...
The sine and cosine
If f(x)
mainder
therefore
(r)
sin a;,
(allx).
series.
then fin) (x)
sin.
(x
+ Inn), and
Lagrange's re-
xn
is
Bn (x) = ^sm{dx + \n7r),

\Rn (x)
-L-L-
->
when
n -> oo,
for all x.
32-2
series
462
Also fr\0)
[12.62
and /(^(O) = ( - 1 y- 1
sin* =
^-^T+^t-
+ (-
1 )r
for each
r,
~l
(
so
2 r-l)!
(a//
'
Similarly
cos*=
Tê logarithmic
(3)
If
so
^Ji + ^T-
/(a;)
in)
{0)
+(- 1 ) r "
(2r _2)!
+ "'
(aW ^*
series.
= log(l+z), then fn\x) = (- l)"- 1 ^- 1)!/(1 + x) n] and

= l) n_1 (n 1)!. We are supposing a; > 1, for otherwise
(
+ would not be defined in part of the range x ^ t ^

When ^ x ^ 1, Lagrange's remainder
log (1
vn
When x <
remainder
0,
{l
+ 0x) n
when
l-S^) < - ->
shows that
n->oo.
xj(l + 6x) may be greater than

.
1 /
0.
1,
so that Lagrange's
\n
~n\l+6x)
might tend to
oo when n -> oo
the behaviour of
(2.73); insufficient is
known about
as a function of n.
Cauchy's remainder can be written
^
so that if
because
1 < x <
(1
\x\
0,
\Rn ( x )
Hence
Rn (x)
case
<x<
<
^
j^j
+ 0x\ > \-6\x\ >
(see 1.14)
l-\x\.
when n-+oo. (Cauchy's remainder

1
also covers the
already treated.) Thus
+ *) = *-^+^-... + (-l)'-+...
(-1<*<1).
1 < x < 1 (see 12.52, ex. (vi)),

most that can be proved concerning its sum to infinity.
Since the series converges only for

this is the
f)
6)j{\ + 6x) is a positive proper fraction and

\l
log(l
r w / \ -i
= <- 1 )"- 1 rTfe(rr^)
series
12.62]
463
The binomial series.

lff(x) = (l+x) m then
(4)
f
If
is
n\x)
= m(m - 1)
. . .
(ra
- w + 1) (1 + x) m ~ n
a positive integer, Maclaurin's formula terminates when

gives the usual binomial expansion containing m + 1
n = m+l, and
m is not a positive integer,

> m only if x > 1.
terms. If
when n
then f {n\x) will be continuous
Cauchy's remainder can be written
When
|g|
<
an
by
1,
1) n
= (m- 1)-... (m-n+
^
x ->
(n-1)!
2.75. Also (1
0)/(l +#r)
is
+ ftc)" - 1 <
(l
("(l
<
\Rn (x)\
|m| (1
Hence
+ *) m =
n -> oo,
1
bl)11
if
if
m>
m<
1,
1.
when
[a;!) 1
n-+co.
m(m 1)J*2_ *...
+ mx+
+
If
when
a positive proper fraction, and
[(1-IjcI)-
(l
m(m-l).(m-r + l)^
m is a fraction with even denominator,
(1
(M<J)
+x) m has two values
which are equal and opposite. Here we intend the positive value, since
sum of the series when x = is clearly + 1.
As in (3), Lagrange's remainder would cover only the range
^ x < 1. We omit consideration of the cases x = 1.
the
-1
x.
(5) Gregory's series for tan
Iff(x) = tan -1 x, then
/<")()
(-l)"- 1 (w-l)!(l+* 2 )-* n sin(ncot- 1 a;),
(0)
Lagrange's remainder
is
so
(2r)
-Rn(*)
so
by
2.73
\RJ&)\
and /^-"(O) =
n (-
n
l)
- \x\ n
"Ml +
-+
- l)'" 1 (2r - 2)
!.
2 )~ in sin (w cot" 1 (&)),
when
- oo
if
|as|
<
1.
SERIES
464
8
Hence
tan
x?
ac
[12,63
8r-1
= *__ + _-... + (
<xr
(|*|
l).
The value of tan -1 x in the range \n to + ^n is intended (i.e. the principal

the sum of the series is clearly
value when 1 < x ^ + 1), since when x =
zero. No more than the above can be proved about the sum because the series
-
converges only for
12.63
<
\x\
see Ex. 12 (h), no. 9.
Note on formal expansions
In Ex. 6 (6), no. 15 we considered the function y

proved that it satisfies the differential equation
(1
by
%=
and
0,
that the Maclaurin coefficients ar
while
tan -1 a;. Having
+ a?) yn+2 + 2(n + l)xyn+1 + n(n+l)yn =
we put x = and showed

are given by
Since a
1, all
= - n {n + l)an
coefficients
(yr ) x= o
with even
suffix are zero;
successive application of the above recurrence formula to
we find that
those with odd suffix,
= ~ I)"" 1 (2n - 2)
GW-i
Assuming
that
(n
1, 2,
. .
.).
y possesses a Maclaurin expansion, we thus obtain
for it the series
Since this converges for

to expect this series
\x\
1 (see
to have y
Ex. 12 (h), no. 9), it is reasonable

its sum-function when
tan -1 a; for
However, as we have nowhere considered Rn (x), we have

not proved by this argument that the series has sum-function tan -1 a;,
nor even that tan -1 x can be expanded at all as a power series.
\x\
is
1.
It can be proved that, within its interval of convergence, every power series
the Maclaurin series of its sum-function. In othqr words, if Har xr converges
to s(x) (for \x\ < c, say), then a n = d n)(0)/nl (n = 0, 1,2,...). Assuming this,
what we have shown by the above argument is that, if the series (i) converges
to s(x)
when
\x\ sS 1,
and/(c)
s(0)=/(0),
tan -1 #, then
These equations do not prove that

example, if
=
C(x)
*W(0)
'(0)=/'(0)
= /<'>(0),
(x
0),
C(0)
(ii)
....
s(x) is identical with/(a;) for \x\
1.
For
0,
can be shown that this continuous function G(x) has continuous derivatives of
(w = 1,2,...). Hence s(x) =f(x) + C(x)
all orders for \x\ < 1 and that C< n) (0) =
satisfies equations (ii), although C{x) $ 0. In short, the Maclaurin series of
f(x), even if convergent, may not have f(x) for its sum-function. Further, it can be
shown by examples that even if f(x) and its derivatives of all orders are conit
SERIES
12.63]
465
tinuous in a certain interval, the Maclaurin series off(x) may not converge at
all for that interval.
Thus, to ensure the existence and validity of the Maclaurin expansion of
when n -> oo, for
f(x) in 12.61, it is essential to prove somehow that
n (x) ->
all x in the interval concerned. However, despite the cautionary nature of
these remarks, it is true that for 'ordinary' functions the formal expansions
obtained as above are valid whenever they converge; and with this assurance
the reader may accept them with confidence.
Exercise 12(i)
State the
sum to infinity of
Assuming the exponential series, state
ch x and sh x.
series for
Obtain Maclaurin series, stating the range of validity, for the following functions.
e^sina;.
[See 6.61,
dn
7 Prove
5 e~ a coax.
(vi).]
{e x coa *
cos (x sin a)}
e x 008 * cos
6 cosa;cha;.
(isma+ na),
dec
and deduce that
for all x,
e XC0BCt cos (x sin a)
By showing that R n (x, h)
*8
coa(x + h)
x3
x2
= l + a;cosa + cos2a + cos3a + ....
cosa;
prove that
in Taylor's theorem,
->
nsmjc cosa:+ suiir ...

2
x and h. [See Ex. 6 (6), no. 24.]

*9 Obtain a Taylor series for sin (x + h).
for all
10 If y
ch (sin -1 x), prove
(l-x*)yi-xy x -y
and
ch(sin _1 a;)
If
(l-x*)y n+i -(2n+ l)xy n+1
a;
(k+l)(k + 2) ak+2 + (n 2 k 2 )ak

If n
n;
and
is
if
12 If 2/
an
even
(k
(1
aj 2 )ya xyi + n 2y =
0.
0,1,2,... ).
show that the assumed expansion is a polynomial of degree

1)*" w 2 (n 2 4).
and greater than 2, prove a4 =
integer,
n is
0.
cos0 and y = cosn# where n > 1, prove

Assuming that y = o + at x + a t x2 + ..., prove
If
(n a + l)y n
+ a l x + a i x% -\-
obtain an expression for a 2n , and prove a an+1

11
+ x), prove
a
a
(l+a;)
n+8 + (2n+l)(l+a;)2/ n+1 + (n +l)2/ n =
cos log ( 1
2/
0.
OO
If y can be expanded as
o>r
^> prove
{n+l)(n + 2)a n+i + (2n+l)(n+l)a n+1 + (n2 +l)a n =
and hence determine the expansion up to the term in x6
0,
series
466
12.7
[12.7
Applications of the series in 12.62
12.71 Binomial series

/-v
(1)
I ,
m(m
1)'^(m r+l)
...
The expression
called a binomial coefficient.
is
The expansion of
reduced to the standard one in 12.62
(4)
(a + x) m
can be
as follows:
m
(x\
+ -I =etc;
1
{a) if
(6)
,,
often abbreviatedf to
m
(a\
1+-I = etc.
if
Examples
(i)
(1
Write down the general term and the first four terms of the expansion of
+ 2a;) -3 in ascending powers of x, stating when it is valid.

There
will
and then the
be an expansion in ascending powers of a; if

(r + l)th term is
<
\2x\
1, i.e. if \x\
<
J,
t-)(-)-(--r+D (2xy . <-ir:-tr + 2)

if
if\
- _ i)r (r +
(
+ 2)
2rxr
1.2
= - l) r 2 y - 1 (r + 1) (r + 2) xr
(
We can obtain the first four terms by writing r

thisformula:
-s = 1 _ 6x
+ 24x *-80x* + ...
{1 + 2x)
(ii)
.Find
<7&e 9ft
term in the expansion of(l
and the 9th term
(iii)
(putting r
/
1\
if
3 successively in
<
\.
we expand in powers ofl/x,
= i(i-i)"'.
i
8 in the general term)
\4seJ
\4xJ
8!
2.3...9/1X 10
8!
\x)
\4a:/
9
(4)
10
Calculate ^102 correct to four places of decimals by using the binomial series.
V102
and
is
(-2)(-3)...(-9)
1
16a;
in this
w-
0, 1, 2,
(\x\
4x)~ 2 if\x\ >
Since [4a?j > 1, the expansion can be made only

i.e. in descending powers of x.
i-^)- ! = (i-i)"
(1
V{100(1
+ 0-02)} =
10(1
+ 0-02)*= l + i(0-02) + ^^(0-02) 2 + ^'
f Cf. 12.23; the
+ 0-02)*,
~*' ~
symbol m Cr could not be used unless
(0-02) 3
+ ....
m is a positive integer.
series
12.71]
467
Since we require the result to be correct to 4 places, we must work with

5 places; and owing to the factor 10, (1-02)* must be found to 6 places. Calculating the terms shown, we find
(1-02)*
= 1 + 0-01 -0-000,05 + 0-000,000,5+...

= 1-009,950,5...,
the next term clearlyf being too small to influence the sixth place.
V102 =
(iv)
-6
as far as the term in x*.
1 + x + x2 + 3
+ x + x 2 + x3 = 1 - a^)/( 1 - x), the given expression is
(l-a;) 5 (l-a:4 )~ 6 = (l-5a;+10a; 2 -10a;3 +...)(l + 5a;4 +...)
= l-5*+10a; 2 -10a;3 + ...
Expand
Since
v)
jc )
on neglecting
(
Hence
10-0995.
all
terms in x* and higher powers.
Find the coefficient of xr in the expansion ofl/{(2 x)(l + 3x)}in ascending
powers of x, stating
the condition of validity.
By resolving into partial fractions we find
11
(2-)(l + 3a0
~ 72-C + 7 1 + 3*
= ^(i-4^)- 1 +f(i + 3)-1
bracket can be expanded in ascending powers of x if \%x\ < 1,

the second can be so expanded if |3a;| < 1, i.e. \x\ < . Hence both
can be expanded if \x\ < \, and then the coefficient of of is
The
i.e.
|a;|
first
<
2;
(-l)(-2)...(-r)
14
r!
=
(2)
IV
(-l)(-2)...(-r)
2)
r\
k - 3)- = \
*<*>'
Summation of series
- ( - sr *}
reducible to binomial expansions.
In the result
(l- a; )^=l + (-3)(-^) +

,
which
is
valid
3.4
when
\x\
<
4^(-^)
3.4.5
1, let
"3
4
1
3" 5 (- a; 3+ -"
72
us put x
\.
The
series
becomes
3
i+t+o<i) 2 +f^f(*> +-.
t See 12.81, ex. (iii) for an estimate showing that the error in stopping here does
not affect the sixth place even when we allow for the succeeding infinite series of
terms.
series
468
which can be written
A
3.4
Our
A
K
3.4.5
above shows that the sum to
result
(l-i)-3
[12.71
infinity of this series is
8.
many
which the factors in the

numerator and denominator of each term are in a.p., while the
number of such factors is the same but increases as we proceed along
the series) can be reduced to binomial expansions, and hence their
sum to infinity written down.
Conversely,
series of this
form
(in
Examples
(vi)
Find
sum to
the
infinity of
1
1.3.5
1.3
+ I78
4.8. 12
+ ""
The factors in the numerators form an a.p. with common difference 2, and
those in the denominators have common difference 4. We begin by dividing
each factor in the numerator of each term by 2, and each factor in the denominator by 4:
i a &
lis.
1_
(l)+
iT2
(l)2
~r2f3 (l)3+
-"-
The factors in the numerators now ascend by the common difference 1,

whereas for a binomial series they descend by 1. This can be adjusted here by
introducing signs as follows:
and this series is clearly the expansion of

Hence the required sum to infinity is 1 +
1.3
t 1
,
(vu)
-H
v
'
3 3.6
1.3.5
1
+ x) m with x =
= ^/f = \ ^6.
and
m = J.
1.3.5.7
1
3.6.9.12
3.6.9
12.
h...
lii
f(f) + ^(f)
+ ff|(f) 8 +
JL
2.
& Z
^(l)* +
= {l+^(-|) + Z|^(-f) 2 +
"i "f
1
...
3" f (-|) 3 + -.-}-l
= (!-!)-*-! = V3-L
Exercise 12(J)
down and simplify the general term and the first four terms of the expansions
of the following functions in ascending powers of x, stating when these expansions are valid.
Write
(l+x)-*.
X
(1-x)*
2 (l-x)i.
X
2+x
+ 3*)-*.
1+x2
(1
(1-a:) 8
(4
jc )*.
SERIES
Find the named terms in
8
469
the following expansions.
8th term in (1 - 2a;)- 8 if \x\ <\.
9 10th term in
(1
- 3a;)- 2 if \x\ >
10 What is the first negative coefficient in the expansion of (3 +

[Consider the sign of ar+1 /ar .]
If ur
*11
the
is
(r
+ l)th term in the expansion of

ur
+ x) m
\x\
2a;)* if
<
1,
|a;|
< f?
show that
Deduce that when r becomes greater than m+ 1, then ur+1 /ur < according
as a; > 0; and hence that, after a certain stage in the expansion, the terms are
alternately positive and negative if x > 0, but all have the same sign ifx<0.
Find the numerically greatest term
12
+x)
(1
13 (1-x)- 10 whena;
Use
the
or terms in the expansion of
when x = f [Use the argument
21 ' 3
binomial series
16
Expand
+ x + 2a;
V 98
(iii).]
when x =
to calculate correct to four places of
15 (4-08)*.
17
in 12.13, ex.
14 (1 +x)~*
|.
\.
decimals
as far as the term in x*.
2 )-*
State the condition that the following can be expanded in ascending powers of x,
and find the
coefficient of
xr in
the expansion.
2 + 3a;
18
(l-a;)(l
a;
19
+ 2a;)
1
1
*22 (l+a;+a; 2 + ...+a;m - 1 ) B
if r
23 Find the coefficient of x
sum
1
24
28
20
<I.
-a;3 J
in the expansion of
[Writer
1.3.5
4.7
20T30
4.7.10
+ 20.30.40 +
when
\x\
-^.]
calculate
,2
25
1.4
1.4.7
-4 + 4T8-4XT2 + --
3.4.5
3.4
JJ_
+ ""*
+
+
2T4 2.4.6 2.4.6.8
< 1,
00
+ 3r-3)a;r-1 when
r=l
[r2
'
\_~
to infinity of
1.3
Verify that
Hence
+x + x
<m.
and of x2r+1
+ 8 + 8Tl6 + 8Tl04 + "--
26
2r
/j=.
the
T _ l-x l
{l-x)*(2-z)'
Find
6-a;-a; 2
+ 3r-3 = -3 + 2r + r(r + 1).]
||'<1.
SERIES
470
*29
[12.72
By
writing Pascal's triangle (12.13, ex. (iv)) as

we observe that the nth vertical column
gives the coefficients in the binomial series for (1 x)~ n
Justify this rule by proving
shown
here,
12
13
1
1
(rwr--/)- (r)
4 6 4
5 10 10
12.72 Exponential series

(1) Irrationality
of
e.
Taking x
in the series of 12.62 (1),
111
e=1 +
From
H + 2! + 3! + - + H + ""
this it is possible to calculate e to
accuracy (see the example in
any
specified degree of
6.53).
Since this series consists entirely of positive terms,

1
1!
2!
n\
The
error in this estimate

1
(n+l)\
+ (n
,
+ i)\{
(n+l)\{
{n
+ (n
+ 2)\
=
<
is
1+
1
+ 3)\
,
n+2
n~+l
(n + 2) (n + 3)
(n+1)! l-l/(+l)
n+1 _
(n+l)\
+ ")
+ (n+l) 2+ ")
+ ...
by summing the
g.p.,
n\n'
These results can be used to prove that e is an irrational number,

that e cannot be expressed in the form p/q where p, q are integers.
For suppose if possible that e = p/q; then from the above inequalities
with n = q,
,
,
,
,
,
1
1
1
,
p
i.e.
11
'
1!
Multiplying by
q\,
q\
1!
we have
'
I<p.(q-\)\<I +
q\
q\q
series
12.72]
where
is
an
and
integer,
so
q\
q\
p.{q
is
471
Our conclusion
1)!.
that the integer
is
between / and I+l/q, which is impossible since 1/q is

p.(q
a proper fraction. Hence e cannot be written as p\q for any pair of
1)! lies
integers p, q;
i.e.
e is irrational.
ax chx, shx.
(2)
If a
and m =
>
log a, then a
= em and
mx
2
ax
o*
i.e.
From
e*
= l+mx +
3 3
= 1 + a; log a + ^ (log af + (log a) 3 +
the
chx =
definitions
ch._ 1+
%(ex
+ ... +
for all
H-^r-+...
(all x).
. . .
+ e~x ), shx =
^_^ +
a;,
%(ex
e~x
and
...,
(aU*).
8h ' = ,+
+ 5i +
3!
'"W")
The
(3) Series reducible to exponential series.
write
down the general term
of the given
first
step
is
always to
and then put
series,
it
into
a suitable form.
Examples
2
2!
3!
4!
I
2
3
+++
Sum to infinity
.
(l)
Here
The numerator
and so
r2
(r+ \)r r
u.r
(r+1)!
(r-l)l
r\
(r+l)r (r+
1
(--
oo
00
=
,5i^
if
1)
(r+1)!
2.
00
00
+ 1,
>
1.
,5iF^"r5iri\5i(^+i)i
= e- 1.
Sometimes the decomposition does not hold for a few terms at the beginning.
series
472
Calculate
(ii)
Since
(r
+ 2) 2 =
r2
(r-l)l
rl
+J}2
r=l
+ 2) 2
+ 4r + 4 = r(r- l) + 5r + 4,
(r-2)l
oo
(r
[12.73
1!
if
GO
r=2
= 9 + e + 5(e-l) + 4ê-l-^
= 10e-4.
Exercise 12(k)
Give the coefficient of xr in the expansion of
1
6 **+ 2 .
5 Write
.Find the
down the
6 3
34
3!
4!
H
,
2!
2.4
2.4.6
infinity is
1/e; (ii) e
(i)
2
;
(iii)
(e
+ 1/e) 2
of each of the following series.
42
46
44
1
3!
5!
f-
....
7!
1+2
1+2+3
1 + -
+
+
....
1!
4 !!!f!.
2x
ex
3
1
whose sum to
....
1-
2!
12
33
g, + te + 1
ea
series
sum to infinity
32
i^.
3!
2!
1!
=
....
3!
~'
r =i(r+l)!
r=l(r + 2)r!
12.73 Logarithmic series

(1)
There are several important forms of the result
log(l+*)
(a)
Replacing x by
*-- + ---+...
(6)
1 < x <
tJC^
(-1
<x^
1).
x,
log(l-z)
provided
{](^
1, i.e.
x2
provided
x3
1 ^x<
1.
Subtracting the above two results, which are simultaneously
valid if
1 <x<
1,
log(l+aO-log(l-#) = 2^x + ~ + ^+...y
series
12.73]
1
. _
Xs X5
+X =
x+ + ~5 + -
^ l8 T^x
i.e.
In
(c)
The
(6)
write
(d)
In
(6)
put
1+x
=
1-x
1+x p+l
l-#
p
p + 1 - log p =
and the left-hand
side
<x<
the condition
The
series (b),
0,
{ +
and
1'
2^ +
'
+,
defined only
is
(c), (<?)
i.e.
'
)'
1
= y- -.
y+1
i.e.
y,
y
becomes y >
Then
log
1<x<1
(~
1 < x <
condition
473
under which
if
(6)
p>
0,
(2i>+l) 5
which corresponds to
certainly holds.
more rapidly convergent than
are
either the
used for calculating natural

logarithms, and (d) for calculating logarithms of consecutive numbers.
standard series or
(a)
separately;
(c) is
Example
(i)
Find
the coefficient of x r in the
expansion of log ( 1
+ a;2
a;
if |*|
<
1.
l+x
= log= log(l+*3 )-log(l+ar).
1+x
z
log(l-a; + a: a )
We
have
log(l+ar)
a?
- + -... + (- l) r_1
2
and
log(l+a:)
If r
is
If r
is
-...
+ (- I)'"1
not a multiple of 3, the coefficient of xr

a multiple of 3, the coefficient of xr is
is
...
-!-
....
l) r_1 /r.
(2) Series reducible to logarithmic expansions.
Examples
(11)
K
1.2
'
2.2*
3.2s
(- .
. .
12
= -log(l-i)
If the series
general term.
is
...
=log2.
not immediately recognisable, we begin by writing down the
series
474
(iii)
Sum to
[12.73
111
infinity
275
+ ""
377
r(2r+l)
1
2r+l
on using
2r
2r+l'
partial fractions,
where the denominators are now consecutive numbers. Then
^{-+-*>+- + (s-5Tl)}
-> 2{1
The sum of the series

Find
the
sum to
is
therefore 2 log 4.
infinity of
x
it
converges.
.
x3
x*
+ 273 + 374 +
l72
whenever
-> oo,
= 1 + -;+....
log2
since
(iv)
log 2} when n
xr
xr
r{r+l)
) .
r+lj
\r
oo/i
oo
xr
r =l
xr+1
x r=1
r+l
provided that each series converges (12.32(4)), and when 1 ^ x < 1 this is
the case because the first is log ( 1 x) and the second is ( I fx) {log ( 1 x) + x).
Hence
oo
V u. =
r=l
When x =
=
r(r+l)
and the sum
-1
when
s$
<
r+1
sn
"
w+1
-> 1
when n
the problem has been solved completely.
Sum
-> oo,
is 1.
It is easily verified that the series does not converge unless
(v)
1.
1,
u.r
/l
|--l)log(l-a;)+l
to infinity
111
2.3.4
4.5.6
6.7.8
+ ""
ABC
2r(2r+l)(2r + 2)
2r
2r+l
2r + 2'
1 <x^
1,
so
series
12.73]
and we find by the usual method that A =
2r
2r+l
2r + 2
= l/_
Sn=
Hence
\.
L_V
2r + 2/
/ 1
\2?~ 2r~+l) ~ 2 r?i \27+I~ 2r + 2j
B = \, G
\,
2\2r+l
2r+lJ
2\2r
475
when
-i(log2-l)- |(log2-l + )
-> oo,
= f-log2.
Exercise 12(/)
r
-Find <Ae coefficient of x and give the first four terms in the expansions of the
following, together with the conditions of validity.
1
2 log(2 + *).
log(l-4a;).
log(l+a;) 2
4 log(l + 5a; +
6a; ).
(1
6 log
-a;)log(l +x).
+x+
.
7 log(l-a; + a; 2 -a;8 ).
8
Expand log
9 If
>
|a;|
+ 2x + 3a; 2
as far as the term in xl .
expand log(l+a;)-loga;
1,
in powers of 1/x, giving the general
term.
10 Taking x
of decimals.
11
Taking x
12 Use series
13
\ in 12.73(6), prove log 2

\ in
(d)
series (6)
and no
Prove 2 log 7 + log 2

<r
and using no.
10. to
prove log 3
0-6931472 correct to 7 places
10,
prove log 10
2-3025851.
1-098612.
2 log 10 a, where
=
=
0-02 + i(0-02) 2 +i(0-02) 3 +
...,
and deduce that log 7 = 1-945910.
Ill
Find the sum

14
to infinity of the following series.
T72~2T2 2
x2
1.2
i
1.2.3
3T25
"
15
2.3
+ ....
19
3.4
5.6.7
173
_1_
+
+ 373s + _1_
573*
111
x*
X*
>_>
,g
9.10.11
+ *"'
r
Ur
[_
1.2.3
j
4=r-3
3.4.5
x*
33
x*
4r-2
4r-l'
4a;
5.6.7
^r1 - y4r/ - \4\2r

hr^T1 ~ 7T
2rJ
written ] (-r^z - -r^z +

2 \4r 3 4r 2 4r
6a;
'
consider lim *
|
J
8a;
series
476
24 If y
2x*
1,
prove (under conditions to be stated) that

1
i^*2*
25 If
J7r < a <
sin 2 a
[12.8
3a
3?/
52/
+ "*'
prove
+ sin4 a + ... + -sin2n a + ...

n
=
x
26 Iff{x)
2 2 sinH<x
2 3 sinHa
7T -+-2
= x + -+- + ... and
<
\x\
1,
prove/
2 n + 1 sin 2n
ia
+....
to
2x \
^^1 =
2/<<r).
12.74 Gregory's series and the calculation of

If we put x =
in the result of 12.62 (5),
we obtain
^=1-* + *-*+...,
a relation discovered by Leibniz. This series converges very slowly (see Ex. 12(m)
no. 4) and is impracticable for calculating n.
better method, given by Machin, depends
4 tan" 1 - tan- 1 ^9
which we now prove. Let a

tan 4a
which
is
write 4a
tan
and a; =
Thus on putting x =
\ and
2 tan a 2 ~|
_ 4 tana IV
~ l-tan 2a/ |_ ~ \l-tan 2 aj
J
(
2a
a number just greater than

= \ti + tan -1 x, then
|
result
Jar,
tan -1 -J, so that tana
2 tan 2a
on the
1.
Hence 4a
tandzr + tan- 1 *)
is
just greater than
\ir; if
we
1 +x
= y-
in Gregory's series
\,
II
izr-
4J--
gf
we have
1
| 239
...J
3 23g3
can be shown that 6 terms from the first bracket and 2 from the second give
to eight decimal places; while 21 and 3 terms from the respective brackets
give ir to 16 places.
It
7t
12.8
Series
and approximations
12.81 Estimation of the error in s
Given a convergent
to infinity
=sn
infinite series,
by taking the
first
n terms.
we can approximate
to
its
sum
If the series has been obtained
series
12.81]
by an
477
application of Maclaurin's or Taylor's theorem as in 12.61, the
remainder term R gives the error in the approximation (see 6.53);

but owing to the indeterminate nature of the number 6, an estimate
of R has to be
made in practice. When R cannot be obtained explicitly

when the sum-function
of the given series is not known, the method in 12.72 (1) can be used.
because of difficulty in calculating f {n) (x), or
Examples
(i)
If
Ifwetake
we
= x - + -... + (- l) n
log(l+z)
then the error
is (see
12.62 (3))
(n+l)(l + 0a) n+1
When
>
0,
Whena;<0,
+ 6x >
\l
and so
|i2 + i(^)|<
2!
|i2 n (a?)|
<
(see
is
|#|
n /tt.!;
if
a;
>
+ ... +
E n (x) =
12.62(1))
but
x n+l
.
0, e 9x
(n+1 )( 1+a;)n+1
= 1 +x+
ex
Ifwetake
the error
<
+ 6x\ > l-d\x\ > 1- \x\ - 1+x,
and
(ii)
|-R+i(a;)|
<
ex
\B n (x)\
X
(n-1)!
(x n /nl)e 9x
and
x
<e
n!
When x <
we can assert
all
error is
n\
(n+l)!
e 9x
<
and
that
which is of no help since we are trying to approximate to
The
is
0,
e x.
(n + 2)\
+ "'
x*
_ xn / + x +
+ \
~n\ \ w+l (n+l)(n + 2) '"/'
,
and when x >
this is less
xn /
wl\
if
than
n+l
< n + 1, on summing the
approximation
is less
than
x2
g.p.
Thus
xn
n\
The argument
(n+l) 2+
_
=
'"J
if
>
xn
nll-xl(;n+1)
and n > x 1, the
error in the
n+1
n+ 1x'
just used is essentially that in Proof (a) of d'Alem-
bert's ratio test (12.42).
If ur+il uA < ^ < 1 for all r > m, the error in taking s

numerically less than \un+1 \j(l k).
\
is
===
sn (n
> m)
33-2
series
478
For when
n> m
K+a |<* K+1
K+s| < * K+2I <

The
error after
[12.81
n terms
|,
& K+l|>
is
numerically less than or equal to
+ un+2 + mtc+3| +
Kn+ll
'
is
un+l + un+2 + Un+Z +

which
etC
<
>
12.52, ex. (iv))
(cf.
|t
Wl |(l+* + *+...)
1
U,n+1
1-&
on summing the g.p., since < k < 1.

Another useful result is based on Leibniz's rule (12.51).
If for all n > m the terms of a series alternate in sign and
decrease to zero in numerical value, the error in taking s
==
steadily
sn (n
> m)
cannot exceed the modulus of the first term neglected.

Let the series be
u 1 -u2 + u 3 -... + (-l) m- 1 um + {-l)ûm+1 +...,

where for
in
> m)
all
n > m, un >
is
The argument
and un+1 < un The error
x
- 1 )
{un+1 - un+2 + un+z r
after
}.
. .
.
in the proof of Leibniz's rule shows that, for
un+l ~ un+2 + un+3 ~
En
converges to a limit
where
fixed,
< En < un+1 Hence

un+1
the numerical
value of the error does not exceed
n terms
Example
(iii) Consider ex. (iii) in 12.71: we wish to show that all terms after the
fourth in the expansion of ( 1 + 0*02)* cannot influence the 6th place of decimals.
The general term is
ur+1 =
Hence for
and since
>
i --^
1}
ur+ 9 \ r
02
^-: = rTT<- =
1 (i.e.
(r;*l).
((H)2r
v\
2r
1
-
-7?T<
01
<
r>1
>-
from the second term onwards) the signs alternate;
2r 1
,
r+1
(0-01)
/
(
0-01
<
0-02,
479
series
12.82]
the terms steadily decrease numerically. Hence the error is numerically not
greater than
4 A
*-*-.-#
3.5
1
(0-02)4
(0-02) 4 = 6-25 x 10- 9 .
2*4!
4!
-S
Formal approximations
12.82
The
following examples illustrate methods of obtaining approxi-
mations, but no error estimate

Ifxis small, find the
(i)
best
W
i
(a)
is
made.
approximation for log ( 1
+ x) which has the form
x(l+ax)
ax
'
+ bx'
'
+ bx+cx2
By expanding both sides of

log(l
ax
+ a;) =
1
when x is
small,
+ bx
we have
x-$x 2 + %x3 - ... = ax{l-bx + b 2x 2 -...)

= ax abx 2 + ab 2xz
approximately for all small x if a = 1 and ab =
This will hold

The expansions differ in their x3 -terms since ab 2
log ( 1
+ x)
(b)
i-
A similar method could be
correct to order
+X
\, i.e. b
|.
Hence
2x
==
Ji
rrom
4=
x2
used, but the following
is
more convenient.
+ ax) = (l + bx + cx 2 )log(l+x),
2
z
l
2 =
2
x+ax
(1 + bx + cx {x-%x +\x -lx + ...)
2
= x + (b-$)x + {c-\b+\)x* + {-\c + \b-\)x l + ....
x(l
We can obtain three equations for a, b, c by equating coefficients of

a
from which a
and
= 6-|,
6
1,
= c-\b + \,
= \. Hence
= -ic + i6-i
since it can be verified that, for these values, the coefficient of

is non-zero, this approximation is correct to order x*.
right
(ii)
Prove
(
If 2/
(l
+ l/n),
1+ I)"_.(,_ +j iL +
then
log y
= wlog (l+^J
/l
)).
x5 on the
series
480
Writing exp (x)
[12.83
we have
e* for ease of printing,
*"{ -L + t +0 $))
1
=e i+
[
{-i + 3s-
+o
^{-i + i +o (^)F +o (^)]
+
(^)}
-^ + 2^ + (^)]-
x
(iii) If p is small, prove that a root of the equation e + x
mately \p - -^p 2
= 1+p
is
approxi-
For a
first
approximation we expand the left-hand side as far as terms in x:

1
+ 2x = 1 +p,
For the second approximation, expand as
.'.
far as
\p.
x2
= 1+p, i.e. 2x{l + \x) = p.

Using the first approximation! x = \p, this becomes
l + 2x + $x*
+ ip) =p,
x = \p{ 1 + 1^)- 1 = ip - &p 2
2a*l
so
12.83 Calculation of certain limits
Example
.
ex
Find
lim
-l-x
0 --log(l+aO
We have
ex
x*
= 1 + x + + a8
where
11
^ + ^+| +
4!
3!
/
....
5!
Id 2
\x\
<3
if
3!l-iH
1*1
<
4.
log(l
Similarly
where
\b\
+ a?) = x +bx z
< o+
T + iir+
<i(i +
=
f
a;
|
V-r
31-|a;|
a;
|
+...)
if
To keep the working
N<111
linear in *.
series
12.83]
ex
Hence
-l-x
ix*
481
l(x2
i + ax ->
,
when
-+ 0.
The above argument is often given incompletely as follows:
Mm
x_
ex 1 x
-log(l + a;)
lim
x->o
x
i
2i
+-
= lim
x-+0
1.
The result is easily obtained by two applications of l'Hospital's rules
(6.9).
Exercise 12(m)
Prove
the statements in nos. 1-4.
The error in taking log{(w+ l)/n}
==
2/(2n+
1) is less
than
6n(n+l)(2ra+l)*
2 The remainder after n terms of

1
1+
Ii
lies
|aj|
<
1,
8i
+-
and
nf n\
the error in taking
1+x
1-x
i log^
is less
2i
^
(H n+l/w!
\
between
3 If
=?
'
xs
Z + + ... +
3
than the numerical value of
prove that log

2 log 3 + 0-20067
*4 The error in taking
1 1 ==
a:
2n+1 /{(2w
a;
"" 1
2n-l
;
+ 1)(1 x2 )}.
Putting n
2,
correct to 5 places of decimals.
**l-*+*-... + <-D-^
is
numerically less than l/(2n+ 1). Deduce that the

\it correct to only two places of decimals.
first
50 terms of the series
give
Use the expansion of (1 -^r)~* to find <J2 correct to 7 places of decimals.

By considering (l + ifs)*, show $2 = 1-2599211 correct to 7 places of
decimals.
Verify the following formal approximations for small x.
4 lllx)
7 V(1+a!)
2n + (n +
l )a
^n*-l
r
2n + (n-l)*" .12*
af
'
SERIES
482
8 e x /*J(l
+ 2x) = 1+x 2 f# 3
Write down the corresponding approximation
for l/{e x j(l-2x)}.
9 log
10
11
ex
+ e x )} = \x + \x 2 correct to order x 3
= 1 + x + x 2 + ixz [Take logarithms.]
+ xy-+ x
-l
x*
r4
12
720.
= 1 - -+
[Method of
12.82, ex.
(i) (6).]
j
\
/
12 Find an approximation of the form a + bx for (8 + 3)*/{l + ( 1

x being small.
13
Find an approximation of the form a + bx + cx 2
for 1/{(1
x) 6 (4 + #)*},
x)< /(l+x)},
s
x being small.
14 Find approximately the small positive value of x which satisfies
(1+x) 6
1-03(1
-xf.
15 Neglecting x*, prove that e^logfl+a;) = log (1 x). Hence find an

approximation to the root of e x log ( 1 + x) = which lies between and 1
= p p 2 is an approximate solution of x e x p.
17 If p is small, prove that a root of logc+a; = 1+p is approximately
1 + \p, and find a closer approximation. [Put x = 1 + h, where h is small.]
16 If p
is
small, prove that
Calculate the following
_
18
lirftits.
a;-log(l+a;)
^
x
lim
x-+0
'
trx
19
lim
a x l
>
(a
0).
a:->0
Miscellaneous Exercise 12(h)

n
Prove
r= or!(n r)!
2n
.!
+ c 1 + ... + c) 2 = 1 + 01 + 2 "C2 + + 2 "<72B

Calculate eg + +
+ c 2 and prove
2
2
c 2 + 2c 2 +...+rac 2 = n(c + c +...+c
2 Prove
3
(c
. . .
. .
).
(i)
Verify the identity
(l+x}
and use
*(ii)
= l+x{(l+x) n - x + (l+x) n - 2 + ... + (l+x) + l},
~
~
to prove n Gr+1 = - 1 Cr + n 2 Gr + n 3 Gr +
+ rCr for < r < n.
Conversely, assuming this relation, prove the binomial theorem.
it
For the
. . .
series (l)
+ (3 + 5) + (7 + 9+ll) + (13 + 15+17 + 19) + ...,find
the number of terms in the first r 1 brackets;

(ii) the first and last terms of the rth bracket;
(iii) the sum of the terms in the rth bracket.
terms of 1 + 3 + 5 + , and show that the sum
(iv) Write down the sum to
n
of the terms in the first n brackets is t 2 , where t n = ^r.
r=l
\2
/ n
n
*" 3 =
r
Deduce from (iii) and (iv) that
(
I
V=l /
r=l
(i)
. .
SERIES
Find
sum to n terms and to
the
infinity of
2.3.4
tan- 1 (2r+
+
+
T+2 l + 2 + 3 '"*
If r > 0, prove tan- 1 (l/2r8 =
483
1)
+ 3.4.5 + 4.5.6 + ""
- tan" 1 (2r- 1). Hence find
9 If n straight lines are drawn in a plane so that no two of them are parallel
and no three concurrent, the number of regions into which the plane is divided
is denoted by f(n). Prove f(n+ 1) f(n) = n+l, and deduce the expression
for/(n).
+ 2cosa: + 2cos2a; + ... + 2cosna;)sina; =

w
f sin(n + i)a5
= it
10 Prove that (l
^
Deduc^thatt
,
when n
is
a positive integer or
+ %)x.
dx
sm$x
zero. What
Jo
sin.(n
when n
the value
is
is
a negative
integer?
11
Prove
(i)
sin no:
= 2cos(n
+ 2cos(n 3) a: + ... +
l)a;
suix
according as n
is
(1
(
[2 cos x
odd or even. Deduce that

/71
%7T
sin nx
dx
=n
or
!q 8W.X
Jo
according as
n is an odd or even positive
integer.
r n /sin na;\ 8
Prove
(ii)
Jo \sina;/
for all positive integers n. [Square the relation in
sin0
(i),
and use Ex. 4 (Z),no. 30 (i).]

6
= 2cos-cos- ... cos-.
12 Prove that
Deduce the values of

n
(i)
Use Mathematical Induction

13
-2 4 + 3 4 -...
dn
14
dx n
(x*- 1 e1 "")
(ii)
r=l
l4
Slog cos-
to
to
prove the following (nos. 13-16).
w terms = ( - l) n " 1 in(n 3 + 2n 2 -
= - l) n eW/af+ 1
(
1).
U =
+ +
+
nTi nT2 - *n>
15 If
Wn=1 _ i +
then
Deduce that limw n
6
6
m S ^tan-.
tan ^5
S
^
z
z
z
z
r=l
r=l
+ ... + _i__ii
log 2.
t In nos. 10, 11 the expression (sin ma;)/(sin a;) is defined to be

the definition is 'completed by continuity' (see 2.64).
i.e.
when x =
0;
SERIES
484
16 If
u n+% (a + /?) u n+1 + <xfiu n

(a -/?)
17 If s n denotes the
sum
for
w>
+a
then
1,
(a"- 1 - yff"- 1 ) w 2 - ayff(a- 2 - /?- 2 ) u v

of n terms of
16a; 16
2x 2
x
1
8a
4a*
+ 1+a;
^ ^
t
1+* r
+ 1+a; 2 + 1+cc* +
1r.
= 2" and x =t= 1. Deduce that

prove that s n = xj{\ x) mxm j{\ xm ) where
the series converges when |a| < 1. [Either use Induction, or take logarithms
and derive the identity obtained from
1
_ 1+x _
1-x ~ 1-x 2 ~
18
Assuming that
+ a; 2 _
1-x1
(l+a:)(l
19
+ 3i + 52 + - =
Find the
(i)
+ a + ^Z + ... - ~,
provethat
coefficient of a:4
(U)
,111
+- =
-2 +
1
and of x*
3i-ii
12-
in the expansion of
(l+x+x +x 3 + x i
st
How many solutions in non-negative integers has the equation
(ii)
(a)
a+b+c
4;
(6)a + 6 + c
7?
20 In how many ways can a total of 10 be thrown with three dice of different
numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6? [We require the number of
positive integral solutions not greater than 6 of the equation a + b + c 10.
This number is the coefficient of x 10 in the expansion of
colours, the faces being
(x
21 If a; 2 +px + q
+ x 3 + x* + x6 + a;6
has roots a,
-log(l+px + qx
22
2
)
{<x
/?,
prove that
+ P)x + \{a?+p
3
-]
(for
a range of x to be
A circular arc subtends an angle 6 at the centre of the circle, and a,
Find numbers x, y, z independent of d, a, b, c such that the length of the

approximately ax + by + cz, correct to order 6 e [Use the series for sin x.}
tively.
is
Find the sum to
infinity of
3.9
3.9.15
23 l + r + r-rr + r-rr-^7+-
8 8.16 8.16.24
_
b, c
and of \ of the arc, respec-
are the lengths of the chords of the arc, off of the arc,
arc
stated),
)x* + \(a*+P )x +....

3
25
3!
27
+ 6l +
7!
8
9!
+ -'
26
~ + ^- + - +
30
2.3.5
3.4.7
9 15 21
-
'
16.24
16.24.32
4.5.9
,
915
r-2
r(r+l)(r + 3)
^Tl irzi^'"
16
29
1.2.3
,234
+
28
r+l(r-l)f
r+ 2
nA
24 Sr(r+ l)3r
31
3% 2
2 2a;
h
1!
4 2*3
h....
2!
3!
SERIES
32
S-
33
(-l^x^l).
r(r+l)(r + 2)
/v4
/yil2
/y8
JU
JU
/y*3
*/
1+35+51+15 + -'
34 If p
>
1,
<">
3!
/yi7
*Mj
/yill
U/
+ 7l + lTl + --
prove
2
Taking p = 26, 31,

that a log f +6 log
35 Denoting
485
by
+l
49, calculate log 5 to 3 places of decimals. [Choose a, 6, c so
|K clog f = !og5.J
Pr the number of arrangements of n unlike things taken r
n
at a time, prove
no. 2.]
2 "^r = the largest integer less than e (n

r=l
!).
[Use Ex. 12 (m),
486
13
COMPLEX ALGEBRA AND GENERAL

THEORY OF EQUATIONS
13.1
Complex numbers
13.11 Extension of the real
number system;
<J(
1)
Consider the six equations
=
2x =
2x + 3 =
2x
=
x =
2
x +l =
x2
(i)
6,
5,
(ii)
0,
(iii)
9,
(iv)
2,
(v)
0.
(vi)
knew nothing about fractions or negative numbers, we should

(i) and (iv) are both satisfied by x = 3, and
If we
only be able to assert that
that the others have no solution
numbers which
If
we
(i)
that
we could find no natural
are subsequently acquainted with fractions
of numbers
that
(i.e.
satisfy these).
and
is
(i.e. if our list

extended by admitting rational numbers), we can say
(iv)
would remain
are satisfied by f while

,
(ii) is
satisfied
by f The others
.
insoluble.
Not until signed numbers are introduced can we solve (iii) by

x = f and then (iv) is found to have two solutions f We still have
no solutions for (v), (vi).
.
To enable us
to say that (v) has a solution (the necessity for doing
we introduce the number *J2 which can

be non-rational. Even then, (vi) has no solution.
It will now be clear that what can be said about solutions of equations (i)-(vi) depends entirely on what we are prepared to call a
'number'. In other words, the possibility of solving a given equation
depends on how far the concept of number has been extended. Fractional
and negative numbers enable all linear equations with integral
coefficients to be solved, but not all quadratics.
If we attempt to solve (vi), written in the form x % = 1, in the same
manner as for (v), we should obtain the formal solution x = ^J(-l);
this
was indicated in
be proved
1.11),
(see 1.11) to
'
'
that
is, ^/(
a solution
1)
is
existed.
what we should write for the solution of (vi) if such

Whether or not (vi) can have a solution depends on
'
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
13.12]
487
the meaning of 'number', so that a question like 'Does

is futile
until
1) exist?
*J(
we specify what kind of 'numbers we are going to work

'
with.
Hence we have two

meaningless symbol; or
leave ^( l) as a
further the concept of
alternatives: either (a)

(b)
we
generalise
still
we
'number' to include such expressions as this. It is clear that, unless

we choose (6), we can never have any complete theory even of quadratic equations. To arrive at our generalisation we follow the historical
sequence of development; we use the symbol i as an abbreviation
(introduced
by
Euler) for ^(
- 1)
in 13.12, 13.13.
13.12 First stage: formal development
At first i was regarded as something mathematically disreputable!

whose use, nevertheless, gave results quickly and simply to problems
which could be solved more laboriously by other (respectable) means.
The procedure was formal: i was treated like an ordinary algebraic
symbol (with the peculiarity of satisfying i 2 1), and was used in
the spirit of 'press on and see where we get'. Cardan (1501-76) was
probably the first to do this.
Accordingly we should have (a, b, c, d being 'ordinary numbers'):
(a
+ bi) + (c + di) =
+ c) + (b + d)i
(a
(i)
by regrouping and taking out the factor i;

(a
by
first
+ bi) (c + di) =
=
ac + adi + bci + bdi 2

(ac
bd) + (be + ad) i
(ii)
multiplying out the brackets, and then using
= 1 and
grouping.
a + bi = c + di, then a c =
2
(a
c) = (d b) 2 which would
Also, if
gives
is
(d
b)i.
Squaring both sides
assert that a positive
number
number and is a contradiction unless both are

and d b = 0. Hence
equal to a negative
zero,
i.e.
ac
if
a + bi
= c + di,
These examples show
how
then
and
expressions involving
=
*
d.
(iii)
would behave
assumed to apply to them.

Owing to the mystery associated with it, i was named an imaginary
number, and expressions involving it imaginary expressions; while
if the rules of ordinary algebra are
f Earlier, negative numbers carried a similar stigma.
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
488
[13.13
when
ordinary numbers and expressions weref called real
was
contrast
desirable.
This intuitive approach, however unsystematic
many advances
in fact lead to
it
may appear,
did
produced results which

could be verified subsequently by orthodox means.
because
it
13.13 Second stage: geometrical representation
In the
by
we
i,
get iia
spirit of 13.12
we
see that if any real
obtain an imaginary
number
= la = a, which
successive multiplications by
real
number
-a
number a is
multiplied
multiplying again
by
i,
we
again a real number. Thus two
is
convert
ia;
into its negative.
J.
^x
Fig. 125
Consider now the geometrical representation of this result. Suppose
a is positive, and let OP be the corresponding

segment of the a;-axis. Then two multiplications by i have the effect
of rotating OP, originally along the positive asaxis, through two rightfor definiteness that
angles (say in the counterclockwise sense, to agree with trigonometrical
conventions) to position OP'. It
one multiplication
right-angle.
by
is
as turning
therefore reasonable to interpret
OP
counterclockwise through one
Hence the imaginary number ia is represented by a poin|;
P" at distance
apply when a
a,
is
measured along Oy
(fig.
126). Similar considerations
negative.
This geometrical representation was published in 1806 by Argand,

although others had the idea a little earlier. In it we are regarding i
but as an operator which rotates lines OP

counterclockwise about the origin O through a right-angle. (Observe
that ordinary numbers can also be interpreted as operators in the
process of multiplication: the 2 in 2a as the operator which doubles
not as a number at
the length of
OP
all,
and preserves the
and so
We
OP
2a
as the
and reverses the
sense;
sense; the
operator which doubles the length of
in
on.)
can now represent real numbers by points on the (positive or

and imaginary numbers of the type ia by points on
negative) #-axis
/-axis. Can expressions of the form a + bi

be represented? If we interpret this as corresponding to a step of
t And still are (see 1.11).
the (positive or negative)
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
13.14]
489
by a turn counterclockwise through one

and a step of length b parallel to Oy, we end up at what
we should refer to in graphical work as the point (a, b), say Q (fig. 127).
Although the interpretation of * as an operator and Argand's
length a along Ox, followed

right-angle
representation of a + bi both have important applications, the significant thing at this stage is that
we
are led
away from the vague
'imaginary expression' a + bi towards the familiar and precise idea
P"
ia
\
\
Fig. 126
Fig. 127
of the coordinates of a point

a,
in a plane,
(a, b)
b taken in a definite order. It
is
from
i.e.
a pair of numbers
we can re-
this notion that
construct the theory of 'imaginary' numbers on a logical basis.
13.14 Third stage: logical development
Our aim now is to make a fresh start by setting up and developing

an algebra of ordered number-pairs^. That is, we begin with the definite
idea of a pair of numbers, and as far as possible try to retrace our
steps to get at * indirectly. This approach is contained in the work of
Gauss (1777-1855) and others.
(1 )
We
write our number-pairs, usually called complex numbers, as
[a, b] where a, b are ordinary (real) numbers. As we are about to invent

a new kind of algebra, we can make the rules as we please provided
they do not contradict each other or lead to contradiction. However,
our purpose is to make the new algebra as much like ordinary algebra
as possible; and so, with a view to preserving the structure of the formal
results (i)-(hi) of 13.12, we define the fundamental operations with
number-pairs as follows:
(a) Equal number-pairs.
[a, b]
[c,
d]
if
and only
if
a=
and
d.
f The reader is in fact already skilled in dealing with ordered number-pairs of

another kind, viz. ordinary fractions: see Ex. 13(a), no. 26.
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
490
Addition of number-pairs.
(b)
[a, b]
+ [c, d]
is
[a, b]
d]
[c,
Since subtraction
(6) this
gives
(a)
[x
so that
+ c, y + d] =
[a, b],
y+d
and
[a c, b
[c, d] =
-r-
[c,
multiplication to be the number-pair

[x,
xc yd
(a)
if [c, d]
n+
[a,6]
all
^]
tc >
[c,
b;
~&
d].
[a, b].
+ xd]
[a, b],
yc + xd
and
[x,
d]
b.
solve these simultaneous equations
_bc ad7
V = ~c? d?'
+
ac + bd
+ '
Vac + bd bc-ad~]
fcfl-L ?Ta? ,^ T? J.
we can show
that complex
the laws of ordinary algebra. For example,
[0j
For the hypothesis and the

ac bd
and so
can be defined in terms of

y] such that
d]
using the above definitions
numbers obey
>
define
[0, 0],
r
By
we can
are not both zero,
for x, y:
*
(2)
y]
[xc yd, yc
this gives
Hence
we can
such that
[a,b].
Similarly, the quotient [a, b]
c,
y]
= a c, y = b d,
[a, b]
and so by
[x,
+ [c,d] =
(c)
bd, be + ad].
implies
hence
*/
+ c, b + d],
the opposite of addition,
is
x+c
If
[ac
[c, d] to mean the number-pair
which by
By
[a
mean
to
is
[x,y]
By
mean
to
Multiplication of number-pairs.
(c)
[a, b]
[13.14
(ac - bd) 2
{a 2
eri
>
^] or
tc >
^] or
w*W
definition of 'multiplication'
and
+ {be + ad) 2 =
+ b 2 ){c 2 + d 2 ).
be
+ ad =
&e [0, 0].
show that
0,
a 2c 2 + b 2d 2 + b 2c2 + a 2d 2
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
13.14]
Hence at
491
one of the real numbers a + b c + d must be 0; and

a = = b, or c = = d, or both. The result follows.
Ex. 13 (a), nos. 19-25.
2
least
this implies
See also
Application of definitions
(3)
[a,0],[c,0]gives
[M
[a, 0]
+ [c,0] =
x
to number-pairs of the form
(b), (c)
0]
[c,
[a
+ e.0],
[ac, 0].
Apart from the presence of the brackets and the second part
in
each pair, these results are exactly like the laws of addition and
multiplication of the ordinary
of complex numbers
[a, 0]
and
numbers
real
a, c: the
laws of combination
numbers a are structurally
the
same.f
Owing to this fact, we agree to abbreviate [a, 0] to a, and in particular
we write
2 for +2,
for [1, 0]. (There is a precedent for this:
In definition
agree to write
because the (unsigned) natural numbers and the
etc.,
positive signed
we
numbers behave exactly the same

(c) let
us
now choose a =
[0,
l]x[0,
[0,1?
i.e.
1]
0, c
algebraically.)
0, b
l,d
1.
Then
[-1,0],
[-1,0];
and according to our agreement about abbreviation of the right-hand

side, this
Thus
is
can be written
n9
2
[0, l]
1,
number-pairs
and
an element whose square

[0, 1] to i; then we have
(6),
[a, 0]
+ [0,6]
[a, 0]
+ [b, 0] [0,
1]
= a + bi
etc.,
is
Let us abbreviate
for which i 2 = 1.
viz. [0, 1].
definition
[a, 6]
If
= - 1.
in the algebra of number-pairs there
equal to
By
r_
by
definition
by our
we now rewrite definitions

we recover the results (iii),
(a), (b), (c),

(i), (ii)
abbreviations.
replacing
and
all
numbers
in
[a, b]
by a + bi,
respectively in 13.12; but
these results are consequences of our definitions

abbreviations,
(c),
them
now
and agreement about
are actually number-pairs
although they appear to be ordinary numbers.

f
We say that there is
[a, 0]
and the
34
real
an isomorphism between the complex numbers of the form

numbers a.
GPM II
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
492
Since
[a, b]
[b,
0][0, 1]
[0, 1][6, 0],
as a + ib instead of a + bi
amount to writing a for a + Oi,

(4) Conclusions.
V( 1)
as
easily verified,
is
when
for
convenient.
+ li, and bi
= 1,
(if it
we can
write
Our conventions
+ bi.
for
In the algebra of real numbers ('ordinary algebra '),
does not exist. In complex algebra (the algebra of ordered
1 which do satisfy
so that this pair i has the property which *J( 1) would have
number-pairs) there are pairs abbreviated to

2
[13.15
i,
existed) in real algebra.
Correct results in complex algebra are obtained
by applying the
laws of ordinary algebra to the number-pairs in their abbreviated
form a + bi, with the replacement of i 2 by 1 whenever it occurs.

That is, the intuitive work of 13.12 is correct, provided we realise
that
we are handling abbreviations for pairs.
Remark. The relations

complex algebra; e.g. it
'less
is
than', 'greater than' are not defined in
meaningless to write 3 + 2i
particular, the terms 'positive', 'negative' cannot
< 4 + 5i. In
be applied to
complex numbers.
13.15 Importance of complex algebra
Complex algebra provides a method for proving results of real algebra.

is so for two reasons.
(i) A single equation in complex algebra is equivalent to two
This
by
Hence pairs of
results can be obtained from one calculation, thus making for economy.
(ii) From any general relation between complex numbers there can
be obtained a special case by taking the second parts of all numbers
equations in real algebra,
definition (a) in 13.14.
to be zero. Because of the exact correspondence between complex
numbers
[x,0]
and
real
numbers x
(13.14(3)),
we deduce a
relation
in real algebra.
These remarks will be illustrated in this chapter and the next.

Complex algebra offers generality and completeness. For example, we
can assert that in complex algebra every quadratic equation has two
roots (possibly equal).
Since complex numbers arose from the attempt to solve all quadratic
equations (and in particular the equation x 2 +
0),
we may wonder
whether consideration of equations having degree greater than 2

would lead to some higher form of complex number, say 'super-
complex numbers'. The answer is no, because in 13.42 it will be

proved that in complex algebra every polynomial equation of degree n
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
13.16]
493
n roots (i.e. the roots are themselves complex numbers). Thus

complex algebra has a finality which the real number system lacks,
and no further generalisations can be obtained in this direction.
has
13.16 Further possible generalisations of 'number'

(1) Ordinary algebra is 1 -dimensional, i.e. any real number can be represented by a point on a line, say the axis of x.
Complex algebra is 2-dimensional, since a complex number is represented
by a point in a plane, with reference to two axes.
Is there a 3-dimensional algebra an algebra of ordered triplets [a, b, c]?
Hamilton (1805-65) considered this problem and showed that no genuine
'algebra' could be constructed, although a system of elements (which may be
called vectors) of the form ai + bj + ck where a, b, c are real numbers and i, j, k
denote [1,0,0], [0,1,0], [0,0,1] would obey some of the usual laws, and is
useful in 3-dimensional mechanics., for example.
However, Hamilton did construct an algebra of ordered quadruplets [a, 6, c, d]
or quaternions, in which all the usual laws are obeyed except that xy =# yx. We
could similarly think of an 'algebra' of n-vectors [ax ,a 2 ...,a] or even of
infinite sequences [a v a 2 a 3
.].
Further,
(2)
. .
we may consider arrays with more than one row,
e.g.
real numbers. With suitable laws of combination, the

algebra of rectangular arrays or matrices would be obtained. Although such an
algebra was originally investigated for its own sake, it is now widely used,
e.g. in theoretical physics and much geometry. Nor is there need to restrict
the elements to be real.
The reader must seek elsewhere for development of these suggestions.
where the elements are
Exercise 13(a)
Simplify and express in the form
1
4
7
9
10
12
X+Yi:
2 (2 + 7*)-(3 + 4i).
3 (2 + 6t) + (5-3t).
+ 7i) + (3 + 4*).
6i)-(-5
5t)(2
3i).
3*).
6
5 (3 +
(2 +
(4 + 5i) (4- 6).
+
+
(3 + 5i)-j-(2 + 3).
8 (6 + 5*)/(3 + 2*).
2
and hence 1 + i) 1 1 + i).
1 + i)
(l+*)(l + 2i)(l + 3i).
11 (cos0 + *sin0)(cos0 + isin^).
(cos0 + isin0)/(cos0 + *sin0).
Calculate (a + bi)/(c + di) by the process analogous to 'rationalising
(2
13
denominator' with surds:
a + bi
(a
c + di
(c
which agrees with

Solve nos.
7, 8,
13. 14
12
+ bi)(c di)
+ di)(c di)
(ac + bd)
c2
+ (be ad) i
+ 2
<2
'
1)
by this method.
34-2
the
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
494
Z = X+ Yi
14 If
terms of x and
Z=
and
z1
and
z is
+ l)l(z\)
where
= x + yi,
express
X,
in
y.
Complex numbers z u
15
(z
[13.2
given by
z 2 are
= R + i(oL,
= R 2 g,
z2
Ill
=
denned by
Find the values of o
for
which
z%
Zi
z is of the
form x + 0*.
16 If J(a + bi) = x + yi and x > 0, prove x % y %

express ^/(3 + 4i) in the form x + yi.
X+ Yi.
17 Express (x + yi) 3 in the form

expression for (x yi) 3
= a 2 and
2xy
6.
Hence
Write down the corresponding
18 Prove {(
- 1 i V3)} 3 =
1.
B?/ direct appeal to the definitions
numbers
+ [c, d] [c, d] + [a, 6] (commutative law for addition).

x [c, c?] = [c, d] x [a, 6] (commutative law for multiplication).
([a, 6] + [c, cZ]) + [e,/] = [a, 6] + ([c, cZ] + [e, /]) (associative law for addition).
([a,b]x[c,d]) x[e,f] = [a,b] + ([c,d]x[e,f]) (associative law for multi-
19
[a, b]
20
[a, 6]
21
22
in 13.14(1), verify that complex
(a)-(c)
satisfy the following algebraic laws.
plication).
+ [c, d]) x [e, /] = [a, 6] x [e, /] + [c, rf] x [e, /] (distributive law).
+ [a, 6] + tow terms = [a, 6] x [w, 0], each being equal to \na, nb].
25 By using the multiplication rule, verify that i = [0, 1] satisfies
x*+l = 0.
23
([a, 6]
24
[a, 6]
. . .
26 Consider ordered number -pairs {a, 6} of integers

but with 6 4= 0) which satisfy the following laws:
(positive, negative or
zero,
(a) {a, b)
(b)
{a, 6}
(c)
{a, 6}
{c,
d}
if
and only
if
{c,
d}
{ad + be, bd};
{c,
d}
{ac, bd}.
ad
be;
{a, 6} {c, d} and {a, 6} + {c, d}. Verify that this algebra
the same in structure as) the algebra of rational numbers
could define fractions abstractly in terms of integers in this
Obtain expressions for

is
isomorphic to
(fractions).
(We
(i.e.
way.)
The modulus-argument form of a complex number
13.2
Modulus and argument
13.21
We
saw
in 13.13 that the
represented uniquely
polar coordinates
by the point
then (see
(r, 6),
and so
complex number x + yi
rco&0,
x + yi
P(x, y)
1.62,
r(coa d
and
x + iy) can be
in the a;/-plane. If P has
fig.
(or
25)
r8in6,
(i)
+ isind).
(ii)
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
13.21]
495
When x + yi is so expressed, and r is restricted to be positive (cf. 1.62),

then r is called the modulus and 6 the argument of x + yi, respectively
written \x + yi arg (x + yi) f We may think of x + yi as the number r
|
in direction
'
6\ a
generalisation of the idea of 'directed
number
'
as
presented in elementary algebra.
customary to write z forx + yi, and to write r = |z|, = argz;

z may be called the number of the point P in Argand's diagram, and
sometimes P is called the affix of z.
Frequently it is necessary to express a complex number, given in
the form x + yi, in terms of its modulus and argument. From equaIt
is
tions
since r
is
restricted to
= +J{x* + y*)
(iii)
be positive; and
cos0:sin0:
x:y: + j(x2 + y2 ),
(iv)
which gives a unique value of 6 in the range it < 6 < + tt. Any value
differing from this by any positive or negative integral multiple of
2n would give the same point P and consequently is a possible value
of argz. Thus argz is a many-valued function, and we define its
principal value to be that in the range ttkO^tt. (The single
equation tan#
yjx does not determine argz because
it
gives two
values for 6 in this range.)
Examples
(i)
Express (5 + i)/(2 + Zi) in modulus -argument form.
+ i)(2-U) _ 13-13t _
*'
~ 4+9 ~
(2 + 3i)(2-3i)
We require r, such that rcos0 = 1, rsin0 = 1. Hence r = +<J2, and
given by cos0:sin0:l = 1: 1:^/2; the principal value of the argument
therefore \n. The required result is
{cos \n) + i sin In)}.
i sin in modulus-argument form.
(ii) Express 1 cos
1 cos0 *sin0 = 2sin 8 0 2isin0cos0
= 2 sin 0 (sin 0 *cos0)
= 2sin0 {cos \d - \n) + * sin (|0 - \n)}.
This will be the required result if sin \Q > 0, i.e. if Inn < \Q < (2n + 1) n.
If (2n 1) n < 0 < 2nn, then sin \0 <
and we must write
=
1
cos0 isin0
2sin0{ cos(0 \n) isin(|0 %n)}
= -2sin0 {cos (0 + \n) + * sin (0 + in)}.
5+i
2 + 3*
_
~
(5
is
is
t Sometimes 6
amp (x+yi).
is
called the amplitude of
x+yi and
is
written eon (x + yi) or
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
496
[13.22
In numerical cases like ex. (i) the modulus and argument can usually
be written down easily after drawing a sketch.
We
remark here that the complex number z, represented by the

point P(x, y), can also be associated with the displacement OP in the
sense from
towards P. Given the axes, there is an exact correspondence between the complex number x + yi, the point P(x,y), and the
vector
OP. Also
see 13.32.
and properties
13.22 Further definitions, notation,
We agreed in
(1)
form x + Oi to x.
13.14 (3) to abbreviate a complex
number z
of the
customary to go further and call z real although

this double use of 'real' is most unfortunate. Similarly a number of
the form + yi is shortened to iy and called purely imaginary.
If z
argz
is 'real',
If z
is
or
tt
It is
'
'
then
represented
it is
according as z
purely imaginary,
it
(i.e. a;) is
by a point on the
x-axis;
and
positive or negative.
corresponds to some point on the y-axis ;
and arg z \n according as y < 0.
= x+yi,
x is called the real part (or first part) and is sometimes written x = 8%{z)
and y is called the imaginary part (or second part), written y = J(z).
The process of deducing from the relation z x z 2 that xx = x% and
Vi = 2/2 i s called equating real and imaginary parts, respectively.
(2)
Real and imaginary parts. In the complex number z
If z lf z 2 are expressed in modulus-argument form as
r(cosd + ismd),
then from
it
follows
s(cos0-Msin^),
r(cos 6 + i sin 6)
s(cos
+ i sin
)
by equating real and imaginary parts that

r cos
s cos
Squaring and adding gives
and
<j>
2
,
r sin 6
so that r
s sin
<j>.
s since
r,
s are positive.
The two equations now become

cos d
cos
<f),
sin 6
sin
<j>,
by some integral multiple of

denote the principal values of argz l5 argz 2 then 6 =
so that in general 6,
<f>
differ
2ir.
If 6,
(f>
The process of deducing from
zt
moduli. That of deducing argz x
z2 that
argz 2
is
\z x
|z 2
is
called taking
called taking arguments.
This equation holds for principal values of 'arg'; but since 'arg'
is
many- valued, we may write arg z x arg z 2 to emphasise that any value
of the left-hand side is also a value of the right, and conversely.
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
13.23]
Conjugate complex numbers. Given a complex number z
(3)
the
497
number x yi
obtained by changing the sign of
and
conjugate of z
i is
called the
when the previous
written z (or sometimes z*
is
= x + yi,
notation
is required to denote 'average value'). Conjugate complex

numbers have the following properties.
(i) The product zz = (x + yi) (x yi) = x 2 + y* = |z| 2 is 'real'.
(ii) The sumz + z = (x + yi) + (x-yi) = 2x = 20t(z) is 'real'.
(iii) The difference z z (x + yi) (x yi) = 2yi = 1iJ(z) is purely
imaginary.
(iv)
\z\
when
but
|z|;
and negative',
z is 'real
= argz, except
form x + Oi where x < 0.
principal values) argz
(for
of the
i.e.
In the a;y-plane the points which represent z,

If z x
zx
z2
z are
images in the #-axis.
= z, then z is purely imaginary.

= z a then xx = x 2 and yx = y% hence x1 iy1 = x 2 iy2 i.e.
The process of deducing from z x = z 2 that z x = z 2 is called
(v) If z
z,
then
z is 'real
'
if z
taking conjugates.
Finally, the definition of 'conjugate'
(z x z 2 )
^1 ^2
(z x \z 2 )
z x \z 2 ,
From the relation
(4) Properties of\z\.
zx z2 ,
shows that
Z X Z 2^ Z l Zi)
z i z %\
Hence
\
since both sides are positive

2
Zl
r=
|
Z 2|
by
Zl
Z 1 Z \' Z 2 Z 2
|
=
|
zx
+ z2
z.
zz in (3) it follows
that
Z l| 2, l^l 2.
definition. Similarly, if z 2 #= 0,
Zl
\ Z 2/
+ zz =
z i|-| z 2|>
( )
\Z 2/
\z\
(z)
zx
Zl * 1
Z2 Z 2
\Z
Zl
Z z\
2>
IZ
z 2\
13.23
If z
Z 2|
The cube roots of unityf

is
a number whose cube
is
+ 1,
then z3
(z-l)(z 2 + z+l)
hence either z -
or z 2 + z+
by
0, i.e.
0;
13.14
(2).
From the latter,
= -f, z+| = i|V 3 and 2 = K-i*V 3 )Since cos tt = \ and sin 7r = \ <J3, the first of these roots
modulus-argument form cos \n + i sin tt. We denote this by cj.
(z+)
A simpler approach will be given in
14.13, ex.
(ii).
has
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
498
Also,
cosfTr
= | and
cos f71 + i sin fn. It
ôw
(jfi
= \ ^3,
sin \-n
[13.23
so the second root
is
also w, as is clear from the original formula for z.
is
(cos f 77 + i sin fit) 2
cos 2 f7T sin 2
cos jn + i sin f/r.
7r
+ 2i sin 7r
cos
7r
+ z + 1 = can be written z = to, w 2 There are

roots of + 1 in complex algebra, viz. 1, (o, a> 2 The
_
2
A
2
Hence the roots of

thus three cube
z2
relations
often simplify calculations.
Example
Direct expansion shows that
= a3 + 6 s + c8 3abc.
c x + c 2 + c 3 reveals the factor a + b + c.

Since the expression on the right can be written
The operation c x
a3 + (bw) 3 + (ceo 2 ) 3 - 3a(b(o) (co 2 ),

a + bo) + co) 2 Likewise, since the expression
a3 + (6w 2 ) 3 + (cw) 3 3a(6w 2 ) (ceo), a + 6w 2 + ceo is a factor.
We now have three complex linear factors, so that any further factor must
be numerical. Comparison of the coefficients of a3 shows that it is + 1. Hence
similar reasoning reveals the factor
is
also
as + b 3 + cs -3abc
+ c(o).
By comparing this result with
a s + b 3 + c 3 -3abc = (a + b + c)(a 2 + b 2 + c 2 -bc-ca-ab)
(see 10.22 (2),
(a
example; or Ex. 11
2
+b +c
2
+ b + c) (a + bo) + cco 2
(a),
no. 20),
-bc-ca-ab =
(a
it
(a + ba> 2
follows that
+ bw + cio 2
(a
b(t)
+ co)).
Exercise 13(6)
Express in modulus -argument form:
1
2 1-*V3-
l+iy/3.
(l
+ 3*V3)/(V3 + 2*).
x and
+cos# + *sin0.
10 If a + ib
(rK
+ M/)"
where
4 1-i.
a, 6,
ar,
6+iJ3
V
4_2
2+i
(l+i)^.-
9 (cosa + *sina) + (cos/fl + isin/?).

y are real, express a 2 + b 2 in terms of
^.
If the coefficients in the equation z l +pz 3 + qz 2 + rz + s

there is a purely imaginary root, prove r 2 +p 2s = pqr.
11
^3
are 'real',
and
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
13.3]
12 If
(z
|
- 1 )/(z + 1
2,
prove that the point P which represents z lies on the
^+^+^+1 =
ciTcle
13 If w
(x + 3) 2 + y 2
z/(z
+ 3)
1,
1
to
a)
2
2n
to"
to
0)
to
0.
w = u + iv and z = x + iy,
where
and
if z lies
on the
circle
find the locus of
14 Prove that
15 Prove
499
+ =
to
0,
to
w2
to
according as
3 or
to
n is
or
is
not a multiple of
3.
16 Express x3 + y3 as the product of three linear factors, and deduce the factors
of x 2 -xy + y 2 [Method of 13.23, ex.]
(6 - c) (c - a) (a - 6). [Use
17 Prove (a + <ob + w 2c) 3 - (a + to 2 6 + wc) 3 = - 3i
.
factors of
x 3 y 3 .]
18 Prove that (a 2 + ah + 6 2 )
[Use tf + ab + b 2
(a;
+ a*/ +
can be written in the form
/ )
= (a- <ob) (a - (o 2b), etc.]
*19 Prove that (a3 + b 3 + c 3 -3abc)(x 3 + y 3 + z 3 -3xyz) can be written in the
+ Y3 + Z 3 3X YZ, where either

Y = cx + ay + bz, Z = bx + cy + az,
(i) X = ax + by + cz,
Y = cx + by + az, Z = bx + ay + cz.
(ii) X - ax + cy + bz,
or
[In (i), (a + ba) + <xo*)(x + y<o 2 + z(o) = X+ Ya) 2 + Z(o, etc.]
*20 If ar (r = 1, 2, 3) denote the cube roots of - 1, prove
(l+xx^x^Dil+x^ + x^Dil+x^+xâl) = (l+x 3 )K
[A typical factor is 1 - 8a 3 )/( 1 - xa) = 1 + 3 )/( 1 - aa).]
21 If the equations x3 = 1, gkcs + 6a; + c = have a common root, prove
a3 + b 3 + c3 -3abc = 0.
[One of the three roots 1, to, to 2 of 3 = 1 satisfies the other equation, so
2
10
(a + b + c) (aw 5 + bo + c) (aw + ba> + c) = 0.]
form
tc
a:
13.3
Applications of the Argand representation
13.31 Geometrical interpretation of

If z
is
represented
Also
\z\
J(x
+ y2
is
represented
(a?
|
by the
by P, then
modulus and argument
a +
)
- y2
j{(x 1 -x2 ) 2 + (y 1 -y 2 ) 2 }
'distance formula' of coordinate
geometry.
Fig. 128
by OP.
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
500
If
the principal value of arg z, then
is
cos 6 sin 6
x y
*J(x
it is
2
[13.32
given
+ y2
by
and is the angle of turn from the direction Ox towards the direction
OP, which can be written L {Ox, OP). Similarly, arg (z x z 2 ) is the angle
defined by
cos 6 sin 6
:
x x - x2 yx - y 2
<J{(xx
- x 2 2 + (yx - y2
)
If
2
},
P2 P
and represents the angle of turn from Ox towards

L(Ox,P% Px ).
Examples (some
X,
written
loci)
is the fixed point z x
and P
is the variable
point
z,
then
z x cis the circle with centre Px and radius c ;

(ii) the locus arg(z z
= is the half-line PX P for which /_(Ox,Px P)
x
(The other half is given by arg (z z x = n + a.)
the locus
(i)
\z
ex,
is
<x.
P P
z x = \z z 2 is the perpen(iii) If
x,
2 are fixed points z x z 2 , the locus \z
dicular bisector of the line X 2 For
=
X
2 , and the result follows by pure
geometry. Alternatively, it can be proved algebraically from
,
PP
PP
PP
(x-xJt + iV-Vi)* = (z-*a) 2 + (2/-2/ 8

by
If P,
(iv)
radius
are the points
w-
z,
2z + 3
4i and P moves on a circle of centre
2Z +
B-U. Then
tt>
- 3 + 4 =
|w-(3-4*)|
since
\z\
r.
Therefore
(1)
sum and
Similarly,
a3 +
zx
j"
Since
2r.
difference of z lf z2
z2 ,
and complete the parallelo-
projection of
OP3 on Ox
projection of
OPx + projection of PX P3
projection of OP\ + projection of OP2 f
m=
,
2r
by projecting on the
+ z2
\2z\
Sum. Let Px P2 correspond to z x

Then
x
P2 OP P3
x3
z3
2z, so
Q lies on the circle of centre (3, 4) and radius
13.32 Constructions for the
gram
and
locus of Q.
r, find the
Write
i.e.
a
)
simplifying.
xi + xi) + %i + 2/2)
so that
OP2
y-axis
is
we
find y3
= x x + Wi) + x z + Wz),
(
P3 represents the sum z + z
equal and parallel to
= yx + y2 Hence
P P8
1
2.
and in the same sense.
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
501
Observe that the construction for P3 is the familiar parallelogram
law for compounding ('adding') two displacements OP v OP2 To
13.33J
the sum of two complex numbers corresponds the sum of the associated
vectors.
+ z 2 ), we first
which represents z2 The above
Since z x z 2
(2) Difference.
image P2 of P2 in 0,
tion performed with
zx
P P
x,
P4
will give
construct the
sum-construc-
corresponding to z x z %
y,
/
L
/
/
.Jp*
/
p*
Fig. 129
As OP
is
equal
13.33
The
and in the same sense as
to, parallel to,
can represent z x z2 by the
displacement
l5
triangle inequalities
By applying the theorem that
'the
sum of two sides of a triangle is

OPx P3 we have
,
OP3 ÔPx + Px P3
OP3 ÔPx + OP2
i.e.f
and hence
this
|z,
we deduce
+ z2 ^
\
\z t \
+ \z2
\.
the following, exactly as for real numbers
\z x
-z 2 >
\\z x
|z 1
+ z2 ^
||^l|
\-\z 2 \\,
I^H'
These inequalities should also be verified geometrically from

The
do
so,
we
P2 P v
greater than the third side' to triangle
From
P2 P
results
can
all
we first observe
be proved algebraically, without appeal to a
fig.
figure.
that
0t(z)
= **S
f Equality is included in case 0,
V(*
P P
lf
+ 2/ 2 = M
)
(and hence also
P3
129.
are collinear.
To
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
502
with equality when and only when z

where x 2s 0. (Similarly J{z) < |z|.)
h+Z
'
is
and positive
real
By
-\-
-f-
^z^R
and
since z x z 2
KI
(Nil
+2M
+ W) 2
Therefore
<
|ziZ 2 |,
^1 =
since
\z x
Z2 Z 2
|z 2 |*
complex numbers. As M{z x z 2 )
Z\Z % are conjugate

2
of the form x + Oi
i.e.
13.22(3),
= (Zl + Z2)(2l+2 2
= %\Z x
Zg + Zj Z 2
= Iz^ +
2
2|
[13.34
+z 2 <
ja^J
+ |z 2
|z 2
\z t
.
\
|z 2 |.
|,
modulus of a complex number is

Equality occurs if and only if z x z 2 is 'real and positive',
positive signs being chosen because the

positive
by
definition.
a2z 2 where a is 'real'.

The other results can also be established
i.e.
zx
similarly.
13.34 Constructions for the product
modulus-argument form.
It is convenient to use the

(1)
P P
x,
and quotient of z z2
Product. Let z x r(cos 6 + i sin 6), z 2 = s(cos

have polar coordinates (r, 0), (s, <f>). Then
zx z2
=
=
=
+ i sin
(j>),
+ i sin 6) (cos (p + i sin

rs{(cos 6 cos sin sin 0) + *( sm # 008 ^ + 008 # sin
rs(cos 6
rs{cos (0 +
is
so that
<j>)
<j>
Therefore z x z 2
{rs,d +
<f>
<p) + i sin ((9 +
represented
(j>)}
<j>)}.
by the point which has polar coordinates
(f>).
A be the point whose polar coordinates

are (1,0). Draw triangle OAPx and construct triangle OP2 P3 directly
similar to OAP1 (fig. 130). Then
To
construct this point, let
=
i 6J'
ops = oPl .OP^ rs
80
x6p3 = #ap2 + p2 6p3 =
Also
a*5p2 + ^0Pi
Hence P3 is the required point.

The above calculation verifies the
shows that (cf. the end of 13.22 (2))
arg
Ordinary equality
may
(z x z 2 )
result
\z 1 z 2
arg z x + arg z 2
not hold
when
all
=
=
<p
+ e.
Iz-J
|z 2 |,
and
three terms have their
principal values; e.g. if

zx
z2
cos fn + i sin
7r,
then
z x z2
also
cos %n + i sin tt,
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
13.34]
503
and the principal values are

arg Zi
We
arg z 2
arg {z x z 2 )
fn,
= - n.
observe that multiplication of a complex number z 2
r(cosd + i&md) turns the corresponding vector
and multiplies
its
length
product-construction in
We
by r.
z4 z 2 and so we can use the

making Px take the role of P3 there.
therefore construct triangle OPx P2 and then make triangle
If z 4
(2) Quotient.
OPÂ
by
OP2 through angle
z 1 /z 2 ,
then
zx
(1),
directly similar to this
Alternatively, the construction

Zj
z2
131).
(fig.
can be obtained from
_ r cos 6 + i sin
<scos0 + isin0
_ r (cos# + isin#) (cos0 isin^)
s (cos + i sin $) (cos i sin ^)
<j>
r (cos
~s
<f>
cos <j> + sin
cos
= - {cos (6 -
<j>)
+ i(sin
2
)
(j>)}.
This calculation
verifies
that
K|/|z 2 [, and shows that
with the usual understanding about many-valuedness.
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
504
[13.35
Remark. It also follows that

y
arg ^-^
z3
arg {z x - z 2 ) - arg (z 3 - z 2 )
= L{Ox,P% P^-L{Ox,P% Pz
^(PAP^),
i.e.
the angle
P3P2 Pi in the sense from P P3

2
towards P^P^
Fig. 132
on the Argand
13.35 Harder examples

*(i)
Interpret geometrically the equations

-
a;
(6)
(k 4=1).
we have P2 PP1 = a. Hence the locus of P is an

and containing angle a.
prove that the locus of P is a circle (a circle of Apollonius with
By the Remark in
arc of a circle through

(6)
arg
(a)
(a)
representation
We shall
Px P2
respect to
13.34,
P P
lt
).
Fig. 133
Geometrical proof
z l z 2't
Divide
is
We are given that APjPB =
where A, B, represent
#= 1,
AB internally at H and externally at K in the ratio k:l.
drawn assuming k >
1;
the reader should illustrate the case k
an
PB~HB
<
(The figure
1.)
Then
PB~KB'
and by a theorem of pure geometry it follows that PH, PK are the internal and
A
A
external bisectors of APB. Hence HPK is a right-angle. Since H,
are fixed
points, P lies on the circle having HK for diameter.
Algebraical proof.
From the hypothesis,

Z - Zl 2 = F|z-2 a
|
(x-Xi)* + {y-Vi)
i.e.
and
since k
4= 1
this represents
2
|
= k*{x-x 2 )* + k*{y-y 2 )*;
circle (see 15.61).
t The implied change of notation from

convenience in writing.
P Ps
lf
to
A,
respectively
is
made
for
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
13.35]
It is easy to
505
prove that, if the centre is O, the radius OH of the circle is given by
OH* = OA. OB.

For since
AH/HB = AK/KB,
follows that
it
OA-OH OH -OB
OA + OH~ OH + OB'
AHjAK = HB/KB,
20 _ 2 OH
and so
20H~ 20B
by properties of equal ratios, which gives the result.
Fig. 134
We can now show that the circles in (a), (b) cut orthogonally (see 15.66(1)).
T is a common point, then OT 2 = OA OB. By the converse of the tangentchord theorem, OT touches the circle (a). Hence the radius GT of (a) is perpendicular to OT, and so touches (6) at T. Thus the tangents to (a), (6) at T
If
are perpendicular,
*(ii)
i.e.
the circles are orthogonal.
Prove that the triangles P^P^P^,

Zi
P P P6 are directly similar if and only if

4
Z4
22
Zs
(a) If the condition holds, then by taking moduli, P 1 PJP3 P 2 =

and by taking arguments and using the Remark in 13.34,
in the same- sense.
f 8-P 2-^*1
and are
P4PJP 6 P6
= P 6-P&P
Hence by the
sides proportional', triangles P^^P^P^,
'common
test
angle and containing
P P P6 are directly similar.

4
the triangles are directly similar, then the above two

z i )((z3 z 2 ), (z 4 z 5 )l(z 6 z 5 ) have the same modulus
and the same argument. They are therefore equal.
The condition can be written
(6)
Conversely,
if
relations hold, so that (z 1
z1
0,
z2
1
By
rx
ri + z 2 rs followed
by
r 2 -> ra + z 5 r3
Zl
Z2
2-2
Z4-Z5
i.e.
we
obtain
ZZ
Z6
1
0.
- Z5
1
0.
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
506
Exercise 13(c)
Indicate in a diagram the points representing (zx + z 2 ), z x
2
between
If collinear points
P P
x,
2,
P3 are such that Px P2
= 2P 2 P3
+ 2z 2
zx
2z 2
zx , z 2 , z3 .
Write down the complex number represented by the point dividing
in the ratio k
P if 2 <
What is the locus
Find the greatest and
6 Prove that
of
|z
+ 1 - 2i\ <
least values of
+ l|
if
3?
(i)
\z
4|
if
\z\
1; (ii)
|z
+ z 2 2 + |zi-z 2 2 = 2 {| z i| 2 + z s\ 2} (i) geometrically, (ii) algeuse the theorem of Apollonius on triangle OP3 P4 in fig. 129.]
|z!
If
(i)
5.
braically. [For
PP
I.
|z-3|
find the relation
(i)
+ z2 =
|zj.
prove that argz x and argz 2
z i~ z a|
(principal values intended),
(ii)
If arg{(z 1 + z 2 )/(z 1
2 )}
differ
by
\n, prove
or
\it
|Z]J
\ir
|z 2 |.
[Treat geometrically.]
8 Verify the following construction for the roots of z 2 2az + b 2 = 0, where

are real and < a < b. With the origin O for centre, draw a circle of radius 6.
From the point on Ox at distance a from O draw a perpendicular to Ox cutting
the circle at P, Q. Then P, Q represent the roots.
a, 6
be (1,0); produce PO to
9 Verify the, following construction for *Jz. Let
= 1. Through O draw a line parallel to
so that
to meet the circle
in Q and R; these are the required points.
PAB
AB
OB
10 Given the points representing z x z 2 construct those representing the two

values of V( 2 i z 2),
11
is
any
chosen so that
12 If
bisects
point,
and on the
P OP =
PxOP 2 =
on OPx as diameter points

Prove z\ cos 20 = z x z z cos 2 0.
circle
<}>.
G is the centroid of triangle PX P 2 P3 and
[Use Ex. 15
x (?.
no.
(a),
4z x
+ z 2 + z3 =
0,
P P
2,
are
prove that
1.]
13 If A is real and z = 4A + 3*(1 A), prove that P lies on a straight line.

As A varies, prove that the least value of |z| is 2-4, and interpret geometrically.
14 If z x 2 = z 4 z 3 prove that Px P t Pi Pl is a parallelogram and that the
,
point \{z x + z 2 + z3 + z 4 )
is its
centre.
that the point P 2 where z 2 = (l+AiJz! and A is real, lies on the

Find A if argz 2 = argZj^ + i^r, principal values
perpendicular at
x to OP x
being intended.
Show
15
16 If zx z 2 are the roots of z 2 az + a? = 0, where a is a complex number, prove

that the points zx , z 2 are the vertices of the equilateral triangles drawn on
opposite sides of the line 0.4.
,
equilateral, with sides of length 1 and centroid at O. If A reprewhat do B, C represent? Show that the sum of these three numbers is
ABO is
17
sents
z,
always zero.
18 If A, B, O, D, E are the vertices of a regular pentagon inscribed in a circle
whose centre is O and radius is r, and if OA makes angle 6 with Ox, write down
the numbers which these vertices represent.
19 If 2/z x
relation
l/z 2 + l/z 3 prove that OP 2 P x P3 is a cyclic quadrilateral.

z 2 )/{0 z 2 = (z x z s )/(zs 0); take arguments.]
is (z x
[The
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
13.4]
507
20 Interpret geometrically the equation
On
*21
the sides of triangle
directly similar to each other.
[By
13.35, ex.
(ii)
bc
drawn
are
and properties of equal

xc
so Hoc
ABC
triangles
BOX, CAY,
Prove that the centroids of ABC,

ya
ca
ABZ
XYZ coincide.
ratios,
b
ab
So;
Sa
'
Sa.]
*22 For any complex number z prove that the triangle with vertices zz x , zz 2
with vertices z lt z 2 , z 3-
zz z is directly similar to the triangle
23 If P1P3 and P2 P4 are equal and perpendicular, the sense of rotation from
P 2 Pi being clockwise, prove z 1 -iz 2 -z z + izi = Q, and conversely.
X
S to
[|z 4 -z 2 = Iza-Zilandargftzs-ZiVî-Sa)} = + \tt* Hence (z 3 - Zi)/(z 4 - ,) = <]
24 On the sides of a plane convex quadrilateral, squares are drawn externally.
Prove that the centres of these squares are the vertices of a quadrilateral whose
diagonals are equal and perpendicular. [Let the vertices in clockwise order be
PP
The centres of the squares are (z x + 2 + |i(z 2 - z x etc. Use no. 23.]
considering
the modulus of the left-hand side, prove that all the roots of
By
25
n
z sin na + z n_1 sin (n l)a + ... +zsina = 1
lie outside the circle |z| =
n
If a root z satisfies
[1 = |z sinwa + ...+zsina| < |z|+ ^l"-^ ... + |z|.
n
|z| < \, then for this z, 1 < ()
+ (i)"- 1 + + & = 1 - {\) n a contradiction.]
Zi,
z 2 , zs , z4
),
-J.
. . .
13.4
Factorisation in complex algebra
13.41 'The fundamental theorem of algebra'
We remarked in 13.15 that complex numbers cannot be generalised

by attempting
to solve equations of degree higher than
2.
This
is
consequence of the following theorem.
In complex
algebra the polynomial equation
p(z)
=p
zn
~
+p 1 zn 1 +
. . .
+p n =
(p Q
*0)
(i)
ONE TOOt.
known also as d'Alembert's or Gauss's theorem, has
not yet been proved by any strictly algebraical argument. We shall
has AT LEAST
This result,
assume it here; the reader may

the complex integral calculus.
later
study a proof which depends on
13.42 Roots of the general polynomial equation
Defining 'repeated root of order r* as in real algebra (10.43), and

reckoning such a root as r roots, it is now easy to prove the following, f
Theorem I in 10.13. Both the
f This result should be compared with the weaker
Remainder Theorem and Theorem I are valid in complex algebra, their proofs being
unchanged.
oe
GPMII
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
508
In complex
algebra the equation
[13.42
has exactly
(i)
roots.
By the fundamental theorem there is a root z
Proof.
The equation
n~
x , i.e.
therefore equivalent to
(i) is
Po(*
<x
?) +Pi(z
n~1 - a?" 1
+p n - 1 (z -
. . .
cc )
x
0;
since z ol1 divides each bracket, to
i.e.
(z-<x 1 )f1 (z)
where fx (z)
is
0,
w-1
a polynomial of degree
in
whose
z,
first
term
is
71-1
(as is clear by starting the division).

PqZ
Again by the fundamental theorem, fx (z)
necessarily distinct
from
ol ),
x
and by
/i(z)
where
a polynomial in
Continuing thus, we find
2 (z) is
p(z)
where n-1 (z)
is
degree
(z- ai )(z-a 2 )
= a2
(not
+ k,
zn 2 .
n 2, beginning with p
in
or
= Po( z ~ ai) (2 - a 2
. . .
and begins with p
z,
(z
cc n
has n roots a l5 a 2
z;
...,an
z; it
say. Therefore
- aJ.
(z
This shows that p(z) has n factors linear in

the equation p{z)
(z-a^J/^z),
...
a polynomial of degree
P(z)
has a root
(z-oc 2 )fz {z),
z of
must therefore be of the form p
similar reasoning
(ii)
or equivalently, that
(which
may
or
may
not
all be distinct). Also, (ii) shows that these are the only values of z
which make^>(z) zero; for if /? is such a value, then
i>o(A-ai)(A-a 2 )-(/?-aJ
and
since
cc2
f}
by
4=
If the roots are not all distinct,
where nx + n 2 +
is
. . .
4-
0,
hypothesis, at least one of the factors ficx,^
fi a n must be zero (13.14(2)),

Hence p(z) = has exactly n roots.
p(z)
(ii)
oc 2 ,
...,ct k
. . .
are
(z
-a
fc
)"*,
all distinct.
where filt
(iii)
fi 2 ,
p(fir ) 4=
=p
(z
a.
(iii)
This decomposition
unique (apart perhaps from the arrangement of the factors). For

p(z)
an
takes the form
= p^z - ctj** (z - a 2 )
n k = n and ot lt
coincides with
i.e. /?
(z
- /?2 r
. . .
(z
if also
(iv)
., /?. are distinct, then each /? must be an a, since otherwise from

while from (iv) p(fir ) = 0; similarly each a must be a (i. Suppose
. .
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
13.43]
509
then (iv) can be

= oc /?2 = a 2
fi x
(v)
= p (z - a x )"* (a - a )* (z - a*)**,
It now follows that mr = nr (r = 1,2, ...,&) E.g. if 7% < n x then from (iii) and
mi
(v) we should obtain, after dividing out p (z oc x
m*,
TO
n
n
n
* = (z - a 2
(z - a
(z - a
(z - oc x
(z - a 2
which is impossible since the left-hand side is zero when z = cc but the rightthe notation has been chosen so that
witten
x,
p(z)
. . .
. . .
ft )
>
. . .
fc )
hand
side
is
not.
13.43 Principle of equating coefficients
We can now deduce results for complex polynomials corresponding

to
Theorem II and its corollaries in
1 0. 1 3.
The enunciations and proofs
are the same. In particular, the 'principle of equating coefficients'

valid for polynomials in
is
complex algebra.
Example
Solve the following three simultaneous equations in z x , z a z 3 , where ax , a % , a3 are
,
all different:
+ -^r+-^T^rr
c^ + A, a^
+ Af a + A,
1'
2 ' 3 )-
Consider the expression
When
expanded,
it is
a polynomial in A of degree
The given equations imply that

Hence it must be identical with
3,
A3
when A = Alt A 2 A 8
with leading term
this expression is zero
-(A-A 1 )(A-A a )(A-A3
=
we have
identity,
Putting A
ax in the
(a 2 - ax (a3 - a x z x = - 1) 4 (ax + A x (a x + A a {ax + A 3
which gives z x Similarly the substitutions A = a 2 A = a3 give z a
).
13.44 Repeated roots
The
),
z3 .
and the derived polynomial
definitions of 'repeated factor', 'repeated root' in 10.43 are
retained for complex polynomials. Continuing to write

p(z)
we
ss
zn
~
+p 1 z n 1 + ... +pn
define the derived polynomial of p(z) to be

p'(z)
= p^nz *-1 +p 1 (n - 1) z n ~ 2 +...

1
The reader may wonder why we do not give a

<p'(z)
denotes
lim
p(z + h)
definition like the following:
_ p{z)
,
35-2
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
510
[13.45
means that and n\ tend to zero

is complex (say h = g+irj) and h
separately and in any manner.' There are difficulties underlying this procedure;
they can only be fully examined in dealing with general functions of a complex
variable, a subject which may be studied at a later stage.
where h
From
the definition given
it is
straightforward to verify the usual
and in particular the product rule,

of complex polynomials'. The theorems
10.43 remain valid in complex algebra
rules of the differential calculus,

in this 'differential calculus
on repeated roots given in
since their proofs are exactly as before.
13.45 Equations with 'real' coefficients; conjugate complex roots
// the
(1)
and
if a
is also
coefficients
+ fii
(where
fi
p p ly
=f=
pn
0) is
in the polynomial p(z) are 'real',
root ofp(z)
0,
then
its
conjugate
a fii
root.
The condition for a
Proof.
fii
Po(a+Pi) n +p 1 {oc + /3i) n
On expanding
to be a root
is
p(a + fii)
0, i.e.
-1
+ ...+p n 1 (cc+j3i)+pn = 0.
and replacing i 2 by 1 whenever
the binomials
it
occurs, this equation can be written
P + Qi =
where P,
0,
are real polynomials in (a, fi).
This condition is equivalent to the separate equations P
Hence also P Qi =
0* =
0,
Q=
0.
which (because p(z) has real coefficients)

is equivalent to the statement p(a fii) = 0, i.e. a fii is a root of
p(z) = 0. See Ex. 13 (d), no. 7 for an alternative proof.
If the coefficients in p(z) are not all real, the argument breaks down
at the last step. For example, if p(z) is the linear polynomial z (1 + i),
then clearly z = 1 + i is a root of p(z) = 0; but 1 i is not a root since
p(l-i)
0,
= (l-i)-(l + i) = -2i #
The
correct statement in the general case
p(z)
0,
where
p(z) is the
0.
is that a
fii is a root of
polynomial obtained from p(z) by changing
For if p(oc + fii) = P + Qi, then we

by changing the sign of i everywhere on both
sides f (because the equality was obtained by using only the property
2
i = 1 of i, and this continues to hold when * is replaced by i);
this would give p(afii) = PQi. In the case of entirely real coeffithe sign of
must
still
in all the coefficients.
get a true result
cients, p(z)
= p(z).
It is also easy to prove the following.

f In short,
by
'taking conjugates'.
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
13.45]
Conjugate complex roots occur
For if p{z)
a root
oi-fii.
to the
Remove
same
order.
=a
has an r-fold root z
511
(yff
4= 0),
then
it
also has
the factor (z-a,-fii)(z-oc+fii) from p(z),
has an (r- l)-fold root a+fii, and

therefore also a root <xfii; and by removing the corresponding factors
from/1 (z) we obtain 2 (z), say. Proceeding thus, we arrive at a poly-
obtaining fx (z), say. Then/^z)
nomial fr (z), where a +fli is not a root of fr {z) = 0; hence afii cannot
be a root (otherwise its conjugate a +/3i would be a root). Thus a fti
is
also
an
r-fold root of p(z)
0.
Example
Prove that the equation
has
ft*
62
6a
x ax
x a2
x an
n roots in real algebra if al9 a2
. .
.,
a n are all different,
the
Vs are non-zero, and
4= 0.
Consider the corresponding equation in complex algebra, the a's, 6's and k
being real. Denote any rootf by a + fii; then a /?* is also a root, and hence
all
r=1
%
Since the
ct
+ Qi.
a+/3i ar)
\ocf}i ar
*
=1
(a-ar a +^ 2
)
sum is non-zero, we have /? =
0.
Hence all the roots are of the form
In real algebra there are thus n roots.
a theorem in real algebra on surd roots of an equation

with rational coefficients which can be proved by an argument like
(2)
There
that in
is
(1).
If the polynomial equation p(x)

coefficients
a b^jc
is
Proof.
and if x
a root.
= a + b*Jc
yjc
(in real algebra) has rational
root (where
^c
a surd), then also
is
for
or zero. This implies that
surd
a + b Jc to be a, root of p(x) = is, when

of the form P + Q ^jc = 0, where P, Q are rational numbers
The condition
simplified,
is
P=
would be equal to the
and Q =
rational
0, for
otherwise
contradiction. Since
p(a-bjc) =
P-QJc = 0-0 Vc =
a b <Jc
is also a root. Also see Ex. 13 (d), no.

a + b *Jc, a bjc are called conjugate surds.
f That
is,
if
=f=
number P/Q, which
8.
root of the corresponding polynomial equation
(z-a1 )(z-ai )...(z-an )f(z)
= 0.
0,
the
is
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
512
[13.5
Relations between roots and coefficients
13.5
13.51 Symmetrical relations
In 13.42 we proved that
p
so that
zn
+p 1 zn
a lt a 2
~1
+pn s p
+...
(z
- ct^ (z - a 2
. . .
(z
- aJ,
a n are the n roots of the equation p(z) = 0. On

it becomes (cf. the proof in 12.1 1)
multiplying out the right-hand side,
- (Sa) z"- 1 + (S ai a 2
{z n
zn
~ 2 -...
Hence on equating coefficients of zTC_1
2a =
n~2
. . .
aj.
and the constant terms,
Sa, a 2
S ai a 2 a 3 = -^,
and
+ (- l) n
ai a 2 ...an
= (-l)^;
in general,
^YPrlPo sum f t ne products of the roots taken r at a time.
This work generalises the results of 10.3, which are theorems of
and are valid only if the equation under consideration

possible number of roots. The above results in
complex algebra hold without any such restriction because every
polynomial equation of degree n has exactly n roots.
real algebra,
has the
maximum
13.52 Unsymmetrical relations
We remarked in
10.32 that the symmetrical relations do not help
us to solve the given equation because they are equivalent to the
information that
if
'
cl^cl^, ...,an
some non-symmetrical
given, then
it
are the roots of p(z)
relation
between some or
all
0'.
However,
of the roots
is
may be possible to solve the equation.
Example
Solve (in complex algebra) the equation
3x*
+ 17a; 3 - 5a; 2 + 8a; + 12 =
given that the product of two roots is 4.

Let the roots be a, fi, y, 8, and suppose
a+fi + y + d
(There
is
4.
We have
fiyS+y8a + doifi + cc/3y
-f,
afiyd
= f but we shall find that this

4 and the third relation, yd = 1.
also the relation Ea/?
From a/? =
a,/H
0,
is
4.
not needed.)
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
13.53]
513
The second relation can be written
a/% + <S)+ytf(a+/?) =
+ (a+/?) =
4( r +
so that
-f,
-f.
<>)
This together with the
relation can
first
be solved to give
7 + ^=1.
4
+
+^# = 0, viz. |, 6; and
w2
Hence
a,
ft
are the roots of
roots of x % x + 1
a;
w,
0, viz.
y, 8 are the
13.53 Transformation of equations

Properties of the roots of an equation are often conveniently dis-
cussed
by
considering another equation whose roots are related to
those of the given equation in a
(iii)
less by k than, (iv)
p(x)
(iii)
0.
The
We now show how
known manner.
to form the equations whose roots are
(i)
reciprocals of,
(ii)
k times,
squares of the roots of the polynomial equationf
process
(ii) is
known
as 'diminishing the roots
by
&',
as 'multiplying the roots
and
by k\
as 'squaring the roots'.
(iv)
Applications are given in 13.72, 13.73.
Write y
(i)
nomial equation
If
ljx.
the equation p(l/y)

is
is
a root of p(x)
is satisfied
by y =
The required
Write y
p{yjk)
0.
Hence
kx.
When a
case k
p(x)
satisfies
0.
ka
0,
will
satisfy
the required equation reduces to
P yn +Pikyn
The
Ijy,
poly-
therefore
-1 + ...+p 1 y+P Q =
(ii)
then since x
0,
1/a.
-1
+p 2 k 2yn - 2 +...+p n kn =
0.
= 1 gives the equation whose roots are the negatives

= ('changing the sign of the roots').
=
x k. When a satisfies p(x) = 0, a k will satisfy
y
of those of p(x)
(iii)
Write
p(y + k) = 0.
(iv) Write y
= x 2 When a satisfies p(x) =

.
This can be rationalised
(i.e.
0,
a 2 will satisfy p{*Jy) =
freed of square roots) as in ex.
(ii)
0.
below.
Examples
(i)
Transform
4a; 3 + 6x + 5 = so that the coefficient of the

introducing
without
fractional coefficients.
the equation 3a; 4
leading term becomes
Multiply the roots
1,
by
k, i.e.
put y
3y* y* -
i.e.
The method
is
kx, so that
y/k.
Then
= 0,
+
4% +
=
0.
2k*y
+ ffc
f% +
s
5A: 4
equally applicable to equations other than polynomial ones.
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
514
[13.53
By inspection, the coefficients will be integers when h =

such value). The new equation
4
2/
where y
3 (this
is
the smallest
then
-42/s + 54y+135
0,
3x.
Find the equation whose
(ii)
is
roots are the squares of the roots of
3x3 -x* + 2x-B
(a)
0.
Write the given equation as

x(3x 2 +
and put y =
2)=x* + 3,
(b)
yfy(3y + 2) = y + 3.
y(9y* + 12y + 4) = y* + 6y + 9,
9ya + 1 It/ 2 - 2y - 9 = 0.
x*:
Squaring,
i.e.
(c)
Remark. Strictly, we should show that every root of equation (c) is the square
of a root of equation (a),f as follows. If y satisfies (c), then (by reversing the
working) it satisfies one of the equations
*Jy.(3y +
2)
= y+S.
*Jy satisfies (6), i.e. the given equation (a). In either

the square of a root of (a).
Further examples of the transformation process are given in 10.32, ex. (ii)
Thus
either +*Jy or
event, y
and Ex.
is
10(c).
Exercise 13(d)
The algebra
1
is
complex.
Prove that the equation

1+i! +
z2
2i
z3
z"
+ 3T + - + ^=
has no repeated roots.
2 Solve
3
z4
4z 2 + Sz 4 =
Given that 2 + ^/3
is
0,
given that
+ i is a root.
= 0,
a root of x9 2a; 2 7x + 2
solve the equation
completely.
4 Prove that w is a repeated root of

hence solve the equation.
5
One root of
x + x5 -$x*-10x 3 -9x 2
3a; 6
+ 2a;4 + x3 6a; 2 5x 4 =
+x+l =
is *J2
+ J3. Find
0,
and
all
the
roots.
6 The linear equation az + b = with real coefficients a, b has a root a

and therefore also a root <x~fii: two roots for an equation of degree 1.' Explain
'
this
apparent paradox.
Verify that (z - a /?i) (z a (ii) = z 2 2az + a 2 + ft 2 , where a, /? are real,
Let g(z), az + b be the quotient and remainder when p(z) is divided by
2az + a 2 + /? 2 Ifp(z) has real coefficients, explain why a, b must be real.
(i)
(ii)
z2
not always be the case; e.g. the square of each root of x3 x =

yet the root y = 1 is not the square of a root of the adequation.
Indeed, there is not a unique result in this instance: the method of ex. (ii) gives
2
y(y I) = 0, and clearly y\y 1) = also satisfies the requirements. Such ambiguity
can arise whenever the squares of the roots of the given equation are not distinct.
f This
satisfies
may
y 3 y
= 0,
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
13.6]
515
= 0, show by putting z = a
(z
2<xz + a 2 + /? 2 q{z) + az + b
p(z)
that act + 6 =
and aft = 0. If /# 4= 0, deduce that a = and
that z afiiia also a root of p(z) = 0.
If a
(iii)
is
in the identity f
a root ofp(z)
0,
and hence
*8 Prove the theorem about conjugate surd roots in 13.45(2) by a method

7. Also prove that such roots occur to the same order.
similar to that of no.
9 Ifa,# y, S are the roots of x* +px3 + qx 2 +rx +s
0,
find Zafiyia+fi+y).
+px3 + ga; 2 + rx + s = is equal to the product

Prove
three.
ps + r) 2 = s(q + s + 1 2
* 1 1 Find the sum of the cubes of the roots of x 5 + x 2 + x 1 = 0.
One
10
root of
a;
of the other
Solve the follouring equations.
12 x 3
13
5a;
16* + 80 =
if
xi + 3x3 -5x i -6x-S
the
if
14 x* - 2xz - 2 1*2 + 22a; + 40
sum of two roots is zero.

sum of two roots is -2.
the
if
the roots are in a.p.
by k, and find for what value

Increase the roots of xs + Sax 2 + Bbx + c =
of k the new equation contains no quadratic term. (This process is called
'removing the second term from the given equation'.)
15
16 Find two substitutions of the form y = xk which remove the third term
from x4 + 4a;3 1 8a; 2 100a; 112 = 0, and use one of them to solve the equation.
17 Find a substitution y = kx which will transform the equation
8a;
+ 8a;8 -18a; 2 -16a; -3 =
into one with integral coefficients of which that of the leading
term
is
+ 1.
18 If a, f$, y are the roots of x3 +px2 + qx + r = 0, find the equation whose

(y- l)/y.
roots are (i) a(fi+y), /3(y + a), y(x+P); (ii) (a- l)/a, (/?19 If the roots of x n
are
1,
ax a 2
,
prove that
n _ 1?
. .
{l-a 1 )(l-cc 2 )...(l-cc n =

)
[Construct the equation whose roots are
*20 If a, /?, y are the roots of x3 +px + q
1,7
[y
+2 =
(fi*
1, 1 a
0,
n.
lf ....]
form the equation whose roots are
7* *fi
ay pa
7 p
+ y 2 + 2/?7)//?7 = a 2 /^ = - a 3 /q = pa\q + 1.]
13.6
Factorisation in real algebra
13.61
Roots of the general polynomial equation
(1)
We have proved
that complex roots of an equation with real
coefficients occur in conjugate pairs (13.45 (1)). Since
(z-a-j3i)(z-a + fii) = (z-a) 2 + /?2

the result (ii) of 13.42 shows that any polynomial p(z) of degree n with
real coefficients can be expressed in the form
2
{(z - b,f + cf}, (vi)
P(z) s P Q {z - a x ) (z-az )...(z- ak ) {(z - 6 X ) + cfj
where
k + 2l = n,
,
. . .
t Cf. 10.11,
Remark
(yff).
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
516
and
all
tinct,
constants
are real.
The
all linear (the
case
a, b, c
and may be
factors
I
[13.62
shown need not be
dis-
0) or all quadratic (the case
0).
(2)
there
p{x)
Writing
is
p(x)
= p xn +p 1 xn ~1 + ... +pn
an identity
=p
{x
- a x (x-a 2 )...(x- ak
)
{{x
- btf + cf}
. . .
{(a?
- fy) 2 + cf}
(vii)
in real algebra corresponding to (vi), owing to the exact correspondence between real numbers x and complex numbers of the form x + Oi.
Since k + 21
n,
we see that
ifn is odd, k must also be odd, so that there is at least one factor
of the form x a in (vii), and certainly an odd number of such
(a)
factors;
(6) if
is
even, k
quadratic or an even
must be even, and so either all factors

number of linear ones will be present.
Remembering that
in real algebra
will
no quadratic factor can be
be
zero,
we have the following result.

In real algebra an equation of even degree has either no roots or an
even number of roots; and an equation of odd degree has an odd number
of roots {and therefore at least one).
Remark. Just as equation (ii) in 1 3.42 shows that, in complex algebra,
every polynomial can be resolved into linear factors, so equation (vii)
above shows that factorisation in real algebra requires no more than
linear and irreducible quadratic factors. Both results are existence
theorems, i.e. they tell us that the factorisation can be done in a certain
manner, but they provide no process for actually doing it. The results
are of great theoretical importance.
13.62 Location of roots in real algebra
Rational roots of an equation with rational coefficients. By the

method of 13.53, ex. (i), the given polynomial equation can be trans(1)
formed into one in which the
coefficient of the leading
other coefficients are integers.

If the polynomial p(x) = xn
all
+ p^
coefficients,
11
-1
is
well
Proof. Suppose
known and is
h\k
is
+ 1 and
+ p 2 xn ~ 2 + ... +p n has integral
then every rational root must be
ofPnThis result
term is
We suppose that this has been done.

an
integer
which
is
a factor
often used (e.g. in 10.12, ex. (i)).

a rational root of p(x) = 0. Without loss
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
13.62]
of generality
factor
we can assume
0. Then
that
h,
517
common
k are integers with no
and that k >
^k = - (pJi 11
so
+ p 2 hn ~ x k + ... +pn kn
~1
)
= an integer.
Hence hnjk is an integer,
an integer h. Since /.
and
so
is
so that k
,
=
,
1.
Thus the rational root is in fact

~
p n = - hih"-1 + Pl hn -* + ... +pn - 1 ),
a factor of
Change of sign of a polynomial.

If the polynomial p(x) is non-zero when x = xx and when x
between xx and x2 is
the number of roots ofp(x) =
(2)
x2 then
,
odd ifp(x^), p(xz ) have opposite signs,
and
even or zero
if p{x^),
p(x 2 ) have
the
same
signs.
These results are 'intuitively obvious' properties of all continuous

(cf. 2.65). For a polynomial p{x) they can be proved as
functions
follows.
By result
(vii)
in 13.61,
2>(a)
=p
(x
- a x {x-a 2 )...(x- ak
)
g(x),
a product of factors of the form (#-&) 2 + c 2 or else (in

the case when p(x) consists entirely of linear factors) is 1. In either
where
g(x) is
event, g(x)
is
positive for all values of x.
If p(Xj), p(x2 ) have opposite signs, the linear factors cannot be

absent,
and (a?x ax
all
(xx a 2 )... {x 1 ak ), {x 2 a {x 2 a2 )... (x2 ak

signs. Now x t a,x2 a have like signs unless a
)
must have opposite

ak lie between
lies between xx and x 2 Hence an odd number of a1} a 2
xx and x2
Conversely, if an odd number of roots he between x1 and x2 then the
above products must have opposite signs, so that also p{xx ), p(x 2 )
have opposite signs.
I p(x1 ), p(x2 ) have like signs, it follows that the number of roots
between x x and x2 cannot be odd, i.e. it must be even or zero.
.
. .
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
518
[13.62
Examples
Let
(i)
be the numerically greatest
ps
two or more are numerically equal)

p(x)
x n +p 1 x n
Ip^-i + .-.+p^x+Pnl ^
Then
|a;|
>
~1
+p n
+...
one such coefficient
if
1
\p 1 \.\x\- +...
n -i
\p s \{\x\
<
If
coefficient (or
in
+ \p^ l \.\z\ + \p n
+ ... + \x\ + l}
follows that
1 it
p(x)
xn
-1
Given any positive proper fraction, e.g. \, we shall have

such that \x\ > 2 p s + 1 = K', say. Hence if
> K\
\
p{x)
|i? g |/{|a;|
is
x n (l
+ d)
\x\^K,
for all
where
<
\0\
1} ^
if
J.
This shows that p(x) has the same

x ~$t
and all x < i:
that p(x) is dominated by
for large (positive or negative) x. Thus
p(if), p( K) have opposite signs if n is odd, and the same sign if n is even;
since
can be as large as we please, we have proved the theorem in 13.61 (2).
The symbols p{co), p{ <x>) are customarily used to denote '#>(i), p(K)
sign as x n for all
we say
K
where K
is
arbitrarily large'.
Solve the example in 13.45 (1) by a 'change of sign'' argument.
(ii)
We may suppose the notation to be chosen so that a < a % <
. . .
<
a n Con.
sider the polynomial
p(x)
(x - a x ) (x - a 2 )
bl{x-a2 ) ...{x-a n ) + b\{x-a1 )(x-as )
+ b%(x - ax
. . .
. . .
(x - a n ) f(x)
(x - a n_!)
+ k(x - a
x)
(x
(x-a n + ...
...
- a2
. . .
(x
- a).
When x takes the values

00
p(x) has the
In
this
=|=
0, it
aa
...
0"n-\
an
(-1)"" 1
(-1)"- 2
...
-1
+1
k.
same sign as
k(-l) n
negative.
ax
sequence there are exactly n changes of sign, whether k is positive or

Hence p(x) = has at least n roots. Since p(x) is of degree n when
cannot have more than n roots. The number of roots is therefore
precisely n.
(3) Rollers
theorem for polynomials. This
general theorem in 6.21; see 6.23(1),

there.
and
is
a special case of the
also the deductions
An algebraic proof is indicated in Ex. 3 (e), no.
(2), (3)
14; also see no. 15.
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
13.62]
519
Examples
Find the number of roots of x* - 2a;3 + 6a:2 - 10a; - 8
(iii)
locate
them between consecutive
Writing
=x - 2x* + 6a; - lOx - 8,

l
p(x)
then
p\x)
4a; 3
in real algebra, and
integers.
2
- 6a; 2 + 12x - 10 =
2(x -
2
1) (2a;
- x + 5),
the factor x
1 being discovered by trial.

Hence p'(x) = has one root in real algebra. By 6.23(3), p(x) = cannot
have more than two roots; and if p(x) = actually has two roots, the root x = 1
of p'(x) =
must lie between them. We therefore consider the sign of p(x)
CO
+
X
Sign of p(x)
+00
and the other greater than 1.

By trial we find that p(0) < 0, p( 1) > 0, so there is a root between and 1.
Similarly we find p(2) < 0, p{3) > 0, so the other root lies between 2 and 3.
Thus p(x)
(iv)
has two roots, one
Find the range
than
of values of k for which the equation
p(x)
has 4 distinct
less
= x*-2Qx 2 + 4:Sx-k =
roots.
p'{x)
Possible roots of p{x)
8
4(a;
-13a;+12)
4(a;-l)(a;-3)(a; + 4).
= must be separated by roots of p'(x) = 0, viz. 4,

+oo
4
3
-oo
x
1
1, 3.
Value of p(x)
+oo
-352-A;
23-A;
-9-k
+oo
In order that p(x) = shall have 4 distinct roots we require there to be four
changes of sign in the above sequence; the signs must therefore be
+ - +
-9
< k < 23.
This will be so if and only if
-+.
The reader should sketch the graph of y = x* - 26a;2 + 48a;, which has a maximum at x = 1 and a minimum at x = 3 (and at x = 4). The line y = k cuts the
curve in four distinct points if and only if this line lies between the levels of these
two turning points.
= has 4 distinct roots which all

1 and + 1.
has roots +1, 1 each four-fold.
Putting f(x) = (a; 2 -l) 4 then f(x) =
has roots +1,-1 each three-fold (by 10.43) and a root x = a
Hence/'(a;) =
between +1,-1 (by Rolle's theorem). Thenf(x) = has double roots +1,-1,
a root ft between 1 and a, and a root y between a and + 1. Similarly, f"'{x) =
has simple roots +1, 1, and roots between 1 and fi, ff and y, and y and + 1
has a root between each of
5 distinct roots altogether. Therefore f w (x) =
these, i.e. it has at least 4 distinct roots all lying between + 1 and 1. Since
(v)
lie
Prove that the equation d^x^l^/dx1
between
f w(x) is of degree 4, it can have no other roots.

The expression {d n (x a l) n /dx n }/2 nn\ is denoted by
n (x) and called the

Legendre polynomial of degree n. An argument similar to the above shows that
has exactly n distinct roots, all lying between 1 and + 1. These
n (x) =
polynomials arise in Mathematical Physics.
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
520
Exercise 13(c)
The
Find the rational roots

1
algebra is real.
(if any) of the following equations.
= 0.
3a; 4 - 4a; 3 + 6a: + 5 = 0.
3a^-lla; 2 + 9a;-2
Determine the number of
(real) roots of the
2a: 4
+ 5a; 8 + 14a; 2 -3a;-54 =
0.
following equations, and locate each
between consecutive integers.
= 0.
-2a: + a;-10 = 0.
If a t < a 2 < a3 < a4 <
4 x* + 2x 2 + Sx-l
6
7
x-x 3 + x 2 -2 =
0.
< a6 prove that the equation

(x a 1 )(x a 3 )(x a 5 + k 2 (xa 2 )(xa i (xa e =
a6
has 3 distinct roots for any real

8 If a
roots a,
and p < q, prove that al(xp) + b/(x q) = x has

0, 6 >
y such that a. 
ft,
9 If ax a z ,
n
i
prove that the equation 2
r=l x-a r
by considering changes of sign of
a n are
exactly
k.
n1 roots (i)
all different,
p(x)
three
has
(x a x ) ...(x a n )
S
r=\ x ar
by applying Rolle's theorem to f(x) = (x a t )... (x a n ).

[We may assume ax < a 2 <
< a n without loss of generality.]
(ii)
. . .
10
(i)
If p n
<
and n
is
p(x)
even, prove that the equation
=p
x n +p 1 x n - 1 +...+p n
has at least one positive and at least one negative root.

(ii) Prove that the number of positive roots of p(x)
if
pn <
is
odd
if
and only
0.
Determine the number of roots of the following equations by first finding the zeros
of the derived polynomial ; and locate each between consecutive integers.
11
xi + 4x 3 -Sx 2 -l
13
Prove that x + 3a; 3 =
12
0.
8a;
-5a4 -40a; 8 - 50 =
0.
has only one root a, and hence that
x* +
6a; 2
-12a; -9
has just two roots.
>
14 If a
1,
prove x5
5a*ar
+4 =
has 3 roots.
What happens when a <
Find the range of kfor which the following equations have 4 distinct roots.
Illustrate
the results by sketches.
15 xl -14x z +
17 If p
>
24x-k =
q and a,
ft
0.
are the roots of x

f(x)
- 16a; 8 + 6a; 2 + 12x-k =

2px + q = 0, prove that
16
2
3a; 4
= xz - 3px 2 + Zqx-r =
1?
0.
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
13.7]
521
has 3 roots if r lies between pq 2(p q)a and pq 2(p t q)fi. [By
division, f(x) = (xp) (x* 2px +q) + 2(q p 2 x + (pq r), so
2
long
18
2(q -p*)* + {pq - r),
/(a)
Prove that x* + ax + b
etc.]
has 3 distinct roots if and only if 276 a + 4a8
<
0.
*19 Use the argument in ex. (i) of 13.62 to prove that p(x) = has every root
numerically less than 1 + \pg \. [If aisaroot, x n = p 1 x n ~ 1 + ... +p n ; by taking
moduli, \x\ n < \p t {\x\- l}l{\x\ - 1} if \x\ 4= 1. If \x\ > 1, the right-hand side
< b|-M n /{H-l}> so 1 < |p,|/{|a;| - 1}, i.e. \x\ < l + \pt \. Thus any root
numerically greater than 1 must be numerically less than 1 + \p,\.]
\
*20 Replacing 'numerical value' by 'modulus', verify that the results of

13.62, ex. (i) and no. 19 hold in complex algebra, even when the coefficients
pr are not real.
13.7
Approximate solution of equations (further methods)
We have already explained Newton's method (6.73), which applies to equaThe following method also has this advantage, although it
usually does not give an approximation of a required order as quickly as
tions in general.
Newton's.
13.71
The method of proportional
parts
For a straight line, the increment of the ordinate is proportional to the

increment of the abscissa. For a curve, a small arc will usually not depart far
from the chord joining its ends, so that over this arc the ratio
(increment of ordinate)/(increment of abscissa)
not differ much from the gradient of the corresponding chord.

These geometrical considerations lead to the principle of proportional parts
will
'
'
the increment of any continuous function is approximately proportional to the

increment of the variable, the range of this
An analytical formulation and an estimate of the error are given

in Ex. 6(e), no. 15.
Suppose now that numbers a, b have been
variable being small.
=A>
found such that /(a)
0, f(b)
-B<
0.
Geometrically, the points (a, A), (6, B) are on

opposite sides of Ox, and preferably close to
Ox (a wise choice of a, b will secure this). The
line joining these points has equation
y-A =
o
(b,B)
Fig. 135
(x-a),
cuts Ox at x = c where c = a + (b a) A /(A B). This expression lies in

value between a, b and is certainly a closer approximation to the root otf(x) =
and
than either a or 6.
Newton's method
is equivalent to replacing the arc by the tangent at one

extremity (6.73 (2)). The present method replaces the arc by its chord.
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
522
[13.72
Example
Find the
root of
By
we
trial
this root is 1
xz 2x 2
= correct to 3 places of decimals.

= 3,/(2) = 2, so there is a root between
find/(l)
and
2.
If
+h, then by 'proportional parts'
J(l + h)-f(l)
/(2)-/(l)
'
2-1
+ h)-l
and since /(l +h) = 0, this gives 5 = S/h, i.e. h = 0-6.
A better approximation is therefore x = 1-6. Since
/(l-6) = -l-l, /(l-7) = -0-487, /(l-8) =
the root actually
lies
between
1-7
(l
'
and
/(l-8)-/(l-7)
1-8-1-7
1-8.
/(l-7
+ ft)-/(l-7
+ fc)-l-7
= 0-0677, and a better approximation

Applying the process once again,
1-8-1-768
032
is
1-768.
^
"
0-009
Hence h = 0-001195, and x = 1-76919 =
0-009.
places of decimals. (Taking a = 1-768, 6

shows that the error is less than 0-0002.)
13.72 Horner's
'
"
1,e
since /(1-768)
^ /(l-768 + ft)-/(l-768)
0-241
"
+ h, then
0-487
so that h
/(l-8)-/(l-768)
is 1-7
(l-7
'
0-719
If the root
+0-232,
1-8, c
1-769 to three
1-769 in Ex. 6(e), no. 15,
method
Suppose that the equation p{x) = has a root 2-76 .. and has no other root
whose integral part is 2. Thenp(2), p(3) have opposite signs; this fact, discovered
.
by trial, gives the first figure of the root.

The first figure 2 is now removed from subsequent calculations by diminishing
the roots of p(x) = by 2. The new equation then has a root 0-76 .. .. To avoid
decimals, we multiply the roots by 1 0, so that the new equation has a root 7 6
The figure 7 is discovered by showing that the last equation has a root
between 7 and 8. The roots are then (iiminished by 7, and next multiplied by 10.
The figure 6 is then found by trial. The process is repeated until the required
number of decimal places has been found.
. . .
Example
Solve x 3 ~2x 2 =
correct to 3 places of decimals.
By trial, there is a root between 1 and 2. Diminish the roots
= x 1, i.e. x = y + 1 we get
;
y* + 3y 2 + y-3
Multiply the roots
by
0.
10:
+ 30t/ 2 + I00y - 3000 =
0.
by
by putting
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
13.73]
By trial, this has a root between 7 and 8. Diminish the roots by 7 by putting
= y 1, i.e. y = z + 7; we get
2 3 + 51z 2 + 6672 -487 = 0.
Multiply the roots
by
10:
+ 510z 3 + 66,7002 - 487,000 =
2s
523
By trial this has a root between

= 2 6, i.e. 2 = t + 6; we obtain
t
Multiply the roots
by
t
and
7.
0.
Diminish the roots by
+ 528* 2 + 72,928* - 68,224 =
6,
putting
0.
10:
+ 5280* 2 + 7,292,800* - 68,224,000 =
0.
The process can be continued; but since the numbers in the last two terms are
large in comparison with those in the other terms, clearly a good approximation
is
given by
6
*
i.e. t
7,292,800*-68,224,000
0,
9.
Hence the required root is x =
1-769.
Remarks
(a) The method used in the last step gives a rough estimate for the trial root
when applied at the previous stage: 66,7002 487,000 = gives 2 = 7. Actually
this is too large; writing

0(z)
23
+ 5102 2 + 66,7002 - 487,000,
we should
find that 0(7) and 0(8) have the same sign. This indicates that we
should calculate 0(6), which is found to have the opposite sign. Although this
estimate is rather rough, it is better than none, and often saves much futile
trial. Estimates thus made increase in accuracy the further we have got in the
process; in fact we may approximately double the number of significant figures
already obtained by using this 'division estimate '.
(/?) Horner's method will also give rational roots. Since these can always be
tested for exhaustively (13.62(1)), they should be removed from the equation
before applying the method. The same applies to repeated roots: see 10.51,
ex.
(ii).
To approximate to a negative root, first change the sign of all the roots (by
putting y = x), and then approximate to the corresponding positive root of
the new equation.
(S) Case of nearly equal roots. If two roots lie between consecutive integers
n and n + 1, then p(n) and p(n +1) have the same sign, and detection of these
roots is difficult; more refined methods than 'change of sign' are required.
Assuming that these roots have been approximately located, Horner's method
can still be used.
(e) Although the method applies in principle to equations in general, its
use is practicable only with polynomial equations.
(y)
13.73
von Graeffe's method of root-squaring
This method approximates to
the roots in one process, although the signs

can also be used to find complex roots, but
applicable to polynomial equations only.
have to be sorted out at the end.

is
36
all
It
GPMII
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
524
[13.73
Given a cubic x + ax + bx + c = 0, whose roots are a, /?, y (say), we construct

the cubic whose roots are a 2 /? 2 , y 2 by putting y = x 2 the equation becomes
2
*Jy{y+*>)
-(cm/+c),
+ (6 - 2ac) y - c 2 = 0,
^-f^ + By + C = 0,
=
A 26-a 2 B = b 2 -2ac, O = -c2
and by squaring,
i.e.
where
+ (26 - a 2
n times, we obtain an equation whose

|/?| > |y|; then for n sufficiently large,
compared with /? 2* and y 2", so that a 2" is approximately
If the root-squaring process is applied

roots are a 2*, ytf 2", y 2". Suppose that |a| >
a 2"
will be very large

'minus the coefficient of the quadratic term in this equation.
Since /? 2" is large compared with y 2", the coefficient of the linear term will be
approximately (a/?) 2". Similarly the constant term is approximately (a/?y) 2*.
'
Example
Solve x3 2x 2
Here a
0, 6
= in complex algebra.
= 2, c = 2. Proceeding
step
by
step,
we
construct the
following table.
A = 26-a
-4
-8
a
a4
a8
a 16
2
- 2ac G = -c 2
-4
4
-16
-16
B=
b2
-256
-96
-9216
-49,152
-65,536
By trial the given equation is found to have a root a near 1-7; and this is the
only real root (e.g. see Ex. 13(e), no. 18). Since ctfiy = 2, it follows that
yffy = 2-r 1-7 = l2,i.e.r 2 = 1-2 where/? = r(eos# + *sin0), y = r(cos0 isin#);
== 1-1. Thus a > r = |/?| = |y|.
From the theory just explained,
a 18 = J. = 9216, whence
hence r
and
16
(r
2 16
)
= -G =
65,536,
so
a=
1-7692;
1-0632.
Referring now to the given equation and considering the sum of its roots,
a + 2rcos0 = O, from which cos 6 = -0-83215 and 6 = 146 19'. Hence
r(cos 6 i sin 6) can be found. The three roots are approximately
1-7692,
- 0-8847 0-5896*.
Exercise 13(/)
The
algebra is real.
Solve the following equations approximately, correct to at least 2 places of decimals.
2 3a: 3 -9a: + 2 =
x*-2x-5 = 0.
3
=
root].
5
[negative
x
2x
3
+
4 x3 + x 2 + x 100 = [two places of decimals].
[positive root, two places].
5 x 6 4a; 2 =
6 x3 - %x + 1 =
[3 roots].
[Zwo roots lie between 1 and 2].
7 x3 7* + 7 =
1
0.
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
=
8 x
525
e~ x [three places].
= 20x [2 roots, each to three places].

= 1*5. [This has a root between 1 and
log a; = log 1-5.]
*11 Find the smallest positive root of x = tan-1
9 10*
*10 x x
2; write the
equation as
a;
a:,
correct to four places of
decimals.
*12 Find the smallest positive root of sin a;
two places of
tha;, correct to
decimals.
* 1 3 If e is small, prove that 6 + sin 6 cos 6 = 2e cos 6 has a small root which is
approximately e es [Use Newton's method; assume the series for sin x, cos x.]
*14 Show (graphically or otherwise) that f(x) = 1 + x~ 2 tana; = has a root
near x = K, where
= ^n + nn and n is a large positive integer. Prove that
a better approximation is
+ A where f(K) + \f'(K) = 0, and that A = 1/2K2
Find an approximation correct to terms of order l/K*.
*15 Prove that large roots of seca;= 1 + 1/a; are given approximately by
x = 2rm where n is a large positive integer. Show that a better approximation is
x = 2nn \j^J{mr). [Assume the series for cos 6.]
.
Miscellaneous Exercise 13(g)

1
If c
and the number (1 + i)/(2 + ci) + (2 + 3*)/(3 +i) is represented

by a point on the line y = x, prove c = 5*J21.
=l, prove (1 + c + *s)/(l +c is) = c + is, and write down a
is real,
in the an/-plane
2 If
c2
+ s2
similar result for
3 If
+ s + ic)/( 1 + s ic)
2
+ ra 2 +n a =l and m + m =
1+iz
l + im
(l+l)z,
4 If z = r(cos0+isin0) and a = p(cosa+tsina), calculate

ofr, p, 6, a. Deduce that |1 -az\*- |z-a| 2 = (1 -r 2 ) (1 -/> 2 ).
5
If |zi-,|
<
|z 2 |, prove
6 The number z
and radius is 1.
(i)
(ii)
>
i|z 2 |;
l^ + a,!
(ii)
represented by a point on the
>
circle
|z 2 |.
whose centre
is 1
+ 0*
(i)
If
|z
z| =
P P
right -angle
Zl
|af
in terms
Represent the number z 2, and prove (z 2)/z = i tan (argz).

Construct the point representing z 2 and prove that
(a)
is
(i)
a| 2
\z
x,
|z|
and
(6)
arg(z
1)
arg(z 2 )
f arg(z
z).
PP
represent z x z 2 and the line x a is turned through a positive

into the position P-iP^ prove that
3 represents
t
about
+ ^Zjj-Zx).
(ii) Two opposite vertices of a square are 1 + 2i, 3 5i. Find the numbers
of the other vertices.

8
(i)
If Jc
is
a real constant, interpret
zx
+ k(z 2 z x
geometrically.
P1 OP
E,
2 meet PiP 2 at
and
is the mid-point of IE. If z x = cos \n + * sin in, z 2 = 2(cos \n + i sin \n),
show that I represents ( 1 + ^/3) ( 1 + i), and find the numbers of E and M.
(ii)
The
internal
9 The numbers
and external
bisectors of
z x , z 2 , z 8 are represented
isosceles triangle, the angles at

(8
P P
- z 2) a =
2,
by
the vertices
P P P3
x,
2,
of an
each being %(n a). Prove that
4 (*3 ~ 2i) ( zi ~ z z) sin2 ia
36-2
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
526
10 Interpret the following as loci:

|z
(i)
+ 3*| 2 -|z-3i| 2 =
arg
(iii)
- =
12;
(ii)
*(iv)
Jtt;
|z
+ K| 2 +|z-H| 2 =
|z-z x
|z-z 2
10fc 2
(Jfe
>
0);
1.
The numbers z lf z 2 are connected by the equation z x = z 2 + l/z 2

IfP 2 describes a circle of radius a 4= land centre O, show that P1 describes
11
(i)
the ellipse
%1
(l+a 2
If z 2
(ii)
y2
2
(l-a 2
=
2
^"2
'
r(cos0 + isin0), determine the locus of
when 6
and
\tt
varies.
liu + iv =
12
show that the curves in the ay-plane which

constant are (in general) orthogonal systems
is real,
constant, v
= (w + 2c)j{w 2c) and c is real, prove that when

then w = 2c cos 0. Hence show that if z describes the circle
describes the segment of the a?-axis between 2c, once in each
c(eos 6 + i sin 0),
|z|
If {(z + c)/(z c)} 2
13
z
where a
ajz
correspond to u
of circles.
c,
then
direction.
14 If z, w are represented by P, Q and zw + w z+1 = 0, prove that when

= cos 6 + i sin 6, then \w\ = tan0 according as =S 6 < 71,
If
describes the circle \z\ = 1, prove that Q describes the y-axis, and indicate
corresponding directions of motion.
n^dÔ.
An ellipse has foci + ae, 0) and z x> z 2 correspond to the ends of conjugate
= a 2 e 2 [Using eccentric angles, if
z x a cos
+ ib sin ^ then z 2 = (a sin ib cos 0).]
2
If w = (z + az + 6) /(z 2 + cz + d) and a, 6, c, d are real, prove that the points
*15
semi-diameters. Prove z 2 +z|
(j)
* 16
z for
<f>
which u is real lie either on the real axis or on a circle whose centre is on the
and imaginary parts, and eliminate w.]
real axis. [Clear fractions, equate real
In
the following,
17 If x
a>
= a + b,
and w 2 denote the cube roots of + 1, w 4=

y = a + bco, z = a + b(o 2 prove that
,
= a 3 + 6 3 Sa 2 = 3a2 Sa 3 =
3n
18 (i) If f{x) = Ear af, what
a*/z
1.
"Lx
3a,
ILyz
3a 2 ,
3(a3 + 6 3 ).
does f(x) +f((ox) +f(o) 2x) represent?
r=l
Calculate similarly f(x)
+ (of((ox) + (o zf(u) 2x) and f(x) + w 2/(waj) + o>/(w 2a;).

(z a), prove that
19 If 2" + p x
+ ... +p n = (z Oil) (z a 2
2
2
2
2
-...)
(l-p
(l + a )(l+a )...(l + a
=
+ (î-p 8 +P6--) 2
2 +p 4
n
2
[l+p <+i? 2 + ...+p = (1-<M) ... (l-a n ). Put<= i, then multiply.]
20 Find conditions for z 2 + (a + &*) z + (c + a*) = to have a real root, where
*(ii)
zn x
. . .
a, 6, c,
a"
21 If z
Sx* +
are real.
a,
+ fti is a root of z 3 +pz + q =
2px-q =
(p, q real),
22 Find the equation of lowest degree with rational
1,2- ^3, V2 - 1
prove a
real root of
coefficients
which has
is
0.
for roots.
23 Prove 3a;5 5a; 3 + k =

*
if k > 2 or k < 2.
has three real roots
if
2 <
<
2,
and one
real
root
24 Find the condition for
3a;
+ 4pa;3 + s =
to have
no
real roots (p, q real).
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
25 Prove that for n odd, a + x + %x +
+
even there are
or 2 roots according as a <
which is to be determined.
2
. .
x n /n
By
= x+ Ijx,
using the substitution y
527
6,
has one root; and that for

where b is a certain number
solve the following equations^ in
complex
algebra.
26 12** - 4a;3 - 41a 2 -4a: +12
= 0.
= 0. [Remove the obvious root x = 1 first.]
28 2xi + 5xi + Sxs + ^xt + 5x + 2 = 0.
29 Sketch the graph of y sec x. Deduce that large roots of x cos x = 2 are
approximately (n + ^)n where n is a large positive integer. Find a closer
27 x6 5x* + 9x 3 9x2 + 5x
approximation.
30
Show graphically
positive integer,
(2w + J) n,
that sin a;
tha;
has an infinity of roots. If n
is
a large
show that
and that a
pairs of roots he in the neighbourhood of

closer approximation to these roots is
(2n + 1) n 2 e-+*)#.
[Express th x in terms of e.]

f Since each
equations.
is
unaltered
when x
is
replaced
by
1/x,
they are called reciprocal
528
14
DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM AND

SOME APPLICATIONS
de Moivre's theorem
14.1
14.11 If n is
an
integer (positive or negative), then

(cos
d + i sin d) n
if n is rational, then cos nd
cos nd + i sin nd ;
+ i sin nd is one of the values~\ of

(coad + ismd) 11
Proof,
Let
(i)
nbea positive integer. By direct multiplication,
d + i sin 0) (cos
(cos
<j>
+ i sin
<f>)
6 cos $ sin d sin <f>) + i(sin d cos <p + cos
(cos
cos(0 + 0)
sin 0)
+ isin(0 + 0).
Similarly,
(cos
by two
this
d x + i sin dx ) (cos
{cos (dx + d 2 )
cos (0J + 6i +
+ i sin
(cos
2)
+ i sin (^ + d2 )} (cos
3)
+i
sin ((^
+ i sin
3
3)
+ i sin d3
S)
applications of the above result. Proceeding step
by step
way, we find
(cos d x +
Putting d 1
sin d x )
2
(cos
(ii)
.Lei
. . .
. . .
(cos
6n
6n + i sin 6n )
6 + ism d) n
0, this
nbea negative integer,

(cos
cos (20)
becomes
cos nd + i sin nd.
say
+ i sin 0) w =
= m. Then
(cos 6 + i sin 0)~m
~~
(cos# + isin0) OT
1
cos md + i&mmd
f-
See the definition in Case
(iii)
below.
+ i sin (20).
DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM
14.12]
by Case
(cos
so
(i),
since
m is a positive integer. Now
md + i sin md) (cos md i sin md) =

,
*
.
529
cos to# + i sin top
cos m# i ammd
=
=
cos
cos 2 md + sin 2 md
ly
m#) + i sin m#) by trigonometry,

cos nd + i sin nd
since w = m.
(cos d + i sin 0) n = cos nd + i sin nd.
Hence again
(iii) 2>e n 6e rational, say w = ^/g where (without loss of generality)

we can suppose that p and q are integers and q > 0. So far no meaning
has been assigned to the expression zplq when 2 is complex. We now
define the values of zplq to
be the roots of the equation a
zp .
Consider
pd
/
I
cos
+*sm
.
2/
cos jo^ + i ainpd
by Case
(i),
(cos d + i sin 0) p
by Case
(i)
is
Hence by the
(ii)
a positive integer,
according as the integer p
positive or negative.
pd
i
sin
14.12
or
is
definition just given,
pd
cos
since q
is
a value of
(cos d + i sin d) plq .
The values of (cos 8 + 1 sin O)^*
Still supposing that p, q are integers and q > 0, let s(cos

+ i sin 0)
be any one of the values of (cos d + i sin d) plQ This means that, on
raising each expression to the qth power,
<fi
+ i sin 0) s =
sa (cos #0 + * sin q<j>) =
(cos d + i sin
s 3 (cos
i.e.
It
now follows
is
an integer or
is
as in 13.22 (2) that
cos pd + i smpd.
= 1 and q<j> = pd + 2k7r, where k

modulus of a complex number, it
sa
zero. Since s is the
by definition real and positive, so that sa = 1 implies s = + 1.

Taking k = 0, 1, 2,
q 1, we obtain the q expressions
. .
. ,
pd
cos
2hn\
pd
+*sinH- +
.
as possible values of (cos d + i sin d) Plq
2kn\
(1)
These q values are distinct, because angles given by k

differ by 2 \k x k z njq, which is less than 2n since A; x
|
=
|
kx k
,
<
q.
&2
DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM
530
No further
[14.13
values are given by taking other values of k, because
other value of k differs from one of the values
0, 1 , 2,
. .
any
q - 1 by some
integral multiple of q.
Consequently, (cos 6 + i sin 6) vla has exactly q different values, viz.

q- 1. Any other set of q integral
(i) given by k = 0, 1, 2,
those in
values of k could be chosen, provided they give q distinct values of (i)
we often take k = 0, + 1, + 2, ....

The q values (i) are represented in
the Argand diagram by points
e.g.
on the unit
circle
\z\
1:
(Ox,OP1 )=pe/q,
and
arcs
PX P
2,
Pq-iPq
P^Pz,
sub-
tend angles 'Znjq at the centre 0. Thus

PX P2 PZ ... Pa is a regular g-sided poly-
gon inscribed in the unit circle.

Since every complex number
r(cos#-Msin0),
Fi8- 136
where
tt<6^7t,
the above shows that the values of zplq are
cos
+ i sin
2kn
+-
,)!
= 0, 1, 2,
q 1 and (as elsewhere in this book) rpli denotes
the positive qth root of rp They are represented by points equally
where k
spaced around the
circle
\z\
Definition. It will often
rplQ
be convenient to abbreviate cos0 + isin#
to cis0.
14.13 Examples
(i)
Solve the equation (z+
l) n
z".
If the left-hand side were expanded, this would reduce to an equation of

degree n 1 in z. Hence in complex algebra there will be n 1 roots.
Since z = is not a solution, the equation can be written
= cosO + isinO.

DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM
14.13]
531
By taking nth roots of both sides, and using the general result (i)
z+1
2kn\
cos|0 +
2kn
cos
a kn
zl 2 sua 2
and
2%z sin
hn
^
^ ,
If k 4=0,
kn
n = cos n
1 /cot
kn\
1.
1)
kn
(k
...,n
0, 1, 2,
= --ll + icot
(k
l,2,...,n-l).
1 solutions.
Alternatively, instead of quoting the general theory,
stage
(a)
1).
kn\
1 /
These are the n
\
1)
2^\
1,
h*sui
*sin
Jen
1,
kn\
kn
cos =
n
n
kn
cos
Hence by the theorem (with index

kn
n
2*zsui
(
I
h2*sm
2kn\
l.e.y
1+* sin
A , ft
0,l,2,...,n-l).
(k
2kn\
|+*sin
in 14.12,
'
we may proceed from
above by writing
cos 2kn + * sin 2kn',
hence by de Moivre's theorem,
z+1
2kn
cos
which takes distinct values

(ii)
for
Show that the roots ofz n =

zn
From
=
z
which takes
gives
for the case k
1;
. .
.,
n 1;
1,
etc.
a,
a2
cos2&7r+*sin2&7r,
2kn
when k =
2=1. Write
0, 1, 2,
2n
cos
2kn
Msin
. .
.,
n 1.
2n
h*sin
then since
n +
2kn
cos
2kn
can be written
cos
a=
where k
0, 1, 2,
distinct values
The value k =
H*sin
2, 3, ...,n
1,
*sin
the
2kn
n roots
2n
(cos
\
are
1,
n
a,
Remark. Since the sum of the roots of z n
h*sm
2n\
a",
a2
a n_1
=
1 =
l + a + o^+.-.+a"-
0.
f This step of passing to half-angles
is
is
zero (13.51),
often useful.
we have
de moivre's theorem
532
[14.13
Compare the brevity of this work with the algebraical treatment of the equation
23
in 13.23. Observe also that
a n ~r =
[2{n-r)7i\
| |
cis
{2rn\
>
n
and hence a n_1 =
a,
a n-a = a 2
....
2rn
cos
2rn\
2rn
r
oc ,
Also see Ex. 14(a), no. 21.
If p, q are coprime integers (i.e. have no

q values of (cos 6 + i sin 6) PlQ can be written
*(iii)
the
ism =
n
cis|27T
common factor
other than 1),
cos^(0 + 2for) + *sin^(0 + 2for),

where k
0, 1,2,
...,q
(ii)
1.
These q expressions each satisfy z" = cospd+iainpd, and are therefore

values of (cos0+isin0) 1
They are all distinct; for if
'/ <1
'.
cis
-(d + 2k 1 ir)
cis-(0 + 2fc a 7r),

3
then as in 13.22(2),
P (d
+ 2k1 n)--(d + 2k z n) = 2mn

3
?
for
some integer m,
has a factor in
i.e.
common
k2 < q, this shows that q

p(k x k 2 ) = mq. Since
with p, which is impossible because p, q are coprime.
\
Remarks
cispd has exactly q roots, the set of values of (ii)

(i), in some order.
1 /9
is understood to
(/?) If p, q are not coprime, the function (cos0 + *sin0)
mean {(cos0 + isin0) } 1/<r , and therefore has q distinct values, viz. the values
1
(i) of (coapd + i smpd) !". However, in this case the expression cis {(p/q)(6 + 2kn)}
does not take q distinct values, and consequently, does not represent all the
values of (cos0 + isin0) ,'A'. See Ex. 14(a), no. 8.
(a) Since
must be
the
the equation z 9
same as
the set of values of
'
3>
Exercise 14(a)
1
If x
cis d,
cis 0,
and m, n are
yn
Simplify
2
.
Prove
xm
(l
/l+sin0 + *cos0\"
(
\1
+sm0 *cos0/
integers,
2 cos (md nd)).

r/
+ cos0 + *sin0) 8
.. ,,
(cosf *sin/)*4
=
cis
prove
(inn no), n
bemg an mteger.
= cis0, prove (x 2n l)/(x* n + 1) = *tann0, where w is an integer.

Find the modulus and the principal value of the argument of ( 1 + i V3) 8
6 Find the three cube roots of 2i 2.
7 Obtain all the values of {(J2 + 1+ i)/( *J2 + 1 *)}* in the form a + bi.
4 If a;
5
DE moivre's theorem
down
8 Write
+ i sin 0)*.
(cos
+ i sin 0)i and the two values of

+ 2ifor)} has only two distinct values, and
the six values of (cos
Observe that
cis {f(0
therefore cannot completely represent the
cos 3 0-3cos0sin 2
function.
first
By
9 Simplify (cos0 + isin0) 8 in two ways.

parts, deduce that
cos30
533
and
sin 30
equating real and imaginary
3 cos 8
sin 6 - sin 8 0,
and express tan 30 in terms of tan 0.
10 If z
cis 0,
express in terms of 0:
1
(i)
\;
z+ -;
(ii)
(iii)
z-\;
z" + ^;
(iv)
z--~.
(v)
Solve completely the following equations.

z"
11
= -l.
13
(z-l)"
15
z 2n
12 (z+l) n + (z-l) n
= z.
14 (1+z)"
0.
(l-z) B .
2z n cos ncc + 1 = 0. [First solve as a quadratic in z".]

By expanding 1 + z) n where n is a positive integer, and putting z =
16
prove
cis 0,
\nd
(2 cos 0)" cis
21 n
Gr cis rd.
r=0
is
a positive
integer, prove
(l
+ a;)" =
c a + c4
and
cx
c3 + c 5
18 If
2.
cisf7r
and
\
1
+ *) n +
it\ n
4w/
i) n =
. . .
2*" cos Jw7T
. . .
2* B sin Jtmt.
= a + a 2 +a 4 7 = a 3 + a 5 + a 8
/?
Write down the quadratic having roots
2n
fi,
7,
19
cos
If
cos0 + cos0 + cos^
4=n
87r
prove /ff+y
'
sin0 + sin0 + sin^
and
30+ cos 3^ + cos 3^ 3008(0 + ^ + ^) =
and a
= 1 and
and deduce that
+sm + sm = +JVv 7
sm
7
7
7
.
2* n+1 cos Jn7r. Writing
+c1 x+c 2 x 2 +...+c n x n
prove
/?y
2 n ~* I cos
2w
r=
17 If w
S n Cr cos =
Deduce that
0,
prove
that
similar result for sines.
= cis 0, y = cis 0, z = cis ^ and use Ex. 10 (/), no. 4 (iii).]

What conditions have to be satisfied by z in order that the
[Put x
20
senting
all integral
powers of z should
and (ii) be finite in number? Mark in

number z such that there are only three
z,z a , z 8 ,
points repre-
on a circle with centre the origin,

a diagram the points which represent a
(i) lie
distinct points given
by the sequence
....
*21 If n is any prime number and A denotes any complex root of z n = 1, prove
that the numbers 1, A, A 2
A" -1 are some arrangement of the numbers
2
a n_1 in 14.13, ex. (ii). [Use the argument in 14.13, ex. (iii).]
1, a, a ,
,
DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM
534
14.2
[14.2
Use of the binomial theorem
14.21 cosm 8 sinB 6 in terms of multiple angles (m, n being positive

integers or zero)
This transformation
sometimes needed for the integration of

= cos 6 + i sin 6, then
is
circular functions: see 4.82. Writing z
cos0 isin#,
2cos0 = z+-,
so
Also zn
cosw# + isinn0 and

zn
2*sin0
of
l/zn
(i)
cosw0 iainnd, so that
zn
1
-
sin nd.
n =2i
+1 = 2 cos n6,
(ii)
By means
and the binomial theorem, the given function can

powers of z and 1/z. By (ii) the resulting expansion
(i)
be expanded in
can be expressed in multiple angles.
Examples
(i)
Express cos8
From
in terms of circular functions of multiple angles.
(i),
(2cos0) 6
= (z+^y
=
=
=
.-.
(ii)
*4) +6 (*<+ ^ +15 (* 4) +2

s
+ 15(2 cos 20) + 20 by

= -^(cos 6(9 + 6 cos 40 + 15 cos 20 + 10).
^z +
=
cos
sin4
(ii).
-^ (z-^j*
= (*+!)
sin4 6 in terms of multiple angles.
(2cos0) 5 (2isin0) 4
.*.
2 cos 60 + 6(2 cos 40)
cos
Express cos 6
+ -.4 + -z6
+ 6z4 +15z 2 + 20 +
z2
z
z
15
(*.-4*. +8 -i + I)
'4.) + (* ,+
?M* + ?) - *(* + ?) +6
(*
+ i)
= 2 cos 90 + 2 cos 70 - 4(2 cos 50) - 4(2 cos 30) + 6(2 cos 0).
= jfa (cos 90 + cos 70-4 cos 50-4 cos 30 + 6 cos 0).
de moivre's theorem
14.22J
535
We
observe that coan d can always be expanded in terms of cosines

because it depends on the expansion of (z+l/z) n
Since sinm
.
depends on {z\jz) m which
involves terms like zr +ljzr
even,
and terms
like z
\\z
if
odd, therefore
is
expressed in terms of cosines or sines according as
14.22 cos
an
/18,
sin
#18,
is
can be
m is even or odd.
tan /18 as powers of circular functions (n being
cos n& + i sin nO =

cn
if
integer)
We now reverse the process in

=
sinm
cn~Hs +
- (2) cn
Hence
"
cos nd
6)
cn_M -
cn -
c"-3 (i5) 3 +
-HI
~
cn 2s2
+ is) n
(c
say,
j^j
cîs)* +
cn ~ is -
(3
+ j^j cn~^ -
c^s - (^j c"" 3*3 +
sin nO
and
+ i sin 6) n =
cn-*(is)*
j^j
v+
(cos 6
14.21
. . . .
. . .
cn ~*s * +
. .
(hi)
(iv)
Taking the ratio of sinnfl to cosnd, and dividing top and bottom
of the right-hand side
by
cn ,
t*nn0 =
where
we obtain
U/.
1-t
W
WW
tan#.
";
(v)
[%'-.
The formulae (iii), (iv) can be transformed by means of the relation

1 to show that cosw-0 can be expressed entirely in powers of
cos/9, and so on; see for example Ex. 14 (6), no. 20, and ex. (iii) below.
s2
+ c2 =
Examples
(i)
Express cos 56 and sin 60/sin 6 in terms of cos 6.

cos 56
sin 66
c8
=
=
c8 - 10c8 ( 1
=
=
cs*
- c2 + 5c( 1 - c2
16c8 - 20c8 + 5c.
c 8*
c8s 8
2
)
cs 8
s{6c8 - 20c8s 2 + 6cs 4}

{6c8 - 20c8 (l
sin 60
/.
c 8* 2
sine'
32c
-c 2 + 6c(l -c 2
)
- 32c + 6c.
8
2
)
},
DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM
536
[14.22
Write down the formula for tan 50. What equation

tan 50 = 0; (6) 56 = Jct? Solve each of these equations.
(ii)
if (a)
(a) If
tan 50
0,
then 5t-
lOt*
+ <B =
x -10x
6
so
0,
+ 5x -
tan 6
is satisfied
by tan
satisfies
0.
Now if tan 50 = 0, then 56 = m and 6 = \rir, so that tan 6 = tan Jnr, and the
values r = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 give distinct values of tan Jttt. Therefore the roots of the
above equation are x = (corresponding to r = 0) and
tanf7r, tan-7r, tan |tt = tan f
tanf7T = tan^7T,
7r,
i.e.
(6)
If 50
then tan 50
\t\,
5t
hence
= tan
tan \tr.
tanf7r,
0,
and so
- 10 + 1* = 1 - 10*2 + 5**;
s
satisfies
a 5 -5a:*-10:r8 +10a; 2 + 5a;-l
But if tan 50 =
1,
then 50
(4r+l
a:
The equation
tan
0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
("20~7
0.
= ^n+^rn, so that
fyr+rn and
and this takes distinct values for r =
The required roots are therefore

1'
'
2 ' 3 ' 4 )-
in (6) could also be solved algebraically
by the method
in
Ex. 13 (g), nos. 26-28.

*(iii)
Ifnis
odd, prove that sinn0 can be expressed in the form
sinn0
and find blt
61 s + 6 8 s 8 +
...
+ b n sn
= (r 2 n 2
,
b n . Also prove that (r + 1 ) (r + 2) 6r+a

(iv) and the relation c 2 = 1 s 2 ,
br ,
and hence find
68 .
From formula
sinw0
=
(^j
(l-s 2 )K-i) s - f^j (l_ s 2)i(-3) g 3 + f^j (l- a *)H-*) 8 *- ....
Since each of n 1, n 3, ... is even, this can be expanded as a polynomial in s

involving only odd powers of s and having degree n, for
b
coefficient of s n
= ~ I)*"""
(
" " I)*""*

(
- _ i)fcn-i )2 n-i by
(
(j)
+ - D*"-
<
Ex. 12 (6), no.
2.
DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM
14.23]
Also
&!
537
/n\
= II =
coefficient of a
n.
By deriving the identity ahind =
2& s
ncosn# =
twice
wo
6,
we obtain first
2 r&r*r_lc
r=l
- n 2 sin nd = 2 0(r - 1)
and then
r-=l
r-2 c 2
- r&r *r-1*]
= S [r(r - 1) 6r sr " a - {r(r- 1) br + rbr} a']

= X [r(r - 1) 6r sr - 2 - r a6r sr];
n
r=l
r=l
- n 2 S 6r *r = S[r(r-l) &r sr_a - r 26r ar].
hence
Equating
coefficients of r,
- n26r =
(r
from which the required relation

2.3&8
14.23 tan (e t
cos(0 1 +
(cos 6X
+ 62 +
+...
+ 2) (r + 1
follows.
= (l-n2 )n,
. . .
&r+a - r 26r ,
Taking r
68
i.e.
1,
we have
= Jn(l-w2 ).
+ 6)
+ 0J + isin(0 1 +
+ i sin 6 X
(cos
+ ...+0J
+ * sm ^2)
cos @n + * sm ^)
as in 14.11, proof
cos 6X cos
. . .
cos
cos
cos
. .
cos Gn {l
where
TO (
+ #2) (1 + it2
. . .
1+ itn )
where
t
r
(i),
tan
r,
+ iS x + i 22 2 + i3S 3 +...),
2r denotes the sum
taken r at a
time; this last step follows from the argument used in proving the
binomial theorem, 12.11. Equating real and imaginary parts,
of the products of tlt
cos(01 +
+...+0B ) =
sin(0 1 +
+...
2 , ...,tn
cos<9 1 ...cos^n (l-S 2
+ S 4 -...),
cos tfj... cos tfJSi-
(vi)
and
By
The formulae
n)
(vii)
+...).
division,
tan(01 +
. . .
+ ...+0J =
(vi)-(viii)
dn
6. All
include
^~^^ S~;;
5
(iii)-(v)
as the special cases
these can be written
down
when
any
would cease
easily for
particular value of n, the terms continuing until they
to have a meaning.
()
>/
DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM
538
[14.3
Exercise 14(b)
Express the following in terms of multiple angles.
2 sin4 0.
cos*0.
sin 5
4 cos*
cos6
0,
sin6 0.
sin8 0.
Calculate
'in
6 Jsin7 0d0.
JW0sin6 0d0.
sin4 0cos6 0d0.

o
9 Express cos 60 in terms of (i) cos 0;
(ii)
sin 0.
10 Express sin 70 in terms of sin 0.
Express cos 70/cos
11
in terms of sin 0.
12 Solve completely the equation cos 50 + 5 cos
Solve completely
13
1 6 sin 6
30+10 cos 6 =
14 Prove cos 70/co's = 1 - 2(2 cos 20) - (2 cos 20) 2 + (2 cos 20) 3
that the roots of x 3 - x 2 - 2x + 1 = are x = 2 cos {%(2k + 1) n}, k
15 If x
2 cos 0, prove
\.
sin 50.
+ cos 70)/( 1 + cos 0) =
(x
Hence prove
0, 1, 2.
-x ~2x- l) 2
2
[Express
in half-angles.]
*16
Give the last terms in formulae (iii), (iv) when n is (a) even; (6) odd.
State the last terms in numerator and denominator of formula (v) when
even; (b) odd.
(i)
(ii)
n is
(a)
17 Write
down the expression for tan 30 in terms of t = tan 0. By first solving
are tan ^77-, tan -^n and

roots of x3 3x 2 Sx+ 1 =
What are the roots of x 2 4x + 1 = 0?
18 (i) If a + 2 + 3 + 4 = mr, where n is an integer, state the relation between
h, t2 t3 4 where tr = tan r
tan04 are the roots of ti + at3 + bt 2 + ct + d = 0, express
(ii) If tan0 1}
tan (0X + 2 + 3 + 4 in terms of the coefficients. What can be said about the
angles if c = at
19 If tana, tan/?, tany are the roots of ax 3 + x 2 + bx + 1 = 0, prove that
tan0
1,
show that the
tan |7T.
a + /?
is
an
integral multiple of tt.
(i) Prove that cosw0 can be expressed as a polynomial of degree n in

~
~
the last term being
cos0 of the form ac n + a n_ i c n 2 + ...+a n_ Sr c n 2r +
(ii)
Prove
that a n = 2 n_1 (iii) If n is even,
a or ax c according as n is even or odd.
put = \n to show that a = ( l)* n if w is odd, consider lim (cosn0/cos 0) to
*20
prove a 1 = n( l)^"- 1). (iv) By deriving twice wo and equating coefficients

of cr , prove (r+ 1) {r + 2)ar+2 = (r 2 n 2 )ar (v) Hence expand cosn0 (a) in
descending powers of c; (6) in ascending powers of c, first for n even and then
.
for
odd.
14.3
We
Factorisation
now
Theorem
give further applications of the results in 10.12 and of
I in 10.13, which remain valid in complex algebra. Just as
DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM
14.31]
539
we have used 2/(r)
to denote /(l)+/(2)
+ ... +f(n),
here
it is
con-
venient to write
n/(r)-/(l)/(2).../(n).
r=l
As with the E-notation, the range of values of r can be omitted when

from the context.
clear
x-l
14.31
We
have xn
if
xn
cis2?rr, i.e. if
cis (2r7r/w).
For
n it follows that x cis {2m jn) are distinct factors of xn 1

1 2,
Since r = k and r = n k give the same value to cis(2nr/%), we
may use r = 0, 1, 2, instead of r = n, n 1 n 2,
This gives
Case (i) : n even. Take r = 0, 1, 2,
1),
. .
. . .
\n
to
pairs of factors, together with the single factors corresponding
and \n; in all, there are 2{\n 1) + 2 = n

The factors corresponding to r = k are
/
2kn
a; (cos
and
. . .
their product
/
even,
x Icos
2kn
/'
*sm
2&7r\
1,
ft
2&7T
.
2kny / 2&7r\ 2
= #2 2#cos
+ sin
n
n J
n J
\
The factors corresponding to

Hence
for
2kn\
is
x cos
h*sm
factors.
xn
(x
0,
hi.
|w are respectively xl,x +
1) (# + 1)
* n_1 /
# 2 2a; cos
2kn
+ 1\
l.
(i)
(w 1); this gives

n odd. Take r = 0, +1, 2,
=
1 + 2{%{n
n factors altogether. Arguing as before, we find that
1)}
Case
():
*(n-l)/
fornodd,
14.32
xn +
xn -l
(x-l)
[x*-2xcos
2kn
+ 1).
(ii)
if xn = 1 = cis (2r 1) n, i.e. if a; = cis {(2r 1) n/n},

xn + 1 =
where r is an integer or zero. Distinct values of x are given by any n
consecutive values of r.
37
GPMII
de moivre's theorem
540
Case
(i) :
As
even.
to pair off conjugate complex
we wish
in 14.31,
[14.33
Now the factors
linear factors so as to get a real quadratic product.
X CIS
.
are conjugate if (2r-
with the values
we
2r-l
71,
n
r'
+ (2r'l) =
1)
r=l,
pair
X CIS
2k-l
X ICOS
and their product

for
+ *Sin
- 1, -2,
is
2k-l
n
- {%n- 1).
X |COS
2k-l
xn +
in l
%
II \x
njn}
(ii)
r=l,
with
r'
factor x +
1.
Then
for
$n +
odd,
factors
2k-l
n
\
7T\.
+ 1 Hence
.
2xco&
2k
tt+
\
1
(iii)
1 .
We pair off the values
odd.
The value
l&m
.
TT
&=i\
Case
The
altogether.
\
7T\,
x* 2x cos {(2k
even,
therefore
+ (\n 1)} = n factors

= k, r' = (k 1) are
.
7T
= - (r- 1);
0, i.e. if r'
This gives \n + {l
corresponding to r
71
3, ...,\n
2,
0,
2r'-l
0,
3,...,i(n-l)
2,
-1, -2,
gives 2r
1)
as before
xn +l
-%(n-3).
n, to
which corresponds the
real
we have
= (x+l)
x^-lx" cos na + 1
The equation x 2n 2xn cos
Hn-l)/
2k -1
\x 2 2x cos
H
k=i
n+l).
(iv)
14.33
(x n
+1 =
is
quadratic in x n
cos na) 2 = 1 + cos 2 not = sin 2 na,

xn
.'.
Hence the 2n values of x which
cos na
satisfy it are
2rn\
i sin na.
2rn\
cos
where
0, 1,2,
...,n
integral multiple of tt.
1;
these are distinct unless
na
is
zero or an
de moivre's theorem
14.33]
541
The product of the conjugate factors corresponding

[X
cos
2kn\
x*
rt
2k7T$(
-\
n-i
x 2n -2xn coanoc+l
:.
2/br\
2kn\
2x cos a
to r
.
is
2kn\)
+ 1.
J
i
2
]J lx -2xcoaâ +
2kn\
\
+
l\.
(v)
Examples
Various deductions can be made from the result
(i) Putting a = 0, we obtain
(rc
and
if
n is even this
is
n if
2hn
&=ol
- l) 2 = T\W-1xcos
(v).
+l},
)
equal to
in -II
(x-l) 2 (x+l) z
W~2xcos
fc-i
2kn
\*
+ 1}
)
because the values k = 0, k = \n give the factors {x l) 2 (x+ 1) 2 respectively,

while factors corresponding to k and n k are equal. Taking square roots (in
which the positive sign is chosen since in real algebra all the quadratic factors
are positive and x n 1, x % 1 always have the same sign when n is even), we
obtain formula (i) of 14.31. If n is odd, we likewise deduce formula (ii).
Similarly, by putting a = n/n in (v), we obtain formulae (iii), (iv).
,
(ii)
Divide both sides of (v) by x n
xB H
Putting x
2cosraa
*n
-M
TT
n
+
2cos|a
{a?H
*-ol
2hn\\
1}.
J)
cis
is0,
8,
2cosn0 2cosna
(2cos0 2cos (oH
fc=ol
n-i
cos nd cos net
\
/
H {cos0 cos laH

ft=ol
2" -1
2kn\\
(iii)
In
(v)
put x
and a =
sin 2 w/?
n 1
J] 2|l-cos(2y6f +
n1
2 2 "- 2 II sin 2
o
)}.
J)
= 2 n - 1 *n
o
sin
2kn\\
-jl,
klt\
ft
\
1
sinn/?
2/?:
2(l-cos2n/0
.'.
)},
})
(V+ \
nf
\
37-2
DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM
542
[14.34
To decide the sign of the right-hand side, first suppose < /? < rt\n\ then
each factor on the right is positive, and so is sin nfi. Hence the sign + is appropriate for this range of /?. As /? increases, sinn/? changes sign whenever /? passes
through a value kn/n, and simultaneously one factor on the right changes.
Hence the sign is always +
:
nl
2"" 1
=
(iv)
By
w\
+
n sin(/?
/
fc=0
\
taking logarithms of the modulus of each side of this last result,

/? is not zero or an integral multiple of 2n,
assuming that
nl
loglsinwytfl
fc=0
nl
wo
Deriving
(v) de
ncotnfi
S cot IAH
fe=0
\
= (n-1) log 2+ Slog
jfc7j-\
sin(^ +
/\
lvn\
nj
Moivre's and Cotes's properties^
of the circle.
A A X A 2 ... A n_ 1 is a regular n-sided

polygon inscribed in the circle of centre
O and radius a; P is a point such that
OP = x and /.(OP, OA ) = 0.
Since sides of the polygon subtend angle
2n/n at O, we have
L(OP,OA r =
)
Also,
by the
6+
2m /n.
cosine rule,
Fig. 137
PA* = x 2 + a*-2axcos[d
(" +
v)n-ll
PAl.PA\...PAl_ 1 =
=
by a
slight extension of
formula
(v).
2
II |a -2aa:cos|0 +
j+a
2rn\
x 2n - 2a nx n cos nd + a 2n
Hence de Moivre's property:
PA PA ...PA n_ = V( " - 2a nx n cos nd + a 2n

In particular, if P lies on OA Q then 6 = and so
PA .PA ...PA n_ = \x n -a n
A
If OP bisects A n_ OA^ then 6 = njn, and so
2
).
\.
PA^.PA x ...PA n_x = x n + a n

These
last
two
results are
14.34 sin nG, n
is
as Cotes's properties.
odd
of 14.22, smnd can be expressed as a polynomial in sin 6 when n

odd; the leading term is b n sin" 6, where b n = ( l)**"-" 2"- 1 The polynomial
zero when sinnfl = 0, i.e. when nd = rn, 6 = rnjn and so sin0 = sin (rnjn).
By ex.
is
known
(iii)
f These illustrate geometrically the results of 14.31-14.33.
DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM
14.34]
Hence
for r
0, 1, 2, ...,n
1,
543
sin 6 sin (rn/n) are distinct factors of sinntf;
consequently
n _!
( sin 6 sin
&
,
sin n#
^
r=l\
w/
(vi)
I.
This can be expressed alternatively as follows. The

sin (m/n) are given
n distinct values of
+
r = 0, 1, 2,
1). The factors which corre k are sin 6 sin (kn/n), sin 6 + sin (kn/n), and have product
by
spond to r = k, r =
sin 2 aw? (kn/n). Hence
sin w#
-!>/
6 n sin #
Divide each factor following sin# in
where
sin 6
(vii)
(vii)
I.
sin 2 (9
~ am? (kn/n))'
foA
by sin 2 (kn/n); then
^D/
A sin/
sin nd
sin 2
(sin 2
JJ
fc=l
independent of 6 and can be determined by dividing both sides by

letting 6 -> 0. We obtain
J. is
and then
A=
.
sinn#
= n,
lim
dÔ sin d
;
i(n-l)
and so
sinw#
= nsin0
TT
1
fc-L !
am 2$
r-tt^ r~> \
I
am^ (kn/n) J
(viii)
Examples
Comparison of series and product.
(viii) with the expansion of sinw# obtained in
ex. (iii) of 14.22, we have for n odd:
(i)
By
identifying the product
i(n-l)
ns
n
ft=l
- s 2 cosec 2 =
n/
]c7t\
ns + %n(l
-w2 )s3 +
...
+& B s B
Equating coefficients of the various powers of s gives identities involving

cosec 2 (Jen /n); e.g. from those of s 3 ,
cosec 2
2j
ft=l
K-D
i.e.
cosec 2
fc=l
n(
w = A(n
Jen
1)
n 2 ),
for
odd.
(ix)
CO
(ii)
If
Proof thm
<
<
J7r,
J
2 - = |tt 2
then sin 6
J-
Put
<
<
<
cosec 2
tan 6 and so
= l + cot 2 < l+^-a
= m/n where n is odd, and sum for r =
1, 2,
$n
1):
de moivre's theorem
544
Writing
and using formula
(ix),
we have
7T
<
Since the series S(l//" 2 )
some
to
limit s
1)
sequence
for
n-l
< ^ "J" + **-
7r
12.41 (3), therefore sm tends

any manner, and in particular through the
Letting n -> oo, the above inequality gives
oo in
odd
n.
so that s
22
W 2 -1
known to converge by
is
when
11
[14.34
<
|7T 2
s,
\n*.
Exercise 14(c)
s
6
1 Obtain real quadratic factors of x X +1.
x B and of x 3 prove that
By
equating coefficients of
cos \n + cos |n + cos f7T
and
s
real quadratic factors of x
2 Find the
is (x 7
for x and
2/3
n-l
5 sinn/?
= -
6 cosn/?
= (-l)*2 n ~ 1
2 n_1
l)* n
in formula (v) of 14.33, prove
2~ 1 IIsinj^ + r=0
I
2w
n1
].
)
rjjX
JJ cos
-i
>
if
even.
is
(2r+l)n\
]J cos{,ff+-
if
is
7 Obtain a result by deriving no. 4 logarithmically
n-l
2 cosec
/ =
/
2
r7T \
/? H
r=0
9 Prove ch nx cos na
by
n
o;
and then put x =
ev
n_1 f
[Divide formula ( v)
/J
.]
sum of n partial fractions.
[Derive
Prove that
1
x n + n
x
TT
A {* +
[Use formulae
12
wo /?.
2/7r$
2" -1 TT { ch x cos ( a H
r=o I
\
even.
w 2 cosec 2 n/?.
10 Express # n_1/(# 2n 2# n cos noc + 1) as a

(v) logarithmically wo a.]
11
^.
(2r+l)n\
4 cosw/?
or 2/3+n/n for
the following.
8 Prove
4a; 4
l)/{x 1).]
By substituting
cos \it cos %n cos ftf
+16.
quadratic factors of x6 + x5 + xi + x 3 + x i + x+l. [The
Write down real
expression
2cos
(iii), (i)
By putting x =
2n
/2r+l
\)
n\),
xn
J)
xn
with 2n instead of w.]

in the results of no.
cis
n-l/
(i)
cosn0
2"- 1
sin nd
11,
x) rJi\
prove
II I cos 6- cos
r=0 \
n1
(ii)
"\
lVt1 |a;
1
/
+ --2cos
II
= /x--\
2r+l
n
2n
2 n_1 sin 6 JJ ( cos 6 cos

r=l \
\
)
77A
nj
n
,
de moivre's theorem
14.4]
13
Obtain a result from no. 12 (i) by putting = 0.

dividing both sides of no. 12 (ii) by sin0 and then letting
(i)
By
(ii)
Prove
n-i
Vn = +2"- 1
II sin
r=l
14
545
By deriving no.
(i)
12
logarithmically, prove
(i)
nt&nnd _ n ~ 1
2j
r=: QCOsd coa{(2r+\)7il2n}'
sin0
What result is obtainable similarly from no.
(ii)
-> 0,
12
(ii)?
With the notation of 14.33, ex. (v), prove that if P lies on the circumference,
15
then
PA PA X ...PA^^
.
2a"
Show that the solutions
16
= i tan
|sin w0|
of
+ x) %n +
2r-l
Deduce that
(l
+ a;) 2n + (l-a;) 2n =
and hence prove that
" sec
- xf n =
where
n,
4n
1, 2, ...,n.
2 FT a; 2 + tan 2
r=i \
(2r
2
1)tt
4n
r=l
2n 2
are
(2rl)n\
*17 Prove that
cosn0 cosraa
2r7r\\
/
2 n_1 JJ <cos0 cos |a + }>
r=ol
by using Ex. 14 (6),
14.4
no. 20
and arguing as
/;
in 14.34.
Roots of equations
14.41 Construction of equations with roots given trigonometrically

(i)
Form the equation whose roots are cos fn,
= %n,
equation
equation
(ii)
%Tt,
3
4a;
is
tt
all satisfy
3a; = is
satisfied
therefore
Form the
by
a;
cos fn, cos n.

Since cos 30 = 4 cos 3
cos \tj, cos fn, cos f
+1 =
= cos 30.
40
m is any integer or zero,
It
3 cos 0,
-
the
The required
equation whose roots are cosfTT, cos
Consider the equation cos 40
where
cos 30
is satisfied
cos f7T.
by
= 2mn 30,
i.e.
= \mn
by
(this includes
both solutions
obtained from the double sign ).

Writing x = cos 0, the equation becomes
8a;
1, 2, 3,
Since
tion
20 1 =
-8a; 2 +l
4a;
-3a;,
l) 1. The roots of
_ ^ cQS
cQg
CQg
4
8
8a; 4a; 8a; 2 + 3x+l = (x1) (8a; 3 + 4a; 2 4a; 1),
8a; 3 + 4a; -4a;- 1 = 0.
since cos40
m = 0,
2cos
viz.
2(2x
this are given
by
^ ^ ^
CQS Q
the required equa-
de moivre's theorem
546
(iii)
Form
the equation
The equation tan

zero.
Writing
whose roots are tan \n, tan tt, tan
W=
tan 6,
Removing the root t =
becomes
it
we
0,
it
formula
is
tan
any
%tt.
integer or
(v) of 14.22)
see that the equation
tan {\mr), where n
(see
\tt,
- 36*6 + 126*4 - 84< 2 + 9 =
+ tan^7T,
Putting x
by 6 = \rm, where n
is satisfied
<
has roots
[14.42
1, 2,
. .
.,
8, i.e.
tan^7r.
tanf7r,
tanf77-,
follows that
*4 - 36# 3 + 126a 2 - 84a; + 9
has roots tan 2 7r, tan 2 f7<r, tan 2 \tt, tan 2 f7T.
N.B. Since tan 2 \tt = 3, we may remove the root x = 3 from the last
equation, obtaining x s B3x 2 + 21x3 = Q, which consequently has roots
tan 2 Aw, tan 2 |7r, tan 2 7r.
obtained by using relations between roots and
14.42 Results
coefficients
If the results of 13.51 are applied to equations like those found in

14.41, various trigonometrical relations are obtained.
Examples
(iv)
Prove sec ftt + sec %tt + sec fzr
6,
and find sec \tt + sec ftt + sec f7r.
The equation whose

will
have roots sec ftt,
sum of its roots is
roots are the reciprocals of the roots of that in ex. (i)

sec %tt, sec tt. This equation is x 3 6x 2 + 8 = 0, and the
6.
Since sec \tt sec %n,

sec \tt + sec tt + sec %n =
(v) Calculate
From ex.
(ii),
sec %tt
2/
=x
the equation having roots sec ftt, sec
2
,
+ 4x -4x-8 =
i.e.
2/
f7r,
= sec ftt,
= y 1,
i.e. 2/
- 24t/
= z + 1,
23
which has roots sec |7r
-4)
16(2/- 2)
becomes
-21z 2 + 35z-7 =
tan 2 f7r,
etc.
is
is
2
,
+ 80^/ - 64 =
this
sec far
0.
the equation having roots sec 2 f7r, etc.

2/(2/
Writing
sec ftt
tan 2 ftt + tan2 ftt + tan 2 f7T.
x
Putting
= sec %tt, and
6.
0.
(after reduction)
0,
The sum of the roots
is
21.
hence
DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM
14.42]
(vi)
Prove that cos 3a
547
4 cos a cos (a + tt) cos (a + f7r).
Consider the equation cos 30 = cos 3a, which

where k is any integer or zero. It can be written
4x3 Zx cos 3a
is
by 6 =
satisfied
oc
+ f for
0,
where x = cos 6, and is satisfied by the distinct values x = cos a, cos (a + ftt)
and cos (a + ftt). By taking the product of the roots, the relation follows.
Exercise 14 (d)
1
Form the equation whose roots are
cos \tt, cos \tt, cos ^n.
Form
the equation whose roots are cos \n, cos ftt.

[Consider cos 56 = 1.]
3 By considering cos 30 = cos 26, construct the equation

gos%tt and cos7r. Hence find cos 36, cos 72 in surd form.
4 Show that x
2m
2 cos
-yy
(r
1, 2,
. .
.,
5)
are the roots of
x6 + xi -4x 3 -3x 2 + 3x+l

[Consider cos 66
cos 56; remove the root x
whose roots are
0.
2 at the end.]
Construct the equation whose roots are 2 sin f77, 2sin^7T, 2 sin f77
= 2^(1 2 ) and the result of ex. (ii) in 14.41.
3
2
(ii) Verify that 2 sinf7r, 2 sin f7r, 2 sin f rr are the roots of a; = + ^7 (a; 1).
[The equation in y obtained in (i) can be written
*5
(i)
by eliminating x from y
8
2/
7(2/2- 1) 2 ,
i.e.
= Jl(y*-l).
Since 2sinf7r > 1 and 2sinf7T > 1, and also 2sinf7T = 2sin$7r
and 1, these values of y give y 3 and y 2 1 the same sign.]
Use
lies
between
the equations obtained in exs. (i)-(iii) of 14.41 to prove the following.
= f
= 33 and tan \tt tan f7r tan %tt = + V 3
8 sec 2 77- + sec 2 f7r + sec 2 $7r = 36 and sec 4 \tt + sec 4 %tt + sec 4 \tt = 1 104.
9 Calculate sin2 fzr + sin2 f7r + sin 2 ftt.
10 Prove sin 3a = 4 sin a sin (a + ftt) sin (a + f7r). [Consider sin 30 sin 3a.]
1 1 Prove tan a + tan (a + \tt) + tan (a + f7r) = 3 tan 3a.
[Consider tan 36 = tan 3a.]
*12 By considering tann0 = tanwa, prove that the equation
6 COS TT COS %TT + COS fTT COS TT + COS f71 COS %TT
7 tan2 \tt + tan2 ftt + tan 2 %tt
( l)
has roots x
X *~ 1 ~
a;n
~3
(3)
cot (a + nr/n), r
' "
2tt.
"~ 2
~~
fl5
(2)
w 1, where a
n/ = n
Deduce that YJ cot a H

I
r=0
a;B
{
0, 1, 2,
n-1
tegral multiple of
tan wa
'
"
is
not zero or an
rn\
" '
cotna.
in-
DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM
548
14.5
[14.5
summation by C+iS
Finite trigonometric series:
The method of summing

illustrated in the following
certain trigonometric series which is

examples gives results in pairs, and is also
applicable to infinite series (see 14.66, ex.
14.51 Cosines
and
(i)).
sines of angles in a.p.
Write
C=
+ cos (a + 2fi) +
cos a + cos (a +fi)
and
8 = sina + sin(a+/?) + sin(a + 2/?) +
Then
G + iS =
cisa + cis (a + /?)
cis
a + cis a
cis
a{l
on summing the
multiple of 2n.
cis /?
. . .
...
+ cos {a + (n 1) /?}
+ sin{a + (n 1)/?}.
+ cis (a + 2/?) + ... + cis{a + (w- l)fi}

+ cis a(cis /?) 2 +
. . .
+ cis a(cis
- (cis^) w}/{l - cisytf}

g.p.,
provided
cis/? 4= 1, i.e. J3 is
not an integral
Now|
l-(cis^) n
1-cisn/?
= 1 cos nfi i sin nfi

=
2 sin 2 \nfi 2i sin \nfi cos \nfi
= 2* sin î/?(cos
= 2i sin
C + iS =
Hence
=
Equating
C=
If
/? is
real
cis
cis
2i sin
cis \nfl
2i sin /? cis
sin Aw/?
.
and imaginary
parts,
/?}.
we obtain
\% cos {a + $(11 -1)0}, # =

sinf/?
1
^^ cisla + ln-l
sin \nB
.
+ i sin
sin InB
f
+ |^
1
\ C sin{a
sinf/?
.
, x
zero or a multiple of 2n, then from the original series clearly
G = wcosa and S
wsina. Cf. 12.27, exs.
(i), (ii).
t The following reduction is shorter than multiplying numerator and denominator

by the conjugate of 1 cis /S to make the denominator real.
DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM
14.52]
549
14.52 Other examples
Sum 1 +
(i)
a;
cos 0+ a; 2 cos 20 +
Write
G-
terms, where
x is real.
l+a;cos0 + a: 2 eos20+...+a; n - 1 cos(n-l)0
andf
S=
Then
C + iS = 1 +
=
ton
...
a;
sin
a;
cis
+
+
a;
a:
sin
cis
20+ ... +a: n - 1 sin(ra- 1) 0.
20 + ...+ a:"- 1 cis (w- 1)0
l+a;cis0 + (a;cis0) 2 +
+ (ccis0) n - 1
...
n
= 1 (*cis0)^ on summing the
1 X CIS
.
x cis
g.p., if
4= 1
# n cisw0
x cis
_
~
(1
05" cis n0) {l-a cis (-0)}
(l-a:cis0){l-a;cis(-0)}
to
1
since cis 0, cis
If
a;"cisn0 iccis(
l 2x cos
+ x2
0) are conjugate.
<
|a;|
1,
cos
a;
then x n
->
given by
lrm
Taking the
\x\
1,
there
is
no sum to
Prove that sin a +
(ii)
real part of this result,
a;" cos n0 + a3 n+1 cos (n 1)0

1 2a; cos + x 2
when w - oo, and the series has a sum to infinity
^
(7
103 008
w _kjo
If
the denominator real,
n+1 cis(n 1)0

0) +c
_ 1
N.B.
make
2a; cos + x 2
infinity.
sin (a + /?)
^ sm
a+
=
Write
and
*S'
Then
cosa+^
C=
= sina+^
C + t =
cisa +
cos(a+/?)+Q^
sin(a+/ff)
j^j
^
^
cis(a+^)+
= cisa+^^ cisacis/?+^^
=
f
with
cisa|l
^ cis^+^
We do not write S = 1 + x sin 6+

1
cos (a +
2/?)
sin(a + 2ytf)
cis (a
cis
+ sin (a + nf})
. . .
+ ^/?).
+ cos (a + n/?)
+ ... + sin(a + W/fl).
+ 2/?) +
a (cis /?) 2 +
(cis/?) 2
(2cos/ff) n sin(a
. . .
...
+ cis (a + w/?)
+ cisa(cis/?) n
+ ... + (cis/?)"J
... because at the next step

+*, which does not appear as a factor in succeeding terms.
C+iS would start
de moivre's theorem
550
=
=
=
=
=
S=
.'.
+ cis/?) n
cisa(l + cos/? + *sin/?) n
cis a (2 cos 2 /? + 2i sin
[14.6
cisa(l
cis a (2
cos /?)"
cos \fl cis /?)"
n
(2 cos \fi) cis (a
(2 cos J/?)" sin (a
+ in/?).
+
on equating imaginary
parts.
Exercise 14(e)
Sumsina sin(a+/?) + sin(a + 2/?) sin(a+ 3/?) + ...
2 Prove
+ cos0 sec0 + cos20 sec 2 + ... +cosn0 sec"0 =
Calculate Y.
to 2w terms.
S1X1 { Th
sin
X)
-J~
cos"
sin 2r0.
r-lW
4 Find
n
(2 cos 0)
(^j
1
(2 cos 0)"- cos
2
2(9 f^j (2 cos0)"- cos
...
to (n +
2n/n and
1)
terms.
5 Sum to w terms the series whose
w is a positive integer, prove that
rth term
is (2r
1) af-1
If a
+ 3 cos a + 5 cos 2a + + (2n 1) cos (n 1) a = n.

and
3 sin a + 5 sin 2a + ... + (2n 1) sin (n 1) a = n cot a.
6 Find the sum to n terms of sinJ. + (6/c)sin2J. + (6 2 /c 2 )sin3^. + ....
b < c in the triangle .ABC, deduce that the sum to infinity is (c/a) sin G.
1
7 If
is
not zero or an integral multiple of n, find the
sin a + cos
8 If n
is
. . .
sin (a
a positive
+ nx cos +
where r
+ 6) + cos 2
26+
= + A/(l + 2cos0 +
+ cos 3
a:
c )
and
cos
x n cosnd
30+ ... +
cosa:sina
Further examples appear in Exs. 14
14.6
sum to infinity of
sin (a + 30)
. . .
prove that
integer,
x* cos
sin (a + 2/9)
If
(1
r n cosna,
+cos0)
:scsin0
:r.
(/), (g).
of complex terms. Some single-valued funccomplex variable
Infinite series
tions of a
14.61 Convergence
and absolute convergence
Limit of a complex function of n. If sn = o~n + irn and if o*n -> o~

and rn ->T when n -> oo, we say that sn -xr + *t when n->co and write
(1)
lim 5w
n> co
o"
+ *r.
This definition of limit is consistent with that in 2 7 1 for real functions of n

such that,
given a positive number e however small, there is a number
'
'
for,
for all
n>N,
\<r n
-<r\
<
\e
and
|r n
-r[
<
\e
DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM
14.62]
and so
\s n
-(<r + iT)\
if this last
condition
Conversely,
\(<r n
|o"n-o-|
we have
<r B ->
(and
cr
For the
(2)
<
+ i(T n -T)\ <
is satisfied
|(o--o")
|<r n
+ |t-t| <
-<r]
for all
5s
N, then
2zr where
,
= 2
zr
n
zr
+ *(t-t)| <e,
a;,.
+ iyr and a;r yr are real,

,
= 2 r + * 2 2/r =
sav
+ * T>
"
r=l
r=l
r=l
By (1), 5n tends to a limit if and only if <rn
rn both tend to limits
n -> oo. Accordingly we give the following definitions.

2zr is convergent if 2#r and Syr both converge.
If YiXr Y,yr converge to sums X, Y, then Z = X + iY
,
infinity of
2zr
is
the
when
sum
to
(3) If the series (of real positive
2zr is
e.
since
similarly r n -> r).
series
Sn
-<r)
551
terms)
|zr
converges,
j
we say that
absolutely convergent (a.c).
It follows that if T,zr is a.c, then lLzr is also convergent in the sense
(2). For since- \xr < J{x? + yf) = \zr \, and S \zr is convergent by
converges;
hypothesis, the comparison test of 12.41 shows that S
of
i.e.
ljyr
2#r
and consequently (by 12.52) also converges. Similarly

converges, and hence by definition 2zr converges.
14.62
is a.c.
The
+ z + z2 + z3 + ...
sjz) = 1 + z + z 2 + ... + Z"-1
infinite g.p. l
Write
by z and subtract
we find that, if z 1,
If we multiply
ratio),
g.p.
with a real
common
=i=
Putting z
zn
1-z
l-z
r(cos0 + *sin#), where r

zn
Ifr
(just as for
0,
we have
rn (cosnd + iainnd).
< l,thenlimrn = 0;andsince
therefore both rn cos nd
>
|r
n cosw#|
rTC
and
|r
n sin?&0|
and rn sin w# tend to zero when n ->
limz
when
\z\
<
oo.
rn ,
Hence
1.
n>-oo
Thus when
If r
>
1,
n->oo. If
|z|
< l,lims
TC
(z)
1/(1 z).
then r n -> oo when w -> oo, and so sn (z) has no Hmit when
r = 1 and z =j= 1, then zn = cosnd + isinnd; but cosnd,
DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM
552
smnd
oscillate
between
[14.63
when n^-oo, and again
= 1, clearly sn (z) = n.
2
The g.p. l + z + z + ... therefore converges only if \z\ <
to infinity is then 1/(1 z). We can write
tend to a
(1-z)- 1
The
l
g.p.
+ r + r + ...
<
+ z + z* + z* + ...
absolutely convergent
is
sn (z)
does not
limit. If z
This
converges.
l,i.e. \z\
<
1.
is
(\z\
<
1,
and its sum
1).
when the series of moduli

when and only when
the case
Hence the ranges of convergence and of absolute
convergence are the same.
14.63
The exponential
series
Z2
Write
(1)
r(cos 6
+ i sin 6). Then since the series

1
converges for
all r,
23
+ l! + 2! + 3! + -
+ Ti + 2! + 3! + -
the series
z
z2
zz
+ T! + 2! + 3! + -
for all complex numbers z, and hence converges for all z.

Denoting the sum-function of series (i) by expz, or by exp (z) when
is a.c.
necessary,
we have
(z
+n+
1
1!
Remark. The notation
is
real series
whose sum-function
in printing.
series
(i)
having
+ --- + n\)
2!
iTi
We
ex is
(ii)
occasionally written expo; for convenience
usually avoid writing ez for the
many
z.
+ n + 2! + 3! + -
because later work (not in this book)
infinitely
for all
chosen because of the analogy with the
zn \
z2
sum
to infinity of
shows that ez is a function
values for each non-real value of
z,
and
it is
sum of a convergent series, which

However, when the index notation eB is used,
clearly undesirable to use this for the

is
necessarily unique.
it is
Case
method of
more suggestive than exp (iy).
to be interpreted as expz; thus in the symbolic

(iii),
the notation eiv
is
5.43,
de moivre's theorem
14.63J
(2)
>
By
using the definition
now be shown
can
it
(ii),
553
that expz
obeys the functional law
= exp (z1 + z2
exp z x x exp z 2
just as
Let
exp x does in
|zx|
r lt
|z a
real algebra.
and write
r2 ,
*W =
*n(Zl)-*n(
nv u
a)
n \ 2 a/
+ Tl
z2
2!
2!
{1
nlf\
nl'
22
11
2!
ra!j
+ + S +...+ \
2*
2?
+ + ...+
2!
w!
1!
Z2
2X 22
2*Z a
g" za
nil!
1!
111!
211!
w2
a
2
w2
zl z2
^.2
z
z
l 2
2!
1!2I
212!
_J_2
+ -i_L +
_|_
l!n!
Jg
2i
2g
rt-w^fi
n\n\
the terms of total degree *
' :
(s-2)!2!
+ J1
. . .
2!n!
We now add up these terms 'by diagonals

(s-l)!l!
,ZLZl
n!2!
>2^n
2t*
w!
*i
f,
zn
2,
+ _2
"1
+-+
Zl
Zl
Z l\
= L+
++..+}
T
T
T
ii
^
s!
(iii)
),
(s
<
n)
iv )
2j
s!
1
= ^ (*! + *)
and consequently
2*2
*( z l)*( z 2)-*n( z l+ z a)
where the
last
summation
for these are precisely the
2
p,qP '"'
for all p and q for which p + q > n, p ^ n, q ^ n;

terms not included in the preceding summation by
is
diagonals.
In exactly the same way we have

pPpQ
s n (r2 )
We know
that,
when n
->
oo,
* n (r 1
sjfi) -> e s s n (r2 ) -> e
Hence the left-hand side of (v) tends to
From
+ r2 =
and
zero, so also y\
s n (r1 + r2 )
- ->
v)
-+ eri+r*.
0.
(iv),
K( 2 l)*n( z a)-*n(2l + 2 2)| =
12
^ N'W' ^gl!^
But when w
- oo, n (2 x )
hence the result
(iii)
when
n->co.
->exp2 1 s B(2 2 ) ->exp2 2 and s n (z 1 + z i ) -> exp(z1 + z 2 );

any two complex numbers z x 2 2
follows for
DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM
554
14.64
By
[14.64
The modulus-argument form of exp z

expz
(iii),
exp{x + iy)
= exp x exp (iy).
Now by putting z =
x in
(i),
expz= !+^+|| +
=
Also
n (y)
ex
for all x.
1+^+^+ -.+- n\
1!
2!
2
y ,y*
-2! +
series in
4!--rn
where the
2/
the brackets are finite
3
,
Since
series.
by
12.61 (2)
cost/
"3! + ^"'
y
+ ^-...
=1-1
2/
y
y
amy = y __+|__...
and
for all (real) values of y,
we have by letting n-+co that
exp {iy)
lim sn {iy)
n> oo
=
expz =
Therefore
ex (cosy + i sin 3;).
This result shows that exp z
exp
(z
cosy + isiny.
is periodic,
(vi)
with period^ 2m. For
+ 2m) = exp {x + (y + 2n) i}
ex {cos (y
ex (cos
+ 2tt) + i sin (y + 27r)}
y + i sin y)
exp z.
14.65 Euler's exponential forms for sine, cosine
From
(vi),
exp (iy)
cos y + i sin y,
exp
iy) =
cos / i sin
t Cf. the definition for real functions in 1.52(2). It can be shown from (vi) and
the fact that cos y and sin y have period 2n that 277* is the number p of smallest
modulus which satisfies exp (z+p) = exp z for all z, and that every such number p
is an integral multiple of 2ni.
DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM
14.66]
First adding,
cos y
and then
f {exp
{iy)
subtracting,
+ exp - iy)},
we find
sin y
555
{exp {iy) - exp - iy)},

^
2i
(
(vii)
where we observe the factor l/2, not

These formulae, often written
cos y
\{eiy + e-iv ),
1/2, in
sin y
the last result.
^ (eiv - eriy
),
known as Euler's exponential forms. However, they are equivalent
are
to the infinite series expansions of cosy, siny stated above.
14.66 Examples
(i)
Find the sum to
infinity of
l+cos0 tan + ^ cos 20 tan 2 6 + ^ cos 30 tan3 0+....

Write
tan 0,
t
C = l+cos0+ cos 20 + cos30 + ...,

2
S=
and
(ii)
if
+ +
2 z
3 3
where
cis 0,
= exp {tz)
for all z
and
exp (sin
+ i sin
tan 0)
e sln0 cis(sin0 tan0).
G=
....
e sln0 cos (sin
all real
tan 0).
Trial exponentials: the case of failure. In 5.33(2) we remarked that the

solving y" + ay' + by =
by the substitution y emx will fail
method of
the quadratic
a2 + 4p 2
that
.-.
trial
sin20 + sin30 +
sin0 +
O + iS = 1 +tz+
Then
46,
we
by a formal
m + am + 6 =
2
find that in
has no (real) roots, i.e. if a 2

complex algebra the roots are m
application of 5.32
(2), II,
< 46. Putting

= \a ip, so
the general solution would be
e -Ux e ipx + ft g-ipas)

_ e -iax [A(cospx + * sin pa;) + B(cospx i sinpx)}
e -tax {A' cospx + B' siapx},
where A' = A + B, B' = i(A B). This solution is identical in form
with that
found in 5.33 (1), Case (iii), so that A', B' must be real constants; in fact A, B
in the above calculation are conjugate complex numbers.
(iii) Integration
notation)
38
byC + iS. From formula (vi) we have (after a slight change of

e<*
= cos* +i sins.
GPMII
de moivre's theorem
556
and we
If u, v are derivable functions of x,
[14.66
define the derivative of
u + iv to
be u' + iv', then

d
{coax + iaiax) = sinx + icosx = i(coax + ismx),

dx
d
= ie
dx
%x
le ix )
i.e.
More
by formula
generally,
(o+rt)!B
,\
e ax ( cos
{e(a+it)xj
dx
e ax
(vi)
fa
we have
_f. I gin fa)
(for real
e ax cog
a cos fa _ & gin fa)
constants
a, 6)
fa _j_ 1 g ax 8m faf
+ i eax (a sin bx + b cos 6a;)
= eax {(a + ib) cos bx + *(a + ib) sin &#}

= (a + ib)4a+ii)x
law d{emx )\dx = roe"M! already known from 4.41 (5) for all
also holds for complex ones. Equivalently, we may write
.
Thus the
stants m,
e(a+ib)xdx
where
c is
a+ib
e(o+t6)a!
real con-
+ C)
a complex arbitrary constant.
This result permits rapid calculation of certain integrals involving combinations of exponential and circular functions. For example, put
C = j eax cosbxdx, S = jeax sinbxdx;

C + iS = jeax (cos bx + i sin bx) dx
then
e(.a+iU*dx
a + ib
a ib
a* + b
e ax (cos
e(a+ib)x
+C
bx + i sin bx) + c.
Equating real and imaginary parts,

a cos bx + b sin bx ax
Z
e
+c
G-
Ex.
Cf.
L,
a sin bx b cos bx ax_
S=
e + c2
4(e), nos. 28, 29.
A similar method, combined with integration by parts, will apply to

x n eax
cf.
Ex. 4 (m), no.
cos,
sm
fadx;
35.
Exercise 14(f)
Simplify the following.
1
4 exp(*) + exp( t).
exp {(a
6 exp {(a +
7 Expand
3 exp(logr+i0).
+ i7ra).
exp {cis 6} + exp {cis 6)}.
2 exp(l
exp(?ri).
008
a sin ( sin a) in ascending
powers of x. [Use no.
6.]
DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM
14.67]
557
Find the sum to infinity of the following series.

8 ccsm0 + (x 2 /2!)sm20 + (a:3 /3!)sin30-|-....
9 cos a - cos fi cos (a {!) + ( 1/2 !) cos 2 /? cos (a + 2/?) - ...
S see'/? sin r/?.
10
eos0 + cos30 + cos50+....
11
5!
3!
r=lT"
i^.
12
r=l
13 If w = exp(z/a) where w = u + iv, z = x + iy, and a is real, find the locus

of w corresponding to each of the lines y = 0, y = \Tia in the z-plane.
u + iv = exp (x + iy), find the locus of the point (u, v) in the w-plane
x = constant; (ii) y = constant. Verify that these two loci cut ortho-
14 If
when
(i)
gonally.
15
Criticise the following
argument.
dy
= sin x +
dx
1.
If y
cos x + i sin x, then
*(cos# + isina;)
A e ix
by 4.41, Remark (a), y =

Hence cosaj+isina; = e ix
Since y
%y\
when x =
0, therefore
14.67 Generalised circular

(1)
cos x
therefore
A=
'
and hyperbolic functions
Consistently with formulae

cos z
sin z
(vii),
we define
+ exP ~ * z )}>
|{exp
(viii)
and then tanz to be
{exp
(iz)
exp iz)},
(
sinz/cosz, etc.
These definitions are equivalent to

cos z + i sin z
and
also to
cos z
cos z i sin z
= exp (iz),
z2
z4
26
2!
4!
o!
= exp iz),
(
= 1 ^7 + 77771 +
(all z).
Sm2=
z3
l!-3!
(ix)
z5
+ 5!-
Directly from these definitions
it
can
now be shown
that the
formulae relating trigonometric functions of a real variable continue

to hold for a complex variable. (The definitions were chosen with a
view to making this so.) This can be done as in real trigonometry if
we first verify the addition theorems together with results concerning
special angles, e.g.
cos0=l,
and
sin0
0,
cos
z) =
cos z,
sin(
z) = sinz,
also periodicity properties.

38-2
de moivre's theorem
558
[14.68
For example, to prove that

sin (z r
+ z2 =
sin z x cos z 2 + cos z x sin z 2
we should use the definitions

into exponential functions
to the translation of the

(2)
to translate each
(viii)
term on the right
and verify that the right-hand side reduces
left.
We define
ch z
{exp
(z)
+ exp - z)},
sh z
|{exp
(z)
- exp - z)},
(x)
and then thz
to be shz/chz, etc.
These definitions are consistent with those of hyperbolic functions
of a real variable (4.44), and are equivalent to
chz=1 +
2!
+ 4! + 6! +
(xi)
(all z).
shz=
+
3!
li
Again
it
+ 5! +
can be verified that
formulae relating hyperbolic
all
functions of a real variable continue to hold for a complex one.

ever, in contrast to the real case, definition (x)
of exp z show that ch z and sh z have period

j.1
and exp ( ni) =
also th z has period ni,
+ ni)
ch(z + 7ra)
_ shz
chz
'
(x)
How-
periodicity
sh. (z
th(z
+ 7n)
y
by using
2m
and the
1,
-T-)
rf
so that th
(z
+ ni) =
th z.
and hyperbolic functions Osborn's
14.68 Relation between circular
rule
We have
cos
(iz)
i{exp
(i
iz)
+ exp i
(
iz)}
= {exp(-z) + exp(z)}
= chz
and
sin (iz)
^ {exp
(i
iz)
exp *
(
iz)}
= - i{exp - z) - exp (z)}

= ishz
by
definition
by
definition (x);
by
definition (viii)
by
definition (x).
(viii),
Hence
cos (iz)
= ch z,
sin (iz)
= i sh z.
(xii)
de moivre's theorem
14.68]
559
In any formula relating circular functions of zx z 2 ... we may replace

zl5 z 2 ... by iz 1} iz 2 ... and then use results (xii) to translate it into
hyperbolic functions of z x z 2 .... In the course of this translation each
product of two sines becomes i 2 multiplied by a product of two hyper,
bolic sines. Since the formulae all hold in particular when the variables
we have the justification of Osbom's rule stated in 4.44 (4).

An example of the detailed verification is the following:
are real,
ch (A
+ B) =
=
cos {iA
+ iB)
cos (iA) cos (iB)
sin (iA)
sin (iB)
= chA chB-i 2 ahA ahB

= ch.A chB + ahA ahB.
Examples
cos (x + iy)
(i)
sin (x + iy)
and
\mi(x+%y)
=
=
=
=
cos x cos (iy)
cos a;
sin x sin (iy)
chy iainx shy;
sin x cos (iy)
+ cos x sin (iy)
sin a; ch.y + icosx shy;
sin (x + iy)
cos (x + ry)
sin (x + iy) cos (x iy)
r-
cos (x + iy) cos (x %y)
where we have multiplied top and bottom by the conjugate of the denominator
make the new denominator real. Using the formulae for products
in order to
into sums,
(ii)
tan (x + iy)
From
ex.
+ sin 22/
+ ^shzy
- = sinzaj
r
cos2a; + ch22/
cos 2a; + cos 2*2/
sin
2a;
(i),
|cosz| 2
= cos 2 x ch 2 y + sin 2 x sh 2 y
= (l-sin 2 a;)ch 2 + sin 2 a;(ch 2 2/-l)
= ch 2 y sin2 x
/
Similarly
Thus
< ch2 y for all x.

cos z| 2 = cos 2 x + sh 2 y ^ sh 2 y for all
|sh?/| < |cos2| < chy for all z.
x.
The reader should verify that the same inequalities hold for
(iii)
Find
= +
x iy
the equation of the curve described by the point (x, y) when z
sh. z
z is real. Sketch the part of the curve which lies between the
varies so that
lines
|sinz|
Ti.
8h(x + iy)
= ^ Bia(ix y) =
%
T sin(*a;) cos y - cos (ix) sint/

%
= shx cosy + ichx siay,

shz z = (ahx cosy x) + i(ohx amy y),
which is real if ch x sin y = y.
'
DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM
560
Clearly y
satisfies this
equation which,
of 7T, can be written
chx =
smy
if
[14.68
not an integral multiple
is
The curve is symmetrical about Ox and Oy. When y -> (through positive or
negative values), cha; -> 1 and so x -> (through positive or negative values).
When y -> 7T chx -> + oo and so \x\ oo; when y -> ( n) + |a;| -> oo. The
reader should verify that the branches have gradients + ^/3 at the origin.
,
vk
n
- TT
Fig. 138
Exercise 14(g)
1
Prove that ch (iz)
By using results
cos z, sh (iz)
isinz.
in 14.68, prove that
(xii)
+ B) = shA chB + ch^ shB

th(A+B) = (thA+thB)/(l+thAthB)
sh(^L
and
follow from the corresponding properties of circular functions.

3
Use the
definitions (viii) in 14.67 to prove that cos 2 z + sin 2 z
sin(2 1
Excess
+ 22 =
)
the following in the form
>
0,
prove that thy
and
a + ib.
5 sec (x + iy).
4 ch (x + iy).
7 If y
sinz x cosz 2 + cosz x sinz 2
|tan(a;
+ *t/)| <
th.
(x
+ iy).
cotht/.
8 Determine the general forms of z for which
(i)
ez ;
(ii)
cosz are
real.
= 3i cos z.
Solve completely cosz = {e(li) + (1 +i)/e}/2 J2.
If ch {x + iy) cos (w + iv) = 1 and cos y cos u 4= 0, prove
tan u th v = th x tan y.
9 Find the general solution of sin z

10
11
[Equate imaginary parts.]
u + iv, prove
x v 2 cosec 2 x = 1
12 If cos (x + iy)
(i)
sec
(ii)
u 2 sech 2 y + v 2 eosech 2 y =
Interpret these as loci corresponding to the lines x

respectively.
= constant,
= constant
DE moivre's theorem
13
Expand
561
(sh z sin z) in ascending powers of z.
U8eC+iS to find the sum to infinity of

M
sin 26
14
sin 40
sin 60
41
cos 96
cos 50
cos0H
15
h..-
21
1-....
\-
61
9!
5!
Miscellaneous Exercise 14(A)

1
If x
cis a
a;
-2/
x+y
and y =
..
* tan
prove that
ciafi,
and
p)
+ y)(xy-l)
(x
+(a
(x y)(xy+l)
sina + sin/?
sina sin/>
2 If the real and imaginary parts of (1 +ix) n are equal, n being a positive
integer and x real, prove that x = tan {(4r+ l)7r/4n} where r is any integer
or zero. [Put x
cot 6.]
3 Prove
{(cos a + i sin a)
(cos ft + i sin /?)}" + {(cos a i sin a) (cos fi i sin /? )}"

= A n 2 n + 1 sin n |(a- 5) cos^(a+/?),
y
= l)* n if n is even, and A n = l)*< n + if n is odd.

Solve x 6 + xi +x* + x* + x+ 1 = 0.
0.
Find the solutions of x6 = 1 for which 1 + x + a; 2
where A
4
(i)
(ii)
1)
=}=
5 If n is a positive integer, show that every root of (z+

purely imaginary. If the roots are represented by x
a
origin, prove OP\ + OP| +
+ 0P2 = 2n(2n - 1).
P P
is
. .
l) an
.,
+ (z l) 2n =
P2n and
is
the
. . .
6 Show that the roots of (z

circle of radius f,
7
is
a*
If a =
equal to
- 3 + 4i sin
if
32(z
+ 1) B
are represented
is
- 4 cos
2r7r\
cis (27r/n)
^ ^5
XI I 3 + 4isin
6
r=l \
Deduce that
l) 5
by points on a
and that the roots are
(r
33
0, 1, 2, 3, 4).
2m\
4cosI.
]J[ (5
5 /
31 r=1 \
are integers, prove that 1 + a* + a 2* +

+ a(n-1)fc
is zero otherwise. [Sum the g.p. when
and n,
. .
a multiple of n, and
4= 1.]
8 Express (1 t 2 )/{(l ot)(l bt)} in partial fractions when the non-zero

constants a, b are (i) unequal; (ii) equal. Taking a = ft -1 = cis0 and a suitable
value of t, deduce that if < <j> < \n,
COS0
.
sm <p
cos 6
= 1 + 22 tan r *0cosr0.
9 Prove that
-^-(^
dx n \x 2 +lj
where
a;
= (-l) n n!cos(n+l)0sin n + 1 0,
v
cot0. [Method of 6.61,
'
(vii).]
az
DE moivre's theorem
562
10 If
to
1, o)
1,
=j=
prove
3
XZ
By taking x =
cis 20,
(OX
'
deduce that
3 cot 30
+ cot (0 + Jw) + cot (0 + \tt).
cot
cos 60 + 6 cos'40- 9 cos
as a polynomial equation in cos 6,
3/9
+15 cos 20 -27 cos + 14 =

(9
and hence
find all solutions
and
between
inclusive.
12 If a x + a 2 +
. . .
sec
If
13
lt
2,
+ a 2n =
sec
2it,
. . .
prove that (with the notation in 14.23)
sec
2n
= 1 E 2 + 2 4 ... + 1)"
(
6 3 are roots of tan(0 + a)
and if A
tegral multiple of n,
4= 1 ,
prove
and 2n which
'
acos
+ 2/&cos0sm0 + &sm
prove tan ^(6 1 +
+ 6S +
4)
2h/(a
2n .
= A tan 26, no two differing by an in a for some integer n.

X + 2 + 6 3 = nn
*14 If 6 X 6 2 63 6 4 are values of 6 between
in
(0
Express
11
2tt
Xl
satisfy
+ 2grcos0 + 2/sin0+c =
b).
[Put
0,
tan 0 to obtain a quartic
*.]
u n = # 2n 2a; n cos na + 1 by methods of real algebra as follows.

Prove u n+1 = 2xu n cos a C 2m_x + (x Zn + 1) uv
Use Mathematical Induction to prove that u x = x 2 2x cos a + 1 is a
15 Factorise
(i)
(ii)
factor of
(iii)
(iv)
a;
2cos(a + 2/77-/n) + 1
is
also a factor of
un
for
any
unaltered by replacing a by ct + 2mjn.'\

Verify that r = 0, 1,2, ...,n 1 give distinct factors.
integer
16
un
Deduce that
r.
Solve
[u n
(z
is
+ 1) 8 -z 8 =
0,
and prove that

3
+ 1) 8 -
(z
= ^(2z + 1)
+ 42 + cosec 2
II
r=l
Hence show that

3
16(cos 16 6 - sin 16 6)
cos 26 YL (cos 2 20 + cot 2 \rn).
r=l
is a regular hexagon inscribed in the circle |z| = a, A being
17
the point {a, 0). If P, representing the number z, is any point on the circle, write
down the complex numbers represented by the six points obtained by drawing
lines from the origin equal to, parallel to, and in the same sense as the lines
FP, and prove that their product is z 6 d6 Hence prove that
AP, BP,
ABCDEF
AP .BP .CP .DP .EP .FP < 2a
6
.
18 Prove
sin 50
16 sin
sin (0 +
\tt)
sin (0 +
|7r)
sin (0 +
and by considering lim (sin 50/sin 0) deduce that
sin
ftf)
\n sin
sin (0 + $n),
\ir
= + \ *J5.
0-*O
19 If
w = u + iv,
prove that the point
= a + M/, w = (expz- l)/(expz+ 1), and \tx <y

the circle \w\ = 1.
(u, v) lies inside
<\it,
DE moivre's theorem
563
if a is real, the equation exp z = z + a has no purely imaginary+ iy (y + 0) is a solution, prove that x> 0. [Use sixxyjy < 1.]
21 If u + iv = (z-l)exp(-*a) + (z-l)- x exp(a) where z = x+iy and a is
consists
real, find u and v in terms of x, y, a. Prove that the locus of z when v =
20 Prove that
root. If x
of a circle with centre (1,0) and unit radius, and a straight line through the
centre of this circle.
22 If exp(w + *)
integer or zero.
*23 If x+iy
rcistf,
prove u + iv
logr + i(d + 2nn), where
is
any
cos (u + iv), prove
(l+x) 2 +y 2
and
(ch + cosw) 2
(1
-x) 2 +y 2
= (chv-cosw) 2
< tt) in the preceding, find cosw and cht> in

If a; = cos 0, y = sin0 (0 <
terms of cos \0, sin \d, justifying the choice of sign when square roots are taken.
= coth (x + iy), prove v = - sin 2y/(ch 2x cos 2y). Show that
24 If u +
=
iv
{1
- exp (2a; - 241/)}- 1 - {1 - exp (2x + 2m/)}" 1

00
and deduce that
if
<
0,
then
= -22e
2ra!
sin 2ry.
r=l
25 If to = z 2 sketch in the Argand diagram the path of w when z describes

the sides of the rectangle whose vertices are a, a + ia (a real), starting at
O and moving counterclockwise.
26 (i) Sketch the graph of y = thx. Show that the equation thas = Aas has
,
two
real non-zero roots if
<A<
1.
Prove that the equation tanz

A < 1; but that if A has any other
(ii)
<
Az has two purely imaginary roots
if
real value, all roots of the equation are
real.
Find the sum

27 cos 2 a +
to infinity of
^ cos
2a + ^ cos3 3a +
28 a?sin0+ sin30 + |-sin50 +

3!
. . .
...
(a real)
(x,
0real).
5!
ax
29 Expand eax cos bx as a power series in x. [Consider e cis bx
and put a + ib
30
(i)
By considering exp (a;) + exp {<ox)+ exp (a) 2x) where w 3 =

1
*(ii)
= exp (ax + ibx)
r cis 0.]
+ |.+?L + !_ + ... =
^{e* + 2 e-** cos (%x V3)}
What results are obtained by
[Use Ex. 13 (g), no.
l,w
4= 1.
prove
for all real x.
considering
(a)
exp (x) + (0 exp ( (ox) + w 2 exp (o) 2x)
(b)
exp (a;) + w 2 exp (wa;) + (o exp (w 2a;) ?
18.]
31 By putting z = x + iy, show that the two differential equations for the
functions x,yot (arising from the dynamics of Foucault's pendulum)
x 2ky + n 2x
are equivalent to
0,
+ 2ikz +
y + 2kx + n%y
2
0,
DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM
564
and solve the latter. Writing z' = ze m prove that x' = A cos [it,
where [i 2 = n 2 + k 2 and A, B are real arbitrary constants.
,
y'
= Bain /it,
32 s, ijr are the intrinsic coordinates of a point on a plane curve, and x, y are
the cartesian coordinates. Writing z = x + iy, prove that
dz
= e**,
.,
ds
[Assume equations
(iii)
K
(Cf.
Ex.
=
d 2z
ds 2
.,
ik e 1 ^.
of 8.12.] Deduce that
~y\ds 2 )
\ds 2 )
~d^ds 2 ~dsds 2
'
8(d), no. 8.)
33 Verify that the formulae for rotation of axes through angle 6 in 15.73 (3)
can be written z = z' e id , where z x + iy and z' = x' + iy' Deduce from this
the formulae for the reverse transformation.
.
565
15
SURVEY OF ELEMENTARY
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
15.1
Oblique axes
15.11
Advantage of oblique axes
Although
it is
usual to refer cartesian coordinates to two perpen-
which use of oblique axes

more convenient. For example, in proving properties of the triangle
by coordinate methods, two of the sides can be chosen for coordinate
axes. The coordinates (x, y) of a point
P are then its signed distances from Oy,
Ox measured parallel to Ox, Oy respectively. The angle xOy (measured
counterclockwise from Ox) is denoted
by a).
dicular axes Ox, Oy, there are problems in

is
In sections 15.1-15.5 we revise the
main results about 'the straight line',

and extend them to the case of oblique
axes when this does not introduce any
Fig. 139
not the axes are oblique', they are
Notation. In Chapters 15-19
The
same in form whether or
essential complication.
reader should observe which results remain the
marked by the
we
sign
{&>}.
use the convention that
has
coordinates (x v yj, and so on.
15.12 Cartesian
We
and polar coordinates
obtain the relations analogous to those in 1.62 for rect-
first
angular axes, taking
as pole
and Ox
as initial line
(fig.
PN perpendicular to Ox; then

r cos 6 = ON = OM + MN = x + ycosco,
r sin 6 = NP = y sin
to.
tt
Hence
tan a
also
r2
tysinw
x + y cos a)
x% + y 2 + 2xy cos o>.
140).
Draw
ELEMENTARY COORDINATE GEOMETRY
566
[15.13
Example
If the line
PiP 2 is of length r and makes angle

r cos
(a; a
rsin#
6 with
Ox
(fig.
141),
then
- a^) + (y 2 - yj cos w,
=
(y 2
yi) sin o>.
Fig. 141
15.13 Distance formula
From
the above example, or directly from the cosine rule applied
to triangle
PPQ
X
PX P\ = r =
2
(fig.
(x 2
141),
- Xj) 2 + (y 2 - y x 2 + 2(x2 - xx
15.14 Section formulae
(y2
- yx
cos o).
{to}
These give the coordinates of the point dividing PX P2 in the ratio k

Let P(x, y) be the required point, so that PX P\PP2 = kjl.
(1) Internal division.
triangles
With the construction shown
PX PQ, PP2 R are similar; hence
PP
PR
Since
PX Q = x xx and PR =
x=
from which
Similarly,
1\P
find
becomes
l+k
from
PP2
we
this
= PQ = y^yr
P2 R
tyi
l
y2 -y
+ ky2
+k
in
fig.
I.
142,
15.15]
In each expression observe that the number

to the segment
multiplied
(2)
k >
P P,
is
by that
of
as in
fig.
which corresponds
by the coordinate of P2 while
multiplied
is
Pv
External division. Lettering
I)
k,
567
142,
we
so that
fig.
143 (which illustrates the case
have similar triangles
still
PX PQ,
PP^R,
Pil^M
~
PR'
k
i.e.
=
~
from which
Similarly
'
l-k
'
l-k
Fig. 143
Fig. 142
Summary. In both
(3)
positive numbers.
cases above, k
However, the
=
l
which
ratio
tive
is
I.
when P
external,
Hence
divides
can be written
etc.,
(1) for
division in the negative
we agree that PX P PP2 shall be reckoned posiPX P2 internally and negative when the division is
if
both cases are covered by the same formulae,

x
=
l
15.15 Gradient of a line
The
xz
+
+ (-k)
formally the same as that of
and I were understood to be
result of (2)
+k
viz.
= iyi+ty2
l + k
{to}
gradient of a straight line
is
defined to be the tangent of the
angle which the line makes with the positive #-axis.
Since this
'
568
[15.16
makes no reference to Oy, we have (as for rectangular axes)

two lines with gradients m x m 2 are parallel, then m 1 = m 2 if
they are perpendicular, then m x m 2 = 1; and in the general case an
angle between them is given by
definition
that
if
m
+m m
tan -1
1
For
cc
= dx 62 where
,
tan 6 X
tan 6 2
x,
2,
and so
tan 6 X tan d 2
tana =
1
+ tan ^ tan # 2
m2
1
+ mx m 2
Fig. 144
'
Example
From the example in
15.12, the gradient of
tan0
15.16
(1)
(r 3 ,
3)
Area of a
One
;
fig.
145.
similarly for
+ (y2 - y x
cos ft>
P3
Area of triangle
Let the polar coordinates of
Then by
r 2 cos d 2
and
(x 2 - x )
triangle
vertex at 0.
see
PxP2 is
(2/2-2/1) sin w
P2 P3
,
be
(r 2 ,# 2 ),
15.12,
= x2 + y 2 cos (o,
= y2 sin &>,
r2 sin d 2
OP2 P3 = OP2 0P3 sin P2OP3

.
r2 r3 sin(0 3 -<9 2 )
\r2 r3 sin #3 cos # 2
i(^2
+ 2/2 cos w
(2/3
2 r3
cos
sin 6 2
sin w )
- %{y 2 sin w) (# 3 + y3 cos w)

=
_
-
\ sin &>(a; 2 /3 x3 y2 )
1
2/2
after reduction
smw.
2/3
Bemarh. According as the vertices O,
P2 P3 are named in counter,
clockwise or clockwise order, the angle 6 3 6 2
and hence the expression

tively. If we consider
is
positive or negative
for the area is positive or negative respec-
a signed area which is positive when the vertices
are named counterclockwise and is negative otherwise, then the above

result gives the area of
OP2 P3 in magnitude and sign.
15.16]
(2)
569
Triangle PX P% PZ We may choose new axes through one of the
.
vertices,
say Px which are parallel to the original axes Ox, Oy. The new
,
coordinates of
and of P, are
are then
(fig.
146)
x%
x% ~ xi>
2/2
xz
= xz~ xi>
Vz
2/2
Vv
2/3
2/i-
Fig. 145
Fig. 146
By
area of P1 P2 -f3
>
(1),
ft
2/3
is
sinw
x\
XZ~ Xl
#2
2/2-2/1
2/2-2/1
""l
Ps
xi
X2
XZ
Vi
2/2
Vz
sinw
Vz-Vi
sm<y
Vz -2/i
1
sin to
by the operation c -> c x + c3 followed by c a ->

step is verified by expanding from the first row.
c 2 + /x c 3 the middle
;
570
[15.2
Example
The points Px P 2 P3 will be collinear if and only if the area of triangle P1 P 2 P3
and only if
,
is zero, i.e. */
15.2
x2
y2
#3
2/s
Forms of the equation of a
15.21 Line with gradient
0.
straight line
m through (x
lt
Assuming the axes are rectangular, let P(x, y) be any point of the
line. Then the gradient is (y yJKx Xj), and hence
00
i.e.
~~~~
y y1
= m(x x1
).
is satisfied by the coordinates of any point P on

what we mean by 'the equation of the line'.
This equation, which

the required
line, is
The result has been used in previous chapters when finding equations
of tangents and normals to a curve. It can be written
y
where
= yx mx v
15.22 Gradient
There
is
= mx + c,
no simple analogue
for oblique axes.
form
The above shows that any line with gradient m

has an equation of the form y = mx + c. Conversely, any equation
(
1)
Rectangular axes.
which can be put into the form y
= mx + c
represents a straight line of gradient
For when x
locus; also
(where m, c are constants)
making intercept
= 0, the equation shows that y = c, so

{y c)j(x 0) = m, so that the gradient
on Oy.
on the
constant and
c
(0, c) lies
is
equal to m.
(2) Oblique axes. If the line makes angle 6 with Ox and intercept c on Oy, its
gradient is tan 6; and if P(x, y) is any point on the line, then by the example in
15.15 its gradient is
(y c) sin &>
.
x + (y c) cos &<
since (0,
c) lies
on the
line.
Hence
a
tana
,
from which
(y
(y-c)sinw
x+(y c) cos to'
c) sin (to 6)
x sin
(i)
15.23]
and
571
sin 6
= -r. a\ x + e
sin (o)
6)
The equation of the

no longer represents
If the equation y
line is therefore still of the form
= mx + c is given, then m =
and
Hence
this
independent of
is
= mx + c,
but
now m
the gradient of the line.
for the gradient of the join of P{x,y)
which
'
(x,y).
(y c)jx,
and the expression (i)

becomes msinw/(l +wcosw),
equation represents a straight line
(0, c)
of gradient
1+m cos
clearly
it
makes ^/-intercept
(o
c.
Example
Find an angle between
inclined at angle
the lines
x + cx y
,
m x+c
2,
the axes being
a>.
The gradients of the lines are

m,
sin o)
sin a)
l+m
1+miCosw
cosa)
an angle between the lines is given by tan _1 {(/ 1 /* 2 )/(l +/* 1 /t 2 )}

unless fixfi 2 = 1 (in which case they are perpendicular). After reduction this
By
is
15.15,
found to be
+ (m(m+ m m
,
tan -1
the lines are perpendicular if 1

if
m =m
x
+ (* 1
If
Ax + By + C =
and
are parallel
is
B=
the equation of a straight
but
#= 0,
{to}
y = (AjB)x CIB, which
the equation can be written
=|=
15.22
If
is
cos a) +
2.
15.23 General linear equation
by
sin to
mm
+ m )cosw + m m = 0,
2)
>
2)
line.
the equation can be written x
= C\A which
y
the equation of a straight line parallel to Oy.

Since these are the only possibilities,
it
follows that every linear
equation in x, y represents a straight line.
15.24 Intercept form: line
making
on Ox, Oy
intercepts a, b
{to}
Let the gradient form of the equation of the required line be

Since the line passes through the points (a, 0), (0, b), we
y = mx + c.
nave
Hence
= ma + c and
c
c.
and m = bja, and the required equation

b
is
tv
^ y
- + |=1.
a b
i.e.
39
GPMII
572
[15.25
CB
+ l/CB
Example
ABC is
is constant.
triangle with sides
Prove that
CA,
along given lines, and 1/CA
AB passes through a fixed point.
Choose the lines along which CA, CB lie

to be Ox, Oy. Let the coordinates of A, B be
(a, 0), (0, 6); then by hypothesis 1/a+ljb = k,
where k is constant.
The equation of
is xja + yjb = 1. The
above condition shows that this line passes
through the point (\jk,\jk), which is independent of a, b.
AB
Fig. 147
15.25 Line joining
Pv P2
For rectangular
(1)
{to}
axes, if P(x, y) is
any point on the
line,
then
V-Vi = Vi-Vz
ry*
*As
since each expression

This result
(2)
nix + c, then
is
is
/y*
/y
rv*
equal to the gradient of the
also true for oblique axes.
For
if
line.
the required line
is
= mx x + c and y 2 = mx z + c, so that by subtraction

x
y-y 1 = m(x-x 1 and y 1 -y i = m(x 1 -x 2 );
t/
and the equation

(3)
is
obtained by division.
In either case the result can be obtained as follows. Consider
the equation
y
yi
0.
y%
by expanding from the first row), and

therefore by 15.23 represents a line. It is satisfied by (x^y^) and by
(x2 y 2 ) (since then two rows become identical). Therefore it represents
It
is
linear in
x and y
(as is clear
(This form of the equation
the line
could also be seen from the example in

15.16.)
15.26 Parametric form for the line through

(jtj,
yt)
in direction 8
be any point on the line, and let

=
PX P r; here r is a signed length, so it will
be positive for points of the line on one side
Let
of Px and negative for points on the other.
Fig. 148
The axes being rectangular,
x x 1 = rco&6 and y y x =
r sin 6.
15.27]
573
Hence the coordinates of any point on the line are expressible in terms
of the parameter r as (xx + r cos 6,yx + r sin 6).
Later
we
form in the treatment of
shall use this
no simple analogue
conies.
There
is
for oblique axes.
15.27 General parametric
form
{to}
More generally, the equations x = at + b, y = ct + d (where a, b, c, d are constants of which a, c are not both zero, and t is a variable parameter) always
represent a straight line. For elimination of t shows that
c(x b)
which
is
linear
a(y d),
iax,y and therefore represents some
15.28 Perpendicular
line
(by 15.23).
form
Let the perpendicular from O to the

and make angle a with Ox. Then the
line
have length p
foot
(essentially positive)
N of the perpendicular has polar

I
N
P/
\P(*. y)
A
>\
\ x
Fig. 149
coordinates (p,cc). Let any other point

(x, y) and polar coordinates (r, 6); then
p=
rcos(0 a)
P of the line have cartesian coordinates
= rcosd cosa + rsin# sina

= x cos a + y sin a,
so that the line has equation
= p.
OA = p sec a, OB p cosec a,
x cos a + y sin a
Alternatively, the intercepts
and the
15.3
result follows
from
on the axes are
15.24.
Further results
15.31 Sides of a line
{co}
The point P((lx 1 + 1cx 2 )l(l + k),

whose equation is ax + by + c =
a(lx x
(fo/i
2 )/(^
+ ^)) ^ es on
+ kx 2 + b{lyx + ky 2 + c(l + k) =
)
tne une
if
0,
39-2
574
h
t
i.e. if
ax,+by1x + c
^r
ax 2 + by
2 +c
P P
If
lf
...
(*)
on opposite sides of A (fig. 150), then P divides P\P2

is positive; hence ax 1 + by 1 + c, ax 2 + by 2 + c have
2 lie
internally
[15.31
and
so kjl
opposite signs.
Fig. 151
Fig. 150
Similarly
so ax1
if P\,
P2 lie on the same side
151), kfl is negative
(fig.
and
+ byx + c, ax2 + by2 + c have the same sign.
It follows that the converses of these statements are also true.
Examples
(i)
P8 P
Menelatis's theorem. Let the line ax + by + c

jP]P 2 of the triangle 1 2 3 in the ratios k
PPP
X,
u n = ax n + by n + c
we have by
(i)
{n
=
:
divide the sides
l lf
k2
1,2,3)
above:
&2
'
u9
&2 ^3
Multiplying,
1.
ij
(ii)
Ceva''s theorem. If lines
l3
1%
P Q P%Qi, P3Q3
P P P are conP P P3 Pi, P\Pi
1
through the vertices of triangle
X,
current at (h, k) and divide

2
3
in the ratios kt lx k2 l2 k3 l3 then since the
equation of X Q X is (see 15.25(3))
,
0,
Fig. 152
k
with similar equations for
PQ P
2
2,
a?2
&i
Q 3 we have
,
as in ex.
Vz
h ~ xx
(i)
that
etc.
PP
S
k3 h' Writing
3,
15.32]
On
multiplying,
575
Ki
/Cg
K3
Zj
Z2
Z3
15.32 Perpendicular distance of a point from a line
Let d denote the length (essentially positive) of the perpendicular

from Px to ax + by + c = 0, and let the foot be Pa Then
.
d^{x% -x f + {y -y f.
Since P P is perpendicular to
2
(ii)
ax + by + c
0,
we have
= -1,
b{x 2 -x x )-a{y 2 -y x )
i.e.
(hi)
0.
Fig. 153
Because
on ax + by + c
2 lies
0,
ax 2 + by 2 + c
and
this
can be written (analogously to

a{x z - xx )
Square and add
(iii)
+ b(y 2 -
and
(iv),
d 2 {a 2 + b*)
a
a
(iii))
in the
form
= - {ax x + by x + c).
x)
using
0;
(iv)
(ii):
{axx + by x + cf.
c
~ afti +2fyi +
2
V( + &
1
'
where the sign

ax x + by x + c > 0,
If c
4=
is
line,
make the expression positive: +

if ax 1 + by1 + c < 0. Also see Ex. 15(a), no. 15.
chosen to
and the equation of the
then a x x + b x y + c
the
will
if
line is written so that c is positive,
be positive when
and negative otherwise, by
lies
on the
origin side of
15.31.
Exercise 15(a)f
Prove that the point which divides in the ratio 2 1 the median Px Qx of
the triangle P1 P 2 P3 has coordinates {^{x 1 + x 2 + x 3 ), 1(2/1 + 2/2 + 2/3))- From the
symmetry of this result deduce that the medians of a triangle are concurrent.
2 Show that the equation of the line through (h, k) which is perpendicular
1
to
Ox is
x + y cos (0
f The main purpose of this exercise

solving locus problems.
= h + kcoso).
is
to illustrate the use of oblique axes in
576
[15.4
is the point (h, k) referred to axes at angle (0. Prove that the line joining
3
the feet of the perpendiculars from P onto the axes is sin (o J(h 2 + k 2 + 2hk cos (o).
Two fixed lines Ox, Oy are cut by a variable line at A, B respectively;

Q are the feet of perpendiculars from A, B onto Oy, Ox. JiAB passes through
4
P,
PQ will also pass through a fixed point.
a fixed point, prove that

5 If the equal sides
that
BE CF = AB
AB,
AC of an isosceles triangle are produced to E, F so

EF always passes through a fixed point.
prove that
PM, PN are drawn from P onto Ox,

PM + PN = 2c.
7 OM + ON - 2c.
From a
Perpendiculars
Oy. Find the locus of

8
P if
MN = 2c [use no.
3].
PN
point
on one side of a fixed triangle, perpendiculars PM,
to the other sides. As P varies on this side, find the locus of the mid-
are drawn
point of MN.
any two straight lines are drawn to cut one fixed

10 Through a fixed point
Ox at A, and another fixed line Oy at G, D. Prove that the locus of the
meet of BG,
is a straight line through O.
line
AD
If a straight line passes through a fixed point, find the locus of the midpoint of the part intercepted between two fixed intersecting lines.
11
*12 A line AB of constant length c slides between two given oblique lines
which meet at 0. Find the locus of the orthocentre of triangle OAB.
*13 Using similar triangles, give a proof of Menelaus's theorem (15.31, ex. (i))
by the methods of 'pure geometry.
*14 Using areas, prove Ceva's theorem (15.31, ex. (ii)) by 'pure' methods.
cut Ox, Oy at
15 Obtain the result of 15.32 as follows. Let ax + by + c =
L, M. Equate \p.LM to the area of triangle P X LM. Verify the result when
the line is parallel to Ox or Oy. (This method could be used when the axes are
'
oblique.)
15.4
Concurrence of straight
15.41 Lines through the

If L,
lines
meet of two given
U are linear functions of
x, y,
lines
{w}
then the equation
L + kL' =
and U = 0.
satisfies both L =
= 0, U = intersect, the locus L + kL' = passes
through their common point.
is then
If k is constant, L + kU is linear in x, y, and so L + kU =
the equation of some straight fine through the meet of L = 0, L' = 0.
are parallel and k is constant, then L + kL' = is a
If L = 0, L' =
is satisfied
Hence
if
by any point which
the lines L
straight line parallel to both (as
is
clear
by expressing each
line in
'gradient form').
k. For example, the line
be required to pass through a given point, or to be parallel to
a given line.
One condition will determine the constant
may
577
Conversely, if the linear equation L =
L l -f lcL 2 = 0, where h is independent of x, y and L L 2 are linear with
constant coefficients, then L =
passes through a fixed point, viz.
the meet of the lines L x = 0, L 2 = 0.
15.42]
x,
Example
The mid-points of the diagonals of a complete quadrilateral are collinear.
If ABGD is any quadrilateral, let AD, BC be produced to meet at E; and
BA, CD to meet at O. The resulting figure is called a complete quadrilateral
and AC, BD,
OE are its diagonals.
Choose OAB for Ox and ODC for Oy. Call 4(2o, 0), 5(26, 0), (7(0, 2c), D(0, 2d),
and let
be the mid -point of OE. Through
draw lines parallel to EA, EB;
Fig. 154
intercept theorem of elementary geometry these will cut Ox,

points A'(a, 0), B'(b, 0), C"(0, c), D'(0, d), and their equations will be
by the
V
a
Thus
ikf lies
on the
also
at the
be
lines
dx + ay
and therefore
Oy
ad
and
ca;
+ by =
6c,
on
(dx + ay ad)
(cx + by be) =
0,
(d c)x + (a b)y = ad be.
i.e.
The mid-points of BD,
AC are
(6, d), (a, c),
and these
clearly
lie
on
this last
line.
15.42 Condition for concurrence of three given lines
Let the
lines
{co}
be
a1 x + b 1 y + c1
Q,
a2 x + b 2 y + c2
0,
a3 x + b3 y + c3
0.
578
If
two of these
point (obtained
say the second and third, the
intersect,
by
solving for x, y)
a 2 b z -a z b 2
This
lies
on the
'
[15.42
common
is
(i)
a 2 b z -a z bj
first line if
& 2 C 3- & 3 C
2)+M C 2 a 3- C 3 a 2) + C l( a 2&3- a 3&2) =
i.e. if
>
61
A=
If no
^2
^3
0.
two of the lines intersect, then they are all parallel; this means
Cx = C% = Cz 0, and so
that (with the notation of 11.31)
A=
Hence
CiCi + CgOa
+ CgOg =
0.
*/ the lines are concurrent or parallel, then
Conversely, if A
f b 2 cz
0,
the point
-b z c 2 \
fc 2 a z
(i)
lies
-c z a 2 \
on the
+c
This converse argument fails if a 2 b z a z b 2
A=
0.
first line
because then
a 2 b z -a z b 2
0;
0.
but a similar argument
applies to the lines taken in a different order unless also
az b 1 a1 b z
in
which case the three
and
a 2 b z az b 2
lines are parallel.
0,
Hence when A =
the lines
are either concurrent or else all parallel.
Thus the condition A =
is
necessary and sufficient for concurrence
or parallelism; see also 11.43, Corollaries I
(6), (c).
Exercise 15(6)
Find the equation of the line concurrent with 2x 3y 3 =

and
x + Sy 15 = and passing through ( 2, 1); verify that it passes through
1
the origin.
2 Find the equation of the
5x-2y =
3
4,
8x-ly + 5 =
line of gradient
f which
is
concurrent with
0.
Find the equation of the perpendicular from the meet of the
3x- ly =
2,
4x + 5y
9x+ 10y+ 15 = 0.
lines which make numerically
lines
to the line
4 Find the equations of the

on the axes and which are concurrent with Zx + 2y
0,
equal intercepts
2x y + 3 = 0.
15.5]
5
Show that for
(i)
579
numbers k the equation
all
2x + 3y-l
+ k(3x-y +
4:)
represents a line passing through a fixed point,

(ii) Find the point of intersection of the lines
2x + 3y-l + a(3x-y + 4:)

b(2x +
3y-l)-c(3x-y + 4)
=
=
0,
0.
6 Find the equation of the line joining the meet of

3x + 4y-l
3x- 5y +
to the meet of
37
= 0, 2x-3y+l =
= 0, 5x-2y-8 =
0.
Test the following sets of lines for concurrence.
=
=
2x-y-l - 0, 1x-5y+13 = 0.
x-By
+ 2 = 0, 3x + 8y-6 = 0.
0,
(p + l)x + (p-l)y+p = 0, (q-l)x + (q+l)y + q = 0, x = y (p * g).
rc-^ + aJ* = 0,x-t 2 y + at* = 0, (^yi + fl-M^ = o(i + ) (*i * < 2 )are concurrent, find
If the lines x- 2y + 3 = 0, 2x- 3y = 0, ax + y+ 1 =
3x-2y +
<t
8 5x + 2y-4:
9
10
11
the value of
0,
a.
12 If the lines ax + 2y+ 1 = 0, bx + 3y+ 1 = 0, ca; + 4?/+

prove that a, b, c are in arithmetical progression.
b 3 , 3cx + 2y
are concurrent,
for concurrence of the distinct fines 3ax + 2y

[Use theory of equations.]
Find the condition
13
3bx + 2y
c3
= a3
*14 Find the condition for concurrence of the distinct fines
x sin 3a + y sin a
[If (h, k) is the
a,
a:
sin
3^ + y sin/?
common point, then 6 =
(& + 3ft) sin 6 + a =
<x,fi,y
a,
xsin 3y + ysm.y
15
0.
is
are
If a1 x + b 1 y + c 1 = 0, a 2 x + b 2 y + c 2 = 0, a 3 x + b 3 y + c3 =
and numbers I, m, n none of which is zero can be found such that
l{a 1 x
prove the
A=
0,
lines are concurrent
If
*(ii)
+ b-l y + c 1 + m{a 2 x + b 2 y + c 2 + n{a3 x + b z y + c z =

)
a,
absent, the roots
(i)
lines,
a.
must satisfy h sin 3d + k sin 6 =
Since the term in sin2 6

sin a, sin/?, siny of this cubic in sin0 satisfy 2 sin a = 0.]
4h sin3
i.e.
distinct
(A)
0,
or else all parallel.
use 11.43, Theorem II to show that numbers
I,
m, n not
all
zero exist such that
a^ + a^m + a^n =
and hence that
15.5
(A) holds.
0,
6 1 Z + 6 2 TO + &3 W
Deduce the
0,
converse of
c1 l
+ c 2 m + c3 n =
(i).
Line-pairs
15.51 Equations which factorise linearly
A single equation in x, y may represent two or more lines.

x z = can be written y = x and therefore represents
+ x, y = x.
2
2
can be factorised as (x + y)(x + 2y) = 0, and
(ii) x + 3xy + 2y =
sents the line-pair x + y = 0, x + 2y = 0.
(i)
the pair
of lines y
so repre-
580
[15.52
x + Sxy + 2y + Sx + 5y + 2 = can be written (x + y + 2) (x + 2y + 1) = 0,

therefore represents the pair x + y + 2 = 0, x + 2y+l = 0.
(iv) x 3 + 3x 2 y + 2xy % = 0, i.e. x(x + y)(x + 2y) = 0, represents the three lines
2
(iii)
and
x
0,
x+y
0,
aj
+ 2?/ =
0.
In general, the equation
(a^ + b^ + Cj) (a z x + b 2 y + c 2 ) =
represents the pair of lines a 1 x + b 1 y + c 1
if (x
satisfies either
y )
and conversely,
one;
a i xo + bxVo + c x
(1)
if (x
or a 2 x
The
locus ax2
If b
15.52
satisfies
0,
a % x + \y + c 2
0.
For
the given equation, then either
+ b2 y + c2 =
or both.
+ 2hxy + by 2 =
the equation
0,
of these equations, then it satisfies the original
x(ax + 2hy)
is
0,
representing a line-
pair.
If b
4= 0,
When (h/b) 2 > a\b, i.e. h 2 > ab, this quadratic has distinct roots
yjx = m x ra 2 and then y = m x x or y = m 2 x. Hence if h 2 > ab, the
,
equation represents two distinct lines through O.
When h % =
ab, the
equation
sents the single line hx + by
is
(y/x + h/b) 2
and therefore repre-
We
say conventionally that the

equation represents two coincident lines, or a repeated line.
When h 2 < ab, the quadratic for yjx has no roots. The original
equation is satisfied solely by the values x = 0, y 0. Hence if
h2 <
0.
ab, the equation represents the origin only.
The three general results
just given include the case 6
disposed
of at the start.
The work of
15.5 so far
is
valid for oblique axes; in the following
we
shall suppose the axes to be rectangular.
(2)
Angle between the lines ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2
have equations y
has roots
and
so
m m
x,
a.
x x,
2 x,
0.
If the separate lines
then the above quadratic for yjx
Hence
(m 1 m 2 ) 2
= (m 1 + m 2 2 4m 1 m 2 = (h 2 ab).
)
15.53]
581
The required angle is given by
m,-ma
teng=
2V(A*-qfe)
b{l+ajb)
2<](h*-ab)
"
provided a + b
If a + b
'
a+b
4= 0.
then
0,
Wjmg = 1 and
Ae Zir&es are perpendicular;
and
conversely.
(3) Bisectors of the angles
of the perpendiculars from
between these lines.

(x,
By expressing equality
m1 x = 0,y mi x = 0,
y) to the lines y
the equations of the angle-bisectors are
y-m
V(!+i)
Hence the two
bisectors
y-m x
-V( 1 + W D*
2
have equation
{y-m^f {y-mz x) 2 =
l+m|
1+raf
i.e.
(1
+m|) (/-m 1 a;) 2 -(l + w&f) {y-m % xf =
(raf- m|) a; 2 2(m! -
i.e.
If
4=
2,
by
satisfies
as of course
(2),
(1
-*/ 2 )
it
in x,y.
0.
= 2(l-m 1 m a )a;2/,
=
(a-b)xy.
should from elementary geometrical considera-
x2
xy
6=0.
1
line-pair 5 =
(1) Parallel line-pair
is
)xy {m\ ml)y'2
'
can be written
The general
This
the perpendicularity condition at the end
15.53
m m
h(x 2 -y*)
This equation
of
2)
mjj) (z 2
(i),
tions. It
0,
this reduces to
K+
i.e.
through the origin. Write
= ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c =
0.
(i)
the standard form of the general equation of the second degree
BA
582
[15.53
If s can be factorisedf in the form
= (A^ + Brf + CJiAzX + Bzy + Cz),
then
(i)
we
so
By equating coefficients of the second-
represents a line-pair.
degree terms in
also
(ii)
(ii),
= A1A2
2h
= A X B2 +
= B X B2
X,
have
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2
Therefore
*/
(A 1 x + B 1 y)(A 2 x+B 2 y).
represents a line-pair, then the equation
(i)
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2
(iii)
represents the parallel line-pair through 0.
This fact can be used to calculate the angle between the lines
which
is
the same as the angle between
When h 2 =
ab, the lines
this condition implies
Cx C2
be equal to
(2)
If
Ax
(i)
=j=
(i),
(2).
to represent
a line-pair.
(ii); and if
means that (i),
represents a line-pair, s can be written in the form
and
A% ^
(i.e. if
regarded as a quadratic in
Now
found in 15.52
may be coincident or parallel; for although

2 these ratios may or may not
A X :A 2 Bx
Necessary condition for s
(i)
(iii),
(i),
x,
Bf
~A
#= 0,
since a
= AXA2
),
can be solved in the form

C-t
y ~T'
x=z
written as a quadratic in
Ba
Co
~T y ~T'
(lv)
x, is
ax 2 + 2(hy + g)x + {by 2 + 2fy + c)

so
this
0,
(v)
- (hy + g) V{(% + g) 2 - a(by 2 + 2fy + c)}].
Hence (i) can be solved in the form (iv) if and only if the quadratic
y under the square-root sign is a perfect square, i.e. if
in
(h 2
is
- ab) y 2 + 2(gh -af)y+ (g 2 - ac)
a perfect square. This

(gh
(which holds
gh af=
is
so if and only if
- af) 2 - (h 2 - ab) (g 2 - ac) =
even when h ab =
2
0, for
0,
the condition then implies
also), i.e. if
a(abc + 2fgh - af 2 - bg 2 - ch 2 )
j-
0.
This will not be the case in general: see 15.74.
15.53]
Since
we
are assuming a
the condition
4= 0,
is
abc + 2fgh - a/ 2 - bg* - ch?

If a
but b
quadratic in
If a
0, b
y,
4= 0,
then equation
(i)
and the same condition

0,
but h
equation
4= 0,
v+
which,
j.
(vi)
0.
can similarly be solved as a
(vi) is
obtained.
(i) is
2hxy + 2gx + 2fy + c

i.e.
x+ l y + lL =
0,
if factorisable, is
H) H) f=
so that
2fgh-ch*
i.e.
0,
becomes when a = b = 0.
These are the only cases that need be considered, since
and this
is
what condition
(vi)
a
then
(i)
(ii)
(i)
in 11.22, (vi) can
We have therefore shown that
to represent a pair of straight lines is
(vi).
be written
A=
(vii)
0.
The determinant A is called the discriminant of s,

Remark (a). The necessary condition A = is
to represent a line-pair. For A is zero when
a
if
would not be of second degree.
the necessary condition for
By ex.
583
= b=l,
c=f = g =
or of equation
(i).
not sufficient for
(i)
0,
whereas x 2 + y 2 has no linear factors. (A sufficient condition is indicated in Ex. 1 (/), no. 19. Other ways of obtaining the necessary
appear in Ex. 9 (/), no. 25 (ii); (3) below; and 15.73,
condition A =
ex.
(ii).)
Point of intersection of the line-pair. In a numerical case we

should resolve the second-degree equation into linear factors (e.g. as
(3)
584
in 10.21, ex.
For the general case
(ii)).
(i),
[15.54
equations giving the point
of intersection (sometimes called the centre or vertex of the line-pair)
can be found as follows.

Writing (i) in the form
(v), we see that to a given value of y there

correspond in general two values of x; but if y is the ordinate of the
meet P, then
(v) will give
only one
value of x, viz. the abscissa of P.
Now when
root
is (see
has equal roots, that
(v)
1.31 (&))
so the coordinates of
P satisfy
Fig. 155
ax + hy + g
Similarly, writing
(i)
0.
(viii)
as a quadratic in y, viz.
by 2 + 2(hx +/) y + (ax 2 + 2gx + c)
P we have
at
Equations
see ex.
hx+f
hx + by+f
i.e.
(i)
Remark
(viii), (ix) suffice
0,
(ix)
0.
to determine
P as the point (GjC, FjC);
in 11.32 for the notation.

(/?).
Since
(i)
can also be written
(ax + hy + g)x + (hx + by+f)y + (gx+fy + c)

it
follows that the coordinates of
Equations
0.
(x)
(viii)-(x) are therefore consistent,

(vii)
as a necessary condition for s
intersecting line-pair.
Compare
0,
P must also satisfy
g%+fy+c =
of 11.43 gives
(2)
above, where
and Corollary
(vii)
1(6)
to represent an
was shown to be
necessary for any type of line-pair, not necessarily intersecting. Also

see 15.73, ex.
(ii).
15.54 Line-pair joining
to the meets of the line Ix + my
= 1 and
the locus j =
In general the equation s = represents a curve, but the following

argument holds in particular when the equation represents a line-pair..
15.54]
Consider the homogeneous equation in
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2(gx +fy)

It
is satisfied
(Ix
585
x, y:
+ my) + c(lx + my) 2 =
0.
by the points which satisfy both the equation of the line
and of the locus, and hence it represents some other locus through these
homogeneous in x, y, it represents two
must be the equation of the required line-
points. Since the equation is
through O. Hence
lines
it
pair.
Exercise 15(c)
[Rectangular axes.]
Find the area enclosed by the lines x 2 + 4xy + 2y 2
2 Show that the area enclosed by the

ax* + 2hxy + by 2
and the line x + y =
lines
and
+ my =
Ix
- ab)/(am z - 2hlm + bl 2 ).
Prove that the product of the lengths of the perpendiculars from
is <J(h 2
(xx , yx )
to the lines
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2
is
{ax2 + 2hx 1 y1 + by\)IJ{{a-b) 2 + Ah 2}.
which are perpendicular to the

4 Find the equation of the lines through
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0. [If (x, y) lies on either of the required lines, then
( y, x) lies on one of the given lines.]
lines
5 Find (i) the angle between, (ii) the equation of the bisectors of the angles
between, the lines 5x 2 + 2xy 4y 2 = 0.
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 =
angle-bisectors, prove that h(a' b')
6 If the
lines
a'x 2 + 2h'xy + b 'y 2
0,
have the same
h'(a b).
7 Show that any pair of lines which has the same angle -bisectors as the pair
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = can be written ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + \(x 2 + y 2 ) = 0. [Use no. 6.]
Find the equation of the pair of lines, one of which passes through (p, q),
and whose angle -bisectors are x 2 y 2 0.
8
Show that the
find the angle

(i)
(ii)
following equations each represent pairs of straight

between them, and their point of intersection.
2x 2 + lxy + 3y 2 -4x-ly + 2 =
15x 2 + xy - 2y 2 + 3x - y = 0;
lines;
0;
xy-3x + 2y-6 = 0;
x 2 + 4xy-2y 2 + 6x-12y-l5 = 0.
9 Write down the equations of those line -pairs through the origin which are
(iii)
*(iv)
perpendicular to the line-pairs in no.
8.
[Use no.
10 Find the equation of the lines joining

lines 4a; 2 + 16xy - 12y 2 - Sx + 12y - 3 = 0.
4.]
to the
meet of x + 2y
3 with the
* 1 1 Show that the line 2(g -g')x + 2(/-/') y + (c - c') =

is a diagonal of the
parallelogram formed by the line -pairs s = ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0,
' = ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2g'x +
2f'y + c' = 0. [Consider s s' = 0, which is linear
and is satisfied by the points common to s = 0, s' = 0.]
*12 If the line -pairs s

equation.
0, s'
in no. 11 possess
line in
common,
find its
586
The
15.6
circle
15.61 General equation of a circle; centre
and radius
Referred to rectangular axes, the equation of the
C(M) and radius r is

When simplified,
{x
this equation is of the
which
the coefficients of x 2
Conversely,
and y 2 are
circle
with centre
_ hf + {y _ kf =
(j)
form
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c
in
[15.6
equal,
(ii)
0,
and
there is
no xy-term.
by completing the square for the terms involving x and
for those involving y, equation

(*
<7)
(ii)
can be written
+ (2/+/) 2 =
+/ 2 -c.
9'
If g 2 +f 2 c > 0, this represents the circle with centre ( g, /) and

radius J(g 2 +f 2 c). If g 2 +f 2 c = 0, it represents the single point
(
ff>
/); and
if
+f 2 c <
0,
the equation does not represent any
locus.
Example*
Referred to oblique axes at angle o), the circle with centre C(h, k) and radius r
has equation
(x-h)* + (y-k) 2 + 2(x-h) (y-k) cosw = r a ,
which
is
of the form
x 2 + y 2 + 2xy cos (0 + 2gx + 2fy + c
15.62 Circle
on diameter
0.
P P2
l
Let P(x,y) be any point on the required

by 'angle in a semicircle'. Since
gradient of
PX P = UzMl
and
circle;
gradient of
- xx
This equation, which

the
circle, is
no. 15.)
*^
Zz*
(x
i.e.
(x
PX P P2 P,
P2 P = U^
hence
then
is satisfied
_ lf
- x2 + (y- yx
)
""""
(y
- y% =
)
0.
(iii)
by the coordinates of any point P on
therefore the equation required.
(See also Ex. 15(/),
15.63]
15.63 Tangent at
Let
Px (xx
yx )
the tangent at
be a given point on the
circle
(ii)
perpendicular to the radius
is
+/) - y\ -fyx + x(x x + g)-x\- gxx
xxx + yy x + gx +fy
i.e.
Since
Then since
and CPX has
in 15.61.
CPX
gradient (y1 +f)l{x 1 + g), the equation of the tangent
i.e.
587
is
x\ + y\ + gxx +fy x
0,
Px lies on the circle,

x{ + yl + 2gx 1 + 2fy 1 + c
and so the equation of the tangent at
0,
Px can be written
= ~ 9xx ~fVi - c
xxi + VVi + Qx +fV
xx x + yyx + g{x + x x ) +f(y + y1 ) + c
i.e.
>
(iv)
0.
Remark. This result can be remembered by the following rule of

alternate suffixes. 'Write xx for x z ,x + x for 2x, etc., in the equation of
the
circle:
xx + yy + g(x+x)+f(y + y) + c
and attach the
0;
suffix 1 to alternate variables.'
It should be emphasised that this rule
and
is
only an aid to memory,
certainly does not constitute a proof that (iv)
the tangent at
Other applications
will
is
the equation of
appear in later chapters.
Example
Find the condition for the line Ix + my = nto touch the circle (ii).
The line will be a tangent if and only if the perpendicular from the centre
g, f) to it is equal to the radius *J(g 2 +/ 2 c)
Ig mfn
i.e.,
on squaring,
15.64
If
(lg
+ mf+n) 2 =
,,
+/ 2 c) (Z a + m2 ).
,2
(fl
Chord of contact from P,
x is
outside the circle, two tangents can be
their points of contact are
P2 P3
,
chord of contact of tangents from
Px if
P2 P3 is called the
drawn from
then the whole line
Px We now find the equation of this

.
chord.
40
GPM II
588
For simplicity we consider the

the origin. The tangent
Since
P2 P
at
centre
is
nas equation
xx z + yy 2
Px lies on this line,
= a 2 whose
x2 + y2
circle
[15.64
= a2
#1^2 + 2/12/2
= x % y = y 2 satisfy the
xx x + yx y = a 2
which shows that the coordinates x
equation
i.e.
that
P2 lies on the line xxx + yyx =
2
.
Pi
Fig. 156
Similarly,
chord
P2 P3
P3 lies on this same line, which must therefore be the

Hence the chord of contact from Px to x 2 + y 2 = a 2 is
^1 +
2/2/i
= a2
The same argument applied to the general

x
circle
+ y + 2gx + 2fy + c =
2
shows that the chord of contact from
Px has equation
= 0,
(x 1 + g)x + {y x +/) y + (gx x +fy x + c) = 0.
xx i + 2/2/i + 9(x + x i) +f(y + 2/i) + c
i.e.
Remark. The equation xx x + yyx = a 2 has two quite distinct

meanings according to whether Px lies on the circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2 or
outside it. When Px lies on the circle, it represents the tangent at Px
;
when Px lies
outside,
it
represents the chord of contact from
remarks apply to the general
Px
Similar
case. See also (1), (2) in 15.65.
Examples
(i)
Find
the equation of the tangents from
The chord of contact from O
(fig.
to
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c
157) has equation
gx+fy + c =
0.
0.
15.65]
As
589
in 15.54, consider the equation-
c(x 2 + y 2 )
which reduces to
(gx+fy) 2
It is satisfied by the points common to the circle and line, i.e. by the points
of contact of the tangents from O. It is homogeneous of degree 2 in x, y, and
therefore represents a line-pair. Hence it represents the pair of tangents from 0.
Fig. 158
Fig. 157
Pair of tangents from Px to x 2 + y 2 = a 2

When Px is given, let P a be any other point in the plane. Any point on P X P 2
(ii)
will divide it in
some ratio k
I,
and hence
/ lx x
This point will
i.e.
(x 2
lie
on the
+ kx 2
+k
will
ly x
'
have coordinates
+ ky 2 \
+ k )'
circle if
+ kx 2\ 2
l + k
)
+ ky 2 \ 2 _
l+ k
J
a 2 )kl + (x\ + y\ a 2 )l i =
/ lx x
( ly!
+ y\ a 2 )k 2 + 2{x x x i + y 1 y 2
0.
v)
This quadratic gives two values for the ratio k I, which correspond to the points
A, B where the line PX P2 cuts tne circle; the two values are PX A :AP2 and
P1 P:PP 2 (fig. 158). Equation (v) is known as JoachimsthaVs ratio quadratic
for the circle x 2 + y % = a 2
If P a lies on either tangent from Pt then the points A, B will coincide, and
hence (v) will have equal roots k I, so that
:
(x 2
+ yl-a 2 )(xl + y 2 -a 2 = (x^ + y^-a 2

)
This equation shows that the point

(x
+ y -a
2
2
)
(x
2 (flJ 2
+y - a
2
2
)
Vz)
2
.
nes on *ne locus
(xx x
+ yyx - a 2
2
)
which must therefore be the combined equation of the tangents from

i.e.
of the pair of tangents. See also 15.73, ex.
x,
(i).
15.65 Examples; polar

(1) Tangents at the intersections of the
through P x meet on the line xxx + yyx = a2
circle
x2 + y 2
a 2 with variable chords
40-2
[15.65
Let the tangents at the extremities A, B of the chord AB through P meet
at P Then by 15.64, AB has equation
590
2.
xx 2 + yy 2
Since
x lies
on
= a2
this line,
x x x 2 + yx y 2
and this shows that P 2
lies
on the
line
a2 5
xx x+yx y
= a2
Fig. 159
If
the
lies inside
Fig. 160
which
(2)
is
lies
P P
Show that P
x,
divide
line,
which
lies
that part of the
is
on
lies
xx x + yyx
the line
AP
PP
k'
the complete
2 is
P meets the circle x* + y = a at A, B; P is

AB in the same ratio (one internally, the other extern-
Since by hypothesis
1 :P 1 B
so that A, B divide the line X
say
outside, the locus of
outside the circle.
variable chord through
chosen so that
ally), f
the locus of
circle,
entirely outside the circle. If

line
AP
2
.
:P 2 B, hence also P X A :^4P2 = P1 P: PP 2

internally and externally in the same ratio,
2
Fig. 162
Fig. 161
Either point A,
B dividing P P
X
/ lx x
\
f
P x and Pj
in the ratio k
+ kx 2\
+ k )'
are said to
has coordinates of the form
+ ky 2\
+ k )'
divide AB harmonically.
lyi
15.66]
and
lies
are
k'
on x
+y =
2
2
;
hence equation
(v) of 15.64, ex.
xx x2 + y x y 2 -a 2
Hence
P2 lies on the line xx x + yx y a 2
Px
If
lies inside
the
which
lies
within the
line
0.
the whole
the locus of
2 is
which
line,
lies
com-
that part of the
2 is
circle.
xx x + yyx
a2
is
called the pole of the line
x is
lies outside,
We now unify the complementary results in (1),
(3) Definitions.
The whole
and its roots
the locus of
circle,
pletely outside the circle. If

line
holds,
(ii)
sum is zero,
V. Since their
591
called the polar of
= a 2 wo x 2 + y 2 = a 2
xx x + yy x
(2).
wo x 2 + y2 = a 2
Remarks
(a) If
from
(/?)
(y)
lies
outside the circle, the polar coincides with the chord of contact
x.
Pt lies on the circle, the polar coincides with the tangent at P x

The polar exists for every point except the centre (0, 0).
If
Reciprocal property. If the polar of x passes through 2 then the polar

passes through
(For if xxx + yyx = a 2 passes through (x if y 2 ), then
x
x 2 xx + y 2 y x = a2 , which shows that x lies on xx z + yy2 = a 2 , the polar of 2 .)
(8)
of
15.66 Orthogonal circles

(1)
The angle between two intersecting circlesf is the angle between
common point.
their tangents at a
(It is
easy to prove geometrically
that the angles at the two intersections are equal.)

If these tangents are perpendicular, the circles are orthogonal. In
this case the tangent to
(2)
one
a radius of the other.
circle is
Condition for
x 2 +y 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c
0,
x 2 + y 2 + 2g'x + 2f'y + c'

to be orthogonal.
The centres are C{ - g, -/) and C'{ - g', -/'),

and the radii are <J{g 2 +f 2 -c), V(^' 2 +/' 2 -c').
Fig. 163
If the circles cut orthogonally at P, the triangle
angled at P, and so
i.e.
(9
Conversely,
(9
+P -c) + (g'
2gg' + 2ff'
when this
condition
g
is
cp2 +
- g'Y + (f-f) 2 =
i.e.
CPC
The general
+9' 2
+f'
- C),
= c + c'.
is satisfied,
2
+f +f'
definition
then by adding
was given
in 5.72.
right-
592
to both sides the previous equation
is
The condition
is
by the converse
obtained; hence
of the theorem of Pythagoras, triangle
C'PC is
therefore both necessary
[15.66
right-angled at P.
and
sufficient for ortho-
gonality.
Example
Prove that in general
there is only one circle orthogonal to three given circles.
If the given circles are
x 2 + y 2 + 2gr x + 2fr y + cr
we require to find g, f,
c for
(r
1,2,3),
which
2î + 2//i-c =
=
=
-c
+
2^3 2//3
299i + 2fA- c
and
cx ,
c 2
c3 .
If the determinant
A=
91
92
fi
9z
fz
non-zero, then this system of three equations for the three unknowns g, f, c
can be solved uniquely by Cramer's rule (11.41). The condition A 4= means
that the three centres are not collinear (15.16, ex.) and that no two centres
coincide; this is the situation 'in general'.
is
Exercise 15(d)
Write down the equation of the
Prove that the tangent at O is px + qy
1
through O whose centre

[Use tangent _L radius '.]
circle
0.
is (p, q).
'
2 Show that the chord of x 2 + y 2 = a 2 whose mid-point is (x x yx ) has equation

xxx + yy x = x\ + y\. [If P is any point of the required chord, OP x _L PP\.~\
,
3 Prove that the mid-points of those chords of x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c =

which pass through Px lie on the circle (x x 1 )(x + g) + (y y 1 )(y+f) = 0.
[CMCP
4
(i)
1 .]
PxP 2 of x 2 + y 2 = a 2 Deduce the

Also find the tangent at Px by using Calculus.
Find the equation of the chord
equation of the tangent at P x
(ii)
= n touches x + y 2 = a 2 find its point of contact. \xxx + yyx = a 2

+ my = n are the same line if x x jl = y x /m = a 2 /w.]
6 Find the condition for y = mx + c to touch x 2 + y 2 = a 2 and deduce that
the lines y = mx a*J(l+m 2 touch the circle for all values of m.
5
and
If Ix + my
Ix
7 (i) Find the condition for the chord of contact of tangents from Px to
x 2 + y 2 = a 2 to subtend a right-angle at O. (ii) What is the locus of the meet of
perpendicular tangents to x 2 + y 2 = a 2 ?
8 (i) Show geometrically that, when they exist, the direct common tangents
of two circles divide the line of centres externally in the ratio of the radii. What
the corresponding result for the transverse common tangents?
(ii) Use (i) to find the equations of the direct and transverse common
tangents to (x 15) 2 + y 2 = 64, (x 2) 2 + y 2 = 9. [If a tangent meets the line of
is

(A, 0), its equation is y = m(x A) where m is chosen so
centres at
perpendicular to this line from either centre
is
593
that the
equal to the corresponding
radius.]
common tangents to
a x f + </ 2 = r\, (x - a 2 2 + y* =
(x
Prove that the direct
r\
have equation
r2 )x (a^ a 2 rx )} 2 = {(%
{("].
(rx
2
2)
2
2)
}y
2
.
Find the equation of the transverse common tangents.

10 If the line of centres of
x* + y*
+ 2gx + 2fy + c =
cuts the axes at A, B,
x*
0,
show that the
+ y* + 2g'x -r 2fy + c' =
circle
on diameter
AB is
(g-g')U-S')^+y 2 = (gf'-rfHig-rtx-V-Dy}*1 1 A variable circle passes through the meet O of two given lines, and makes
intercepts OP, OQ such that m.OP + n.OQ = 1. Prove that this circle passes
)
through another fixed point. [Use oblique axes.]

12
A circle passes through (h, k) and cuts orthogonally the circle

=
x2 + y* + 2gx + 2fy + c
Prove that
its
centre
lies
on the
0.
line
2(h + g)x + 2(k+f)y
fc
+ F-c.
13 Find the equation of the circle orthogonal to x 2 + y 2 + 2x 2y + 1 =

# a + y 2 + 4x 4y + 3 = and whose centre lies on the line 3x y 2 = 0.
and
14 Find the equation of the circle orthogonal to
x2 + y2
15
5,
x 2 + y 2 + 6x+l
Prove that an angle between the
x* + y* + 2gx + 2fy + c
(supposed to intersect)
is
COB 6
given
x i + y 2 -<ix-4ty + l
and
0.
circles
s'
0,
x 2 + y 2 + 2g'x + 2f y + c'
by
2gg' +
2V(fl'
+/
2ff'-c-c'
-c)V(9''
+/ ,2 -c')'
is also the
are the circles in no. 15, prove that s + As' =
16 If 8 = 0, ' =
equation of a circle for any constant A except A = 1 What is the interpretation
when A = 1? If s, *' intersect, explain why s + As' = passes through their
common points for all A. (As A varies we obtain a system or family of circles.)
.
orthogonally, prove that it also cuts

cuts s = 0, s' =
17 If a circle or =
orthogonally each member of the system s + As' = 0. Interpret the case A = 1
by first showing that the centre of a lies on the line ss' = 0.
18 Prove that the length of a tangent from

is
to a 2 + y % + 2gx + 2fy + c
V(a* + y\ + 2fla?i + 2/yx + c).
such that the tangents from it to the circles s,

19 (i) Prove that a point
are equal (notation of no. 15) lies on the line 2(g g')x + 2(ff')y + (c c') =
i.e.
s s'
s'
0,
0.
Show that the locus of P is the whole line if s, s' do not intersect. When
is their common chord and that the
they do intersect, show that s s' =
(ii)
locus of
P is only that part of this line which is outside both circles.
594
[15.7
20 Find the equation of the circle which passes through ( 3, 2) and the
points of intersection of the circles 3a; 2 + 3y 2 + 2x'7y6 = 0, x 2 + y 2 + y 2 = 0.
[Use no. 16.]
21 Find the equation of the circle whose diameter is the common chord of
the circles x 2 + y 2 -2x + 2y + 3 = 0, 5x* + 5y 2 -x + ly-12 = 0.
Conies
15.7
15.71 Definitions
The
P in a plane such that the ratio of its distance
locus of a point
from a given point 8 to
its
distance from a given line d
is
constant
is
called a conic.
The point 8 is called the focus, the line d the directrix, and the conby e) the eccentricity of the conic. According as e =j 1,
the conic is called an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola; e is essentially
stant (denoted
positive.
If
is
the foot of the perpendicular from
to the line d, the
definition is equivalent to the relation
SP = e.PM.
The name
'conic'
is
an abbreviation
for 'conic section'. Originally
the ellipse, parabola and hyperbola were obtained as the sections made
by a plane drawn perpendicular to any one generator of right circular

cones with acute, right and obtuse vertical angles respectively. Later
they were defined by different sections of the same right circular cone,
the ellipse, parabola and hyperbola being respectively the curves of
section by a plane making an angle with the base less than, equal to,
or greater than that made by the generators. If the cone is a double
one, the hyperbola will consist of
A plane parallel to
two separate parts or branches.
the base will give a circular section; one through
the axis of the cone will give two intersecting lines (the generators in
that plane); one touching the cone along a generator will give a single
line;
while a plane through the vertex but not cutting the cone else-
where
a
will give
line-pair,
It can
bolic, or
and
a single point. Hence with this approach, a
a single
line,
and a
circle,
single point are all conic sections.
be provedf that, for each plane which gives an
elliptic,
para-
hyperbolic section, there exists in that plane a fixed point
8P = e.PM;
i.e.
any point P on the curve satisfies the law

these 'conic sections' have the focus-directrix
a fixed line d such that
properly and are therefore conies in the sense of our definition.

'
We shall not
'
do so in
this book.
15.72]
The equation of every conic
15.72
If the fixed point
the definition
SP =
2
(x
S
e
PM
of the second degree
and the
is (p, q)
2
is
fixed fine d
2
p) 2 + (y q) =
e2
(Ix
may
+ my + n =
0,
+ my + n) 2
2
2
l +m
this is clearly of second degree in

In our definition we made no reference
to the relative positions of 8 and d. In
we suppose 8
is Ix
becomes
When simplified,
particular, if
595
lies
on
d,
x, y.
we
choose d for y-axis and the perpen-
dicular at
for aj-axis. Then, if P(x, y)
any point on the
8P 2 =
e2
.PM 2
x2 + y 2
According as
is
expressed by
e2x 2 , i.e.
e
is
locus, the definition
$ 1, this
(e
l)x 2
Fig. 164
.
equation represents a line-pair through 8,
the (repeated) fine y = 0, or the single point #(0, 0).

Hence, consistently with our definitions, we must regard an intersecting line-pair as a degenerate hyperbola (since c
single fine as a degenerate parabola
as a degenerate ellipse
(e
<
1 for
(e
for both),
>
for both),
and a single point
both). These conclusions agree with
our remarks in 15.71 about particular 'conic sections'. The classification of a pair of parallel lines will be mentioned in Ex. 16 (e), no. 26 (ii);
for the circle, see 17.17.
We now turn to the more difficult converse problem of interpreting

the general second-degree equation
ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c
by showing that
We
forms.
can be reduced to certain standard

prove that every equation of the second
this equation
shall eventually
degree represents a conic (including the degenerate cases just mentioned), a parallel line-pair,
15.73
(1)
we
circle,
or nothing.
Change of coordinate axes
When a locus is specified by some property (such as SP = e.PM),
express this as an equation between the coordinates of any point
(x, y)
on the locus, referred to a pair of coordinate axes. Some choices

(e.g. those having regard to symmetry of the locus) will lead
of axes
596
when an equation wo one
to a simpler equation than others. Hence,

set of axes is given, it is often desirable to
simplify the equation. This can be done
changing the
(a)
(a translation
[15.73
change the axes in order to
by
origin, leaving the directions of the
axes unaltered
of axes)
changing the direction of the axes, leaving the origin unaltered
(6)
(a rotation
of axes);
both together.
Remark. When a problem involves equations of two or more
(c)
in general
way;
it is
loci,
possible to simplify only one of the equations in this
e.g. see 16.12, ex.
(ii).
O'
Fig. 165
Change of origin. If the new origin 0' is taken at the point (h, k),
then the point P whose coordinates were (x, y) now has coordinates
(2)
*',*,')
given by
Thus,
to
^ x_
change the origin
h}
to the
y>
= y-k
point
(h, k)
we
+ h for x
Oy isf(x, y) =
substitute x'
and y' + kfor y: the locus whose equation wo axes Ox,

becomes f(x' + h, y' + k) = wo axes O'x', O'y'
We usually omit the dashes in the new equation, and say that
becomes f(x + h,y + k) = 0.
f(x,y) =
The above work remains valid for oblique axes an example occurred
;
in 15.16(2).
Examples
(i)
Pair of tangents from Px to x z + y 2 = a 2 (Cf. 15.64, ex. (ii).)

Changing the origin to P^x^y^, the equation of the circle becomes
.
= a\
x* + y* + 2x1 x + 2y1 y + (xl + yl-a 2 =
(x+x1 )* + (y + y 1
i.e.
0.
The equation of the pair of tangents from the new origin is

(xl
+ yl-a*)(x* +
y*)
= fax + ytf)*.
(see 15.64, ex.
(i))
15.73]
597
Referred to the original axes, this equation becomes
+ y\- a 2
(x 2 + y\ - a 2
(x 2
i.e.
- x x 2 + (y- yx 2 } = {x x (x - x x + yx (y - y x )}\
{(x 2 + y 2 - a 2 + (a; 2 + y\ - a 2 - 2(xx x + yy x - o 2 )}
= {(xxx + yyx - a 2 - (x 2 + y\- a 2 )} 2
{(x
{x\
i.e.
+ y\- a
2
)
(x
+ y -a =
2
(xx x + yy x - a 2 ) 2
Point of intersection of the line-pair ax 2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c
(ii)
Suppose the
becomes
lines
meet at Px (x x yx ). Changing the

,
a(x + x x ) 2 + 2h(x + xx )(y + y x )
ax
i.e.
origin to
x,
+ b(y + yx 2 + 2g(x + xx + 2f(y + yx + c =

)
0.
the equation
+ 2hxy + by + 2(ax x + hyx + g) x + 2(hxx + byx +/) y

+ (ax 2 + 2hxx yx + by2 + 2gxx + 2fyx + c) =
0,
0.
Since the new origin is the meet of the lines, this equation must involve only
terms in x 2 xy and y 2 (15.52 (1)). Hence we must have
,
axx + hyx + g
ax
and
= 0,
+ 2gx x + 2fyx + c = 0.
hx1 + by1 +f
0,
+ 2hx 1 yx + by
The first two equations deterrnine Px As in Remark (/?) in

.
is
equivalent to gx x +fyx + c
15.53
(3),
the third
0.
Fig. 166
Rotation of axes through angle 6. Let the point P, whose coordinates wo Ox, Oy are (x,y), have coordinates (x',y') referred to
(3)
the
new axes
Ox', Oy',
where
xOx'
HOP =
r,
then from triangle
r cos (6
x'OP =
and
<f>.
OPN,
+ 0) = r cos cos r sin

= x' cos 6 y' sin 6
(f>
sin $
598
since
from triangle OPN',
Thus,
for
r sin (0
to rotate the
<j>)
= rcos^ and y' =

=
r sin
x' sin
cos <f>
f(x cos
rsin^. Similarly,
+ r cos
sin <j>
+ y' cos 0.
we substitute x' cos y' sin
= becomes
axes through angle
+ y' cos
x and x' sin
x'
[15.74
for y: the locus f(x, y)
y sin 0, x sin + y cos 0) =
0.
The reverse transformation can be obtained

either by solving the above two equations for x', y', in terms of
y;
or by writing 6 for 6 and interchanging (x y'), (x, y) in the
r
above equations;
or
by considering
x'
r cob {{d
+ <!>)- 6} =
y'
Both transformations can be read
= rsm{(d + <f>)-6} =
off from the
....
scheme
y'
x'
cos 6
sin 6
sin 6
cos 6
Change of both origin and direction of axes. By combining the

substitutions found in (2), (3) we see that, under the most general
change of rectangular axes, the locus whose equation is f(x, y) =
becomes
,
n
7
n
^
7
f(x cos a y sin a + h, x sin a + y cos + k) = 0.
(4)
It follows that
a change of axes leaves the degree of any polynomial equation unaltered. For, instead of the linear function x, we have
substituted the linear function x cos 6 y sin 6 + h,

to powers
and products of
linear
and similarly for y;

functions correspond powers and
products of the same degree.

15.74 Reduction of 5 =
to standard forms
By rotating the axes through angle 6,

s
==
the equation
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c
(i)
becomes
a(x cos
y sin 6) 2 + 2h(x cos y sin 6) {x svnO + y cos 6)

+ b(x sin 6 + y cos 6) 2 + 2g(x cos 6 y sin 0)
+ 2f(x8in.0 + yco80)+c =
0,
(ii)
15.74]
in
which the
coefficient of
xy
is
- 2a cos sin + 2A(cos 2 - sin 2 0) + 2b cos

= 2(6-a)sin0 cos + 2ft cos 20
= (6 - a) sin 2d + 2h cos 26.
If 6 a
4= 0,
this will
be zero when
tan 20
if b
-a =
\ir
takes the form
sin
satisfies
*
2ft
be zero when cos 20
0, it will
value between +
.....
(m)
t\
0; i.e.
|7r.
If A
be written
(a)
Ax * + By z + 20x + 2Fy + C =
cases
2?
X+
[
(iv)
0,
0,
=}=
a)
this
(V)
(v)
becomes
(vi)
can be written in one of the forms
a2
according as
can
pi
Q%
(iv)
+B y + B) =A + B-[
(
4= 0,
is so known.
then by completing the square,
By changing the origin to the point - G\A, -F/B),

Ax2 + By2 = X,
where A = G 2 \A + F 2 jB - C.
If A
(ii)
now arise.
and
4=
the
Giving
satisfying the appropriate condition, equation
where A,B,C,F,G are known in terms oia,b,c,f,g,h since
The following
599
A /A,
/?
a2
'
I?/A are
/?
'
a2
both positive, of opposite sign,| or both
negative.
// A
0, (vi)
can be put into one of the forms
a 2x2 - fity2 =
0,
a 2x 2 + [S*y* =
B have opposite or the same signs.

and # 4= 0, equation (iv) can be written
If A = 0, B
F2 \
F\
C
/
I
according as A,
(b)
=}=
Changing the origin to the point
(_C_
\
2G
F*_
2BG'
Br
2
%
a
t The case cc /a + y \fl* = 1 can be brought to the second form
rotating the axes through angle $n.
shown by
600
By + 20x =
2
reduces to
(vii)
[15.74
0,
r = -~fi x
i.e.
(c)
If A
and B
={=
0,
equation
according as
F = BC.
IfB =
0, J. 4= 0,
(d)
0,
parallel lines, a repeated line, or nothing,
forming equation
(iv)
the cases considered in
We
becomes
(iv)
By 2 + 2Fy + G =
which represents two
....
(vm)
cannot have
F+
0,
or */ j?
=^=
0,
A*
0,
by rotating the axes through
then by transtt,
we obtain
(6), (c).
A =B=
would not be of second

and hence (see 15.73 (4)) neither would (i). Thus all admissible
possibilities have been considered.
It has now been shown that, by a suitable change of axes, the
0,
for then (iv)
degree,
general equation
(i)
of second degree can be reduced to one of the
following standard forms:
^+^ = -1,
2/
ccx*+]3y*
0,
= aV(a 2 -/?).
Clearly the fourth equation represents nothing; the fifth represents
an intersecting
line-pair,
a repeated
or a single point;
line,
and the
sixth represents a pair of parallel lines, a repeated line, or nothing.
The
first
following three chapters are respectively concerned with the
three
loci,
which
will
be proved to be conies in the sense of the

'
'
definition given in 15.71: see 16.11, 17.12
and
17.13.
Exercise 15(e)
1
By
a change of
origin, the points
1,3),
(4,
2) become
(a, 5), (3,/?);
find a, ^.
2 Find the new equation of the locus x 2 xy 6y 2 Zx +14y 4

is changed to (2, 1).
when
the origin
3 Find the new equation of the locus x 2 y 2

through angle \ti.
a 2 when the axes are rotated
4 By rotating the axes through angle a, show that p in the equation

x cos oc + y sin a = p is the length of the perpendicular from O to this line.
5 Find through what angle the axes must be rotated so that the equation
2
2
2
2
7a; + 4xy y =l becomes of the form ax + by = 1.
601
6 Change the origin to (1,0) and then rotate the axes through the acute
angle whose tangent is , for the equation
43a; 2
- 48xy + 51y 2 + 86a; - 48y + 1 8 =
0.
7 Show that the centroid of a lamina, as defined in 7.81, does not depend on
[Wo the new axes the centroid is given by
the choice of coordinate axes.

x'
and
x'dA
Thus
similarly for y'.
= xcoad + yaind + h,
(xcoad + yaiad + h)dA

(x' ,y') is
the point
(x, y)
referred to the
new axes.]
Miscellaneous Exercise 15(/)

1
If
the points
M3 + M1 + M2 =
{at\,at\),
{at\,at\),
Conversely,
0*
are
(at\,at\)
show that when
collinear,
prove that
this condition is satisfied the
three points are collinear. [Use theory of equations.]
2 Find the condition that the four distinct points (ktr ,k/tr ), r = 1,2,3,4,
be concyclic. Show also that no three of these points can be collinear.
3 Show that a necessary condition for concurrence of the lines
shall
= 0, xcosSfi + y acos/tf = 0, a;cos dy + y acosy =

= 0, and prove that this condition is also sufficient.
is
4 If the line-pairs ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0, a'x 2 + 2h'xy + b'y 2 = have a line in
common, prove (ab' -a'b) 2 + 4(ah' -a'h) (bh' -b'h) = 0. [Use 10.42(1).]
is perpendicular to one of the lines
5 If one of the lines ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 =
a'x 2 + 2h'xy + b'y 2 = 0, prove (aa' -bb') 2 + {ah' + b'h) (a'h + bh') = 0.
and x 2 + 2qxy y 2 = are such that one
6 If the lines x 2 2pxy y 2 =
pair bisects the angles between the other pair, prove pq = 1.
form an isosceles triangle,
and ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 =
7 If lx + my + n =
prove that h(l 2 m 2 = (a b) Im. Find also the further condition if this triangle
arcos3a + 2/ acosa
cos a + cos /? + cos y
is equilateral.
[The line is parallel to an angle-bisector of the pair, so its gradient
Z/m must satisfy {1 (y/x) 2}/(a b) = (y/x)/h.]

represents
8 If ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c =
a pair of lines meeting at

A, and parallel lines are drawn through O to meet these at B, G, find the equations of the diagonals OA ,
is a square, prove a + b =
BC of the parallelogram so formed.
If the parallelogram
and h(g2 -f 2 - fg(a - b). [OB J_

9 Prove that the equation m(x 3 3xy 2 + y 3 Sx 2y =
)
OG and OA J_ BC]
represents three
straight lines equally inclined to one another. [In polar coordinates the equation
= tan 30. Writing = tan 3a, the three lines are 6 = a + \m, r 0, 1, 2.]
is
)
10 If A, B, G are fixed and PA 2 + PB 2 + PC2 is constant, prove that the locus

of
is a circle whose centre is the centroid of triangle ABC. [Choose O at this
centroid; then
11
HxA =
4x-3y + 2a =
12
2y^.]
Find the centre and radius of the
incircle of the triangle
whose
Bx- 4y+ 12a = 0, 3 + 4y- 12a =

Prove that for all constants A and p, the circle
{x-a)(x-a + \) + {y-fi)(y-/3+p) = r2
0,
0.
bisects the circumference of (x cc) 2 + (y fi) 2 = r2

Find the equation of the circle which bisects the circumference of
.
x2 + y2 + 2y-S =
and touches the
line
xy
at the origin.
sides are
602
Show
13
that the line (x a) cos 6 + y sin 6
= r touches the circle

2
2 =
{x
a) + y
r2
,
and
state the coordinates of the point of contact.
pair of parallel tangents is drawn to a given circle, and another pair perpendicular to these is drawn to a second circle of equal radius. Prove that each
diagonal of the square formed by the four tangents passes through a fixed point.
14 All members of a family of circles pass through two given points. Prove
that the common chords of these circles and a fixed circle not belonging to the
family are concurrent.
15 Write
parallel to
down
(i)
Oy;
the equation of the line-pair through

Ox. Explain why the locus
and
which
is
(ii)
(x-x 1 )(x~x t + {y-y1 )(y-y 1 =

)
passes through the vertices of the rectangle formed

deduce that this locus is the circle on diameter PiP2
by these
line -pairs,
and
16 If the orthogonal circles
x 2 + y 2 + 2g1 x + 2f1 y + c1
have centres A,
x 2 + y 2 + 2g2 x + 2f2 y + c 2
0,
B and cut at C, D, prove that the circle through A, B,
2(x
+ y + 2( 9 1 + g 2
2
If the equation of the circle
x + 2(/x +/2 ) y + (c x + c 2 )
on diameter
= r\\AB 2 where r
is
D is
0.
CD is written in the form
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx x + 2f1 y + c1 + X{2( gi -g z )x + 2(/x -/2 ) y + (c x - c 2 )}

prove A
G,
the radius of the
0,
first circle.
17 Find the equation of the line -pair joining O to the meets of the lines
2
4a; - 15xy 4ty 2 + 39x + 65y - 169 =
and x + 2y = 5. Show that the quadrilateral having the first pair and also the second pair as adjacent sides is cyclic,
and find the equation of its circumcircle.
18
Show that the
line -pair joining
to the meets A,
= 1 has equation
(a I 2 x 2 2lmxy + (6 m 2
B of the line Ix + my
with the conic ax 2 + by 2
If
0.
A OB is a right-angle, deduce that AB touches the circle (a + b) (x + y =

2
19 Find the equation of the line -pair joining
circle x 2 +y 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0. Hence

circumcentre of the triangle formed by Ix + my =
and the
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2
If the lines ax
axes,
+ 2hxy + by =
2
1.
to the meets of Ix + my = 1
find the coordinates of the
1 and the lines
0.
vary, but remain equally inclined to the

on a fixed line through O.
show that the circumcentre
varies
20 Explain why the equation

(x 2
+ 2hxy + y 2 + (?(x+fty)(x + y+l) =

)
represents a locus passing through the vertices of the triangle formed by the
lines x 2 + 2hxy + y 2 = 0, x + y + 1 = 0. Deduce the equation of the circumcircle
of this triangle, and show that this circle is orthogonal to the circumcircle of
the triangle formed
by the
lines
ax 2 + 2kxy + ay 2
Obtain the equation of the lines joining

x y b with the curve x z + y 3 = 3axy.
21
0,
x y+1
0.
to the points of intersection of
603
16
THE PARABOLA
The locus y2 = 4ax
16. 1
16.11 Focus-directrix property
Since the equation y 2
4ax can be written in the form
a) 2 + y 2 =
(x
(x
+ a) 2
PM
2
where 8 is the
any point P{x, y) on the locus is such that SP 2 =
line x + a = 0.
perpendicular
from
to
the
P
point (a, 0) and
is the
2 =
4ax is a parabola with
Hence by the definition in 15.71, the locus y
focus (a, 0) and directrix x + a = 0.
,
PM
It
is
symmetrical about Ox because
the equation
is
y by y; Ox
unaltered
is
by replacing
called the axis of the
O is the vertex. Without

generality we may always
parabola, and
loss
of
suppose a >
all
0;
a;
then positive for
points on the curve.
The parabola
= and hence y =
meets Oy where x
it
is
therefore touches
Oy at 0, and Oy is
Fig. 167
called the tangent at the vertex.
The chord LL' through S

angles to the axis
it
is
at right-
called the latus rectum; its equation is
cuts the curve at the points
(a,
2a), so
that
its
length
x=
is
a,
and
4a.
Remark. The equation y 2 = 4ax also shows that the square of the
distance of P(x, y) from Ox is proportional to its distance from the perpendicular line Oy. The locus of a point satisfying this condition is
therefore a parabola.
16.12 Parametric representation
For any point
(x, y)
ofy 2
2x
so that y
41
2at
and x =
4ax other than
(0, 0),
at 2 ; (0, 0) is also
given thus
when
GFMII
0.
604
Hence each point on y

for just
one value of
THE PARABOLA
= kax has coordinates
Also each value of
t.
[16.12
of the form
(at
2
,
2at),
determines exactly one
The equations
point of the curve.
at 2
2at
(i)
therefore give a proper parametric representation (see 1.61); they
can also be written
The point P(at 2

t
:2t
....
1.
(n)
2at) is briefly referred to as the point
the parameter of P.
is
9
2
x:y:a =
of the curve;
By using these coordinates, the condition that
P lies on the curve is automatically satisfied without reference to the

cartesian equation;
cf.
the
Remark in
16.21.
Examples
Find the condition for the chord joining the points tlf t2 to be a focal chord
to pass through the focus).
Any line through the focus (a, 0) has an equation of the form
(i)
(i.e.
l(x
This cuts the curve at points
for
l(at 2
a) + my =
0.
which
-a)+m.2at =
0.
be the chord t^ if the roots of this quadratic in t are tx and

product of the roots is 1, the required condition is tx t^ = 1.
This necessary condition for a focal chord is also sufficient. For
then tx and t 2 are the roots of a quadratic equation of the form
It will
pt 2 + 2qt-p
which shows that the points

clearly goes through the focus
(ii)
tx ,
lie
t2
on the
line
px + qy ap =
0,
and
this
A circlef
which
satisfy J
0,
aHl + 2a(2a + g) t* + 4aft + c =
0.
aH* + 4aH 2 + 2agt 2 + 4aft + c

i.e.
= 1,
0,
x* + y* + 2gx + 2fy + c
t
if
Since the
(a, 0).
Concyclic points on the parabola.
cuts the parabola at points
<2
Since this equation is quartic in. t, a circle and parabola can intersect in at
most four points. In real algebra a quartic equation has four, two, or no roots
(some or all of which may coincide); hence (ignoring possible coincidences) the
number of intersections is four, two, or none.
we
are already taking the equation of the parabola in the simple standard
are not entitled to choose axes so that the equation of the circle
also takes a simple form (such as x 2 +y* = r 2 ). Simplification of the equation of the
circle would complicate that of the parabola.
J When discussing the intersections of two loci it is usually most convenient to
employ the cartesian equation of one and the parametric equations of the other,
as here.
f Since
form y 2
= 4<tx, we
THE PARABOLA
16.2]
605
Suppose there are four intersections, given by
numbers are the roots of the above
WehaV6
quartic;
and
h + ** + ** + h =
t x , t 2 , ta , t
since the
v Then these
term in
is
absent,
0.
This necessary condition for concyclic points on the parabola is also sufficient.
In a general way this can be seen because three points of the curve determine
a unique circle, and one condition is required for this circle to pass through a
fourth point of the curve. In detail, given the four numbers tx t z t 3 tif where
Ht x = 0, consider the circle through tlt t2 t3 it cuts the curve again at a point
t' (since a quartic with three distinct roots must have a fourth), and so by the
t
above
t
t' = 0.
,
'
Hence
t1
t'
<4 ,
and so tv
t it t
z,
tt
+ t2 + 3 +
give concyclic points.
Exercise 16(a)
'
Find the gradient of the chord

t
is
from the directrix
is
If
is
4ax.
t2 .
one extremity of a focal chord PQ, find the length of PQ.

the mid-point of a focal chord PQ, prove that the distance of
2 If the point
3
'The parabola'' in this exercise means the curve y 2
equal to $PQ.
4 P,Q,R are points on the parabola such that PQ passes through the focus
and PR is perpendicular to the axis. When P varies on the parabola, prove that
the mid-point of QR lies on the parabola y 2 = 2a(x + a).
5 The chord PQ subtends a right-angle at the vertex O. Prove that the midpoint of PQ lies on the parabola y 2 = 2a(x 4a).
6 A circle is drawn on a focal chord as diameter, and cuts the axes at
(xlt 0), (a> 2 0), (0, yx ), (0, y 2 ). Prove that xx x 2 - y x y 2 = - 3a2
cuts the parabola in at most two
7 (i) Prove that the line Ix + my + n =
.
when
points
(ii)
4= 0.
If there are
two common points

t1
(iii)
If there
is
only one
+ t2 =
2m/l,
tx
and
2,
t1 t 2
prove that
n/al.
common point, prove that am 2 =
In,
and conversely.
the parabola at A, B, C, D. Show that the chords

are equally inclined to the axis. [Use no. 1 and ex. (ii) in 16.12.]
circle cuts
9 Prove that the locus of the centre of a

x 2 + y 2 2ax =
is the parabola y 2 = ax.
for a suitable S and a*.]
SP =
PM
10
circle
[If
AB,
CD
touching Oy and the circle

is the centre, show that
A variable circle passes through a given point A and touches a given line
Prove that the locus of
its
centre
is
directrix.
16.2
Chord and tangent
16.21
Chord
I.
a parabola, and identify the focus and
P P2
t
The gradient of the chord is

Vi-y* = 4a(yi-y2 ) = a
y\-y\
yi+yt'
41-2
THE PARABOLA
606
since y\
4axx and y\
4ax 2 The equation of the chord is therefore

.
yVi =
This equation
(x2
2 ).
is
To make it
x-,).
Ix
(1)
not symmetrical in the pair of coordinates (x x y x ),

,
of fractions:
so, first clear
2/(/i
By using the
[16.22
+ 2/2) ~ 2/i - 2/i2/2 = 4 - 4^1-
condition y\
ax x again,
this simplifies to
lax - (yx + y 2 )y + yx y2
0.
(ii)
Remark. To obtain (ii) we have appealed once to the condition

= 4ax2 that P2 lies on the curve, and twice to y\ = 4axx Contrast
the directness of the work in 16.22, where the use of parameters
automatically ensures that Px P2 lie on the curve.
For another way of proving (ii), see Ex. 16 (6), no. 1.
y\
Chord
16.22
tx t2
Since the gradient of the chord
(1)
is
2at x -2at 2
at\
at\
'
the chord has equation

2
y-2atx = 77- (x-atl),

t,
x-%(tx + t 2 )y + atx t 2 =
i.e.
0.
so
tx
is
+ t2
the chord
+ 2mt+l =
t t 2>
x
0.
this quadratic in
= 2m\l and t x t2 =
^
(iii)
This line cuts the curve at points t for which

lt
Since the fine
0.
the theory of quadratics) let the required
(2) Alternatively (using
chord be| Ix + my + a
and t 2
l~r t 2
and
\\l.
Tfb
must have roots
Hence
^-
t t2
x
tx t2
and the required chord is

x
t x t2
which
is
equivalent to
1 tx
tx t
y+a
0,
(iii).
f There is no loss of generality in taking the last term to be

of a line contains only two independent constants.
a, since
the equation
THE PARABOLA
16.23]
the numbers
(3) Alternatively, since

t
for
This represents the required chord

t
given by
16.23 Tangent at
(iv), i.e. t
the tangent at
x is
to substitute
because
tx t2
and
2t
iv )
it
cuts the curve at
For curves other than the
the points
0,
use the parametric equations x y a = t 2

and thereby construct the linear equation
x - Wi + h)y + at ih
to
are the roots of
-{t x + t 2 )t + t x t 2
we may
2
x,
607
circle,
the tangent
the limit of the chord
is
defined as a limit:
PX P2 when the point P2 tends
along the curve; but see 16.25.
The tangent at Px to y2 = Aax

equation (ii) by letting y2 -> y v and is
(1)
therefore obtainable from
is
4ax-2y1 y + yl =
Since y\
0.
4axv this can be written
yyx
2a(x + x1 ).
(v)
Observe that this can be written down from the equation y 2 = ax

by applying the 'rule of alternate suffixes' (see 15.63, Remark).
the gradient of the tangent at
(2) Alternatively,
calculating dy/dx
can be found by
when x = x x y = y x Thus from y =

2
2y
and the tangent
at
dy
dx
4a
dy
dx
and
4ax,
2a
=
y
Px has equation
2a.
y-yi = (x-xi)>
which
(v)
is
equivalent to the limit of
(i)
when y2 -> yx and reduces

,
to
above.
16.24 Tangent at the point

(1)
Letting
Omitting the
->tx in equation
suffix,
(iii),
we
the tangent at the point
x-ty + at 2 =
0.
obtain x tx y + at\=0.
t
is
(vi)
THE PARABOLA
608
(2) Alternatively,
[16.25
the gradient can be obtained by calculus:
dy
dx
_ dy jdx =
=
2a
dtj dt
2ai
and then the equation written down

y 2at
l'
as
^(x at 2 ).
Geometrically, the parameter
the cotangent of the angle
is
made by the tangent-line at the point t with the ic-axis

16.25 Tangency
for tan i/r
ijr
1/t.
and repeated roots
For a curve whose equation
is
a polynomial in
the simul-
(x,y),
taneous solution of this equation and that of the chord

,
P P2 leads to
1
equations for x and y containing the factors

(x
respectively, or to
- xx
(x
- x 2 ),
(y
- yx
(y
- y2
an equation in a parameter
containing
(*-*i)(*-f.).t
Since the equation of the tangent at
the chord
P1 PZ
when
tends to
equation of the tangent
is
will give equations for x,
or an equation for
P is the limit of the equation of

x
along the curve, hence
if
the
solved with the equation of the curve,
y containing the factors
containing
(t
tx
(x
xx
2
)
(y
yt
it
2
)
2
)
Thus tangency corresponds to repeated roots, and is often dealt with

thus rather than by direct appeal to the limit definition. For example,
the line Ix + my + n = meets the parabola where alt 2 + 2amt + n = 0,
and will be a tangent if and only if this quadratic has equal roots,
i.e. if
am 2 =
More
In; cf.
Ex. 16(a), no.
generally, if
approach
two
loci
7.
cut at
P1
and
2,
and
is
made
to
along one of them, then the limit of the other will touch
the first at Px because they have a common tangent there. For example,
if t %
tx
in ex.
(ii)
of 16.12, the limiting circle will touch the parabola
4 other hmiting cases can

be considered similarly (see Ex. 16 (6),nos. 16-18). See also Remark (a)
at the point t x
and cut it again at points f3
in 6.72.
f This is not the case unless the equation of the curve is algebraic; e.g. the chord
of thecurvey = e* joining (0, 1) and (l,e) isy 1 = (e l)x, and leads toe* 1 = (e l)x
which has no polynomial
factors.
THE PARABOLA
16.26]
609
16.26 Examples
(i)
The tangents
at
t lt t 2
meet at the point
{at 1 t 2 , a(t
2 )}.
This result can be verified by direct solution of the equations
x hy + atl
x t 2 y + at\
0,
Alternatively, these two equations express that

quadratic in t
2
at
y
a
so that
-ty+x =
d.
and
are the roots of the
0,
+ tz and
tt
tx t 2 ,
giving the required intersection (x, y).

The coordinates can be remembered by an extension of the rule of alternate
suffixes applied at at*, 2at.
'
(ii)
on
The
'
orthocentre\ of the triangle formed by three tangents to
a parabola
lies
the directrix.
The tangents at tlt t 2 meet at (af1 2 .a(<i + *2 ))- Tiie perpendicular from this
point to the tangent at tz has equation
hx + y
aih + t^ + t^t^,
and this line meets the directrix x = a where y = a^ + ^ + t^ + t^t^. The

symmetry of this result shows that the other two perpendiculars meet the
directrix at this same point, which must therefore be the orthocentre of the
triangle of tangents.
(iii)
(a)
(b)
2
the condition for y = mx + cto touch the parabola y
2
2
If this line also touches the circle x + y* = r prove that
Find
4ax.
m* + m 2
a2
-
r2
0,
and hence find the equations of the common tangents to the parabola and the
x 2 + y 2 = $a 2
2
(a) The line y = mx + c cuts the curve y = 4ax at points for which
circle
(mx + c) 2
4ax,
m x + 2(mc -2a)x + c = 0.
2
i.e.
The line will touch the curve if and only if this quadratic in x has equal roots, i.e.
(mc-2a) 2
mc
2 2
,
i.e.
Hence for all m

Alternatively,
4= 0,
the line
mx y + c =
tangent at some point
t)
= mx + a/m touches y 2 =
will
be the same
m=
Ijt
and
at
x ty + at2
(the
if
m 1 c
T ~ ~ at
i.e. if
4ax.
line as
'
= afm.
f The orthocentre of a triangle is the point of

drawn from the vertices to the opposite sides.
intersection of the perpendiculars
THE PARABOLA
610
[16.26
Similar methods will give the contact condition for the line and circle,
simpler to equate the radius r and the perpendicular from the centre
0) to the line mx y + ajm = 0:
(6)
but
(0,
it is
ajm
V(m 2 +l)'
from which the equation for m follows.

Taking r 2 = \a 2 the equation becomes
,
m + m -2 - 0,
i
m=
so that
1.
The common tangents
x + a,
y
Tangents from
(iv)
(m 2 -
i.e.
x ;
1)
(m 2 + 2)
0,
are thus
x a.
the chord of contact.
given point P x at most two tangents can be drawn to the parabola.

For the tangent at the point t will pass through (x lf y x ) if
From a
x i ~ tyi + at 2
0,
4mxx this gives two values t = tx t2 i.e. there are then two points
the tangents at which pass through Px .f
The argument used in 15.64 will show that the chord of contact of tangents
fr mPli8
yy 1 = 2a{x + x1 ).
and
if y\
(v)
>
Pair of tangents from Px
The condition
for the point

l lx x
to
lie
on y 2
4tax
(yl
+ kx 2
+
Jc
ly x
'
+ JcyA
+ )
Jc
reduces to
- 4aa 2
h 2 + 2{Vl y % -
<La{x x
+ x % )} U + (y 2 - AaxJ I 2 =
(JoachimsthaVs ratio equation for the parabola).

The argument in 15.64, ex. (ii) shows that the pair of tangents from
equation
2
2
2
{y 1 y-2a(x1 + x)} = (y -4ax 1 )(y -4ax).
has
Exercise 16(6)
1
Verify
that,
when
simplified, the equation
{y-yi)(y-y*)
is linear
Deduce
in x and y ; and that
it is satisfied
the equation of the chord
2 Deduce from equation

if
PxP 2
(iii)
2
y -*ax
by the points
P P
lt
on
the parabola.
in 16.22 that
t x t % is
a focal chord
if
and only
-1.
3 Obtain the equation of the tangent at the point

quadratic equations.
by using the theory of
4 Prove that the chord whose extremities are given by the roots of
= has equation ux + vy + aw = 0.
ut2 + 2vt + w
t The set of points (xv yi) for which y\

of the parabola.
> baxx may
therefore be called the outside
THE PARABOLA
5 Find the equation of each of the tangents from
611
(
2a, a)
to y
4ax.
on the parabola is PN, and the tangent at

6 The ordinate of the point
meets the axis at T. Prove that the vertex bisects TN.
7 If the tangent at P meets the axis at T, prove SP = ST.

is the perpendicular from a point P of the parabola to the
8 (i) If
directrix, prove that the tangent at P bisects angle SPM. [Use no. 7 and pure
PM
geometry.]
(ii)
light at
Deduce the property of the parabolic
from a source of
[Angle of incidence
reflector: rays
S leave the surface in a beam parallel to the axis.
angle of reflection.]
9 If the tangent at
P meets the directrix at Z, prove SZ _L SP.

and QU is parallel
UP
is the tangent at P,
10 PQ is a variable focal chord;
to the axis. Find the locus of the mid-point oiPU.
11
Show that any one

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
tangents at
tangents at
12 If P,
triangle
13
of the following statements implies the other two.
PQ is a focal chord;
(i)
P and Q are perpendicular;

P and Q meet on the directrix.
are the points
x, t
v and tangents at P, Q meet at T, prove that

If this area is always 4a 2 and the locus of T.
TPQ has area \a2 (t 2 t^) 3

If the chord
tx t %
subtends a right-angle at the point
-M a
+4 =
t,
prove that
0.
(ii) If the circle on chord PQ as diameter cuts the parabola again at H

and K, prove that the chords PQ, HK make equal angles with the axis.
14 A circle cuts the parabola at A, B, C, D; tangents at A, B meet at T, and
tangents at G,D meet at T'. Prove that the axis bisects TT'. [Use 16.12, ex. (ii).]
15 A circle passes through the vertex of the parabola and cuts the curve
again at A, B, G. The tangents at B, G meet at T. Find the ratio in which AT
is divided by the axis.
16 (i) If a circle touches the parabola at A and cuts it again at G, D, prove that
the tangent at A and the chord GD are equally inclined to the axis.
(ii) If circles touch a parabola at a fixed point, prove that the
chords not through this point are parallel.
common
*17 (i) If G ->

in no. 16 (i), then by 8.42 (2) the limiting circle is the circle
is the point t lf prove that the remaining
of curvature of the parabola at A. If
has parameter 3 x What can be said about the inclination of
intersection
and the chord AD1
the tangent at
circle cuts the parabola at A, B, C, D. If the circles of curvature at
(ii)
these points cut the curve again at A', B' , G', D' respectively, prove the latter
points are also concyclic.
*18 If tx #= t3 in ex. (ii) of 16.12, and t2 -> tx and <4 -+ 3 the limiting circle
touches the parabola at < x and at ts (double contact). Prove that the chord of
contact tt t3 is perpendicular to the axis, and that the centre of the circle lies
on the axis and has abscissa ^ 2a.
19 Sketch the parabolas y 2 = 4ax, x 2 = 4by (b > 0), and find the equation of
,
their
common
tangent.
20 Write down the equation of the chord of contact from P(, f ) to y 2 = 4x.
By finding its intersections with the curve, deduce the equations of the tangents
from P.
THE PARABOLA
612
[16.3
21 Prove that the pair of tangents from T(xl9 y x ) cuts Oy at points A, B such
that the mid-point of
is M(Q,\y x ). [Use ex. (v) of 16.26.] If P, Q are the
points of contact of these tangents, prove
_[_ PQ. [Use the chord of contact
AB
SM
from T.]
22 If tangents are drawn to the parabola from points of a given
that the corresponding chords of contact are concurrent.
line,
prove
*23 Prove that tangents at the extremities of a variable chord through Px

meet on the line yyx = 2a(x + x1 ). [Method of 15.65(1).]
*24 A variable chord through Px meets the parabola at A, B; P2 is chosen on
it so that Px and P 2 divide AB (one internally and the other externally) in the
same ratio. Prove that P2 ^ es on *ne lme VVi 2a(x + x1 ). [Method of 15.65(2);
use the ratio quadratic in 16.26, ex.
(v).]
*25 Defining the polar of x wo y % = 4a* to be the line yy x = 2a(x + x t ), prove

that if the polar of x passes through 2 then the polar of a passes through x
What is the polar of the focus?
*26 Use the ratio quadratic (16.26, ex. (v)) to obtain the equation of the
tangent at x [Since x lies on y 2 4ax, the ratio quadratic has one root k = 0;
the other root gives the remaining intersection of PxPa with the curve. If Px P a
is the tangent at
is a
this intersection must coincide with Px and k =
x
repeated root. Hence yx y% 2a(xt + x t ) = 0, which gives the locus of P2 .]
16.3
Normal
16.31
Normal
at the point
Since the tangent at the point
has gradient
has gradient
l/t,
the normal there
t. Hence the equation of the normal at t is

y 2at
tx
i.e.
= t(x at 2
+y =
2at + ats
),
(i)
Example
Prove that
the
normal
at
so that
ts,
meets the curve again at the point t2/t.
If the other intersection
is
the point
gradient of normal at
then the normal at
s,
=
t
from which s = t 2/t. Also

16.32
also the chord
ts,
t =
i.e.
gradient of chord
t is
see Ex. 16
+s
(c),
no.
4.
Conormal points
Given a point
drawn from
it
(C
>2/o)>
we may
to the parabola.
fo>>yo)rf
Since this equation
tx
is
enquire
+y =
cubic in
t,
how many normals can be
The normal
2at
+ t3
at
will pass
through
there are at most three points on the
THE PARABOLA
16.32]
613
curve such that the normals from them pass through (x y ). Ignoring
coincidences, a cubic has either one or three roots; therefore either
one or three normals can be drawn from a given point. Also see
,
Ex.
16(c), no. 15.
Suppose that the normals at the points

(x
).
Then these numbers
is
are concurrent at
are the roots of the cubic
)t-y =
at3 +(2a-x
Since the term in
tx , t 2 , t3
0.
(ii)
absent,
fi
+ <a + 'a =
(iii)
Three points on the curve which are such that the normals at them
are concurrent are called conormal points. Hence (iii) is a necessary
condition for the points
currence
is
t
3
x , t2 ,
The point of con-
to be conormal.
given by
2a-xQ =
dLtx t2
atx t2 tz
(iv)
The necessary condition T,t x = Ofor conormal points is also sufficient.

In a general way this is clear because only one condition is needed for
concurrence of three lines. In detail, given t x t2 t3 we can define
numbers x and y by equations (iv) above; then, provided
,
h + 2 + t3 =
t
we see that t lt
2 , t3
>
are the roots of the cubic
(ii),
which expresses that
the normal at each of the corresponding points passes through (x y

,
If
(x
two roots of the cubic

)
coincide. If t 2
ts ,
By
8.53, ex.
normals
(i.e.
(i),
the
(ii)
then
).
are equal, then two of the three normals from

t x = 2t 2 and (x
y ) is given by (iv) as
-2a + Zat\,
-2at\.
these equations show that (x ,y ) lies on the envelope of the

of the parabola. From any point on this locus only two
evolitte)
normals can be drawn.

Three normals from a point can coincide only when < x
zero (since 2^ = 0); and then (iv) shows that {x ,y )
distinct
is
<2
is
the point (2a,
t3 , i.e.
when each
0).
Examples
(i)
The
circle
through the feet of three concurrent normals also passes through
the vertex.
If tx , t 2 ts are the feet, then <x + a + ts = 0. If the circle through these points
cuts the curve again at tt , then by ex. (ii) of 16.12 we have tl + t2 + t3 + ti = 0.
Hence tt = 0, which gives the vertex (0, 0).
,
THE PARABOLA
614
[16.32
Find
the equation of the circle through the feet of

current at (h,k). (See also 19.7, ex. (i).)
(ii)
The
feet of the three
normals are the roots of the cubic

at s
+ (2a-h)t-k =
0.
(v)
If the required circle is x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c

satisfy (cf. 16.12, ex. (ii))
0, its
aH* + (4a 2 + 2ag) t 2 + laft + c

Since by ex.
given by
The
(i) t
cubics
The required
is
0.
one such meet, therefore

at*
(4a + 2a) * + 4/
meets with the curve
0.
0,
and the other three are

(vi)
now have the same roots, and so

4a + 2g = 2a-h, 4/ = k.
(v), (vi)
circle is therefore
x 2 + y 2 - (h + 2a) x - \ky
(iii)
normals which are con-
0.
Prove that the normal at P x has equation 2a(y y x ) + yx (x xt ) = 0.

Hence prove that the feet of the normals from (h, k) to the parabola lie
curve xy + (2a h)y 2ak = 0.
(a)
(6)
on
the
By
(a)
gradient
16.23 the tangent at
has gradient 2a/ylt so the normal at
yJ2a, and its equation is
has
y
y-yi = - a {x - x J'
Let P x be the foot of a normal drawn from

on the normal at Px
(b)
(h, k) lies
(h, k)
to the curve.
Then since
2a(k-y1 + y 1 (h-x1 =
)
which shows that
lies
0,
on the locus
2a{k-y) + y{h-x)
0.
Exercise 16(c)
PN
is the ordinate of a point

on the parabola, and the normal at
1
= 2a.
the axis at G. Prove that
P cuts
NG
2 The tangent and normal at

SG.
meet the axis at T,
G respectively.
Prove
T8 =
3 The line through the

axis meets the normal at
mid -point
P in
of a focal chord
V. Find the locus of V.
PQ and parallel to the
4 If the normal at t meets the curve again at s, find s in terms of t by sub= as 2 y = 2as in the equation of the normal and either (a) factorising
the cubic in t, or (6) observing that the resulting quadratic in * necessarily has
a root s = t, and that the sum of the roots is 2 It.
5 (i) Prove that the feet of normals which meet at the point * of the curve
stituting x
satisfy the quadratic

(ii)
+ st + 2 =
If the normals at
t lf t z
0.
[Use 16.31, ex.]
meet on the curve, prove that
fx 2
2.
Conversely, if t1 tz = 2, prove that the normals at tx t2 meet on the

curve. [Let the normals meet the curve again at s lt s 2 respectively; use 16.31,
ex. and the condition to show s t s 2 .]
(iii)
THE PARABOLA
16.4]
(iv)
615
Show that normals at the extremities of a focal chord can never meet on
the curve.
6 Prove that the normals at the extremities of all chords of the form
x + ky + 2a = meet on the curve. Show that all such chords pass through a
fixed point, and give its coordinates. [This line cuts the curve where
at 2
+ 2akt + 2a =
so that
0,
tx t 2
2.]
7 Find the equations of the three normals from (15a, 12a) to y 2 = 4ax.
2
8 Show that two of the three normals from (5a, 2a) to y = 4tax coincide.
9 Prove that the centroid of the triangle formed by conormal points lies
on the axis.
10 PQ is a chord of a parabola drawn in a fixed direction. Prove that the locus
of the meet of the normals at P and Q is a line which is itself normal to the
parabola. [If tlf
t2
are the extremities, then

2/(i
+ h) = m,
i.e.
t1
+ t 2 + {- 2/m) =
0;
meet on the normal at the (fixed) point 2/m.]

11 If normals at P, Q, B are concurrent, and the chords PP', QQ', BR' are
parallel to QB, BP, PQ respectively, prove that the normals at P', Q', B' are
hence the normals at
tx , t
2
also concurrent.
12 Prove that the normals at
a{t\
t lt t 2
intersect at the point
+ tx t2 + t\ + 2),
t3 from S x =
[Solve directly; or eliminate

13
= - atitjfa +
(a;,
where
2 ).
and equations
y),
(iv) in 16.32.]
variable chord PQ subtends a right-angle at the vertex. Tangents at

is the mid-point of PQ.
meet at T, and the normals at P, Q meet at N;
P, Q
Find the
loci of
T, N,
M.
* 14 If C is the centre of the circle through the feet of normals from r prove
r
are Glf C2 , G3 , and conversely.
that when
3 are collinear, then so
ly
2
[Use ex. (ii) of 16.32.]
,
P P P
,
15 Show that y =
2
4ax meets the locus in 16.32, ex. (iii) (6) at points P(x,y)
which y3 + 4a(2a h)y 8a 2 k = 0. Deduce that at most three normals can
be drawn to the parabola from a given point (h, h).
for
16.4
Diameters
16.41 General definition
The locus of the mid-points of a system of parallel chords of a

is
conic
called a diameter of the conic.
The parallel chords are sometimes
called ordinates to the diameter.
In 17.63 the above definition will be reconciled with the usual meaning
of 'diameter'.
16.42 Diameters of a parabola
The chord
has gradient m, where
m = 2/(
of this chord has ^-coordinate a{t t + t 2 ),

points of
all
chords of given gradient
i.e.
+ 2 )- The
mid-point
2a/m. Hence the mid-
satisfy
2a/m, which
is
THE PARABOLA
616
[16.42
therefore the equation of the diameter bisecting chords of gradient m.
Thus
the diameters of
Also see Ex. 16
(d),
a parabola are
no.
straight lines parallel to the axis.
6.
Example
Prove that
the tangent at the extremity
is parallel to the chords
P of a diameter
which the diameter
bisects.
The diameter y = 2a jm meets y 2 = 4ax where

x aim 2 i.e. at the point P(a/m 2 2a/m). The tangent
,
at
(which
is
the point 1/m) has gradient

1/(1 /m)
and
is
= m,
therefore parallel to the chords of gradient m.
Fig. 168
Exercise 16 (d)
1
Write down the equation of the diameter of y 2
2x 3y+ 1 = 0.
2 Write down the gradient
x which bisects chords
parallel to
the diameter 2y + 3
of the chords of y 2
2x which are bisected by
0.
3 Prove that tangents at the extremities of any chord of a parabola meet on

the diameter which bisects this chord.
4 V is the mid-point of a chord QQ' of a parabola, and TQ, TQ' are tangents.
Prove that the parabola bisects TV.
*5 Prove that the circle
[Use no. 3.]
drawn on a
focal chord as diameter touches the
directrix.
6 By considering the ^-coordinate of the mid-point of the chord y = mx + e

of y 2 = 4ax, show that the locus of the mid-points of chords of gradient
is
the line y = 2a /m.

1
A point is such that its distance from a fixed line is equal to the length of
the tangent from it to a fixed circle. Prove that its locus is a parabola. Locate
the focus and directrix when the given line touches the circle.
2 Obtain the equation of the
circle
through the points (p,
0), (q, 0), (0, r).
A circle passes through a fixed point, and the chord cut off by it from a given
line is of constant length.
Two
senses.
Prove that the locus of its centre
is
a parabola.
common axis and their concavities are in opposite

If any line parallel to the common axis meets the parabolas at P, Q, prove
parabolas have a
that (provided the latera recta are unequal) the locus of the
another parabola.
mid -point of PQ
is
4 Prove
that
ax 2 + bx + c represents a parabola, and find
its
vertex
and
the
length of the latus rectum.
5 Prove that the common chord of circles

as diameters passes through the vertex.
drawn on any two
and cuts it again at G

circle touches the parabola at
6
that the axis bisects the line joining
to the mid-point of CD.
focal chords
and D. Prove
THE PARABOLA
617
7 G is the centroid of a triangle inscribed in a parabola; G' is the centroid of

the corresponding triangle of tangents. Prove that GQ' is parallel to the axis,
and that the parabola divides GO' in the ratio 2:1.
P meets the parabola again at Q, and the axis divides PQ

Prove that the ^-coordinate of P is 2ka/(l k). For what value
of k is P an extremity of the latus rectum?
9 Normals at the ends of a focal chord PQ cut the curve again at P', Q'.
Prove that P'Q' is parallel to QP and that P'Q' = 3QP.
8 The normal at
in the ratio k:l.
prove that the meet of tangents at

on the locus y\x + 2a) + 4a 8 = 0.
11 A,B,C,D are concyclic points on the parabola; AB is a focal chord; AG is
the normal at A. Show that the axis divides BD in the ratio 1 3.
12 Find the locus of a point P(h, k) such that two of the normals drawn from
10 If normals at P,
P,
lies
either
Q meet on the curve,
on a line
parallel to Oy, or
to the parabola y 2
it
4ax are perpendicular.
2
13 Prove that three normals cannot be drawn from (h, k) to y = lax unless
h > 2a. [Prove f(t) = at3 + {2a h)t k is steadily increasing for all t if h S 2a,
so that f(t) =
has just one root.]
14 Prove that chords of y 2 = 4ax which subtend a right-angle at the point tQ

of the curve all pass through the point (a(t 2 + 4), - 2at ). (Cf. Ex. 19 (c), no. 2.)
A variable triangle is inscribed in y =
2
4ax so that two of its sides touch
Prove that the third side touches y % = lex, where (2a b) 2 c = ab 2
[Use the condition km 2 = In for tangency of Ix + my + n = and y 2 = Ikx.]
16 Given a line I and a point not on it, a variable line is drawn through S
to meet I at V. A line p is drawn through V perpendicular to SV. Prove that
p touches a parabola having S for focus and I for its tangent at the vertex.
[Choose I for 2/-axis, and the perpendicular to it through S for a;-axis; let these
meet at O and p meet SO at T. If p has equation Ix + my + n = 0, then
OV -n/rn and OT = w/Z. By geometry OV 2 = TO. OS, so am 2 = nl where
a = OS.]
(15.26) cuts y 2 = 4ax at
17 Show that the line through Px in direction
points for which r is given by
*15
4bx.
r2 sin2
(This
is
from
+ 2(yx sin 6 - 2a cos 6) r + (y2 - 4axx =

)
y = 4ax because it gives the distances r

of the points of the parabola on the line through x in direction 6.)
called the distance quadratic for

x
0.
18 Prove that the chord of y 2 = 4ax whose mid-point is (xx , y) has equation
yyx 2ax = y\ 2axx [For the required chord the roots of the distance quadratic
are equal and opposite, so yx sin 6 2a cos 6 = 0, which detemiines cos 6 : sin 6.
.
The equation x xx cos 6 = y y1

:
sin 6 of the chord
{x-x1 )jy1 =
19
Deduce from no. 18 that
Px is y 2 2ax = yy 2axx
m is the line y =
(ii)
becomes
(y-yjfia.-]
the locus of the mid-points of chords through

the locus of the mid -points of chords of gradient
(i)
2a/m.
20 Find the locus of the mid-points of chords of y 2
y =
2
4ax which touch
46a;.
21 If parallel chords are divided so that the product of their segments is

constant, prove that the point of division lies on a parabola congruent to the
given one.
THE PARABOLA
618
22 Using no.
obtain the equation of the tangent at
17,
Pv
[Two roots r
0.]
23 Obtain the equation of the pair of tangents from P x [Equal roots r.]
*24 Show that (3x + 4y) 2 = 54a; 53y + 29 represents a parabola as follows.
(i) Verify that the equation can be written
.
(3x + 4y + k) 2
(ii)
(6k + 54) x + (8k - 53) y + (k 2
+ 29).
By choosing k so that the lines
3x + 4y + k = 0, (6k + 54:)x + (Sk53)y + (k 2 + 29) =
are perpendicular, express the equation in the form

(a)
PN
If PM,
are the perpendiculars from P(x, y) to the (perpendicular)
2 = 2PN.
3x + 4=y + 1 = 0, 4x-3y + 2 = 0, (a) shows
By the Remark
in 16.11, the curve is a parabola of latus rectum 2, having axis 3x + 4y + 1 =
and 4x 3y + 2 = for tangent at the vertex.
(iv) For points on the curve, (a) shows that 4x 3y + 2 ^ 0; hence the curve
is on the origin side of 4x 3y + 2 = 0, i.e. lies below this line. Sketch the curve.
*25 Sketch the parabola (x + 2y) 2 = 56x + 12y 184, giving the equation of
the axis and the coordinates of the vertex.
(iii)
PM
lines
*26
(i)
If ab
= h2
then the terms of second degree in
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c
form a perfect square, say (px + qy) Prove by the method of no. 24 that, unless
g :f = p :q, the equation represents a parabola whose axis is parallel to px + qy = 0.
(ii) In the exceptional case show that the equation can be written
(px + qy + X) 2 = A 2 c where g = Xp and / = Xq. This represents a pair of parallel
lines, a repeated line, or nothing according as A 2
c. (Algebraically, a parallel
line-pair is thus a degenerate parabola.)
*27 Show that the curve whose parametric equations are
2
x
is
at 2
+ 2bt, y =
ct 2
+ 2dt
(ad
4= 6c)
and use the result of no. 26 (i).]

given parametrically by x =f(t)/h(t), y = g(t)jh(t). Prove that
a parabola. [Eliminate
t,
28 A curve is
the chord joining the points
t,t
+ e has equation
f(t)
g(t)
h(t)
f(t
e)
g(t
e)
h(t
=0.
+ e)
Deduce that the tangent at the point t has equation
[r 3 -> (ra
r 2 )/e, and
f(t)
g(t)
h(t)
f'(t)
g'(t)
h'(t)
let e -> 0.]
=0.
619
17
THE ELLIPSE
17.1
The
17.11
SP = e.PM
We now
loci
consider the locus denned
8P e.PM
by
(e
>
0, e 4= 1),
is the foot of the perpendicular from

where 8 is a given point and
P to a given line d (15.71). Choose 8 for origin, and let the given line
then have equation x = k (k > 0). The equation of the locus referred
to this set of axes
is
therefore
x 2 + y2
i.e.
2 (l
- e + 2e
2
e 2 (x
2
k) 2
kx + y
e2k2 .
Fig. 169
On
'
completing the square with the terms involving x, this becomes

'
e2 k \
1-e2 /
e4
e2k 2
(l-e 2 )
(l-e 2 )
Change the
origin to the point
by the formulae
x
x'
e 2k
l-e,2'
!
42
+ l-e
2
y'-
GPM
II
11
THE ELLIPSE
620
[17.12
Omitting dashes, the equation of the locus becomes
V-e*)x*+y* =
x2
(i)
^+p=
17.12 Focus-directrix property of
In the equation
~.
y2
we can assume that a >
and b > 0, and also that a #= b (otherwise it

would be the equation of the circle with centre
and radius a).
Without loss of generality we can therefore always assume a > b > 0.
Equation (ii) will be the same as equation (i) if
e
a9
On
dividing these
we
<
hence
<
r.9
ft
'
T^-
get
- e2 =
j
and
~52 ,
e2
i.e.
a2
<
1;
1.
Wo the new (dashed) axes, S has coordinates
and the equation
a;
becomes
A;
_
Hence
e
times
<
is e,
<
(ii)
its
is
whose focus
_a
&
the locus of a point whose distance from 8(ae, 0)
(ii)
is
is S(ae, 0),
is
where b 2 = a 2 (l e 2 ) and so
the equation of an ellipse whose eccentricity
and whose directrix is the line x = aje.
distance from the line x
Therefore
1.
e 2&
aje,
17.13 Focus-directrix property of -=1 v=

2=
The algebra of
17.12,
with 6 replaced by
x2
y2
b2
a
is
& 2 shows that

,
(in)
'
the locus of a point whose distance from 8(ae, 0) is e times its distance
from the
line
aje,
where b 2
a 2 (e 2
1)
and so
>
1.
Therefore
THE ELLIPSE
17.14]
(iii)
is the equation of
directrix
x=
a hyperbola of
621
eccentricity
e,
focus S(ae,
0),
and
a\e.
and b > 0; but we must

In equation (iii) we may assume a >
allow a $ b, because (iii) is not symmetrical in x and y like (ii).
17.14 Second focus
and
directrix
For both curves the condition
SP = e.PM is expressed by
(x-ae) 2 + y 2
x 2 2aex + a 2e 2 + y 2
i.e.
By adding 4:aex to both sides,
this
e2
(--xY
= a2 2aex + e2x2
becomes
which shows that the distance of P(x,y) from the point S'( ae,0)
is e times its distance from the line x = aje: S'P = e.PM'.
Hence both curves have a second focus S'( ae, 0) and a corresponding directrix x = aje.
17.15 Further definitions
From the equations, both curves are clearly symmetrical about the
and about the /-axis. The origin is the centre of each.
The ellipse meets Ox at the points A (a, 0) and A'( a, 0), and meets
Oy at B(0, b) and B'(0, b). AA', BB' are called the major and minor
axes of the ellipse; their lengths are 2a, 2b respectively. The points
c-axis
A, A' are called the vertices of the ellipse.

The hyperbola cuts Ox at the points A(a, 0) and A'{ a, 0); but it
does not cut Oy. A A' is called the transverse axis; it has length 2a.
The points A, A' are the vertices of the hyperbola.
For either curve, the chord through S or S' at right-angles to A A'
is
called
a latus rectum.
We now
consider the ellipse in detail,
until Ch. 18.
17.16
Form
of the
=1
ellipse
a-
From the equation we have
and leave the hyperbola
THE ELLIPSE
622
so that
[17.17
a < x < a for all points on the curve.
Similarly
b^y^b
on the curve. Hence the ellipse lies in the rectangle whose

sides are x = a, y = b.
When x = a, the equation shows that y% \b 2 = 0, which has the
repeated root y = 0. Hence the line x = a touches the ellipse at A {a, 0)
it is the tangent at the vertex A. Similarly the line x = a touches
the ellipse at A'; and y b touch it at B, B' respectively.
Since e < 1 therefore ae < a and so S lies between O and A similarly
S' is between
and A'. Also aje > a, so the directrices cut Ox at points
D, D' beyond A, A' respectively. We have
for all points
OS =
OS'
ae,
OD =
OD' = -
(iv) f
B'
Fig. 170
17.17 Circle
When b =
and
a,
ellipse
the equation
(ii)
becomes that of the
circle
with centre
and radius a; but equation (i) cannot represent a circle for any choice
of e and k. Hence a circle cannot be defined by the focus-directrix
property, and therefore is not a 'conic' in the sense of the definition
in 15.71; in particular, a circle is not a special {or degenerate) ellipse.
We may
when b -> a. The

that e->0; hence by (iv), S and S'
directrices recede along the a;-axis. The ellipse
consider the ellipse represented
by
(ii)
= a (l e 2 shows
2
relation b
approach
O and
the
tends to become circular in form, since
OP2 =
x 2 + y*
t Thus the eccentricity e

are 'off-centre'.
a 2 (l-^)
= OS/OA,
+ y* = a 2 +
and indeed
(l
~) y
indicates to
->a\
what extent the
foci
THE ELLIPSE
17.2]
623
Thus the circle with centre and radius a is the limit of the ellipse;
and the equation of this circle is certainly the limit when b -> a of
the equation of the
17.2
ellipse.
Other ways of obtaining an
ellipse
17.21 Auxiliary circle
The
circle
ellipse. Its
on diameter
equation
is
A A'
called the auxiliary circle of the
is
x 2 -\-y2
_
a2
Fig. 171
Let the ordinate

cut this circle at Q.
ellipse
and
circle.
NP of any point P on the ellipse be produced to

are called corresponding points on the
Then P, Q
Since
PN = y = -J{a?-x*)
= ^(OQ*-ON*) = ^QN,
i.e.
Conversely,
so that
PN QN = b:a.
an ordinate QN to a circle of radius a is divided at P
PN QN = b:a, then the locus ofPasQ varies on the circle is an

:
For if Q is the point (x, Y), then x 2 + Y 2 = a 2 and

point (x, y) where y = bY/a, so the coordinates of P satisfy
ellipse.
i.e.
x
1jJlLa*^b*
P is
the
THE ELLIPSE
624
[17.22
Example
The elliptic trammel.
Through P draw the
PR' = Q0 =
a.
line parallel to
QO
to
meet Ox, Oy at
jB,
R'; then
From the similar triangles RPN, OQN,
PR _ PN
QO ~ QN'
and hence PR = b.
If a rod PRR' has pegs on its under -side at R, R', and these pegs are made to
slide in perpendicular grooves AOA', BOB', the point P will trace an ellipse
whose major and minor semi-axes are PR', PR respectively.
17.22 Focal distances
The lengths SP, S'P are the focal distances of the point
Since SP = e.PM and S'P = e.PM' (fig. 170),
P on the
ellipse.
SP + S'P = e{PM + PM') = e.DD' = e(^j =

Hence
the
sum
2a.
of the focal distances of a point on the ellipse is 2a (the
bifocal property).
Conversely, the locus of a point

an ellipse with foci S, S'.
SP + S'P
such that
constant is
Proof. Choose the mid-point of SS' for origin,
S'S; then let
S be
(c,
0)
and S' be
c, 0).
SP + S'P =
any point P(x, y) on the locus
V{(* - c)
i.e.
<J{(x
Squaring,
(x
2a,
satisfies
+ y 2} + <J{(x + c) 2 + y 2} =
2a,
+ c) 2 + y 2} = 2a- J{{x - c) 2 + y 2}.
+ c) 2 + y2 =
(x
- c) 2 + y 2 + 4a 2 - 4a *J{(x - cf + y 2},
4a J{(x - c) 2 + y 2}
i.e.
and take Ox along

Supposing that
4a 2 - 4ca.
Again squaring,
a\x 2 - 2cx + c 2 + y 2} = a 4 - 2a 2cx + c 2x 2

hence
^1
ie
x2
1.
< PS + PS' = 2a, i.e. c < a and so a2 -c 2

The above equation therefore represents an ellipse with
triangle PSS', SS'
positive.
a2 - c2
y2
^+~/-- =
a* a z c2
From
is
^jx2 + y2 =
THE ELLIPSE
17.23]
625
a2 -c 2 If e is its eccentricity, then since a -b

we have c = ae. Hence S, S' are the points ( ae, 0),
h2
=a
i.e.
2 2
the
by
17.12,
foci.
Example
Mechanical description of the ellipse: pin-construction'
Fix pins S, S' at distance 2ae apart. Tie the ends of a string of length 2a at
S and S'. A pencil point P moving so that the string S'PS is kept taut will trace
the ellipse with foci S, S', eccentricity e, and major axis 2a.
'.
'
17.23 Orthogonal projection of a circle
Given two planes a, a' which intersect in a line I, consider perpendiculars dropped from points of a onto a'. If the perpendicular
from P in a has foot P' in a', then P' is called the orthogonal projection
of P on a'. If P lies on a locus 2 in a, then the corresponding locus
of P' in a' is called the orthogonal projection of S on a'.
Fig. 172
We now
obtain formulae relating the coordinates of
and
P'.
common line I for a;-axis in both planes, and take any point
for origin. Draw lines Oy, Oy' in a, a' at right-angles to Ox.
Choose the
on
it
Wo
these axes, suppose P{x,y) in
the angle between the planes a,
is
a;'
The
circle
+y =
2
and
projects into P'(x',y') in a'. If
a', i.e.
y'
between Oy and Oy', then
y cos 0.
a in a therefore projects into the curve

v'
2
2
cos a
THE ELLIPSE
626
Choosing 6 so that cos 6
x' 2
Hence
<
bja (b
y' 2
a2
equation becomes
a), this
=
^h
b2
the ellipse
[17.24
o2
of a circle of radius a onto a plane

angle cos -1 {bja) with the plane of the circle.
is the orthogonal projection
If
making
we rotate the plane xOy about Ox until it coincides with plane

we obtain fig. 171 of the ellipse and its auxiliary circle.
x'Oy',
17.24 General properties of orthogonal projection

(
lx'
Effect
1)
on angles.
+ m sec 6y' + n
viz. {nil, 0),
0.
A line projects into a line, since Ix + my + n =

This line and
and make angles

tan 6
<j>,
<j>'
projection cut
its
Ox
at the
becomes
same point,
with Ox, where
and
tan 0'
tan 6'
tan
cos 6.
msec
-.
Hence parallel lines project into parallel lines, but in general angles are changed.
However, a line perpendicular or parallel to Ox projects into another such line.
tangent to a curve projects into the tangent to the projected curve at the
(2)
corresponding point. The tangent to y = f(x) at (xlf y^) is
y-Vi
and
projects into
(y'
=f
(î)'(x-x1 ),
y'J sec = f'(x'j)
(x'
x'j),
i.e.
y' - y[ = /'(a) cos 6
This is the tangent at
to the curve
(x[, y[)
y'
- x[).
(x'
= f(x') cos 6, which is the projection
of y =f(x).
By
(1),
a normal does not in general project
into
a normal.
on lengths. If PQ in a has length r and makes angle <j> with Ox, let
projection P'Q' on a' make angle 0' with Ox. Through O draw OPx equal and
parallel to PQ; then
is
1 is (rcos0, rsm<j>) and so its projection P'
t
(3) Effect
its
(r
Hence
and
also
Since
OP? =
=
OP[ r cos Px OP'^.
by (1) OP'x is parallel
cos 0, r sin (j> cos 0)

r 2 (cos 2
+ sin 2
cos 2 0)
r 2 (l-sin 2 0sin 2 0);
to P'Q', therefore
0P'x
PQ and P'Q', so that P'Q' = PQ cos PxOP'v i.e.

P = PQ V( 1 - sin 6 sin 2 0)
is
the angle between
(i)
THE ELLIPSE
17.3]
627
Hence, in general, lengths are changed by orthogonal projection; they are conserved only on lines parallel to Ox.
Formula (i) also shows that the ratio of lengths on parallel lines (or on the
same line) is unaltered; in particular, mid-points project into mid-points. On
intersecting lines the ratio of lengths is altered.
(4) Effect
on areas. Since
orthogonal projection reduces areas in the ratio cos 6:1.

(5) By means of these results and that in 17.23, properties of the ellipse can
be deduced from certain properties of the circle by orthogonal projection.
In general only central properties can be obtained in this way; we cannot expect
to prove focal properties thus, since foci are foreign to the circle (see 17.17).
Example
PN is
the ordinate of
P;
the tangent at
P meets
the
major axis
at T.
Prove
ON.OT = OAK
In it, OP _L PT, and by
which can be written ON .OA = OA-.OT
and involves the ratios of lengths on the same line.
First sketch the corresponding figure for the circle.
geometry
ON.OT = OP2 = OA 2
Fig. 173
If the figure is projected orthogonally onto a plane through the line OT, this
relation will hold for the new figure, and is the required property of an ellipse;
to the circle will project into an ordinate
for since
JL OT, the ordinate
PN
PN
to the ellipse.
For
the circle it is true that ON.OT = OP 2 , but this cannot be

generalised into a property of an ellipse because the lengths concerned do
not he along the same or parallel lines.
N.B.
17.3
17.31 Eccentric angle
Let
point
<f>
be the point on the auxiliary
on the ellipse (17.21), and
let
circle
corresponding to the
^ = NOQ
(called the eccentric
628
angle of P).
Then x
THE ELLIPSE
= ON = acos0; and since NQ =
[17.32
asin^, we have
y=
{b\a)NQ = bsm<j). Hence the coordinates of each point on the

x2 la 2 + y 2 /b 2 = 1 can be expressed in the form (acos^, ftsin^).
As increases from to 2n, Q describes the auxiliary circle and P
describes the ellipse. Two values of
which differ by an integral
multiple of 2n give the same point of the ellipse.
Conversely, for each
the point (a cos <}>, b sin <fi) lies on the ellipse,
as is clear by substituting in the equation. The point whose coordinates
ellipse
<f>
are (a cos 0, 6 sin (f>)
The point
17.32
By putting t
z
Hence
referred to as the point
is
tan \<$ in the coordinates of the point 0,
1 t2
= acos0 = aj-^,
for each
t,
a
\
on the
ellipse
2/
2t
= 6sin0 =
6j-j-^.
the point
/
lies
<f>.
1-t 2 2bt_\
i+t 2 >l+t 2)
x 2 \a 2 + y 2 \b 2
we refer to
it
as the point
t.
Each value oft determines just one point of the ellipse but the point
;
A a, 0) is not given by any value of

'(
as the limit
when
although
t,
it
can be obtained
t->oo.
This algebraic representation can also be obtained directly; for

since
b2
t
therefore
l-xla
y\
1^/557* -'
Hen*,
(l-|):g:( 1+ ?)
and so
a b
(1
-f 2 )
(i)
2*
(1
2
).
Example
Goncyclic points on the
The
circle
a2
i.e.
(a 2
ellipse.
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c
/l-t*\
|-
+ 62
l
|
2t
\
-)
cuts the ellipse at the points
+2ga
1-t*
-
for
which
2t
+ 2/6- + c =
0,
- 2ga + c) tl + 4/6<8 + 2(26 2 - a 2 + c) t z + 4fbt + (a 2 + 2ga + c) =
0.
(ii)
THE ELLIPSE
17.32J
629
Since this is quartic in t, a circle and ellipse can cut in at most four points; the
(some of which may coincide),
actual number of intersections will be 4, 2, or
since a quartic has 4, 2 or no roots.
Suppose the above circle cuts the ellipse at the points tlf t 2 , t3 tt ; then these
numbers are the roots of (ii). Since the coefficients of J8 and t are equal, therefore
,
Now by
14.23,
(viii),
-i^î^.
which
is
by the above
zero
(positive, negative, or zero).
condition.
Thus
Hence S$0 X
*/ the points
20 x = 2mr.
This necessary condition for concyclic points
X,
= nn
a,
<Ui
some
for
integer
of the ellipse are
3,
concyclic, then
is
also sufficient: see
Ex. 17 (a),
no. 11.
Exercise 17(a)
'
The
ellipse''
means
the locus
x2 /a*+y 2 /b*
1.
Find the length of a latus rectum of the ellipse.

2 With the notation of 17.15, P is any point on the ellipse and the perpendicular from P to A A' has foot N; prove that PNZ :A'N.NA = OB*: OAK
Find a similar relation involving N', the foot of the perpendicular from P
1
to BB'.
3
If
P is the point (x, y) on the ellipse, prove SP = a ex and S'P = a + ex.
4 Use the bifocal property to prove that BS = BS' = a.

Given an ellipse and its major and minor axes A A' BB', construct the
',
foci
S, S' geometrically.
A rod AB moves with its ends on two fixed perpendicular lines; P is fixed
and BP = a, PA = 6. Find the locus of P.
in the rod,
(b/a) cot \(d +

b(l *1 *2 )/a(1 + * 2
of SP is an ellipse whose
6 Prove that the gradient of the chord
6<j>
7 Prove that the gradient of the chord
<!< a is
is
<f>).
).
8 Show that the locus of the mid-point

the mid-point of OS. State the lengths of the semi-axes.
centre
is
9 Prove that the mid-point of the chord 6$ has coordinates

(a cos (0 + 0) cos $(0-0), b sin (0 + 0) cos $(0-0)).
10 Find the locus of the mid-point of the chord 00

= 2a, where a is constant.
(ii)
when
(i)
2a;
1 1 Prove that the condition E0 X = 2nn is sufficient for the points

V 2 8 4
of the ellipse to be concyclic. [The circle through v 2 3 cuts the ellipse again
at 04 prove 0 4 is a multiple of 2n, so that 0^ and 4 give the same point.
,
<f>
Cf. 16.12, ex.
(ii).]
circle cuts an ellipse at A, B, C, D. Prove that the chords AB, CD are

12
equally inclined to the major axis (and therefore also to the minor axis). [Use
17.32, ex. and no. 6.]
and cuts
13 If a circle touches an ellipse at
are equally inclined to each axis.
AC,
it
again at
G and D, prove that
AD
14 Circles touch an ellipse at a given point. Prove that their

not through that point are parallel.
common chords
THE ELLIPSE
630
*15
[17.4
Find the point where the circle of curvature at ^ meets the ellipse again.
(i)
If the points <fi lt <fi 2 t are concyclic, and the circles of curvature at
these points cut the ellipse again at <j>' <f>' <j>' <fi' prove these points are also
v 2 3 v
(ii)
concyclic.
*16 With coordinate axes as in 17.23, show that the orthogonal projection of
the parabola y 2 = 4nax is another parabola.
*17 Prove that the tangent to the circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2 at the point (a cos 0, asin0)
has equation #cos0 + 2/sin0 = a. By projection deduce the equation of the
tangent to the ellipse at the point <f>.
HK
OM
*18
is the mid-point of a chord
of an ellipse whose centre is O;
meets
the ellipse at P;
is the mid-point oiPH; and ON,
meet at Q. Prove that
bisects the chord which passes through
and Q. [In the circle figure, Q is
the orthocentre of triangle OPH.~\
HK
OH
*19 The chord PQ has mid-point M; the tangents at P, Q meet at T. Prove

that O, M, T are collinear. If this line meets the ellipse at R between
and T,
prove
OM.OT = OB
*20 Deduce the area of the
with semi-axes
ellipse
a, b
from that of a
circle
of
radius a.
Further examples using orthogonal projection appear in Ex. 17
17.4
Chord and tangent
17.41
Chord P,P2
The line joining
Since
and P2
lie
and
on the
(d).
P2 has equation
ellipse,
^+
- + p-L
and
By subtracting and then rearranging,

y\-y\
b2
so that
x\-x\
a2
~ =
x 2 -xx
a 2 y2
The equation of the chord PjP2
'
1.
yt
therefore becomes
b *
x2 T
+ x*1/
"
t
a2 yz + yi
I.e.
i-e-
{x-xx )(x2 +xx )

S
^K + ^) +
t
I
a2
p(2/i
(y-y 1 )(y2 +y1 _

Av,
To
)
b2
+ 2/2 =
)
^+^+l-
(i)
THE ELLIPSE
17.42]
631
Alternatively, consider the equation
{x-xx ){x-x% )
(y-y1 ){y-y2 )
b2
a2
a/
'
When simplified it is linear in x and y, and therefore represents a line.

by the points
be the chord PxP2
It is satisfied
(x v
(x2
yx ),
ellipse,
and so must
(a cos 0, b sin 0)
has equation
y2 ) on the
17.42
Chord
6<
The chord joining

,
(a cos
y-bam.6
y
Y =
,
<j>,
b sin
and
<p)
&(sin0-sin0)
-j
- a cos g>)
Y
,
(a:
a(cos0-cos0) v
_ 26cos(0 + 0)sin(0-0)
- - 2a
2arinlf/9-nA)
sin^-^)
sin
sin %{6 +
(0 - <p)
<f>)
6cos|(0 + 0)
a sin (0 + 0)
(#
acos0),
i.e.
-cos
<j>)
+ 1 sin \{d +
<j>)
cos $ cos (0 + 0)
cos {0- (0 + 0)},
-cos(0 + 0)+|sin(0 + 0)
i.e.
17.43
Chord
t2
This line will be the chord

2,
<j>)
(ii)
x t2
if
the above quadratic has roots
_ 1+ua
^+
t\* 2
which
0.
and then
Hence
for
2t
(l-ua)t 2 + 2vbt + (l+ua)
i.e.
sin (0 +
cos(0-0).
cuts the ellipse at points

1
and
+ sin
ft fa
The line ux + vy + 1 =
and
2vb
ua,
= _ i((l + y_J_ = _il^.
THE ELLIPSE
632
[17.44
The required chord is therefore
U-2)^ + (*i + *2 )f= 1+M2

Alternatively, the
= tv t =
chord
x t2
cuts the ellipse at the points given
which are the roots of the quadratic

*
-(*i + y* +
:*:lfrom
(i)
(t
by
t 2 = 0, i.e.
)
(iv)
by
substituting for
in 17.32:
x and
given by
points
VJM
Tangent at
y,
(iv),
o.
and so represents a line. It cuts the ellipse at

i.e. at t = t x t 2 and therefore is the chord t t
x 2
,
This can be obtained by making

giving
2?h.2m =
a2
since
(t
)
(iv)
(i-g-(* 1+ y| + M2 (i + 3 =
It is linear in
tx
0-
Consider the equation constructed from

*
(iii)
62
and y2
"^
"
a2
->
yx
in equation
9'
Px lies on the ellipse. The tangent at Px is therefore
which can be written down by the usual 'rule of alternate suffixes'.

Alternatively, equation (v) can be found directly by calculus.
17.45 Tangent at 4>
Letting 6 ->
(J)
in equation
(ii),
we obtain
x
v
-cos ^+^sin^
r
a
b
This could also be obtained directly by calculus. Cf. Ex. 17

17.46 Tangent at
Letting
t2
->
(vi)'
1.
(a),
no. 17.
in equation
(iii),
we
obtain (after omitting the
suffix 1)
(l-* 2 )- + 2*|
a
o
as the equation of the tangent at the point
(vii )
t.
THE ELLIPSE
17.47]
633
can be found by using the theory of quadratic

equations, or by calculus, or as a particular case of the result in
Alternatively, this
Ex. 16 (e), no.
28.
17.47 Examples
Condition for
(i)
= mz+c to
x2
touch
y
+
=
1.
cuts the ellipse at points for which
The line
x%
a2
(mx + c)* _
~h
62
(am 2 + 6 2 ) x* + 2a2mcx + a 2 (c2 - 6 2 )
i.e.
The
roots,
line will
touch the
ellipse if
i.e.
and only
if this
0.
quadratic in x has equal
= o2(a2m2 + ft2) (c2 _ ft2))

= a%i 2 + 6 2
ca
i.e.
Hence for all values of m the

y
touch the
lines
= mx V(a2m2 + 6 2
ellipse.
Locus of the intersection of perpendicular tangents : director circle.

(i) passes through the point (# >2/o)> then
(ii)
If a tangent found in ex.
y
{x* - a 2
i.e.
mx V(a 2m2 + 6 2
m2 - 2x y m + (y\ - 62 =
),
0.
Since this is quadratic in m, in general two tangents can be drawn from a given
point (x y ) to the ellipse. The roots lf 2 are the gradients of such tangents.
These tangents will be perpendicular if l 2 = 1, i^ if
m m
mm
2 -a2
i.e. if
(x
lies
on
the locus
x*+y 2 = a 2 + 6 2
and having radius A/(a2 + 6 2 ) = AB

(fig. 170). It is the locus of points from which perpendicular tangents can be
drawn to the ellipse, and is called the director circle of the ellipse (by analogy
with the parabola, for which the corresponding locus is the directrix: see
This
is
circle concentric
Ex. 16 (6), no. 11
with the
ellipse,
(ii), (iii)).
The argument used in

(iii) Chord of contact of tangents from P x
show that the chord of contact from Px to the ellipse has equation
.
15.64 will
THE ELLIPSE
634
Exercise 17(b)
1 Use equation (i) in 17.41 to prove that the mid-points of all chords of given
gradient m lie on the line y = b 2x\a 2m.
2 Find the condition for the chord 6<f> to pass through the centre of the
ellipse.
3 Prove that
Verify that this
6<}>
if
e cos (0 + 0) =
is
(e
is a focal chord if and only

equivalent to tan yd tan 0
l)/(e + 1)
or
+ l)/(e 1).
cos
(e
<j>).
4 Prove that the chord PP' of the ellipse and the chord joining the corresponding points Q, Q' of the auxiliary circle meet on the major axis. Deduce
a property of tangents at corresponding points P, Q.
5 If 6 +
conversely.
2a, prove that the chord d^>
is
parallel to the tangent at a,
6 For a system of parallel chords prove that the

of the extremities
is
and
sum of the eccentric angles
constant.
7 Find the envelope of the chords joining points of the ellipse whose
by a constant. [Let the angles be a, + a>; the
chord is (x/a) cos + (y/b) sin = cos a, which is a tangent to the ellipse
x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 = cos 2 a.]
eccentric angles differ
<f>
<f>
<j>
8 Prove
a 2 l 2 + b 2m 2
that
= n2
lx
+ my + n =
touches
[Method of 17.47, ex.
(i);
x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2
and only
if
if
or compare with 17.45, equation (vi).]
9 If m is the gradient of a common tangent to the circle x 2 + y 2 = c 2 and the

x 2 /a 2 +y 2 /b 2 = 1, prove m 2 (c 2 2 )/(a 2 2 ). Deduce that four common
tangents exist only if b < c < a.
ellipse
10 Prove that tangents from
2, 3)
to 4x 2 + 9y 2
36 are perpendicular.
PN is the ordinate of a point P on the ellipse, and the tangent at P meets

the maj or axis at T. Prove ON .OT = a and obtain the corresponding property
11
for the
minor
axis. (Cf. 17.24 (5), ex.)
The tangent at P meets the
PSZ is a right-angle.
1 3 (i) If Q is the point of contact of the other tangent from Z in no. 12, prove
geometrically that PSQ is a straight line.
12
directrix at Z.
Prove
(ii) Deduce that tangents at the extremities of a focal chord meet on the
corresponding directrix.
14 Prove that the focal radii SP, S'P are equally inclined
and also Ex. 17 (c), no. 3.)
to the
tangent at P.
(Cf. 8.14, ex. (iv);
15 If, p, p' are the lengths of the perpendiculars from the foci S, S' to
tangent, prove that pp' = b 2
any
16 Using the similar triangles SPY, S'PY', prove p/r = p'/r', where Y, Y'
are the feet of the perpendiculars in no. 15 and r SP, r' = S'P.
17 From nos. 15, 16 and the bifocal property r + r' = 2a deduce that the (p, r)
equation (8.2) of the ellipse wo the focus S as pole is b 2 /p 2 = 2a/r 1.
18 Prove that the points Y, Y' in no. 16
perpendicular from S(ae, 0) to
lie
x
-sin
*
-cos
a
+ V-sin o =
square and add these equations.]
is
on the auxiliary
V
cos <b
a
i
ae
sin
b
<p
circle.
[The
THE ELLIPSE
635
19 The chord PQ subtends a right-angle at the vertex A(a, 0). Prove that PQ
passes through a fixed point on the major axis. [Use equation (iii) in 17.43.]
2
20 Prove that the chord joining the points given by the roots of ut + vt + w
=
0.
has equation (w u) x/a + vyjb + (w + u)
21
Prove that the tangents at the points

1
[Use equation
(vii)
tx , t2
x/a _ 1+xja _
in 17.46,
meet at
(x, y),
where
yjb
and theory of quadratics.]
2
22 Write down the equation of the chord of contact from ( 1 2 ) to \x + $y 2
and deduce the equations of the tangents from this point.
,
2
2
23 The chord PQ of the ellipse x z /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 = 1 touches the circle x + y
Prove that the tangents at P, Q meet at a point T on the ellipse
x2
o*
y2 _
+ 6* ~
c2
1
'
c2
[The chord of contact from T(xlt yx ) to the
ellipse
touches the
circle;
use no.
8.]
24 Prove that the tangents at the extremities of a variable chord through Px

meet on the line xxja? + yyjb 2 = 1. What follows by taking Px at a focus?
*25
Given the points Pv P2 prove that the point dividing

be on x2/a2 + y2/b 2 = 1 if
,
(îHHîHHM(Joachim8thaVs ratio quadratic for the

*26
PP
x
in the ratio
will
By
taking
on the
ellipse,
1 )''-
ellipse).
deduce the equation of the tangent at
Pv
[See Ex. 16(6), no. 26.]
Obtain from no. 25 the equation of the pair of tangents from Pv [See
(ii).] Deduce the equation of the director circle of the ellipse by using
the condition for these lines to be perpendicular (15.52 (2)).
27
15.64, ex.
A variable chord through P cuts the ellipse at A and B, and P is chosen

P and P divide AB (one internally and the other externally) in the
same ratio. Prove that P lies on the line xxjat + yyjb = 1. [Method of
*28
so that
15.65(2).]
*29
(i)
Denning the polar of Px wo
a2
a;
/a 2
+ y 2 \b 2 =
b2
to be the line
L'
prove that if the polar of Px passes through P 2 then the polar of Pa passes
through Px
(ii) Prove that the polar of a focus is the corresponding directrix.
(iii) Verify that the centre has no polar.
,
43
GPM
II
THE ELLIPSE
636
17.5
[17.5
Normal
17.51 Equation of the
normal
The reader should verify that the normals

and t have respective equations
x-x 1
xx \a
ax sec
2atx - b( 1
17.52
<j>
to the ellipse at
0,
lt
y- yi
==
yjb 2
by cosec
- t2 y =
{1)
'
a2 b 2
2(a 2 - b 2 )
(ii)
(iii)
+1
Conormal points
The normal
at
passes through the point
2ath -b{l-t 2 )h
i.e.
bkt*
+ 2(ah + a 2 - b 2
Since this equation
from a given point
is
) t
2(a 2 - b 2 )
(h, k) if
* (1
+ 2(ah -a 2 + b 2 )t-bk =
quartic in
t,
at
(h, k) to the ellipse;
0.
(iv)
most four normals can be drawn
and (apart from coincidences)
4, 2, or no such normals.
Suppose that the normals at t v t % t 3 i 4 meet at (h, k); then these
numbers must be the roots of (iv). Since the term in t 2 is absent, and
there will be either
the constant term
is
minus the
Y>t x t 2
coefficient of 4
and
we have
t^t^ = 1.
(v)
These necessary conditions for the points tv t2 tz 4 of the ellipse to

be conormal (i.e. such that the normals at them are concurrent) can
also be shown to be sufficient. This is reasonable, because two indepen,
dent conditions are required in order that four lines shall pass through
the same point.
Example
From formula (iii) in 17.32 it follows that, when conditions (v) are satisfied,
= (n + )7r for some integer n (positive, negative, or zero). Hence
= (2n + 1 7T is a necessary condition for the points x 2 z i to be conormal.
then
<f>
, <j>
, <f>
Clearly this single condition cannot be sufficient. The example in 17.32 shows
that four distinct conormal points can never be concyclic.
THE ELLIPSE
17.6]
637
Exercise 17(c)
1 The normal at P meets the major axis at G, and PN is the ordinate at P.
Prove that 00 = e 2 ON. What is the corresponding result for the minor axis?
.
2 Prove that
SG =
e.SP.
Use no. 2 to prove SG/S'G = SP/S'P, and hence that PG bisects SPS'.
Deduce that the tangent at P is equally inclined to SP, S'P. (Cf. Ex. 17 (6),
3
no. 14.)
4 Find the locus of the mid -point of PG.

2
2
is a normal to 2x + 3y
5 Prove that 3x yl =
coordinates of
14,
and
find the
its foot.
6 If to + my + n
is
a normal to x 2 /a 2 +
a2
b2
/b 2
1,
prove that
(a 2 -6 2 ) 2
7 PN, PN' are the perpendiculars to the axes from a point P of the ellipse
x2 /a 2 + y2 /b 2 = 1. Prove that NN' is always normal to a fixed concentric ellipse,
and give the equation of this curve.
*8 (i) If the perpendicular from the vertex A to the normal at the point
meets the ellipse again at the point <p', use Ex. 17 (6), no. 5 to prove <j)' = 20.
(ii) Deduce that the perpendiculars from a vertex to four concurrent
normals meet the ellipse again in four concyclic points.
*9 Prove that the circle through any three of four conormal points cuts the
<j>
again at the point diametrically opposite to the fourth. [If

diametrically opposite, then ft = 4 + 7r by Ex. 17 (6), no. 2. Since
ellipse
<f>'
t
are
= (2n + 2) n.~]
$x + 2 + 3 +
2
10 Prove that the feet of normals drawn from Px to x ja 2 + y 2 /b 2 = 1 lie on the
curve (a2 b^xy + b^x a 2xx y = 0. Verify that this locus passes through Px
and the centre of the ellipse. [Method of 16.32, ex. (iii) (6).]
*11 Prove that the curves a 2xx y = (a2 b 2 )xy + b 2yx x and b 2x 2 + a 2y 2 = a26 2
S0 X =
(2w +
1) n,
intersect at points for

2
b (a x x y)
a:
therefore
which y
2
{(a
-6
<j>
satisfies
)2/
+ 6Vi} 2 =
a 2 (b 2 -y 2 ){(a 2 -b 2 )y + b 2y x }\
and that to each root of this quartic in y corresponds a single x given by

{(a 2 b 2 )y + b 2 y x } x = a 2 x x y. Deduce that in general four normals can be drawn
from Px to the ellipse.
17.6
The
17.61
The line through P1 ( 1
distance quadratic
equations
^
y^) in direction
6 (15.26) has parametric
Q
Q
= x x + r cos a,
y = y x + r sin a.
It cuts the ellipse x 2 ja? + y 2 /b 2 = 1 at points for which r satisfies
.
b 2 (x x + r cos 0) 2 + a 2 (y x + r sin 6) 2
i.e.
(a 2 sin 2
d + b 2 cos 2 6) r 2 + 2{a2yx sin
a?b 2
+ b 2x x cos d) r
+ (b 2xl + a 2y\-a 2b 2 =
)
0.
43-2
(i)
THE ELLIPSE
638
[17.62
This quadratic in r gives the (signed) distances from P of the points

x
ellipse which he on the line through P\ in direction 6, and is
called the distance quadratic for the ellipse.
on the
Example*
Newton's theorem.
The product of the

(x\
y\
roots of
// cos
it
(i) is
fl
// \~a?~
For chords Pj^QR,

tions 6, d'
sin 2 0\
~b*~)'
f
drawn
x Q'R
in direc-
follows that
P Q.P R
P Q'.P R'
1
Pt
/ cos
2 6>'
sin 0'\ //cos
Fig. 174
sin 0\
which is independent of
and
Hence if chords PX QR, P X Q'R' are drawn
through Px in fixed directions d, d', the ratio PX Q .PX R:PX Q' .PX R' is independent of Px
In particular, when Px is at the centre the ratio becomes OK 2 GIT 2 where
.
the radii
OK, OK' lie
in directions 6, 6'.
P Q.P R _ OK*
P Q' ,P R' ~ 0K'
X
Hence Newton's theorem:
'
It is a generalisation of the 'product property of chords of a circle, and reduces

to this property when b = a. Also see Ex. 17 (d), no. 16.
By letting -> Q and R' -+ Q' we see that the ratio of the tangents from
'
is
Px
equal to the ratio of the parallel radii.
17.62
Chord having mid-point
If the chord through
P1
in direction 6
is
roots of the distance quadratic will be equal
b^cosd + a^sind =
This determines the direction cos 6 sin
:
at P,
Its equation
x ~ xi
cos 6
bisected at
and
then the
0.
of the chord which is bisected
= y-Vx
sin
therefore becomes
b %x x {x - x x )
Pv
opposite, so that
+ a*yx {y - y x =
)
0,
THE ELLIPSE
17.63]
639
17.63 Diameters
If the chord
(ii)
m = - b^xâhf^
m satisfy
above has gradient m, then
the mid-points of all chords of gradient
Hence
62
a 2m
According to the definition in 16.41, this locus is

all chords of given gradient m. It is a straight
of the ellipse, and is thus a
line which passes through the centre
'diameter' in the usual sense.
Cf.
Ex. 17
no.
(b),
1.
the diameterf bisecting
Examples
Tangents at the extremities of a diameter are parallel
(i)
chords which
to the
the diameter bisects (the ordinates to the diameter).
Let P1 be a point where the ellipse is met by the diameter which bisects all
chords of gradient m; then y1 = bhcâhn.
The tangent at x (17.44) has gradient ft^/a2^, i-e- - The result follows.
Tangents at the extremities of any chord meet on the diameter which
(ii)
bisects
that chord.
PQ have gradient m, and let the tangents at P and Q meet at

PQ is the chord of contact from (x^y^), its equation is
Let the chord

Since
0i>2/i)-
xxJaP+yyxlb 2 = 1, and hence its gradient is m = b^xja^. Therefore

lies on y = b^xjahn, which is the diameter bisecting PQ.
(iii)
The sum
{xlf y x )
of the squared reciprocals of two perpendicular semi-diameters is
constant.
Choosing O for pole and Ox for initial line, the

polar equation
2
sin2 0\
/cos
(^- + -H =
ellipse
x 2 /a 2 +ys /b 2
has
1-
If P on the ellipse has polar coordinates (rlt X ), then the coordinates of an

extremity Q of the perpendicular semi-diameter are (r 2 X + \ir), where from
the equation,
cos 2^
1
,
7\~~
1
-r
and
r|
a*
62
2
+ iTT) = sin 2 ^
= cos^ + ^tt) sin^
2
2
1
1111
cos 2
1
62
_ + _ = _+_
Addmg,
17.64 Conjugate diameters
By 17.63, the diameter bisecting all chords parallel to the diameter

=
y mx (i.e. having gradient m) is y = m'x, where m' = Wjahn,
f
Strictly, the
diameter
is
that part of the locus which
is
inside the ellipse.
THE ELLIPSE
640
mm' = b
i.e.
ja
The symmetry of
diameter which bisects
all
[17.64
this relation
shows that the

= m'x
chords parallel to the diameter y
y = mx.
is
Two diameters which are such that each bisects
all
chords parallel
to the other are said to be conjugate.
Hence y = mx, y
m'x are conjugate diameters
mm =
It
is
from the
clear
if and only if
~.
a2
definition that the axes of the ellipse are a pair of
conjugate diameters; they are the only perpendicular pair.
Examples
//
(i)
<f>
6,
<[>
are the extremities
P,D of a pair of conjugate semi-diameters, then
\tt.
For the gradients of OP,

conjugacy condition
OD are respectively (b/a) tan 6, (b/a) tan

^2
is
tan 6 tan 6Y =
a2
<J>,
and the
â
-,
a2
from which tan 6 = cot = tan (0 $n) and hence 6 = \n.

The result shows that the corresponding points P', D' on the auxiliary circle
subtend a right-angle at O; i.e. to conjugate diameters of the ellipse correspond
<j>
<f>
perpendicular diameters of the auxiliary

*(ii)
an
Perpendicular diameters of a
conjugate diameters of
mx, y m'x, where mm' = 1, are the diameters of the

= a 2 they project into the lines y = m x x, y m'x x where (see
= m cos 6, m'x = m' cos 6, and so mx m'x = cos2 d = 6 2 /a 2
If
circle project into
ellipse.
x* + y2
circle.
circle
17.23)
are perpendicular diameters of the circle, then all chords

parallel to fi are bisected by A. Hence in the projected figure, all chords of the
ellipse which are parallel to ji' are bisected by A' (see 17.24); i.e. A' and /i' are
conjugate diameters of the ellipse.
It follows that properties of diameters and conjugate diameters can often
be conveniently proved by orthogonal projection from a circle.
Alternatively, if A,
*(iii)
through
First
Then
/t
The tangent at T to an ellipse meets the diameter OP at H, and the

T parallel to the conjugate diameter OD meets OP at K. Prove that
OH.OK = OP*.
draw the
(fig.
175)
figure for
circle,
replacing 'conjugate'
by
line
'perpendicular'.
OK. OH = OT 2 = OP 2 and since this can be written in terms of

,
on the same line, the result follows by projection on any plane

throughO. (The example in 17.24 (5) is a special case of the property just proved.)
ratios of lengths
*(iv) Ellipse referred to
With the notation of

theorem
(17.61, ex.) that
a pair of its conjugate diameters as (oblique) axes.

fig. 176, we have by taking P x at V in Newton's
qy
q-qs
PV.VP'
OP 2
"
THE ELLIPSE
17.64]
Choose OP,
641
OD for axes of x and y, and then let Q be the point (x, y).
Since
PV.VP' = {OP-OV)(OP + OV) = a\-x\

where ax = OP, the above equation becomes (on writing b x = OD)
a\ x 2
a\
a\
b\
This has the same form as the standard equation of the ellipse, which corresponds to the choice of the perpendicular conjugate diameters OA, OB for
coordinate axes.
Exercise 11(d)
2
2
1 Write down the equation of the diameter of 2x + Sy
the chords parallel to 2x
+ 3 = 0.
which bisects
2 Write down the gradient of the chords of 3a; 2 +

by the diameter y = Zx.
In
the following,
are P', D'.
2 which are bisected
OP and OD are conjugate semi-diameters whose other extremities
is the point
in fig. 176, show that the eccentric angles of D, P', D',
3 If
Q, Q' can be taken as <fi + %7T, <J) + tt, ^> \tt, <j> + a, $ a respectively. Write
out in full the coordinates of P, D, P', D'
4 If P(a cos <j>, b sin 0) and D( asin^, ftcos^) are extremities of equal
conjugate diameters, prove that tan a = 1. Deduce that the equations of
the equi-conjugate diameters are y = bxja, and show that they lie along the
diagonals of the rectangle which circumscribes the ellipse. State the length
of OP.
5 Prove that
OP 2 + OD 2 = a + b\
2
6 (i) Prove that tangents at the extremities of a diameter are parallel to the
conjugate diameter. [Use ex. (i) of 17.63.]
(ii) If the tangents at P,
meet at T, pro ve OPTD is a parallelogram which
has area ab. (Cf. no. 15.)
(iii) If p is the distance of P from OD, prove that p OD = ab.
7 Deduce from nos. 5, 6 (iii) that the (p,r) equation of the

centre as pole is a 26 2 /p a = a2 + 6 2 2 [OP = r; eliminate Oi>.]
.
ellipse
wo
its
'
THE ELLIPSE
642
8 Prove PS. PS'
= OD
2
.
[Use Ex. 17
no.
(a),
3.]
9 The two chords joining any point of the ellipse to the extremities of a
diameter are called supplemental. Prove that supplemental chords are parallel
to conjugate diameters.
10 (i) Prove that the lines px 2 + 2rxy + qy 2 =
are conjugate diameters of
x2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 = 1 if and only if pa 2 + qb 2 - 0.
(ii) Find the condition for Ix + my + n =
to be the join of extremities of
two conjugate diameters of x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 = 1. [Use 15.54.]
(iii) Prove that the chord joining the extremities of conjugate diameters of
an ellipse touches another ellipse. [Use Ex. 17 (6), no. 8.]
11 If a tangent to the ellipse cuts the director circle at U, V, prove that O U,
O V lie along conjugate
diameters.
Nos. 12-15 are easily solved by orthogonal projection.
QR is a diameter, and P is any point on the ellipse. The tangent at Q meets
* 12
PR at T.
Prove that the tangent at
P bisects TQ.
*13 OP, OD are conjugate semi-diameters; the tangent at

of the ellipse at Q and R. Prove PQ.PR = OD 2
P meets
the axes
PQ
*14
is
HK
a diameter and
at Y. Prove that
XY
is
is
QK cut at X; PK, QH cut
any chord; PH,
parallel to the diameter conjugate to
PQ.
By projecting a circle and a circumscribing square, prove that the tangents

the extremities of conjugate diameters PP', DD' form a parallelogram of
*15
at
constant area 4ab. (Cf. no. 6 (ii).)
*16 Prove Newton's theorem (17.61, ex.) by projection. [When written in

the form
Rt
^ p^, p^
OK' OK ~ OK' OK'
'
involves ratios of lengths on parallel lines.]
it
If parallel chords Px QR, P 2 Q'R' are drawn through the fixed points Px P a
prove that the ratio P^.P^-.P^Q' .P2 R' is independent of the direction.
[Use the distance quadratic]
*17
*18 Prove that the mid -points of variable chords through
xxl
yy 1
|
a2
b2
_
~
x2
y2
a2
b2
he on
'
Show that this is an ellipse whose axes are proportional to
those of the original
and whose centre is (%x lf ^y ).

*19 Use the distance quadratic to obtain the equation of (i) the tangent at
Pi [two roots r = 0]; (ii) the pair of tangents from Px [equal roots r],
*20 Obtain the equation of the chord having mid-point Pt from the ratio
ellipse
quadratic in Ex.
PP PP
X
1 7 (6),
and PX A
no. 25. [If the chord is
AP
Z,
and hence are
AP P
the roots k
2,
0, kjl
are the ratios
= .]
Miscellaneous Exercise 17(f)

1
of
The
lines
P when
bx + aty ab
0, btx
ay + abt =
meet at P. Find the locus
varies.
2 With a given point S and line d for focus and directrix, ellipses are drawn.
Prove that the locus of the ends of the minor axes is a parabola. [Choose S for
origin.]
THE ELLIPSE
643
3 Prove that the tangents at the ends of a latus rectum are concurrent with
the major axis and corresponding directrix.
Q are the points 6, $ on the ellipse x 2 /a 2 +y 2/b 2 =

Q meet at T. Prove that triangle TPQ has area
ab sin8 \(<f> 6) sec J(0 6).
*4 P,
at P,
[The corresponding area for the
circle is
and the tangents
1,
2A0PT A0PQ; use projection.]
Y is the foot of the perpendicular from S to the tangent at P.

and SY meet on the directrix corresponding to S.
5
Prove
OP
6 Circles with centres S, S' pass through a point on the ellipse. Prove that
the common tangents to these circles touch the auxiliary circle, and that their
points of contact with this circle lie on the common chord of the original circles.
[Use pure geometry and the bifocal property.]
7
is
a given point inside a given circle of centre O and radius a; Y is a

on the circumference, and p is the line through Y perpendicular
variable point
to S Y.
OS for #-axis, let p meet Ox, Oy at T, T'. Explain why triTYO, TST' are similar, and prove OY.TT' = OT.ST'.
(ii) If S is (c, 0) and p has equation Ix + my + n = 0, prove that the equation
2
2 where
2 2
6 2 = a 2 c2
(i) reduces to a l + b^m = n
(i)
Choosing
angles
in
(iii)
Deduce that p touches an
ellipse
having S for focus and the given
circle
for auxiliary circle.
*8 Give the result corresponding to no. 7 (iii)

What happens when S lies on the circle?
when S
lies outside
the given
circle.
9 Find the
common tangents to x 2 +y 2 =
25 and
a;
/169 + y 2 /16
1.
centre of an ellipse coincides with the vertex of a parabola, and they

have a focus in common. Prove that the common tangents meet the common
axis at its intersection with the other directrix.
10
The
11
(i)
Prove that two tangents can be drawn from
and only if x
(ii)
+y
-1 >
to x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2
[Use 17.47, ex. (i).]

the ratio quadratic (Ex. 17 (6), no. 25) prove that
fa
From
/b
1 if
0.
if
then Px and Pa lie on opposite sides of the ellipse. (Accordingly, the set of points
for
which x\ja2 + y\jb 2
>
is
the outside of the
ellipse.)
12 Using the contact condition ca = aha2 + b 2 for the line y = mx + c and the
ellipse x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 = 1, show that the equation of the pair of tangents from
P(*1 ,y1 ) can be written (yt x x y) 2 = a^y
+ b^x Xj) 2
Let these tangents cut Ox at E, F. Find the locus of (i) if PE, PF are perpendicular; (ii) if EF has fixed mid -point (k, 0).
y^
TP, TP' are tangents to the ellipse. Find the equations of the line-pairs
O parallel to TP, TP' and to ST, S'T. By showing that they have the
same angle-bisectors, deduce that ST, S'T are equally inclined to TP, TP'
13
through
respectively.
14 A point P varies so that the chord of contact from P to x2 ja2 + y 2 /b 2

touches the ellipse x 2 /a 2 +y 2 /b 2 = 1/k 2 Find the locus of P.
15 The chord PQ of x2/a2 +y 2Jb 2 = 1 touches the parabola y2 = 4&X. Prove

that the tangents at P, Q to the ellipse meet on the parabola a 2cy 2 + b*x = 0.
THE ELLIPSE
644
16 Prove that points whose chords of contact are normals to the

x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 = 1 lie on the curve a/x 2 + b 6 /y 2 = (a 2 -b 2 ) 2
ellipse
17 If the normal at
meets the major and minor axes at Q, Q', and if OF is
the perpendicular from the centre O to this normal, prove that PF.PO = b 2
and PF.PG' = a 2
1 8 If the normal at an extremity of a latus rectum passes through an extremity
of the minor axis, prove that e4 + e 2 1 = 0.
19 P and Q are variable points on x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 = 1 such that the mid -point
of PQ lies on x2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 = k 2 Prove that the tangents at P, Q meet at a point
T on x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 = 1/k 2 [The chord of contact from 2 (ar1 ,y 1 ) is the same line
as the chord PQ having mid-point (x2 y 2 ), where x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 = k 2 .]
20 The tangents to x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 - 1 at P and Q meet at T{h, k). Obtain the
equation of the line-pair OP, OQ. Find the locus of T when the diameters OP,
OQ are {i) perpendicular; (ii) conjugate. Show that these two loci meet at four
points which are the vertices of a rectangle.
21 OP, OD are conjugate semi-diameters of the ellipse. The circles with
diameters OP, OD meet again at Q. Prove that Q lies on the curve
.
2(x 2 + y 2 ) 2
22 Lines are drawn through

x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2
a 2x 2 + b 2 y 2
perpendicular to the tangents from
to
If these lines are conjugate diameters of the ellipse, prove

the curve a 2x 2 + b 2y 2 = a* + b*. [Use the equation of the pair of
1.
that x lies on
tangents in no. 12.]
Show that each of the following equations represents an

semi-axes, eccentricity, foci,
23
25
ellipse,
and find
and directrices.
&x + 2) 2 + \(y-l) 2 = 1.
3(x-y+l) 2 + 4:(x + y-l) 2 =
24 8x2 + 9y 2 - lQx-Qy
12.
63.
the centre,
645
18
THE HYPERBOLA
The hyperbola
18. 1
^-p=
asymptotes
Form of the curve

We now resume the discussion, begun
18.11
hyperbola
^2
in 17.13-17.15, of the
oi2
5- =
i-
7i
From
x2
^=
the equation,
so that
1,
a for all points on the curve;

lines x a. Further, since
y
6
is
y2
4-p >
\x\ $s
between the
we see
that
when x ~> + cc
i.e.
no part of the curve
lies
or x ->
a2
oo,
'
then also y -> oo. The curve
therefore unbounded.
When x a, the equation gives y 2 /b 2 = which has the repeated

root y = 0. Hence the line x = a touches the hyperbola at A {a, 0): it
is the tangent at the vertex A Similarly, the line x = a is the tangent
at the vertex A'{ a, 0).
Since e > 1, we have ae > a and aje < a. Hence S lies on OA
produced beyond A and if the directix x = aje cuts Ox at D, then D
lies between O and A. Similarly S' lies on OA' produced beyond A',
.
and D'
lies
between
and -4'.
18.12 Asymptote: general definition

(
1)
We say that Px -> oo aZowgr a curve if one or both of its coordinates
xx yx tend to oo while satisfying the equation of the curve.

For example, Px -> oo along the parabola y2 = 4ax when xx -> oo and
-> oo, or when x 1 -> co and 2/i -> oo Px
oo along the curve
-> 0, or
y = l/x 2 when xx -> oo and yx -> 0, or when x x -> oo and
when xx - and yx - oo; but Px cannot tend to infinity along the
,
THE HYPERBOLA
646
2
x /a
ellipse
point
+y
/b*
^ a and
have
(2)
An
\yx
because for every point
1
\
[18.13
P1
on
this curve
we
b.
asymptote of a curve
a line such that the distance of a
is
of the curve from this line tends to zero
when
-> oo along
the curve.
In
may mean
this definition, 'distance'
the usual 'perpendicular
some fixed
The informal use of the term 'asymptote'
distance' or the 'oblique distance' measured. parallel to

direction, e.g. the y-axis.
in 1.41,
Remark
(a), is
consistent with our definition.
18.13 Asymptotes of the hyperbola

If
P1 lies on the curve, then x{\a% y\\b % =
and so
M=7(M)The perpendicular
which by
(ii)
is
distance of
from the
<">
line xja
yjb =
is
equal to
When Px -> oo along the curve, this expression tends to zero. Hence
the line xja yjb =
is an asymptote to the hyperbola (i). Similarly
the line x/a + y/b = Qis an asymptote.
The equation of the asymptotes, regarded as a line-pair, is therefore
62
a2
Alternatively, the equation
y
If y
can be written
(i)
a a \*
/
1
-^)
'
= mx + c is an asymptote to the part

b
y
then
Using the binomial
2/carve-2/asnnPtote
series,
= +-x[l
a 2 \*
-
when
we have for large x that
"
+ (|-")" +
'
-+CO.
THE HYPERBOLA
18.14]
and
tend to zero when x - oo only if c

is an asymptote. Similarly, y
this will
the line y = bx/a

the other part
a2 \
= a X \ l -x*)
647
and bja m =
=
= bxja
0. Hence
an asymptote to
is
i
'
Since
for
any point on the hyperbola, therefore y 2 <
y\\
hence
within that double angle between the lines y
lies entirely
the,
hyperbola
= bx/a which
contains the x-axis.
The angle between the asymptotes is 2tan _1 (6/a). Figures 177,

178, 179 illustrate the cases a < b, a = b, a > b respectively.
When b = a, the asymptotes are perpendicular and the curve is
called a rectangular hyperbola. The equation (i) becomes x2 y2 = a2
and the eccentricity, given by b 2 = a2 (e 2 1), is e = <J2.
;
18.14
If
The
Fig. 179
Fig. 178
Fig. 177
bifocal property:
lies
SP-S'P= 2a
on the branch which
contains the focus 8, then
S'P-SP = e.PM'-e.PM
M'
= e.MM'
=()
=
If
S',
2a.
P lies on the branch enclosing
Fig. 180
then
SP-S'P = e.PM-e.PM' = e.MM
2a.
'
THE HYPERBOLA
648
[18.2
Conversely, the locus of a point P such that S'P SP = 2a is one

branch of a hyperbola having foci 8, S' and transverse axis of length 2a,
viz. that branch which contains S.
Proof.
The algebra of 1 7 .22 shows that, with the same choice of axes,
a2
a2 c 2
From triangle P8S' we have PS' < PS + 88',

2a
<
so that a
c.
= PS'-PS <SS' =
Hence we can write
b2
c2
i.e.
2c,
a 2 and
,
the equation be-
comes that of the standard hyperbola (i). Since b 2 = a 2 (e 2 1), we

have c 2 = a 2 + b 2 = a 2 e 2 and so c = ae. Therefore 8, 8' are the points
( + ae, 0), i.e. the foci. Finally, since SP < S'P, P lies on the branch
which contains S.
,
Example
Mechanical construction of a hyperbola.
A rod APB is movable about the fixed end A, and a string BPG passing
through a small ring P which slides along the rod is tied to the other end B and
to a fixed point G. If the string is kept taut,
prove that in general P moves on one branch
C
of a hyperbola with foci A, G.
Let I be the length of the string. Then
'
BP+PG = Since
AP = AB-BP = AB-(l-PC)
l.
= (AB-l)+PC,
AP PC is constant, viz. AB
AB
the locus of P is that branch
therefore
If
=#
I.
I,
of
a hyperbola with foci A. G which encloses G.

If AB = I, then AP - PG, and P lies on the
Fig. 181
perpendicular bisector of AG.
18.2
Properties analogous to those of the ellipse
^+p= 1
Since the equations of the ellipse and hyperbola differ only in the
sign of 6 2
it
follows that
many
properties of the hyperbola can be
written down from the corresponding results for the ellipse by replacing
b2
by b 2
All such properties can be proved independently
methods used
(i)
Chord
for the ellipse; the following
PX P2
is
a summary,
by the
THE HYPERBOLA
18.3J
(ii)
Tangent at
Px
(ui)
Normals
Pl
649
= L
^+^
0.
The contact condition for y = mx + c is c 2 = a 2 2 6 2 provided

\m\ < bja. The condition remains significant when m = bja, for then
c = 0; but the lines y = foc/a do not cut the hyperbola anywhere
(iv)
(see 18.13).
(v) If
bja <
m<
b\a,
the lines
= mx *J(a 2m 2 b 2
touch the hyperbola.

(vi)
Director circle.
The locus of the intersections of perpendicular
tangents to the hyperbola
the
is
circle
x2 + y2
= a2 b 2
provided a >
(vii)
b. If a < 6, there are no perpendicular tangents.

Chord of contact from Px
:
b2
a2
(viii)
Pair of tangents from
Px
L_t_A
x l_yl_A 3
2
a2 b 2
J [a
(ix)
b2
Chord having mid-point
xx i
a2
Px
= (xx2i_yyi_iY
2
[a
'
Wi _ x l
b2
a2
yl
'
b2
lie on
(x) Diameters. The mid-points of all chords of gradient
proved
for
stated
and
the
diameters
properties
Wxjahm.
The
of
y
ellipse in 17.63, exs. (i), (ii) remain true for the hyperbola.
(xi) Conjugate diameters, y = mx and y = m'x are conjugate if
and only
if
mm' =
18.3
^2
-5.
a2
18.31 Hyperbolic functions
The equation
(i)
in 18.11
0; but since ch0 >

of the hyperbola.
all
0,
is satisfied
by x = ach0, y =
bsh<fr for
these equations represent only one branch
THE HYPERBOLA
650
[18.32
Analogously to the treatment in 17.32, put t
x
If t
now
is
1
t2
=a +
1
T
fi
oo.
(If
and +
18.32
b-
2t
1 T
then
unrestricted, these equations represent the whole of the
curve except the point A'(

t ->
= thf^;
still
but this can be obtained by letting

it can take only values between
0);
denotes th \$,
1.)
The point
The general representation above can be found
directly.
For since
IHH(H
= ~-- =
x/a + 1
xja-l
f
therefore
y/b
._
y/b
(H
Hence
-:|:1 =
i.e.
! fi
a b
(l
+1
t,
say.
J
<
:1 '
+ t*):2t:(l-t*).
Each value of t except t = + 1 gives just one point of the curve; and
each point of the curve except A'( a, 0) corresponds to just one
value of t. We refer to the point
/
a
\
as the point
18.33
t.
The point
The equation
t
<j>
also satisfied
(i) is
We refer to (a sec
If we put
1+t 2 2bt \
i-t*'l-t 2 )
(j>,
by x = a sec $,y =
tan 0) as the point
tan \<f>,
we obtain the
point
18.34 Another algebraic representation

Since equation
(i)
b tan <j> for all ^.
can be written
in 18.32.
THE HYPERBOLA
18.4]
we may put
x_
651
xyl
a
From these we find

x
These equations represent the whole of
t = +l gives A(a, 0), and
= 1 gives A'( a, 0). When t increases
the curve;
t
from oo to +oo, the parts traced

P'A'
t
p
Fig. 182
are:
-1 <
AQ
PA
A'Q'
< -1
<
<
<
Chord, tangent, and normal
18.4
To each of the preceding representations corresponds a standard

form of equation for chord, tangent, and normal. By methods already
illustrated in Ch. 17, the following results can be obtained.
Chord 6$: -cos(0-0)-|sin(0 + 0)
-sec0 ^tan^ =
Tangent at 0:
$
t:
ax cos
2atx + b{l
The reader should
<j)
+ by cot
+ t*)y =
<f>
= a2 + b 2
2(a 2
</>).
1.
(l+t 2 )--2t%= l-t 2

a
o
t:
at
cos %($ +
(i+M2 )|-(*i+yf = !-m2
kh-
Normal
+ 62
1-t 2
'
verify these; also see nos. 13-15 of the following
Exercise, which contains examples similar to those already given for
the ellipse together with some properties of the asymptotes of the

hyperbola.
Exercise 18(a)
1
is
If
P is the point (x, y) on the hyperbola, prove SP = ex a axidS'P = ex + a.
2 A shot is fired from A so as bo strike an object B. The sound of the firing

heard at P, n seconds before the sound of the destruction of B. Find the locus
44
GPMII
THE HYPERBOLA
652
of P. [Let
AB;
to
u=
velocity of sound, v
velocity
component of the shot
parallel
then
AP
\-n
= AB PB
1
(AB
An nn =u[
APPB
so that
n\ =
constant.]
Find the locus of the centre of a circle which touches externally two given
whose centres are A, B.
circles
(i)
State the order in which the hyperbola

/
+t
is
traced
by the point
2bt \
i-t 2 )
as
(ii)
(6)
oo to + oo.
What is the condition for the points tlt t2 to
increases from
(a) lie
on the same branch;
be diametrically opposite?
on the ellipse x 2 /a2 + y 2 /b 2 =

5 P, P' are the points <p,
are A, A'. If
meets A'P' at Q, prove that the locus of Q
AP
x 2 /a 2 -y 2 /b 2
1
is
whose
vertices
the hyperbola
1.
6 If the points
prove that
6,
are the extremities of a focal chord of x2 /
<j)
tan \d tan \<p
_e
or
/b 2
1,
e
.
touches x 2 /a 2 y 2 jb 2 = 1 if and only if

7 Prove that Ix + my + n
aH 2 -b 2m 2 = n 2
8 (i) The tangent at any point P of the hyperbola meets a directrix at Z.
.
Prove that
(ii)
PZ subtends a right-angle at the corresponding focus.
Deduce that tangents at the extremities of a
focal
chord meet on the
of
9 Y is the foot of the perpendicular from S to the tangent at any point
the hyperbola. Prove that Y lies on the circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2 (the auxiliary circle).
of the perpendicular from a focus to an asymptote

10 Prove that the foot
on the auxiliary circle and on the corresponding directrix.
lies
[OF = OS cos FOS =
...
a; also
OS.OD =
a2
= OF 2
so
ODF
is
right-
angle.]
The line joining the focus S to the point P on a hyperbola is parallel to an

1 1
asymptote. Prove that this asymptote, the directrix, and the tangent at P
are concurrent.
12 The point P on the hyperbola is such that the tangent at P, the latus
rectum through S, and an asymptote are concurrent. Prove that SP is parallel
to the other asymptote.
With
the representation in 18.34, obtain the equation of
13 the chord
then
S^tfjj
14 the tangent at
tx t 2 .
16 Prove that
if
and
the normals at the points

t
x t % t z t
15 the normal at
t lt t 2 , ts , 4
t.
of 18.32 are concurrent,
= 1.
17 Prove that the feet of four concurrent normals cannot all lie on the same
branch. [If they do, then by no. 4 (ii) (a) \tr are either all less than 1 or all greater
than 1, contradicting I^Ma^l = 1 in no. 16.]
\
18 If the normals at <p lf

4 are concurrent, prove
a
is some integer (positive, negative, or zero).
,
where n
0 X = (2n+l)n
THE HYPERBOLA
Show that the feet of the normals from P to x
18.5]
19
curve a 2y(xx x) + b 2x(y 1 y) = 0.
20 If the points
18.5
t lt t , t ,
2
3
4
653
%
la
are concyclic, prove S(f1 + *a <8 *4 )
\b %
1 lie
on the
0.
Asymptotes: further properties
18.51 Lines parallel to an asymptote meet the hyperbola only once.
Any line parallel to
the asymptote x/a + y/b
x y
-+fb
a
It meets the hyperbola at points
l+t 2
l-.
(l
i.e.
i.e.
Since
=1
gives
by
section given
parallel to x\a y\b
=
for
has equation
k.
which
2t
+ l-t 2 ~
'
+ t) 2 = k{l-t 2 ),
= -l
1+* =
or
jfc(l-J).
no point of the curve, there is a unique inter(k l)/(k + l). A similar result holds for lines
0.
18.52 The equation of the tangent at

asymptote when x -> oo along the curve.
tends to the equation of
an
The equation xxx \a 2 yy x \b 2 =

b2
a
where
=1
b2
a2
of the tangent at
xx
e
xx
Px can be written
'
'
a2
x\'
The last equation shows that when Px -> oo, then yx /xx
bja or b\a.
hmit
The
of the equation of the tangent at Px is thus either
#
a
x
or
-+Jb =
0.
An
asymptote is sometimes denned as 'the limit of the

Px -+co along the curve'. For curves whose
equations are algebraic, it can be shown that the two definitions are
equivalent; but for general curves a line may be an asymptote
Remark.
tangent at
when
44-2
THE HYPERBOLA
654
[18.53
according to the definition in 18.12, but not according to that above
because the equation of the tangent
may have no limiting form when
Px -> oo.
18.53 The family x 2 \a 2 y 2 \b 2
k of hyperbolas has the same asymptotes
for all k.
For the equation can be written in standard form as

y
ka
kb 2
'
and the asymptotes have equation
^_ll_
ka 2
which
is
kb 2
ie
'
t-t-o
~
a2
b2
'
independent of k.
Example
In the quadratic which gives the meets of x 2 /a 2 y 2 /b 2 = k with the line
2
0, the coefficients of x and x are independent of k. Hence the
sum of the roots is independent of k. Taking k = 1, 0, it follows that the a;-coordinate of the mid -point of any chord of the hyperbola x 2 /a 2 y 2 jb % = 1 is the
same as the as-coordinate of the mid -point of the same chord of the asymptotes
x 2 /a z y 2 /b 2 = 0. The same is true of the ^-coordinates since Ix + my + n =
gives y uniquely in terms of x. Consequently, */ the line meets the hyperbola at
P, P' and the asymptotes at Q, Q', then PP' and QQ' have the same mid-point M.
Since
= MP' and
- MQ', therefore PQ = P'Q'. In particular,
when P' P this becomes PQ = PQ'; i.e. the part intercepted on a tangent by
Ix
+ my + n =
PM
QM
the asymptotes is bisected at the point of contact.
18.6
The conjugate hyperbola
18.61 Definitions
In 17.15 we defined the transverse axis to be the intercept A A' made

by the hyperbola on Ox. Although the curve does not cut Oy, it is
now convenient to consider the points -6(0,6) and B'(0, b) on this
axis of symmetry and (analogously to the ellipse) to call BB' the
conjugate axis of the hyperbola.
Two hyperbolas are said to be conjugate when the transverse and

conjugate axes of one are respectively the conjugate and transverse
axes of the other.
It follows that the hyperbola conjugate to
THE HYPERBOLA
18.62]
655
IS
1.
b2
For, with
(ii)
Oy
for #-axis and Ox' for y-axis, the equation of the conjugate hyperbola is x 2 jb 2 - y 2 ja 2 = 1 On rotating these axes clockwise
.
through a right-angle to positions Ox, Oy, the equation becomes

2
2
2
y \b -x \a 2 = l,i.e. (ii).
The two hyperbolas have the same asymptotes,

x2
a2
viz.
y2
b2
(iii)
Remarks
Equation (iii) difiFers from (i) by the same constant that (ii)
from (iii). If we transform these equations by a change of axes
(15.73), this relationship will be preserved.
(/?) The equation of any hyperbola whose asymptotes are
(a)
differs
is
a2 x + b 2 y + c 2
fax + brf + cj (a2 x + b z y + c2 ) =
A,
a1 x + b 1 y + c 1
0,
where A is constant; for this equation differs only by the constant A

from the equation of the asymptotes, viz.
{a1 x
By
writing
+ b 1 y + c x ){a2 x-\-b % y + c z ) =
for A,
we
0.
obtain the equation of the conjugate
hyperbola.
(y)
In particular, any hyperbola whose asymptotes are the co= 0, y = has equation xy = A.
ordinate axes x

(i)
wo
// a pair of diameters are conjugate
the conjugate hyperbola.
wo a hyperbola,
they are also conjugate
THE HYPERBOLA
656
The argument which leads
[18.62
to property (xi) in 18.2 can be applied to
and gives the same conclusion independently of k: y = mx and y m'x are

conjugate diameters of each of the hyperbolas (iv) if and only if mm' = b 2 /a a
The result stated concerns the cases k = + 1, 1.
.
(ii)
Intersections of the hyperbolas with conjugate diameters.
The diameter y = mx
cuts hyperbola (i) if and only if \m\ < bja. The conjugate diameter y = b 2x/a 2 cuts (i) if and only if \b 2 /a 2m\ < b/a, i.e. \m\ > b/a.
Hence of two conjugate diameters, only one meets the hyperbola.
The other meets the conjugate hyperbola. For if y = mx cuts (i), then |m| < b/a;
in this case \b 2 /a 2m\ > b/a, so that y = b 2x/a 2
cuts hyperbola (ii).
(iii)
Extremities of conjugate diameters.
The points of intersection are
called the extremities of the diameters, despite
on each curve.
an extremity of one diameter, then m = b tan (j>/a sec
Hence the conjugate diameter has gradient m' = 6 a /a 2m = 6 sec la tan
and
its equation is y = m'x. It cuts the conjugate hyperbola where
the fact that only one pair can
If P(a sec
<j>,
lie
b tan <fi) is
<J>.
<j>,
<j>
i.e. where x = atan0 and hence y = 6 sec

Thus P(a sec
D(a tan 0, b sec (j>) are extremities 6f conjugate semi-diameters.
<fi.
<j>,
6tan0) and
Exercise 18(6)
1
If
e,
e'
are the eccentricities of a hyperbola
1.
l/e a +l/e' 2
OP,
OD
and
its
conjugate, prove
are conjugate semi-diameters of the hyperbola x 2 /a 2 y 2 /b 2
1.
Prove
the following.
2
3
OP 2 ~OD =
2
a 2 -b\
The mid-point of PD lies on an asymptote.

PD is parallel to an asymptote. 5 The area of triangle OPD is %db.
6 Prove that the tangents at the extremities of a diameter are parallel to

the conjugate diameter.
7 Prove that the tangents at the extremities of two conjugate diameters

on the asymptotes.
intersect
and their diametrically

8 Deduce from nos. 6-7 that tangents at P,
opposite points P', D' form a parallelogram of constant area 4a6, whose vertices
lie on the asymptotes.
9 Deduce from no. 6 that the part intercepted on the tangent at
is bisected at P.
P by the
asymptotes
10 Prove
SP. S'P =
OD 2
[Use Ex. 18
(a),
no.
1.]
If
lies on the conjugate hyperbola, prove that its chord of contact to the
original hyperbola touches the conjugate at the point P' diametrically opposite
to P.
11
THE HYPERBOLA
18.7]
657
12 Find the equation of the hyperbola whose asymptotes are x 2y + 1 =

and dx-y + 2 =
and which passes through the point (0,1). [18.61,
Remark
(yff).]
*13 Given that the equation 2x % 5xy By 2 + x + lly 8 =

represents a
hyperbola, find the equations of the asymptotes and the equation of the conjugate hyperbola. [Choose A so that 2a; 2 - 5xy - 3y* + x + 1 ly A = represents
line -pair.]
18.7
Asymptotes as (oblique) coordinate axes
18.71
xy = c2
The product of the perpendiculars from a point Px on
Fig. 184
to the asymptotes x/a + yfb

<H
+ y
b
\ai+ b 2 )
xja yjb
0,
h_yx
a
\a*
is
*_y\
_a?
62
a2
62
+ b*)
~
because x\/a2 yf/b 2
1.
Choosing the asymptotes for axes Ox', Oy', let Px have coordinates
x
( i>Vi)- Then the lengths of the perpendiculars are x^sino), y'îiid),
where o) is the angle between the asymptotes, and hence
THE HYPERBOLA
658
i.e.
Px satisfies
Since
o)
xy
a?b
sin- o)
[18.72
2 tan -1 (b/a),
/
2tan^>
\l
+ tan
_
Sm 2 &>_
.
|o>/
_ / 2b I a \ 2 _ 4a 2 6 2
~[l + b 2la 2) "(a 2 + 6 2
'
and the equation becomes

x'y'
J(a
+ 6 2 ).
Omitting dashes, this can be written
xy
where
c2
|(a 2 + 6 2 ),
and
c2,
the standard equation of the hyperbola
is
referred to its asymptotes as (oblique) coordinate axes.
Example
xy = ax + by + c represents a hyperbola whose asympOx, Oy.
For the equation can be written (x b) (y a) = ab + c; i.e. x'y' = ab + c
after a change of origin.
Thus the locus in ex. (iii) (6) of 16.32 is a rectangular hyperbola, known as
the hyperbola ofApollonius of (h, Jc) wo the parabola y 2 = 4ax. See also Ex. 17(c),
no. 10, and Ex. 18 (a), no. 19.
Any equation
of the form
totes are parallel to
18.72 Parametric representation
The equation xy =
c2
can be written
=
so that x
(ct, c/t),
ct
and y =
c/t.
say,
*,
For each value of t except t = the point

2
t, lies on xy c
and to each point of
referred to as the point
the curve corresponds just one value of
t.
can also be written
x:y:c
l)
The parametric equations
:l:t.
The methods illustrated in 16.22 (2), (3) and 16.24 (1) do not appeal
and can be used in the present case of oblique axes to
to 'gradient',
prove that the chord
t x t^
has equation
x + t1 t2 y
and hence that the
tangent at
c(^
+ #a
is
x + thj
2ct.
),
<
THE HYPERBOLA
18.73]
659
Example
A tangent to a hyperbola and

totes form
the
asymp-
triangle of constant area.
The above tangent at P(ct,c/t) meets

Oy at Q(2ct, 0), B(0, 2c/t). Hence
Ox,
OQ =
2ct,
OR = 2c/t,
OQR is
and the area of triangle
ÔQ.OR sin
(i)
2c 2 sin a>.
This work also shows that

is the midpoint ofQR; cf. the example in 18.53.
18.73
Fig. 185
The rectangular hyperbola
When
o)
= \n the asymptotes Ox, Oy are perpendicular, and the

= c 2 is rectangular (18.13). In addition to the results in
hyperbola xy
18.72, the usual
method now shows that the normal at t has equation
Px-ty = C(^-1).
Example
The
orthocentre of
triangle inscribed in
a rectangular hyperbola
lies
on
the
curve.
The chord tt% has gradient
similarly,
and only
chord
if
ta tt
1/<3 4
has gradient
These chords are perpendicular
if
MaM* = !
If the given triangle has vertices tlt tt %, then the above work shows that
there is a point i4 on the curve (viz. that for which t 1 t% tz tl = 1 ) such that chord
*i* a _L chord 8 $4 The symmetry of the relation t^t^ = 1 shows that also
Ma J- 'a '4 and hh-Lhh- Hence this point tt = l/Ma^s ^s the orthocentre of
,
triangle Ma^s'
It is also clear
from the relation M2M4 = 1 that the point

centre of triangle Ms*4> and so on. The set of four points tx t2 tz
,
the ortho-
*x
is
tt
on the curve
may be called orthocentric.

Exercise 18(c)
In the following examples the sign {<y} indicates results which are true for the general
hyperbola xy = c 2 The reader who wishes to avoid oblique axes may prove them
.
for the rectangular case only.
+ my + n =
{w}
The line
{to}
Tangents at
Ix
t lt t 2
is
meet at
a tangent
if
and only if AcHm = n 2
THE HYPERBOLA
660
The chord Px P s is c2x + xx x 2 y = c 2 (xx + xt

The tangent at Px is xyx + x x y = 2c 2 Could this be written down from
xy c2 by the 'rule of alternate suffixes'?
5 {o)} The chord of contact of tangents from P x is xyx +xx y = 2c 2
3
{(t)}
{(o)
*6
{to}
*7
+ (xyx + xx y-2c2 )kl+(x L yx -c 2 )l 2 = 0.

{(o) The pair of tangents from P x is 4(^2/! c 2 )(xy c2 = (xy x +x y 2c 2
x
The normal at P is aja^ yyx = x\ y\.
Joachimsthal's ratio quadratic
is
(x t y s -c 2 )k 2
2
)
9 The distance quadratic
is
+ (xx sin + y x cos 0) r + (a?!^ c2 = 0.

The chord having mid-point Px is xy x + x x y = 2x yx [Use no. 9 or no.
The diameter bisecting all chords of gradient m is y = mx.
y = mx, = m'a; are conjugate diameters if and only if m + m' 0.
2
[Begin as in 18.71.]
{&>} The conjugate hyperbola is xy = c
2
r sin 6 cos 6
10
11
12
13
3.]
2/
14 Conjugate semi-diameters are equal in length and make complementary

angles with the transverse axis; and the asymptotes bisect the angles between
them.
1 5 {(i)} Prove that lines drawn from a variable point P on a hyperbola to any
two fixed points E, F on the curve intercept a constant length on either
asymptote.
16
{(t)}
*17
{(o}
If the tangents at P,
Q meet at T,
prove that
OT bisects PQ.
quadrilateral circumscribes a hyperbola. Prove that the line

joining the mid-points of its diagonals passes through the centre of the
hyperbola.
18 Prove that no two tangents to a rectangular hyperbola can be perpendicular.
19 If P, Q,
are points on a rectangular hyperbola such that PQ subtends a
right-angle at R, prove that the tangent at
is perpendicular to PQ.
20 Concyclic points.
(i)
Show
hyperbola xy
that the circle x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2fy+d

= c a at points t for which
c 2 *4
+ 2gctz + dt 2 + 2fct + c 2 =
cuts the rectangular
0.
If the points tx , t2 , ts , tt are concyclic, prove <i< a *8 $4 = 1.

(iii) By considering the fourth intersection of the hyperbola
through the points t x , t2 , ta , prove the converse of (ii).
(ii)
and the
circle
21 Use no. 20 (ii) to prove that the common chords of a circle and rectangular
hyperbola are equally inclined in pairs to either axis of the hyperbola.
22 If circles touch a rectangular hyperbola at a fixed point, prove that their
common chords not through this point lie in a fixed direction.

*23 (i) Prove that the circle of curvature at* meets the rectangular hyperbola
again at the point 1/t*.
(ii) Points Px , P , P a , P 4 on the rectangular hyperbola are concyclic. If
2
Q r is where the circle of curvature at Pr meets the curve again, prove that
Qi are also concyclic.

24 The points A, B, G, D on a rectangular hyperbola are not concyclic. If
the circles BCD, CDA, DAB, ABC meet the curve again at A', B\ C, D'
Qi> Qs> Q,
THE HYPERBOLA
661
respectively, prove that the mid-points of the chords
A A',
BB',
CC, DD'
lie
on another hyperbola having the same asymptotes as the given one.

25 Prove that the circumcircle of triangle tx 1 2 13 cuts the rectangular hyperbola
again at the point diametrically opposite to the orthocentre of this triangle.
[Use 18.73, ex.]
26 If a circle and rectangular hyperbola meet at A, B, C, D, prove that the

orthocentres of triangles BCD, CDA, DAB,
are concyclic. Prove also
that the tangents to the hyperbola at G,
meet at a point on the diameter
which is perpendicular to AB.
ABC
27 (i) Prove that the normal at t to the rectangular hyperbola meets the
curve again at the point l/*8
*(ii) Verify from no. 23 (i) that this is diametrically opposite to the point
where the circle of curvature at t meets the curve again.
.
P meets the rectangular hyperbola again at Q.
28 The normal at
the mid-point of PQ
lies
on 4x3y3 + c2 (x 2 -y 2 ) 2
Prove that
0.
29 Conormal points.
(i) If the normal to the rectangular hyperbola xy = c 2 at the point
through (h, k), prove c*4 ht3 + ht c = 0.
(ii) If the normals at t lt t
=
t ta t4 are concurrent, prove that t l t 2 t3 t l
,
passes
1 and
0.
30 Prove that four conormal points are also orthocentric, but that four
conormal points can never be concyclic.
distinct
31
c
=}=
The axes being rectangular, prove that the equation y =
(ox + b)j(cx + d),

represents a rectangular hyperbola whose asymptotes are x = djc,
a/c. What are the coordinates of its centre? [Use 18.71, ex.]
0,
variable line passes through a fixed point and meets two given intersecting lines at P, Q. Prove that the locus of a point dividing PQ in a given ratio
32
is
a hyperbola whose asymptotes are
parallel to the given lines. [Use oblique
axes.]
33 A variable chord of xy = ca passes through the fixed point (p,q). Prove

that the locus of its mid-point is another hyperbola, and give the equations of
its asymptotes.
Miscellaneous Exercise 18 (J)

the angle
1 If
eccentricity is sec %o>.
o) is
between the asymptotes of a hyperbola, prove that
its
PN is the ordinate of a point P on x /a - y jb = 1 NT is a tangent from

+ y = a If P is the point ^, prove NOT = and
2
N to the auxiliary circle x
<f>
NP:NT = b:a.
3 With the notation in 17.23 and cos# = b/a, what is the orthogonal projection of the rectangular hyperbola x 2 y 2 = a2 1 Show that the rectangular
hyperbola xy
= ca projects into another rectangular hyperbola.
4 .4(a,0) and A'( a,0) are fixed points. A variable circle through A and
A' cuts Oy at P, P'. If AP, A'P' meet at Q, prove that the locus of Q is the
rectangular hyperbola x 2 y 2 = a2
5 A variable circle of centre P touches each of two unequal intersecting
circles. Prove that the locus of P is an ellipse and one branch of a hyperbola.
.
[Use the converse bifocal property.]
THE HYPERBOLA
662
is a fixed point in the plane of a given circle of centre A, and

6
is a
variable point on the circumference;
meets the circle again at Q, and the
parallel to
through meets
at R. Prove that the locus of is an ellipse
or a branch of a hyperbola according as
is inside or outside the circle.
BP
AP
AQ
P to x /a y /b 2 = 1 meets the asymptotes at Q, R;

VR are parallel to the axes of the hyperbola. Prove that V lies on one of
7 The tangent at
VQ,
= ab.
a hyperbola meet an asymptote at H, K. Prove
passes through the mid -point of HK. [Use xy = c 2 oblique axes.]
the rectangular hyperbolas xy

8
that
The tangents
PQ
at P,
to
9 The tangents at two points P, P' on a hyperbola meet one asymptote at

Q, Q', and the other at R, R'. Prove QR', Q'R are parallel.
10 For the hyperbola x = %a(t + -1 ), y = \b(t _1 ), find the equation of the
chord joining the points t given by ut2 + vt + w = 0.
1 1 Prove that tangents to y 2 = kx at (kt\, kt^ and (kt\, kt2 ) meet at the
point (kt^,
+ tj).
The tangent to y 2 = kx at any point
cuts the hyperbola x 2 ty 2 = k 2 at
U and V. IfQ,R are the points of contact of the other tangents from U, V to
the parabola, prove that the chord QR touches the circle x 2 + y 2 = k 2
mh
12 Prove that the chord of contact from any point (xlf y x ) on the hyperbola
x 2 /a 2 y 2 /b 2 = 1 to the ellipse x 2 /a2 + y 2 /b 2 = 1 touches the hyperbola, and give
the coordinates of the point of contact.
variable chord of x 2 /a 2 y 2 /b 2 =
13
that the mid-point of this chord lies on
touches the circle x2 + y 2
c2 .
Prove
14 The normal at a variable point P on the rectangular hyperbola xy c a

meets the asymptotes at Q, R. Prove that the mid-point of QR lies on the curve
4x3y 3 + c\x 2 y 2 ) 2 = 0. Explain why this is the same locus as in Ex. 18 (c), no. 28.
15 Prove that the tangent and normal at P on a hyperbola bisect the interior
and exterior angles (respectively) between SP, S'P. [Either prove SO = e SP
and use pure geometry (Ex. 17(c), no. 3); or use r' r= 2a and calculus
.
(8.14, ex. (iv)).]
16 If F, Y' are the feet of the perpendiculars from S, S' to the tangent at
to the hyperbola, prove that SY.S'Y' = b 2 and that triangles SPY, S'PY' are
similar. Hence prove that p/r = (b 2 /p)/S'P, where p =
andr = SP. Deduce
SY
from the
bifocal property that the (p,r) equation of the hyperbola wo the focus
as pole is b 2 /p 2 = 1 2a/r, where
corresponds to the branch enclosing S.
17 If an ellipse and a hyperbola have the same foci S, S' (i.e. are confocal),
prove that they cut orthogonally at each common point P. [The tangents at P
are respectively the external and internal bisectors of angle SPS'.]
18 (i) Prove that the equation x 2 /(a 2 + X)+ y 2 j(b 2 + X) = 1 (a > b) represents
an ellipse, a hyperbola, or nothing according as A > 6 2 a 2 < A < b 2 or
A < a 2 What happens when (a) A = b 2 (6) A a 2 ?
(ii) Prove that the foci of the above conic are independent of A. (When A
varies we obtain a family of confocal conies.)
* 1 9 Prove that through any given point P in the plane ( other than the common
foci) pass two conies of the family in no. 18, one of which is an ellipse and the
,
other a hyperbola. [Express the equation as a quadratic in A, say /(A) = 0; its

discriminant reduces to (a 2 6 2 x 2 + y 2 ) 2 + 4x2y 2 which is positive (unless
,
THE HYPERBOLA
x
663
= a b and y = 0),
2
> 0,
0, /(-a
2
so there are distinct roots X 1 > A a Since /(oo) > 0,

the roots satisfy a 2 < A < -& 2 , -ft 2 < A respectively.] (From 5.72, ex. (ii) or from no. 17 it follows that this ellipse and hyperbola cut orthogonally at P.)
/(-6 2 ) <
20 Write down the condition for the lines px2 + 2rxy + qy 2 = to be conjugate
a
2
2
2 =
a; /a y /b
1 (ii) the rectangular hyperbola xy = c 2
21 (i) Obtain the distance quadratic for the hyperbola x 2 /a 2 y 2 jb 2 = k.
(ii) Deduce that if chords P QR, P Q'R' of the hyperbola in (i) are drawn
X
1
through Px in given directions, then the ratio P1 Q P x R P1 Q' Px R' is independent of P x and k.
*(iii) Hence prove the analogue of Newton's theorem (17.61, ex.) for the pair
of conjugate hyperbolas x2/a 2 y2 /b 2 = 1.
22 Obtain the equation x 2 /a 2 y 2 /b 2 = 1 of the hyperbola referred to a pair
of conjugate diameters OP, OD as coordinate axes, where OP = a x and OD = 6 X
Explain why the new equation of the asymptotes is x 2 \a\ y 2 \b\ 0. [See
diameters of (i)
17.64, ex. (iv).J
Give the centre, semi-axes, eccentricity, foci, directrices, and asymptotes of the
following hyperbolas.
23
V-4z
25
144# 2 - 25y 2 + 50y=l 69.
36.
24 %{x+l) 2 -\(y + 2) 2
I.
664
19
THE GENERAL CONIC;
ks'
locus 5 =
19.1
The
19.11
Scheme of procedure
It has now been shown that the general equation of the second degree
s
= ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c =
represents either a conic (in the wide sense of 15.72), a circle, a pair
of parallel
chapter
even when
We
lines,
it will
or nothing;
cf.
the last paragraph in 15.74. In this
be convenient to refer to the locus
methods
a parallel line-pair.
begin the chapter by applying to the locus
it is
as a 'conic',
circle or
the general
for finding chords, tangents, etc. already illustrated in-
dividually for the parabola, ellipse,
and hyperbola. The work will thus

and will contain as particular
be a summary and unification of conies

'
'
many results already obtained for the special standard forms of

equation of these curves. Had the general case been treated first,
cases
considerable repetition would have been avoided; but dealing with
the special forms separately increases the appreciation of the methods

themselves.
Some
of our work will apply unmodified
represents a line-pair.
remain
when
The reader should consider whether the results
significant in this degenerate case.
The second part of the chapter
is
independent of the
first,
and
is
concerned with a principle which permeates the whole of coordinate

geometry. The student who is pressed for time may turn at once to
19.5 etseq.
19.12 Notation
To
simplify the writing
(a)
We continue to put
(6)
We
8i}
we introduce the
= ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c.
write
= axi xj ^h{xi yj + x^) + byt y} +
Clearly siS
following notation.
sj{
+ xs +f(y4 + y} ) + c.
)
THE general conic; s=ks'
19.13]
The
(c)
by
fy;
result of omitting the suffix j throughout in (b) is
denoted
thus
8i
This
665
is
axi x + h(xt y + xyi ) + byi y + g(x + xt ) +f(y + yi) + c.
what would be obtained from
by applying the
'rule of
alternate suffixes' (15.63, Remark).
For example,
sn
s 12
= axx x2 + h(xx y 2 + x2 y x + by x y 2 + g(xx + x 2 +f(yx + y 2 + c,

= ax\ + 2hx2 y 2 + by\ + 2gx2 + 2fy2 + c,
s22
ax\ + 2hx1 y 1 + by\ + 2gx x + 2fyx + c,

)
sx
ax x x + h(xx y + xyx ) + by1 y + g(x + x 1 ) +f(y + y 1 ) + c,
82
ax 2 x + h(x2 y + xy 2 ) + by 2 y + g(x + x 2 ) +f(y + y 2 ) + c.
Notice that
and
st
(axt + hyt + g)x +
Si
(ax + hy+g)xi + (hx + by +/) y<
(fee,
+ byt +f) y + {gxi +fyt + c),

+ (gx +fy + c).
There are similar forms for sif

is linear in x and y, the equation
Since
.
The geometrical interpretation of s,

5
is
n=
5 12 =
is
Not only does
represents a line.
the equation of the conic;
P
is the condition for P
or for P
st
s xx , s 12 is therefore as follows:
th condition for
this notation
make
to he on this conic;
to
line s 2
0,
to ue on the line s x
0.
lie
on the
discussion of the general conic as
concise as for the various special forms, but
it
provides a suggestive
means of obtaining and memorising some of the results themselves;

e.g. see 19.13. The reader should check each of the following general
results with the corresponding ones obtained for the special equations
used in Chs. 16-18; but
19.13
first
do Ex. 19
(a),
nos. 1-3.
of s =
Chord
Consider the equation

^1
It
is
linear in
a;
and
y,
^'2
*12*
and therefore represents a
line. It is satisfied
THE GENERAL CONIC; S = ks'

= because Px lies on s = 0; and it is
666
by
Px
for sxx
since s 22
Hence
0.
P2
Letting
Px is s =
at
we
along the conic,
the above equation,

s
the equation of the chord
it is
2s
i.e.
0.
JoachimsthaPs ratio equation
19.21
The
dividing
PX P2 in the ratio k
/lxx
\
on
if
s xx as
the limit of
+ kx2
+
Jc
lyx
'
has coordinates
+ ky2 \
+ k )'
and only if
{ax\ +
the equation of the tangent to
+ kx 2 2 + 2h{lx x + kx 2 (Z^ + ky 2 + b{ly x + ky 2 2

+ 2g(lx 1 + kx2 (l + k) + 2f{ly x + ky 2 (l + k) + c(l + kf =
a(lx x
by
ratio quadratic for s =
The point
i.e.
satisfied
.
0.
19.2
It will lie
obtain 2s x
Hence
PX P2
[19.2
0,
2hx2 y2 + by\ + 2gx2 + 2fy2 + c) k 2
+ 2{ax x x 2 + h{x x y 2 + x 2 yx + byx y 2 + g{x x + x2 +f(y x + y 2 + c} kl

+ (axl + 2hxx yx + by\ + 2gxx + 2fyx + c) Z 2 = 0,
)
s22 fe2 + 2s 12 fe/ + s 11 /2
i.e.
This quadratic in k:l
P]P2 and
0.
0.
Its
Px A ^4P2 for
intersection A of the
roots are the values of
the points of
Joachim-
is
sthaVs ratio equation for 5
line
the conic.
Since the
quadratic will have either two, one,

or no roots, f a line meets a conic in
two, one, or
Kg- 186
no points.
The above work applies even if s = represents a line-pair.

We now make a sequence of deductions from the ratio equation.
19.22 Sides of a conic
When
and s22 have opposite signs, the product of the roots is

Hence just one root is positive, so that the conic meets
internally only once. We say that Px and P2 lie on opposite sides
sxl
negative.
PP
X
of the conic. Also see the

f Unless sn
all
k and
I,
i.e.
= 0,
s lz
every point
and
if
Remark in
28
PP
X
= 0,
2 lies
19.24.
which event the quadratic is satisfied

on s = 0, which is therefore degenerate.
in
for
THE GENERAL CONIC;
19.23]
19.23 Tangent at
= ks'
667
Px is a fixed point on s =
and so one root of the

0, then s n =
The second root, which corresponds to the
remaining intersection of PX P2 and the conic, will also be zero if and
only if s 12 = 0. In this case P2 will lie on the tangent at Px and the
condition s 12 =
shows that P2 lies on the line s x = 0. Hence the
If
quadratic for k
is 0.
tangent at
Px has equation s =
(cf.
19.13).
Example*
Contact condition for Ix + my + n =
The tangent at Px has equation
0.
+ hy1 + g)x + (hxx + by x +f)y + (gx x +fy x + c) = 0,

and will represent the same line as Ix + my + n = if and only if the coefficients
(ax x
are proportional,
and
for
i.e. if
some A we have
=
=
gx 1 +fy 1 + c-Xn =
lx x + my 1 + n =
also
By eliminating xx yx
Corollary 1(6) in 11.43)
,
ax x + hyx + g-\l
0,
hx1 + byx +/ Am
0,
A from these, we obtain

a
0,
0.
(using
an obvious extension of
0.
When expanded this becomes (see Ex. 11 (d), no. 12)

Al z + Bm* + Cn 2 + 2Fmn + 2Gnl + 2Hlm =
19.24 Pair of tangents
from
IfP1 is a fixed point, the quadratic for k I has equal roots if and only
n s 22 = sf2 This means that P P2 meets the conic in only one point,
i.e. is a tangent from P
Hence s n s 22 = Si2 is the condition for P2 to
x
:
if s
He on any tangent from Px but this equation shows that P2 lies on

s lx s = s{. The equation of the tangents from Px is therefore s n s *f.
\
Remark. By writing s n s = s\ in full, it can be shown by using 15.53 (1) and

15.52(1) that this second-degree equation will represent two distinct intersecting lines, a repeated line, or the single point x according as As n
0, where
denned by equation
in 15.53(2). Hence for a non-degenerate conic

(i.e. A + 0), s lx s = s\ represents a pair of lines ifP lies on that side of the conic
1
for which As n < 0. The outside of the conic s =
can therefore be denned
algebraically as the set of points x for which As n < 0.
is
(vii)
45
GPM II
THE GENERAL CONIC;
668
= ks'
[19.25
Chord of contact from P,
19.25
P (supposed outside the conic)

P P The tangent at P nas equation s2 = 0; and since
it passes through P we have s
= 0. This shows that P2 lies on the
v
12
line 5 = 0. Similarly s 13 = 0, so that P3 also lies on s = 0. Hence the
equation of P P3 is s = 0.
Method 2. The points of contact of tangents from P satisfy both
Method
Let the tangents from
1.
touch 8
at
2,
= and s xl s = s\. Hence they also satisfy s x = 0. Since s x is linear,

s =
is the equation of the chord of contact of tangents from P
v
s
19.26 Examples; polar of P,
wo s =
(1) Tangents at the extremities of a variable chord through P x meet on s x = 0.

Let the tangents at the extremities A, B of such a chord meet at P2 Then
the chord of contact from P2 is AB, whose equation is therefore s 2 = 0. Since
this line passes through Px s 12 = 0; and this condition shows that P2 lies on
.
the line s
(2)
and
on
0.
the line s 1
0.
it follows that A and B divide PiP 2 hi the same ratio
and one externally). Hence the ratio quadratic must have its
and opposite; this is so if and only if s 12 = 0, which shows that
the hypothesis
(one internally
roots k I equal
:
on *t
lies
AB
From
Let a chord through x cut the conic at

and B. The point a such that Pj
divide
in the same ratio {one internally and the other externally) lies
0.
2 is
called the harmonic conjugate of
P wo 8=0.
x
The diagrams in 15.65, with the circle replaced by any conic, show that
some positions ofP1 the locus of P2 in (1), (2) above will be only part of the
line x = 0. We unify these results by making the following definition.
The whole line s t = is called the polar of Pt wo s = 0.
(3)
for
Remarks
(a) If
P
P
(/?)
If
(y)
In
lies
lies
full,
*!
It does
(ax x
if
+ hy1 + g)x + (hxx + by 1 +f)y + (gx x +fy x + c) = 0.

= and hxx + by x +/ = 0; in general
ax k + hy + g
x.
is
sx
is
P wo
there
satisfying these conditions.
The argument shows (without
line-pair s
not exist
unique point
(3)
outside s, the polar coincides with the chord of contact from

on s, the polar coincides with the tangent at x
the polar of x is
sx
(ax + hy + g)x 1
0.
modification) that the polar of
Since
+ {hx + by+f)y l + (gx +fy + c),
the polar of x always passes through the vertex of the line-pair (15'53(3)).
(e) Fig. 187 shows the polar of
x as
(i) a chord of contact TT' (Remark (a))
(ii) the harmonic locus, (2);
(iii) the locus of the meets Q of tangents at the ends of chords through
Pi,
(1).
669
THE GENERAL CONIC; S = ks'
Reciprocal property. If the polar of P passes through Pa then the polar
()
(This is valid for a line-pair provided P a is not the
of P a passes through P
= 0, and this passes through P if
is
vertex.) For the polar of P wo s =
s 12 = 0; this shows that P lies on s = 0, which is the polar of P a wo s = 0.
In fig. 187, P Q is the polar of P
19.27]
x.
2.
Fig. 188
Fig. 187
Chord whose mid-point
19.27
is
P,
Let the extremities of the chord be A and Pa
and the ratio quadratic has one root
2k8 li + U 11
0.
0,
(fig.
188)
The other
Then s 22 = 0,
by
root, given
A and since A divides P1 P2 externally in the

must be k\ls= \. Hence s 12 = n which shows
that P2 lies on *ne locus s x = s n Since this is linear, and is also satisfied
by Pl5 it is the required chord. Thus the chord ofs = wJiose mid-point
corresponds to the point
ratio
2, this
root
is
is s t
= su
Example
Show
that the mid-points of all chorda of s
the curve s
sx
which pass through
x lie
on
Let 2 be the mid-point of such a chord, which will have equation * a = aa

ia = s 2t This shows that
Since the chord passes through
x
a lies on the
locus s x = s which, being of second degree, is also a conic; clearly it passes
.
through
Pr
19.28 Diameters
Let
Px be the mid-point of a chord of gradient m. Then this chord
has equation
45-2
THE general conic; s = ks'

Its equation is also s x = s xx which can be written
670
[19.29
ax x (x - x x ) + h{xx (y - yx ) + yx (x - x x )} + byx (y - y x )
+ g(x-x 1 )+f(y-yx =
0.
Hence
which shows that
lies
on the
(ax + hy + g)
By
ax x + h(mx x + yx ) + bmyx + g +fm
0,
line
+ m(hx + by+f) =
0.
definition (16.41) this is the equation of the diameter bisecting
chords of gradient m.
all
The diameter
bisecting all chords of gradient
m has gradient
a + hm
h + om
a + h(m + m') + bmm'
so that
The symmetry
gradient
in
0.
m, m' of this relation shows that the diameter of
bisects all chords of gradient m'.
Two
such diameters
are conjugate.
19.3
The
The
distance quadratic
line
through
x
It
meets
Px in direction 6 has parametric equations

x x + r cos 6,
y = y x + r sin 6.
at points for which r
is
(i)
given by
a(xx + r cos d) 2 + 2h(x x + r cos 6) (yx + r sin 6)
+ b(y x + r sin d) 2
+ 2g(xx + r cos 6) + 2f(yx + r sin d) + c =
i.e.
+ 2h cos 6 sin 6 + b sin 2 6)

+ 2r{(axx + hyx + g) cos 6 + (hx x + byx +/) sin 6} + s xx =
0,
r 2 (a cos 2 6
0.
(ii)
Px of the points
Px in direction 0.
This quadratic in r gives the signed distances from

of the conic s
which he on the
line
(i)
through
Examples
Chord whose mid-point is P y
= which passes through P1 is bisected there, then the roots
of equation (ii) must be equal and opposite, and hence
(i)
If a chord of *
(axx + hyx + g) cos 6 + {hx x + by x + /) sin 9
0,
THE GENERAL CONIC;
19.4]
= ks'
which gives the direction cos# :sin# of such a chord. If

this chord, then from equation (i),
cos 6
sm.6
671
(x,y)
is
any point on
'
+ g)(x-xx + (hx 1 + byx +/) (y - yx = 0.

which has mid -point Px
This is therefore the equation of the chord of s =
it can be arranged in the form s x = s u (cf. 19.27).
and
(axx + hyx
so
(ii)
Segments of a chord.
If the line (i) cuts the conic at Q, R, then

roots of (ii) we have
P Q.Px R = rx r2 =
t
(a)
by considering the product of the
a cos2 d + 2h
eg
n e + b gin2
For chords QB, Q'B' through P x in given directions
6, 6', it follows
that
P Q.P R _ a cos2 6' + 2h cos B' sin d' + b sina 6

P Q'.P R' ~ acos + 2/&cos0sin0 + &sin
which is independent of the coordinates of P Hence the ratio of the product of
'
'
x.
the segments of two chords drawn in given directions through the same point is
constant for all points.
(6) For chords P X QR, P Z Q'R' drawn through P lt P 2 in the same direction 6,
it also follows that
^ D
PX Q.P X R _
P%Q 'P%R
*22
which is independent of 6. Hence the ratio of the products of the segments of

two parallel chords drawn through given points Px P2 is constant for all
,
directions.
19.4
Tangent and normal as coordinate axes
Sometimes
it is
convenient (as for example in 8.42(1)) to choose
the tangent and normal at a particular
yj
point for axes of coordinates; this point
thus becomes the origin.

If s
passes through 0, then c
0.
= touches y = at (0, 0), the equation

ax% + 2gx + c = must have both roots zero,
so that also g = 0. The equation of the conic
If
is
therefore
ax
o
2
+ 2hxy + by + 2fy
2
0.
Fi8- 189
Example
Fregier's point.
is a fixed point on a non-degenerate conic s = 0, and PQ is a chord which
subtends a right-angle at O. Prove that PQ passes through a fixed point (the Fregier
point of O wo s) on the normal atO, or else is parallel to this normal.
THE GENERAL CONIC;
672
= ks'
[19.4
Choosing axes as above, let PQ have equation Ix + my = 1. (This form of

equation for PQ is legitimate since the hypothesis that PQ subtends a right angle at O implies that PQ does not pass through 0.)
The line-pair OP, OQ has equation
l
'
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2fy(lx + my)
by
15.54. Since
OP JL OQ, then from
(i)
0,
15.52 (2)
a + (b + 2fm)
0.
4= 0, then m = (a + 6)/2/+ 0. Hence Ix + my = 1 passes through

(0, 2//(a + 6)), which is a fixed point on Oy, the normal at O.
If a + b = 0, then the perpendicularity condition becomes fm = 0. If / = 0,
the conic s =
is an orthogonal line -pair
excluded by hypothesis; in such a
= 0, the equation of PQ
case every 'chord' subtends a right-angle at O. If
is Ix = 1, which is a line parallel to Oy.
If a + b
Exercise 19(a)
Write out in full the expressions for & xx s Xi when s denotes
,
^ + ^-1-
2 y -4ax.
xy-cK
+ my + n)(l'x+m'y + n'); and if u Ix + my + n, u' = I'x + m'y+n',

s ia = ^{u-û^ + uû ^.
5 Interpret the equation slx + 2s12 + s = 0.
6 Obtain the equation of the tangent to s = at Px (i) by Calculus; (ii) from
s n = si by taking P x on s = 0.
7 Prove that the normal to s = at Px has equation
(2/ - Vx) (oî + %i + g)~(x- x x (hx x + by x +/)
8 Find the condition for the lines px 2 + 2rxy + qy z =
to be parallel to
conjugate diameters of * = 0.
9 Prove that the line-pair joining O to the meets of x 2 + y 2 = r 2 and
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 1 is
*4
(lx
show that
2iS
a-^jx 2 + 2hxy+(b-^jy =
2
Show
0.
that these will be conjugate diameters of the conic

1
2
_ 2{ab-h
if
a+b
r2
Hence obtain the equation of the equi-conjugate diameters of
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2
10 Writing
and
Use
11
w = gx +fy + c, verify that

= ux + vy + w, s x = u1 x + v y + w = ux + vyx + w,
s xx = u x +v y x + w
1
the distance quadratic for s
no. 10.
x.
in nos. 11-13.
Obtain the equation of the tangent at
by using
1.
u = qx + hy + g, v ~ hx + by+f,
x,
and reduce it to the form s x =
THE GENERAL CONIC;
19.5]
12
{ux (x - xj)
+ vx {y - yx )} =
2
Using no.
(ii)
and hence
1
673
to s\
10,
show that this is equivalent to (s l
= 8Sn
is
{a(x -xtf + 2h(x - Xl )(y- yi )
+ b(y- y^} s u
s 11 2 = (s 2s1 +811 $n
.
A line through O cuts 8 =
Prove that the equation of the pair of tangents from Px
(i)
OR is (i) the arithmetic
that
= ks
at
P and Q. A point R is chosen on this line so
mean;
(ii) the geometric meanj (hi) the harmonic

mean, of OP, OQ. Find the locus of R in each case.
is the point ^ on the ellipse x 2 /a z + z /b 2 1. Write down the equation
14
y
of the chord PQ for which KP, KQ are parallel to the axes, and find where it
meets the normal at K. Deduce from the example in 19.4 that chords which
subtend a right-angle at the fixed point are concurrent at
<j>
/a
I
-6 a cos
a 2 -6 2
p,
~z
o sin <p
15 If equation (i) in 19.4 represents lines OP, OQ equally inclined to Oy, use
15.52 (3) to prove h +fl = 0. Deduce that if OP, OQ are equally inclined to the
normal to *
O, or
is
at O, then
PQ passes
through a fixed point on the tangent at
parallel to this tangent.
Number of conditions which a
19.5
If k
is
conic can satisfy
any non-zero constant, the equations
and
ax 2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c
Ics
Jcax 2
represent the
same
the other. Since
+ 2khxy + Jcby 2 + 2hgx + 2kfy + he =
locus; for if
a, b, c, f, g,
so that one coefficient in ks
h are not
is 1.
then
satisfies one,
all zero,
it
also satisfies
we can always choose h
The remaining
five coefficients
(i.e.
the five ratios a:b:c:f:g :h) can be chosen so as to satisfy five conditions,
but in general no more. The equations which express these

may have more than one set of solutions but, since they
conditions
are polynomial equations, the
number of
be
sets will
finite if
the
conditions are independent.

It follows that a conic can be chosen to satisfy five independent
conditions,
and that the number of such
conies
is finite.
Examples
(i)
(r=
In
general a unique conic can be
drawn through
five given points
Pr
1,...,6).
For in general the five ratios a:b:c:f:g:h can be determined uniquely from
the five linear equations
axl + 2hxr yr + by\ + 2gxr + 2fyr + c
so that s
is
the equation of the required conic.
(r
1,
. .
.,
5),
THE GENERAL CONIC;
674
= ks'
[19.6
c, f, g, h can be eliminated from the above equations

giving the required equation in determinant form.
of finding the equation of a conic through five given points
Alternatively, a, b,
together with s
An
will
easier
way
0,
be illustrated in 19.64, ex.
(i).
If three of the five points in ex. (i) lie on a line

which therefore consists of two lines I, V.
(ii)
conic,
I,
then
must be part of the
For no line can meet a non-degenerate conic in three points (see the footnote
on p. 666); and the only line-pair through these five points is I and the line V
which joins the other two.
If four of the points are collinear on I, the conic consists of I and any line V
through the fifth point. If all five points lie on I, the conic consists of I and any
line in the plane. In these two cases of ex. (i) the conic is not unique.
19.6
The equation
19.61
Number
= ks'
of possible intersections of two conies
The equations of the two given

s
s'
conies can be arranged in the
+ 2fy + c) = 0,
+ 2(h'y + g')x + (by + 2f'y + c') =
ax + 2(hy + g)x + (by

2
a'x
form
0.
The coordinates of any common point of these must satisfy the

equation in y obtained by elimination of x. Since this equation will
in general be quartic in y, there are 4, 2 or
(apart from possible coincidences).
By
no possible values of y
eliminating x 2 only,
we
see
that to each value of y corresponds at most one value of x, given by

2{(a'h
-ah')y + (a'g - ag')} x
+ {(a'b - ab') y 2 + 2{a'f- af) y + {a'c - ac')} =

Hence, ignoring coincidences,
two conies
the
number of
0.
possible intersections of
is 4, 2 or 0.
19.62 s = ks'
This equation has already been discussed

sent lines (15.41) or circles (Ex. 15
(1)
If s
0, s'
the equation of a conic,
are conies
is
and k
when
and s' =
constant, this last equation is
0, s'
repre-
no. 16).
is constant, then s
which passes through the meets
For if P satisfies both 5

Since k
(d),
ks' is also
{if any) ofs and s'
then it also satisfies s = ks'.

of second degree and therefore
0,
represents a conic (or nothing).

(2)
// s,
s'
meet in four points A, B, C, D, then any conic
these points has
If
Px
is
on
an equation of the form
cr,
o~
through
ks'.
k can be chosen so that s
ks'
passes through
lt
THE GENERAL CONIC;
19.63]
viz.
= sn ls'u
(assuming that
below). For this k, the conies
and hence coincide
is
not on
<r and s =
(19.5, ex.
= ks'
s'
675
the
0: see
ks' have five
points in
Remark
common,
(i)).
may
Exceptions to the last statement
arise
when
three of the five
Px need not
be collinear with any two of A, B, C, D. If A, B,C are collinear, then
s, s' must be of the forms txfi, ay where a =
is the line ABC and
are lines through D (19.5, ex. (ii)). Every conic through
fi = 0, y =
A,B,C,D then consists of a == and a line = Icy through D. Hence
points are collinear. Since
cr
is
x
an
arbitrary point of a,
a(fi-ky)
s-Jcs',
and the theorem is still valid.

Remark. The only conic through the meets A, B, C, D of s and s'
which does not have an equation of the form s = ks' is s' itself. This
exception can be avoided by using As = AV, where A and A' are
independent constants; but usually the equation s = ks' is adequate.
For different k or A A', the equation s = ks' or As = A represents
a family or system or pencil of conies through the intersections (if
any) of s and
s'.
19.63 Degenerate cases
The results in
19.62 apply
when one or both of s,
s'
degenerate, and
these cases are particularly useful.

(i)
kecfi.
This represents a conic through the meets
of the distinct lines
a =
0, fi
with s
(fig.
Fig. 190
(ii)
ka, 2 .
When fi -> a
touching s at each of
(if
any)
190).
Fig. 191
in
(i),
we have
its intersections (if
to have double contact with s along
a =
the equation of a conic
any) with a
(fig.
191).
0.
It
is
said
THE GENERAL CONIC;
676
(iii)
JcotT,
where r
a conic meeting s at
it
a tangent
its intersections
at the contact of t
is
with s
to s.
(if
(fig.
= ks'
[19.63
When ft - t in (i), we have

= 0, and touching
any) with a
192).
If one meet of a and s coincides

with one meet of ft and s in (i), we obtain a conic meeting s at a point
on a and at a point on /?, and touching 8 at the meet of a and /? (fig. 1 93).
(iv) s
kaft,
where a,
Fig. 196
ft meet on
s.
Fig. 197
(v) s = foxT, where a passes through the contact of r. If one meet of

a and s in (iii) coincides with the contact of r, we obtain a conic meeting
s at a point on a and touching s at the meet of a and r (fig. 194).
2
(vi) s = Jct
If a -> t in (v), we get a conic touching s at its
.
contact with r
(vii) aft
(fig.
196).
(fig.
195).
= kyS is
a conic through the meets of the lines a,
ft,
y, 8
THE general conic; s=ks'
19.64]
= ky 2
677
y in (vii), we have a conic touching the lines

<x, /? at their meets with
y (fig. 197).
2
2
represents the two lines a = ^/fcy, which pass
(ix) a = ky
through the meet of a, y if this exists.
In the next two cases s' represents a single line.
(x) s = kcc is a conic through the meets (if any) of s and a.
(viii) a/?
(xi) s
&t
is
If S ->
a conic touching
at its contact with
t.
19.64 Examples
The 's = ks" principle has already been used for conies in Ex. 15 (/),
(b), no. 1; and in the alternative method in 17.41.
no. 15; Ex. 16
(i) Find the equation of the conic through (3, 0), (0, 2), (5, 0),
The lines joining the first four points in pairs are as follows.
(3,0),
|-|-1 =
(0,-2):
(0,-2), (0,1):
0;
0;
(5,0), (0,1):
| + j,_l =
(3,0), (5,0):
Hence any conic through the first four points
This passes through (15,
(ii)
Find
is
1.8 = k. 15.6, i.e. k =

_ 3y _ 6){x + 5y _ 5) = 8xy
and
Ix
+ my + n =
0;
0.
(vii))
The required
conic
formed by
the lines
0.
Let the tangent at O to the required circle be px + qy 0. Then by

equation will be
ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 (Ix + my + n)(px + qy)
1 9- 63, (iii)
its
provided
we choose p and q so
that
apl b qm and
2h
= mp + Iq.
If we arrange the above three equations in terms of p

(Zoj
By
and
q,
we have
+ my + n) xp + (Ix + my + n)yq (ax + 2hxy + by =

Ip mq (a b) = 0,
)
mp + lq 2h =
eluninating p,
(lx
and
q,
0.
we obtain
+ my + n)x
(lx
+ my + n)y
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2
ab
2h
as the equation of the required circle.
is
the equation of the circumcircle of the triangle
ax2 + 2hxy + by2
(by 19.63,
6) if
therefore
(0, 1), (15, 6).
0,
THE GENERAL CONIC;
678
(iii)
= ks'
[19.64
Goncyclic points on the ellipse
l + yl _
The chords 0i0 2 and

a
The points
are
a2
b2
a=
0, /?
where
0,
- cos (0 X +
2)
+ - sin (0 X +
2)
= -cos(0 3 +
4)
+ -sin(0 s +
3,
2,
l5
- cos ^(fa -
2 ),
)-eos|(0 3 -0 4 ).
be concyclic if and only if one conic of the system
will
a2
o2
This requires that the coefficients ofx 2 and y 2 shall be equal, and the
xy zero. In general it is not possible for the single number k to
satisfy these two conditions; but the coefficient of xy is zero if
is
circle.
coefficient of
cos (0 X +
2)
+ 0J + cos J(0 3 + 4 sin

+ 2 + 3 + 4 = 0,
+ 02 + 03 + 04 = 2rwr
sin (0 3
2)
0,
i.e.
<j)
some integer ,
The coefficients of x 2 and
sin
i.e.
for
^-^ = k
c os i(0x
are then equal
?/
2)
cos |(0 3 +
4)
if
- ^ sin (0 X +
2)
sin |(0 3
4)
& j-^ cos
( 0!
2)
+ ^ sin
J( 0!
2 J
cos nn ,
and here the coefficient of k is non-zero.

Hence if S0 X = 2nn, k can be chosen uniquely to satisfy the second condition.
Thus the relation S0 X = 2nn is necessary and sufficient for the points x 2 3 4
of the ellipse to be concyclic. Compare the example in 17.32.
<j>
*(iv)
Normals
at the extremities of the chords Ix
ellipse
The
a2
b2
conic
a2
b2
+ my =
1, 1'x
+ m'y =
of the
- + vf--l = k{lx + my-l){l'x + m'y-l)
passes through the extremities of the chords, by 19.63, (i). If the normals at
these extremities are concurrent, say at (x^y^), then their feet lie on
(a 2 b 2 )xy
by Ex.
17
(c),
Comparing
x a 2x 1 y
must belong to the above system.

and the constant terms, we have
no. 10. Consequently this conic
coefficients of x 2
- Ml' = 0,
a2
Hence
+ b 2y
if the
of x 2 ja 2 + y 2 /b 2
no. 14.
b2
- kmm' =
0,
+ =
fc
Ix + my = 1, Vx + m'y = 1
= 1. Also see Ex. 19(6),
normals at the extremities of the chords
are concurrent, then
aHV =
b %mm'
0.
THE GENERAL CONIC;
19.65]
= ks'
679
on s = and also
conic passes through four given points A, B, G,
*(v)
through the meet x of tangents at A, B. Prove that it passes through the meet 2
of tangents at C, D.
Since the equations of the chords of contact AB, CD are respectively s x = 0,

= 0, the conic is 8 = Ax * a by 19.63, (i). This passes through lt so s u = ks n sl2
Clearly this is satisfied
hence k = l/s12 , and the conic has equation s12 s =
byP2
*(vi) Pascal's theorem.
on a
If
1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6 denote six points
conic, then the meets of the lines

12, 45;
23, 56;
34, 61
are collinear.
For suitable k and I, the line-pair (12) (56) has equation

k{25) (16), and the line-pair (23) (45) has equation
Z(25)(34). The points X(12,45) and F(23,56) lie on
both pairs, but do not lie on s = or on (25). Hence they
lie
on the line &(16) = i(34), which passes through
=
s =
Z(34, 61).
The argument holds even when * = is a line-pair provided that the sets
5 and 2, 4, 6 lie on different lines; the result is then known as Pappus's
1, 3,
theorem.
19.65 Contact of
two conies
Although in general two distinct conies intersect in at most four

A,B,C, D, there may be coincidences of the following types:
points
AAGD
AACC
A A AD
AAAA
2-point contact at
double contact along
(figs.
AC
A
4-point contact at A
3-point contact at
192, 193),
(fig.
191),
(fig.
194),
(fig.
195).
Since a circle can be determined to pass through only three general

points,
we may expect that in general a
3-point contact with a conic at

limit
when
and cutting
it
By
circle
cannot have more than
regarding such a circle as the
along the conic of a circle touching the conic at
at P,
we
see
from 8.42 (2) that
the circle having 3-point
A is the circle of curvature of the conic at A.

= at A is s = Tear, where
A
=
=
is any chord through A. If
is the tangent at A to s and a
r
contact at
conic having 3-point contact with s
k and a are chosen so that this conic is a circle, it will be the circle of
curvature at A. It is known (e.g. Ex. 16(6), no. 16 (i); Ex. 17(a),
no. 13) that
a and t must be equally
inclined to the axes.
t For examples of exceptions, see Ex. 19(6), nos. 9, 10.
THE GENERAL CONIC;
680
S = ks'
[19.7
Example
= 4ax at the point

= x ty + at 2 = 0, and
2at) with gradient ljt is
Find the circle of curvature of y 2

The tangent at the point t is t
chord through
{at 2 ,
y 2at
t.
The required
- 4ax =
The
x 2 and y 2 are equal (the

k = 1/(1 + t 2 ), so
coefficients of
= kt2 1, i.e.
x 2 + y2 _ 2a(3i 2 + 2) x + 4a% - 3a 2<4 = 0.
centre of curvature at
is
0.
already absent). This gives k
circle is
curvature
k(x + ty- Zat 2 ) (x-ty + at 2 ),
where k must be chosen so that the

is
The
circle is
y
xy-term
that the
1/t.
= -(x at2 ),
a = x + ty Sat 2
i.e.
has gradient
t is
therefore (2a + 3a 2 ,
2ats ); and
the radius of
found to be 2a(l + 2 )*. These results can of course be obtained by
the methods of Ch.
8.
Remark. Iif(x) and g(x) are polynomials, then Remark (a) in 6.72
shows that when the curves y = f(x), y = g(x) have mth-order contact
at x = a, they have (m + l)-point contact in the sense of the present
section, and conversely. For general curves the concepts are not
equivalent.
Equations of a type more general than
19.7
s= ks'
Iff = 0, g = represent any two curves, their intersections (if any) satisfy
every equation which can be deduced algebraically from / = and g = 0. The
new equation need not be of the form/ = kg; and even when it is, k may not be
The problem in 15.54 is of this type.

Sometimes the equations are combined in such a way that the deductions
constant.
do not hold
for all the
common points.
Examples
Circle through the feet of conormal points
(i)
The
where
(h, k) is
Hence they
4ax
and
xy + (2a h)y 2ak
the point of concurrence of the normals
also satisfy
xy2 + {2a _ h)yi=z 2aky>
+ (2a h)y 2 =
4a( a + y 2 )-(2a + h) 4ax x 2 +y2 -(2a+h)x =
x(4kax)
and
This
on a parabola.
points in question satisfy the equations
is
the required
circle; cf. 16.32, ex.
(ii).
2aky,
2aky,
iky.
0,
(see 16.32, ex.
(iii) (6)).
THE GENERAL CONIC;
19.7]
(ii)
Find
= ks'
681
the equation of conies through the meets, other than the origin, of
and
s'
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2fy

a'x
+ 2h'xy + b'y + 2g'x + 2f'y =

2
0,
where fg' *f'g.

The given equations can be written
= -y(by + 2f),
= -y(b'y + 2f).
x(ax + 2hy + 2g)

,
x(a'x + 2h y + 2g')
Coordinates other than

<r
(0, 0)
which
satisfy
(ax + 2hy + 2g) {b'y + 2f)
both these equations also satisfy
- (a'x + 2h'y + 2g') (by + 2f) =
0.
This is therefore one conic through the meets of*, s', and does not pass through O.
Clearly
<r
+ ks + k's' =
(i)
also passes through the same points for all k, k'.

If 8, s' meet in three points other than O, then k, k' can be chosen to make the
conic (i) pass through two other general points. Hence any conic through the
three points has an equation of this form. The system (i) is called a net of conies.
Exercise 19(6)
Find
the equation of the conic through
(0,0), (0,1), (3,0), (2,1),
(2,3),
(-1,1), (4,0),
(2,-3).
-2), (5,3).
3 Assuming that ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = c and a'x 2 + 2h'xy + b'y 2 =
in four points, find the condition for these points to be concyclic.
(3,
intersect
4 Find the common chords of x 2 + y 2 = 25 and x 2 + xy + y 2 36.

5 Two chords are drawn through a focus of an ellipse, and a conic is drawn
through their extremities and the centre of the ellipse. Prove that this conic
cuts the major axis in another fixed point.
6 (i) Prove that, for any c,
(l+t 2 )(y 2 -4ax) + (x-ty + at 2 )(x + ty + c)
the equation of a circle which touches y = Aax at the point t.

(ii) PSQ is a focal chord of a parabola.
Circles are drawn through the
focus S to touch the parabola at P, Q respectively. Prove that these circles
cut orthogonally.
2
is
A circle has double contact with ax + by + c =

2
contact
is
parallel to either
or y
0.
2
0. Prove that the chord of
[Let the chord be Ix + my + n = 0.]
8 Find the equation of the circle touching the ellipse x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 =

end of a latus rectum.
9 Find the equation of the circle which has 4-point contact with
x2
circle
has equation s
at each
- + Vv- =
[The
kr 2 where t
,
at(,0).
= x a.]
10 Show that a circle can have 4-point contact with a parabola only at the
vertex.
THE GENERAL CONIC;
682
= ks r
of x 2 ja 2 + y 2 jb 2 = 1,
1 1 Write down the equation of the tangent at the point
and find the equation of the chord through which has the same inclination to
Ox as this tangent. Hence show that the circle of curvature at is
cos0 -sin0 cos 20 J
0,
and find its centre and radius.

12 Find the circle having 3 -point contact with xy =
deduce the centre and radius of curvature at this point.
ca
at the point
13 Prove that the circle of curvature of ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2

a{x 2 + y 2 ) = 2y.
and
t,
2y at
is
*14 Use example (iv) in 19.64 to prove that if normals at the ends of the chords
0i0 2 and 3 4 of x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 1 are concurrent, then
2)
COS (0 3 +
4)
sin i(0 x +
2)
sin (0 3 +
4)
COS (0 X
and
By subtraction, deduce that E0 t =

condition for the points
*15
(i)
1?
2,
+ COS J(0j + cos (0 X -
2)
OS (0 3 -
4)
2)
cos (0 3 -
4)
0.
(2n +
03> 04 to
1) ir is a necessary (but not sufficient)

be conormal. (Cf. 17.52, ex.)
Write down the equation of a conic circumscribing the quadrilateral
whose opposite
sides are the lines a,/?; y, 8.

the length of the perpendicular from
to the line a = 0, prove
that p = constant x a
(iii) If a conic circumscribes a quadrilateral, prove that the ratio of the
product of perpendiculars from any point
of the conic onto two opposite
sides, to the product of perpendiculars from
onto the other two sides, is
constant (a result due to Pappus).
(ii)
If p
is
*16
Show
that the feet of normals from
x 2 + (2a-h)x
iky. [See 19.7, ex.
(h,Jc)
to y 2
4ax
lie
on the parabola
(i).]
*17 Explain why the conic H$x t 2 y + at$ (x tz y + at\) =

passes through
the vertices of the triangle formed by the tangents to y 2 = 4ax at t x t2 3
Find the ratios fc x k 2 k 3 for which this conic is a circle, and verify that the
circle passes through the focus. State this result as a geometrical theorem.
,

2
2
1 A pair of tangents to ax + by = 1 intercepts a constant length 2c on Ox.
Prove that the point from which the tangents are drawn lies on the curve
by 2 (ax 2 + by 2 ~
1)
ac 2 (by 2
l) 2 .
2 Prove that chords of y 2 = 4aa? which subtend a right-angle at

are concurrent at (a(jj + 4), 2a ). [Use 19.4, ex.]
3
Through a fixed point O a
line is
drawn
to
meet a conic at
A point Q on OPP' is chosen so that

1
OQ 2
Prove that Q
lies
on a
OP
1
2
OP' 2
'
conic. [Use the distance quadratic]
(at\,
2at
and
P'.
THE GENERAL CONIC;
683
ks'
4 If ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c =

represents a line -pair, prove that
the pair (other than the coordinate axes) passing through the meets of these
with the axes has equation ax 2 + 2(2fg/c h)xy + by 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0.
in four points
5 The lines 6a; 2 + ay 2 =
(a + 6 4= 0) meet the conic s =
A, B, G, D. If the diagonals not through O of the quadrilateral ABGD are
perpendicular, prove that
h
ab
g
b-a f =
ABGD
0.
AD
DC
is cyclic; AB,
produced meet at E; BG,
6
produced meet
at F. Prove that the bisectors of angles GEB, CFD are perpendicular. [With
for origin, let the pair AB,
bet = px 2 + 2rxy + qy 2 = 0, and BG,
be * = 0.
Express the condition for t = ks to be a circle, and use 15.52 (3).]
AD
DC
7 Prove that the points of intersection of x 2 2xy + By 2 + 9x 16y + 24

and 5a; 2 + 6xy y 2 43a; + 60y 62 = are concyclic. [Eliminate xy.]
8 Find the equation of the rectangular hyperbola through the meets of the
= b/a,
x 2 /a 2 + y 2 jb 2 = 1 and the line-pair y 2 = 2x 2 Show that when
this rectangular hyperbola cuts the ellipse orthogonally.
ellipse
9 A circle through the origin touches the rectangular hyperbola xy = c 2 and

meets it again at P, Q. Prove that the foot of the perpendicular from the origin
to
PQ lies on 4acy
c2 .
*10 Obtain the general equation of conies through (3,2), ( 3,2), (2, 3),
Show that this family contains a parabola, and find its equation.
( 2, 3).
[Use Ex. 16(e), no. 26 (i).]
The normal to y 2 = 4oa; at the point P(t) meets the parabola again at
and the normal at Q meets the curve again at R. Prove that the equation
of the parabola which passes through P, B and touches the given one at Q can
*11
Q(d),
be written
X{y 2 - lax)
where A = (d t)
of y 2 = 4ax and
+ (tx + y- at 3 - 2at) (6x + y- ad 3 - 2a6) =
Prove that its axis is parallel to SN, where S is the focus

the point where the normal at
toy 2 = 4ax cuts Oy. [In
/4dt.
the last part use 6
is
= t 2/t.]
P to the conic obtained in ex. (v) of 19.64 is the

AB and CD. [Use Ex 19 (a), no. 4.]
*12 Prove that the tangent at

Px to the meet of
line joining
46
0,
GPM II
684
20
POLAR EQUATION OF A CONIC

The
20.1
straight line
Polar coordinates and equations have been used in various parts
The purpose of this

and use the polar equation of a conic to prove
of the book, particularly in calculus applications.
chapter
is
to obtain
We
geometrical properties, especially focal ones.

sections
on the straight
line
and
circle, in
begin with short
which we assemble the
material required.
Given two points A(r v X ) and B(r 2 ,d 2 ), the length of AB can be

found by applying the cosine rule to triangle AOB (fig. 199):
AB2 = r\ + r\ - 2r
t r2
cos {6 1 -
2 ).
Fig. 200
Fig. 199
20.12 Line joining two points
Let P(r, 6) be any point on AB. If P

(fig.
200)
sin (ft,-^)
i
\r x r sin (0 - d x )
If
P lies
show
between
and B, then
^ AQB = ^ AQp + ApaBj

lrx r2 sin {6 2 -d x )
i.e.
lies
on
AB produced
similarly
by
+ \rr 2 sin {0 2 -6),
sin(0 2 -0)
rinff-flj
|
r2
or on
rx
BA
produced, the reader should
considering areas that the
same
result holds.
..
20.13]
685
is satisfied by any point (r, 6)

AB, it is the equation of the line.
Remark. The line joining O to the point (p, a) has equation =
Accordingly, since this equation
of
the line
This fact, already noticed in 1.63
(c), is
obvious from
a.
first principles.
20.13 Line in 'perpendicular form'
Let the perpendicular from O to the given line have length p and
angle a with Ox. If P(r, 6) is any point on the line, then from
triangle ONP we have
(ii)
p = rcos(0 a).
make
This
(cf.
15.28) is the equation of the line in 'perpendicular form'.
Fig. 201
Remark. The foot
of the perpendicular from
has polar co-
ordinates (p,oc).
20.14 General equation of a line
When converted to
Ax + By = C becomes
polar coordinates, the general linear equation
Aeosd + Bsvcid =
(iii)
Example
Any line perpendicular to
(iii)
has an equation of the form
Acoa(d + $7r)+Bsin(d + in) =
Ax+By = G has equation

-Bx + Ay + C = 0,
For any line perpendicular to
Qf
i.e.
i.e.
AaiD.d + Bcos6
=
r
Acos(0 + 7r) + jBsin(0 + 77)
C
r
46-2
686
20.2
The
[20.2
circle
20.21 Polar equation
Let P(r, 6) be any point on the circle with centre C(p,a) and radius a
(fig. 202). From the distance formula (20.11),
a2
Hence the
circle
= CP 2 = p 2 + r 2 -2prcos(d-oc).
has equation
r2
2pr cos (6 a) a 2
2
.
P(r, 6)
Fig. 203
Fig. 202
We notice the following particular cases.

(a)
If C
lies
on Ox, then a =
r2
(b)
If O
lies
on the
so that
(c)
If
lies
the equation
fig.
then p
a2
2a cos (d a) represents a
then
lies
is
2
.
a; the equation
2arcos(6 a) =
on Ox and
is
the equation
2pr cos 6 =
circle,
r2
0;
on the
0,
through O.
circle
circle,
2a cos 6, which
is
becomes
then a
easily written
and p =
a;
down from
203.
20.22
Chord
P P2
oir = 2a cos 6 tangent

;
Let the required chord have equation

therefore satisfied
by
(2a cos
lt
2a cos d x cos (6 X a)
.
cos (20,
at
rcos (d a). This
p=
6 X ) and (2a cos 6 2
=p=
a) + cos a =
2 ),
so that
2a cos d 2 cos (0 % a),

.
cos (20 2 a)
is
+ cos a,
(i)
20.23]
and hencef
(20 2 a),
26 1 ex.
a=
i.e.
From
(i)
+ 6%
we now have p 2a cos 61
chord becomes
By letting
n1 da 2
ID
r cos (0
-> 0!
687
cos
2>
and the equation of the
n
a
2a
cos X cos u %
(u)
we obtain the equation of the tangent at Pv

r cos (0 -
2^) = 2a cos 2 6 X
viz.
(iii)
20.23 Examples
(i) Simeon's line.% From any point O on the circumcircle of triangle
perpendiculars are drawn to the sides. Prove that their feet are collinear.
ABG,
Choose O for pole, and the diameter through O for initial line. The equation
of the circumcircle is then r la cos 6.
Let A, B, G correspond to the values = a,/?,y. Then the chord BC has
equation
2^ cos ^ cqs y = r COjg ^Q_p_y^
and hence by the Remark
in 20.13, the foot of the perpendicular from O to

Similarly, the other feet are
BG has polar coordinates (2a cos ft cosy, ft + y).

(2acosy cosa, y+a),
These three points clearly
lie
is
(ii)
= rcos(0 a ft y).
known as the Simeon line of O wo
Extension of
ex.
(i).
If
cos/ff, oc+fi).
on the line whose polar equation is
2a cos a cos ft cosy

This
(2acosa
triangle
(iv)
ABC.
D is another point on the circumcircle of triangle
ABC, then A, B, G, D can be selected three at a time in 4 ways, and hence there
are 4 Simson lines wo O corresponding to the 4 possible triangles.
By the Remark in 20.13, the foot of the perpendicular from O to (iv) is
corresponds to the value 6

(2a cos a cos ft cosy, oc+ft+y). Similarly, if
the feet of the perpendiculars from O to the other Simson lines are
(2acosft cosy cos#,
ft+y + S),
(2a cosy cos S cosa,
(2a cos 8 cos a cos ft, 8

Clearly these four points
lie
on the
is
8,
y + 8+a),
a +ft).
line
2acosa cos ft cosy cos#

This result
rcos(0 a ft y 8).
likewise capable of extension.
t The general solution (1.52(3), ex. (iv)) is 2d1 a = 2nn (2d2 a). The sign + is
P 2 to be distinct. The sign gives
inadmissible since we are assuming
1;
a = 9l + 8 nn. Using this value of a and the fact that cos mr = ( 1 ) B , we find that
p = 2o( l) n cos dx cos a and cos (0 a) = ( 1)" cos (6 X 2 ), so that the result
unchanged.
Robert Simson (1687-1768).
(ii) is
688
[20.3
Exercise 20(a)
1
(6)
Sketch the figures for the eases in 20.12 when
BA produced. Verify for each that the equation
Show
P lies on (a) AB produced;

(i) still
holds.
that the area of the triangle whose vertices are A^rÔ^), 2?(r2 ,02 ),
{r2 r3 sin (0,-0,)+!",^ sin (0 x -0t ) + rx r2 sin(02 #1)}. Deduce the
C(r3 ,0z ) is
condition for A, B,
G to be collinear.
Prove that the perpendicular from (rlf X ) to the line r cos (0 a) = p has
length {p - rx cos (dx a)}.
4 A variable line through a fixed point
meets three given lines at points
Plt P 2 P3 On this line is taken a point P such that
3
OP ~
Prove that the locus of P
is
OP* OP* OP
'
another straight
line.
Write down the polar equation of (a) the circle whose centre is (p, a)
and which touches the initial line; (6) the circles of radius a which touch the
5
(i)
initial line
at the pole.
why
Explain
(ii)
the circles r
acos(0 a), r
6sin(0 a) cut ortho-
gonally.
6 Find the centre of the

7 If OPQ
is
circle r
OP.OQ = p 2 -a 2 Deduce the

through O, OP.OQ = OR. OS.
.
+ b sin 0.
2pr cos (8 a) +p 2
a cos
circle r 2
a chord of the
0,
prove that
'product property' that, for chords
OPQ, ORS
ON be
the perpendicular from

to the tangent at A^dj) on the
2a cos 6, and P(r, 6) be any point on this tangent. By expressing ON
in two ways as r cos (6 26x ) and rx cos lf obtain equation (hi) of 20.22.
8 Let
circle r
*9 Prove that the normal to r
2a cos 6 at 6
= a has equation
rsin (2a 6)= asm 2a.

10 Find the equation of the chord joining the points of the circle
r
for
which
11
Two
2a cos {6 a)
Deduce the equation of the tangent at V

2
meet at O, and a line through
meets them again at P, Q
Find the locus of the mid-point of PQ.
6lt
circles
respectively.
12 Find the condition for the line IJr

= 2c cos 0.
= a cos 6 + b sin 6
*13 Prove the Simson line property (20.23, ex.
20.3
(i))
to touch the circle
by pure geometry.
Conies: pole at a focus
20.31 Polar equation of
Choose a focus
8 to the
S of the
all
non-degenerate conies
conic for pole,
corresponding directrix for
and the perpendicular from
initial line.
Let the latus rectum
LU have length 21, and let P(r, 6) be any point on the conic.
20.31]
689
204 and 205, P lies on the same side of the directrix as S.

where P and S are on opposite sides, will arise when P is on
that branch of a hyperbola which is remote from S. We have
In
figs.
Fig. 206,
= SP = e.PM = e.ND
(e(SD-SN)
in 204
(e(SD-rcoad)
in 204, 205
e{SD + 8N)
in 205
in 204, 205,
ercoad l
e(rcoad-SD)
in 206
e(SN-SD)
ercoad
in 206,
in 206
A\N
S
1
i
= SL =
Fig. 204
since
Fig. 205
Fig. 206
e.SD. Hence
in figs. 204, 205
206
in
fig.
= 1 + e cos 6;
= 1 + ecosd.
The last equation represents the branch of a hyperbola remote from S.
^
(J>r
~^jP
\
>
Fig. 207
If we replace r
fig.
by r- and 6 by 6 n
207), then the equation Ijr
=
I
we
use the notation of
+ e cos (6 n) = 1 e cos 6,
1
i.e.
(i.e. if
= 1 + ecos# becomes
-= 1 + e cos d
r
690
as for
= l + ecos# will
remote from S if r is allowed
204 and 205. Hence the equation
figs.
represent the branch of a hyperbola
[20.32
Ijr
to take negative values.

It follows that, if negative values of r are allowed, then every proper
(i.e.
non-degenerate) conic
is completely represented
by
Ijr
+ e cos 6.
Remarks
(a) If
DS
the line
initial line, this is
discussion.
represent
the sense from
The equation becomes
all
proper conies
The equation
(/?)
(in
towards S)
by
equivalent to replacing
Ijr
if r is
Ijr
1 ecosd;
= 1 + e cos 6,
Indeed, the two equations
+ ecosd
it will
obtained from
negative values of
Ijr
is
taken as
in the
completely
fig.
206, also
same
represent the
conic,
Ijr
= 1 + ecos# and
but any chosen point of the
conic will of course correspond to different pairs of values of
the two representations. This fact

(y)
is Ijr
6 in
the equation
is Ijr
+ e cos 6;
20.32 Tracing of the curve
When
1,
is
= 1 + e cos (6 a).
wise through angle a gives the
(1)
r,
used in 20.33, ex. (hi).

The equation of a conic whose major axis is inclined at angle a
to the initial fine

line,
above
proper conies (with the same proviso about
all
r).
allowed to take negative values.
completely represents
71
wo its axis JSD as initial
new equation.
l/r
the conic
For,
rotation of the initial line clock-
= l+e cos 8
is
a parabola whose equation can be
written
-= l + cos0 =
2 cos 8 40.
Fig. 208
Fig. 209
It is represented completely
-n <
by
6 < n
and
>
0.
20.33]
(2)
sented
When
(3)
is
When
by
given by
<
the conic
1,
n <
e
>
1,
an
is
ellipse
which
691
completely repre-
is
6 ^
the conic
tt
and
>
0.
a hyperbola. The branch enclosing
is
7r + sec -1 e < 6n < n sec -1 e and
>
0;
and the branch remote from $ by
n sec -1 e <
< n + sec -1 e
and
<
0.
The reader should check the above statements.
Fig. 210
20.33 Examples
(i)
(a)
If
Eqitations of the directrices,
From the focus-directrix definition, SL = e.SD,
(r,
6) is
any point on the
rcostf
Hence this
so that
SD =
l/e.
directrix corresponding to 8, then
= SD =
Z/e.
directrix has equation

I
e cos 0.
*(b) For central conies

as follows.
we
obtain the equation of the directrix remote from
Jl-"-"""
6'
D'
Fig. 211
If e
<
1 (fig. 211),
Fig. 212
then
rcos(7T-0)
= SD' = DD'-SD
2a
/2a
692
and since
l/a
= 1 e 2 (see Ex.
20(6), no.
1), this
2
\
II = Zl + e2
e\l-e
el-e
/
Hence the equation

H
If e
>
1 (fig.
11
rcos0A = -i-
r cos 6
is
ee 2 -l
= SD' = SD+DD'
= -+ s
I
2a
11
;(
e2
e\
since l/a
212),
rcostf
[20.33
becomes
1+
2a\
t)
-l/
ee 2 -l'
1. The equation is thus the same for each case.
Equations of the asymptotes of a hyperbola.
*(ii)
The asymptote whose cartesian equation is y = bx/a is inclined to Ox at

angle A, where tan A = b/a and hence cos A = aQ(a 2 + b 2 = 1/e. Therefore the
perpendicular from S to this asymptote makes angle Zn sin -1 (1/e) with Ox;
)
its
length
is
Fig. 213
and so
its
equation
is
(20.13)
Since 6
l/*J(e
rcos
+ sin -1 - = r~
2 rr*
|
e)
Similarly j the asymptote y
1), this can be written

rcos
2n + sin -1
V(e
-1)
= 6sc/a has polar equation
-1
r cos Id sin - 1
/
\
i.e.
r cos id sin -1 - 1
/
\
tt
= -j~
2
V(e
-1)
(iii) Two conies have a common focus. Prove that two of their common chords
pass through the intersection of the directrices which correspond to that focus.
The
conies can be taken as

I
= 1+e cos
and
=
r
+ e'cos(0 a).
20.34]
If we subtract these equations,
we obtain
e cos
=V
which
is
the equation of a
e'
cos (0 a),
Since
line.
it is satisfied
satisfy the equations of both conies, it represents a
also satisfied
by the points
I
693
(r, 6)
which
e cos 6 =
satisfy
V
0,
e'
by the
points
common chord.
(r,
6)
which
Clearly
it is
both the equations
cos (6 a)
0,
and these represent the directrices corresponding to S, by ex.

chord therefore passes through the meet of these directrices.
The first conic is also given by
I
(i).
This
common
= 1 + e cos 6
r
(see
Remark
(fi)
in 20.31). Proceeding similarly, another
ecos#H
I
e'cos(0 a)
which also passes through the meet of the same
20.34
common chord is
0,
directrices.
Chord and tangent
Let P, Q be the points of the conic Ijr = 1+e cos 6 corresponding

to 6 = a, 6 = /?. Since by 20.14 the polar equation of any line can be
written
.4
cos 0+ 2? sin
^
=
r
let
the required chord have equation
Then
^?cosa + gsina
= 1 + ecosa
and
pcosfi + qainft
= 1 + ecos/?;
{p e)cosa + 2sina
i.e.
1,
(p e)cos/#+gsin/?
1.
Solving these,
sina
= -7
p-e
r
sin/?
sm(a-yff)
and
q
*
The chord
^
cos fi cosa
^- =
sm(a-yfl)
1#
cosA(a
tf)secA(a-/?)
2V + r/
2V
r'
...
sin M<x
2V
n
m
- r/
B).
+ rp) sec *(a
2X
.
'
PQ is therefore
e cos
+ sec (a /?) {cos
cos \{a +fi)
+ sin
sin J(a
4- /?)},
694
i.e.
e cos 6
+ sec i(a - /?) cos [d -
For an alternative method, see Ex. 20 (b), no.
[20.34
7.
By letting J3 -> a we find that the tangent at the point 6 = a is

-
For a calculus method,
e cos
# + cos (d a).
Ex. 20 (b), no. 24.
see
Examples
(i)
The tangents
T(r, 6), where 6
at the points
P,
corresponding
to
a,fi meet at the point
%(ot+j3).
For the coordinates of T

e cos
satisfy
6 + cos (0 a)
e cos
6 + cos (d fi),
cos {6 a)
= cos (0
from which
6 = (a + /?).
Remark. The general solution is d a = 2nn(dfi). The sign +
admissible since P, Q are assumed to be distinct; the sign gives
i.e.
is in-
+ Ha+fi).
Since n < a < n and 7r < /? < 7T, also at < (a +
^n, and so there is
no loss of generality by taking n because any point in the plane can be
6
specified
(ii)
by an angular coordinate which lies between + n.
With the notation
If P,
nir
are not
on
and
Hence ST
of ex.
(i),
ST bisects PSQ.
different branches of a hyperbola
PST = Ha+fi)-a =
Hfi -a)
TSQ = fi-â+p) =
(/?-a).
(fig.
214),
bisects
PSQ
(internally).
If P, Q are on different branches of a hyperbola, let Q be on the branch remote

from S. Then /? is the angle xSQ', and -|(a + /?) is angle xST', as shown in fig. 215.
PST' = i(a+yff)-a =
and
T'SQ'
= fi-\{a+P) =
(/?-a)
^-
a),
so that
ST bisects PSQ externally.
(iii) Find the equation of the circumcircle of the triangle formed by three tangents
a parabola, and verify that this circle passes through the focus.
Taking the parabola as l/r = 1 +cos#, the tangents at the points A, B, G
corresponding to 6 = cc, /?, y are
to
cos
+ cos (0 a),
etc.
20.34]
Tangents at
A and B meet where 6 = \{<x +

-
cos (a
ft)
r
i.e.
ft),
+ cos \{ft a) =
by
2 cos
ex.
\ct
(i),
695
and hence
cos \ft,
at the point (Zsec a sec \ft, \{a +/?)). Similarly the other meets are
(Z sec \ft sec
+ y ))
(|Z sec
\y sec a, (y + a))
These three points satisfy the equation

^
a + ft 4. y\
2
which by 20.21
(6)
(R, \(ct + ft + y )),
represents a circle of radius
'
R = \l sec \a sec /? sec y, centre
and passing through the pole
S.
Fig. 214
(iv) If a variable chord of a conic subtends a constant angle at the focus, then
tangents at the extremities of the chord meet on a fixed conic, and the chord itself
touches another fixed conic.
Let the angle subtended at the focus be 2ft, and take the angular coordinate
of one extremity to be a ft then that of the other is a + ft. The chord thus has
equation
;
cos ft
e cos
+ sec/? cos(0 a),
ecos/?.cos0 + cos(# a).
696
This
is
the equation of the tangent at

I cos B
a to the
[20.34
conic
= 1 + ecos/fn cos0,
(l)
whose eccentricity is e cos /? and latus rectum
The tangents at the

-
21 cos {$.
extremities of the chord are
ecos0+*cos(0
and these meet where (by

on the conic
ex.
= a and l/r =
(i))
= ecos0 + cos(0 a B),

e cos a
+ cos/?.
This point
lies
+ cos B,
e cos
IseoB
i.e.
an
+ e sec B cos 0,
(u)
which has eccentricity esec B and latus rectum 2Zsec /?.

The conies (i), (ii) have the same focus and directrix as the given one.
Exercise 20(6)
1
If a, 6 are the semi-axes of l/r
Z/(l-e
= 1 + e cos 6 (e
and
2
)
Give the corresponding results when
2
3
>
4= 1)
Z/V(l-e
prove that when
<
1,
2
).
1.
What locus is represented by a = r sin 2 0? Sketch this curve.

What is represented by kjr = a + 6 cos + c sin 0?
4 If P(r1
a) is
focal chord of l/r = 1 + e cos 0 show

Q has coordinates of the form (r2 n+ a). Prove that
an extremity of a
the other extremity
that
J_ + J__2
SP SQ ~ V
i.e.
that
/&aZ/ i7ie Zaiws
reciwm
is the
harmonic mean of
the segments of
any focal
chord.
5 Prove that the sum of the reciprocals of the lengths of two perpendicular
focal chords of a conic is constant. Express this constant in terms of e and I.
6 Prove that mutually perpendicular focal chords of a rectangular hyperbola

are equal in length.
7 Obtain the equation of the chord joining the points of
which correspond to 6 = a,fi from the result in 20.12.
l/r
= 1 + e cos
8 Find the equation of the chord of l/r = l + cos(0 y) which joins the
points 6 = a, /?. Deduce that the tangent at tx is l/r = e cos (6 y) + cos (0 a).
9 Find the
I
common points
V3
r(
of the conies
^3 + cos 0)
and
^3
2r{V3 + cos (0 + tt)},
and show that they touch there.

10 Prove that the tangents at the extremities of a focal chord meet on the
11
If the tangent at
P meets the directrix at Z, prove that PSZ is a right-angle.
697
12 A chord oiljr = 1 + e cos subtends an angle 2a at the focus. If the bisector

lies on the conic
of this angle meets the chord at M, prove that
Zcosa
a
= 1 + ecosa.cosc/.
,
13 P is any point on a conic with focus S. A line through S making a given

in T. Prove that T lies on a conic which
angle with SP meets the tangent at
has the same focus 8 and corresponding directrix as the given conic.
14 Two conies have a common focus, about which one of them rotates. Prove
that the common chord touches a conic which has the same focus as the given
conies, and whose eccentricity is the ratio of the eccentricity of the fixed conic
to that of the rotating one.
15
An
ellipse of eccentricity e
common
latus rectum,
and 8
and a parabola
is
intersect at the ends L, L' of
common
their
focus. If
common
tangent
touches them at P, Q respectively, prove that SP, SQ are each inclined to LL'
at an angle sin -1 {(l + e)}. Explain geometrically how the two cases arise.
16. P, Q are the points of the conic l/r=l + e cos 6 corresponding to 6 = ct, fi.
If the tangents at P, Q meet at T, prove that T has coordinates
1
\cos (a - fi) + e cos (a

17.
P,
If P,
Q meet
'
H*+P)).
fi)
Q are points on a parabola with focus S,

at T, prove that SP.SQ = ST*.
and the tangents at
= a, fi of the parabola ljr=l+ cos 0. Prove that

18 (i) P, Q are the points
the tangents at P, Q contain an angle a /?|
(ii) Tangents to a parabola with latus rectum 21 contain the constant
angle <f>. Prove that they meet at a point on a hyperbola having the same
focus as the parabola, and give the latus rectum and eccentricity. [Use no. 16.]
|
* 19 Prove that the chord of contact of tangents from (rx , 6 t ) to

has equation
v
^
/
ecos#j = cos^ ^).
ecosfljj
.
[If its extremities are
given
by 6 =
cos4(a fi)
Use
l/r
= 1 + e cos d
>.
a, ft, the
^ ecos#^
chord
is
=cos^0
no. 16.]
20
Show that the tangents at the points 6 = a,/i of l/r = 1 +ecos# are perpendicular if and only if e 2 + (cos<x + cos/?) e + cos(a ft) = 0. [Change the
equation of the tangent into cartesian coordinates.]
*21 Prove that the meet of perpendicular tangents to l/r = 1 + ecos0 lies on
the locus 21(1jr ecostf) = r(l e 2 ). If e 4= 1, show that this locus is a circle
concentric with the given conic (the director circle). What is the locus when
e=
1?
*22 Tangents are drawn to the parabola l/r = 1 + cos d at 6 = a, fi, y, 8.

Prove that the circumcentres of the four triangles so formed lie on the circle
6
which passes through the focus. [Use 20.34, ex.
(iii).]
698
Show
*23
l/r
that the equation of any line perpendicular to the tangent at
a to
= 1+e cos 6 has an equation of the form

kl
e cos (6
+ in) + cos (6 + \n a).
[See 20.14, ex.] If this line passes through the point a, prove that
= esina/(l + ecosa).
Deduce that
the
normal
at
a has
equation
esina
1
+ e cos a r
esin0 + sm(0 a).
*24 Prove that the tangent at A(p, a) to the curve r =f(6) has equation
fdr\
-cos(0-a)- (
1
sin(0-a)
[If P(r, 6) is any point on the tangent at A, apply the sine rule to triangle OAP,
and use cot $5 = drjrdd (8.14).] Deduce the equation of the tangent to
l/r
1 + e cos
at
<x.
*25 Obtain similarly the equation of the normal at

to obtain the result of no. 23.
(p,
a) to r
= /(#), and use
it

1 A, B are the points (r^dj),
Prove that
iy
+ r\2 + 2r x r 2 cos
and M(r,6)
and
2 }
tan 6
A variable line meets n given lines through
2
n
If
(r 2 ,6 2 ),
jOPr )
is
constant, prove that
it
at
is
the mid-point of
?\
sin
+ To sin
AB.
ricos^ + racosâ
P P2
lf
n respectively.
passes through a fixed point.
r=l
Find the equation of the common chord and of the
circles r
2a cos (6 a), r
4 Obtain the polar equation of the

(a,
a)
and
line of centres of the
2b cos(d-fl).
circle
whose diameter
is
the join of
(&,/?).
5 Prove that the chord of contact from

cos 6
cos Qr
rx
(rlt dj)
cos (6
to the circle r
2a cos d
is
X)
[Use the cartesian equation of the circle and chord.]

6 If PSP' and QSQ' are mutually perpendicular focal chords of a conic,
prove that 1/PS .SP' + 1/QS .SQ' is constant, and express this constant in
terms of I and e.
(i)
Prove that the locus of the mid -points of chords through the focus
= 1 + ecos0 is r(e 2 cos 2 0 1) = eZcos#.

(ii) By changing this equation to cartesian
of l/r
locus
is
coordinates,
a conic with the same eccentricity as the original one.
show that the

8
(i)
699
If the tangent to the parabola a = r cos \d at the point

T, prove ST = a sec 2 \a. SP.
2
given by
= a meets the initial line at

(ii)
Find the equation of the
circle
SPT.
9 Find the value of a for which the tangent at a to Ijr = 1 + e cos 6 is parallel
to the initial line. Hence find the locus of the ends of the minor axis of this
ellipse as e increases
from
10 Prove that the line

if and only if (a - e) 2 + 6 2
to
1.
l/r
= a cos 6 + b sin 6 touches the
1.
conic
l/r
= 1 + e cos 6
1 1 Two parabolas have a common focus and their axes perpendicular. Prove
that the directrix of either passes through the point of contact with the other
of their common tangent.
12 Find the locus of the foot of the perpendicular from the pole to the line
= e cos 6 + cos (6 a) when a varies. Interpret the result geometrically.
l/r
focus S to the directrix meets the conic at A.

the perpendicular from S to any tangent lies on the
tangent at A, then the conic is a parabola. [Do not prove the converse result.]
13
The perpendicular from the
Prove that
*/ the foot of
PQ
variable chord
of the ellipse Z/r = 1 + e cos 6 with focus S is parallel
14
to the major axis. If its extremities are the points 6 = 2a, 2fi, prove that
cos (a + /?) + ecos (a /?) = 0.
If the internal bisector of PSQ meets PQ at K, prove that
QTr
SK
=
and deduce that
lies
2SP.SQ
spTsQ
coaiPSQ
'
on a parabola whose vertex is S.
*15 PQ is a focal chord of a conic, and its mid-point is M. The normals at

is parallel to the (major) axis. [Use no. 7 (i)
P, Q meet at N. Prove that
and N.]
and Ex. 20 (6), no. 23 to prove that r sin 6 is the same for
MN
47
GPM
II
700
21
COORDINATE GEOMETRY IN SPACE:

THE PLANE AND LINE
21.1
Coordinates in space
21.11 Rectangular cartesian coordinates
The method of locating points in a plane by coordinates x, y referred

two intersecting lines Ox, Oy (15.11) can be extended to points in
space. Clearly three axes of reference will be required, and for simplicity we shall choose them to be mutually perpendicular.
Take any two intersecting perpendicular lines; let them meet at 0.
to
Fig. 216
On
Fig. 217
each select a positive sense, indicated by an arrow, and label
draw a line perpendicular to both

Ox and Oy (and therefore to the plane xOy), and choose the positive
these directions Ox, Oy. Through
sense along
it
to be the direction of advance of a right-handed screw
turned in the sense from Ox towards Oy, label this direction Oz.
Then we have constructed a right-handed system of rectangular axes

Ox, Oy, Oz.f The planes xOy, yOz, zOx determined by these axes are
also mutually perpendicular, and are called the coordinate planes.
Given a point P in space, we can draw the perpendiculars PL, PM,
PN to the planes yOz, zOx, xOy. The rectangular box having OP for
diagonal and PL, PM, PN for edges can now be completed; let its
t If the direction of any one axis is reversed,
only right-handed axes in this book.
We use
we should obtain a left-handed system.
THE PLANE AND LINE
21.12]
701
be OA, OB, 00 along Ox, Oy, Oz respectively. The

OA, OB, OC can be specified in magnitude and sense by
signed numbers x, y, z, and the ordered triplet of numbers (x, y, z) are
edges through
distances
the rectangular cartesian coordinates of P

particular, observe that
and that
wo
the axes Ox, Oy, Oz. In
L has coordinates (0, y, z), M(x, 0, z), N(x, y, 0)
A is (x, 0, 0), J3(0, y, 0), C(0, 0, z).
x, y, z, the points A, B, O
on the axes can be determined, and the box then completed. The
Conversely, given three signed numbers
corresponding point
P is the extremity of the diagonal through O.

P in space there corresponds a unique set
It follows that to each point
of coordinates x, y, z
numbers
x, y, z
wo
the axes Ox, Oy, Oz;
corresponds a unique point
The three coordinate planes
and
to
each ordered set of
P in space.
divide space into eight regions called
each corresponds a distribution of + and signs in the

coordinates (see Ex. 21 (a), no. 1), the number of such possible signdistributions being 2 s = 8. In fig. 217 all coordinates of P are positive.
octants; to
A in fig. 217 is the point in which Ox is met

P drawn parallel to the plane yOz. Hence PA
is perpendicular to Ox, so that A is the orthogonal projection of P
on Ox. Similarly, B and C are the projections of P on Oy, Oz respectively. The coordinates of a point P are therefore the (signed) lengths
Finally, observe that
by the plane through
of the orthogonal projections of OP on the axes.
Notation. In the remainder of this
coordinates are (xv yv
Zj),
and so
book
x is
the point whose
on.
21.12 Other coordinate systems

(1) Cylindrical
the plane
xOy by
polar coordinates. We may replace the coordinates (x,y) in

and
polar coordinates (/?, <j>), where p =
is the angle
ON
X
Fig. 218
Fig. 219
47-2
THE PLANE AND LINE
702
[21.2
xON, measured positively in the sense from Ox towards Oy. P is then determined by the triplet of numbers (p, z), called the cylindrical coordinates of P.
<j),
Spherical polar coordinates. Further, in the plane
(2)
zONP the coordinates
p and z can be replaced by polar coordinates (r, 6), where r = OP and 6 is the
angle zOP, measured positively from Oz towards ON. P is then determined by
(r, 6, 0), the spherical coordinates of P.
4*
Fig. 220
If the sphere in fig. 220 represents the Earth and xOy, xOz are the planes of
the equator and Greenwich meridian, then 6 is the colatitude and <p is the
longitude of P.
Fundamental formulae
21.2
Given two points Px and P2

plane
PN PN
xOy be
let
the perpendiculars from them to the
The coordinates of
2
2
and of N2 are (x2 ,y2 ,0).
X,
are (#1,^,0),
Regarded as points of the plane xOy,
wo
xi> Vi)>
(*2> y*)>
so
N N\ = {x
X
Through
since
it
P2 B
lies
meets PX
X,
axes Ox,
are
-x2 Y + {yx -y2 )\

N,
NN
in the plane of P N and P N
draw
PR
parallel to
say at R.
X;
2,
Fig. 221
From the right-angled
P P2 B,
P P\ = P R* + P2 R* =
triangle
their
Oy
tnat NX N2 is given by
cartesian coordinates
{z x
-z 2 f + N2 N\
= (*i - z 2 2 + (*i - *2 2 + (2/1 - y%Y>
)
and hence
P P = <J{(x X
2)
+ (yx -
f + (z x - z2
In particular, the distance of P(x, y, z) from
2
)
}.
O is J(x + y 2 + z 2 )
2
THE PLANE AND LINE
21.22]
703
21.22 Section formulae
Given two points Pv P2 let P{x, y, z) be the point dividing PX P2 in

the ratio k:l; then PX P\PP2 = k\l.
Draw PX X P2 2 PN perpendicular to plane xOy. Through P
draw PR parallel to X 2 to meet P2 2 at R; and through i\ draw
PX Q parallel to 2 to meet PN at Q.
,
NN
NN
Fig. 223
Fig. 222
From thesimilar trianglesPj PQ,PP2 R we have PQ\P2 R = P^/PPj.

(i)
If the division
is
internal
z
(fig.
z,
z 2 -z
from which
222), it follows that
I*
^ ++ k^
Za
.
Similarly,
we
by dropping perpendiculars from Plf P2 P to plane yOz,

x = (Z#1 + &a;2 )/(Z + &); and by perpendiculars to plane
,
find that
zOx, that y
{lyx
+ ky2 )f{l + k).
Alternatively, since
N divides îVg internally in the ratio k
and
has the same x- and ^-coordinates as P, the last two results follow
from the section formulae in the plane xOy

(ii)
If the division
is
external
z
z
from which
(fig.
223)
(15.14).
we have
zx _ k
z% V
5
= \
l
2
.
There are similar expressions for the x- and ^-coordinates of P.
THE PLANE AND LINE
704
Hence, with the convention in 15.14 (3),

the {signed) ratio
[21.22
the point dividing
P P2 in
X
has coordinates
llxx
+ kx %
l+k
lyx
+ ky %
l+k
'
+ kz^\
l+k )
lz x
*
Examples
(i) The line joining .4(1,2, 3) and J5(3, 0, 2) meets the coordinate planes
xOy, yOz, zOx at P, Q, B. Find the coordinates of these points, and the ratios in
which they divide AB.
The point
dividing
AB in the ratio k
ll
+ Zk
[l + k
It lies in the plane
has coordinates
-3Z + 2AA
21
T+k'
'
)'
+k
xOy if and only if its z-coordinate is zero, i.e. 2k =
P has coordinates
0),
and divides AB
and only if its
31.
Hence
internally in the ratio 3 : 2.

cc-coordinate is zero, i.e. I
The point lies in yOz if

= 3k.
Hence Q is (0, 3, 5J), and divides AB externally in the ratio 1 3.
The point lies in plane zOx if its ^-coordinate is zero, i.e. 1 = 0. Thus R is
(3, 0, 1) and coincides with B. This is evident since B already lies in zOx.
:
(ii)
The four
a tetrahedron to the centroids of

a point one-quarter the way up each line from
lines joining the vertices of
opposite faces are concurrent at
the
the
corresponding face.
If the vertices are
etc.
The mid-point
P P P3 P
lt
2,
if
be the centroid of triangle Pj^P^P^
and
(? 4 is the point dividing

0. has coordinates ,
'
+ xs y1 + y 2 + yz
,
/'
'
MP, in the ratio
[xi+xz
3
\
Consider the point
Zi+g 2\
3/1+3/2
z1
yx
Ex. 15 (a), no.
z1
3; its
coordinates are
+z 2 + zz + zi\
)*
'
Hence
)'
which are symmetrical in those of P x P 2 P8 P4 Therefore

dividing each of the lines G^Pi, G 2 P 2
3 P Z in the ratio 1
,
1).
+g 2 + g3 \
'
+ Vi + Vz + Vi
(cf.
O dividing #4 P4 in the ratio
(x1 + x2 + xa + xi
\
C4
let
M of P, P, has coordinates
G is also the point
3,
and the
results
follow.
The point G of concurrence is called the centroid of the tetrahedron PjPaPjPj,

and the lines P-^Gx,
P4 #4 are called its medians.
Exercise 21 (a)
If the negative te-axis is labelled Ox', and similarly for Oy', Oz', give the
signs of the coordinates of points in each of the octants
1
Oxyz,
Ox'yz,
Ox'y'z,
Oxy'z,
Oxyz',
Ox'yz',
Ox'y'z',
Oxy'z'.
THE PLANE AND LINE

(i)
(iv)
=
=
0;
(ii)
(v) z
z;
=
=
0;
x;
(iii)
(vi)
705
= 0;
= =
yt
3 In fig. 217 prove that PA = <J{y 2 +z*), and give expressions for PB, PC.
4 Prove that the points (2,3,7), (5, 1, 5), ( 10,8,7) are the vertices
of an isosceles triangle, and find the length of the base.
1) is the centre of the sphere through the points (4, 6, 1 1),

- 1), - 3, - 10, 2).
- 1, 2), B(5, 3, - 6), C( - 1, 1, 7), D(9, 1, - 11), prove that AB
Show that ( 1,
5
(13,
- 1,
6 For A{Z,
and
2,
3), (6, 14,
CD bisect each other.
7 Prove that the points (1, 3, -4), (2, - 1, -3), (7, 1, 8), (6,
vertices of a parallelogram, and find the lengths of the diagonals.
5, 7)
are the
8 Find the ratios in which the coordinate planes divide the join of the points
(3,
-5,
and (-4,
2)
7, 1).
Show that the point (6, 2, 0) lies on the line joining ( 4, 6, 2) and ( 9, 8, 3),
and also on the line joining
(7,
5,
1), (4, 16,
2).
10 Prove that the lines joining the mid-points of opposite edges of a tetrahedron are concurrent at the centroid of the tetrahedron. [With the notation
of 21.22, ex. (ii), X 8 and 3 4 are a pair of 'opposite edges'.]
PP
PP
Change of origin. If new axes Px x', Px y', Px z' are taken through Px parallel
to Ox, Oy, Oz respectively, show that the new coordinates of P(x, y, z) are
{x',y',z') where x' = x x y' yy lt z' z z x
11
12
By using triangle ONP in fig.
217, prove
Obtain the formula for the distance X
(i)
PP
(ii)
to
OP8 = x*+y2 + za
2
by first changing the
origin
Pv
The notation of 21.12
13
Express
x,
is
used in the following examples.
y in terms of p and
<j>,
and conversely.
*14 If k and a are constants, what points have

and = a?
(i)
k;
(ii)
<j>
a;
(iii)
a?
=k
<j>
*15 Express
* 16
If k,
cc,
(i)
(iv)
21.3
=
=
x, y, z in
terms of r, 6 and 0, and conversely.
are constants,
k;
cc
and
= /?;
what points have

(ii)
(v)
=
=
(iii)
cc;
k and
= /?;
(vi)
=#
k and
Direction cosines and direction ratios of a line
21.31 Direction cosines
We now consider how to specify the direction of a line, i.e. we seek

the space analogue of 'gradient'. Whereas the latter
the tangent of an angle,
we
is
shall find that in space the cosine is the
important trigonometrical function.

Let PQ be a line in space, described in the sense from
Through
draw a line
denned to be
P towards Q.
OA of unit length parallel to and in the same
THE PLANE AND LINE
706
sense as
PQ
(sensed) line
(fig.
224).
We
OA
call
[21.32
the unit ray corresponding to the
PQ.
The direction of OA, and therefore that of PQ,

by the coordinates of A. Since these coordinates
projections of
OA
will
be determined
are the orthogonal
on the axes Ox, Oy, Oz, hence A is the point

where a = xOA, /? = yOA and y = zOA. It is
(cos a, cos/?, cosy),
customary to write
I
m = cos
cosa,
n=
/?,
cosy,
m, n} the direction cosines of PQ (and therefore of any line

and in the same sense as PQ).
Since OA has unit length, the distance formula shows that
and
call
{I,
parallel to
+ m 2 + rc 2 =l.
(i)
Fig. 224
Fig. 225
Remarks
(a) If the line is described in
the sense from
corresponding unit ray through

(cos
a),
line parallel to the plane
Similarly, a line parallel to
has n
cos(7T /?), cos
( cosa, cos /?, cosy),
i.e.
(/?)
(77
towards P, then the
OA', where A'
is
zOx has
i.e.
is
the point
y)),
m, n).
(it
I,
yOz has a = \tt, so that 1 = 0.

m = 0, and one parallel to xOy
0.
(y) In particular, the coordinate axes described in the positive

senses Ox, Oy, Oz have direction cosines {1. 0, 0}, {0, 1, 0}, {0, 0, 1}.
21.32 Angle between two lines

If BS
is
another
line,
its direction cosines
through 0, then B
be
is
B towards S, let
OB is the corresponding unit ray
described in the sense from
{1',
m', n'}. If
the point
(V, m',n').
THE PLANE AND LINE
21.33]
707
The angle between the {sensed) lines PQ, BS (intersecting or not) is

denned to be the angle AOB for which < AOB ^ it (fig. 225).
Let AOB = 6; then from triangle AOB, in which OA = 1 = OB,
we have by the cosine rule that
AB = 2-2cos0.
2
Using the distance formula for AB, we also have
AB2 = (l-
+ (m- m'f + {n- n') 2

= Z 2 + m2 + n2 + V 2 + m' 2 + n' 2 - 21V - 2mm' - 2nn'
I')
= 2 - 2{IV + mm' + nn'),

since by (i), Z2 +
+ n2 = 1 and similarly I' 2 + m' 2 + n' 2 =
AB
the two expressions for
2
,
1.
Comparing
we find
= U'+ mm' + nn'.
cos
(ii)
In particular, the directions {l,m,n}, {l',m f ,n'} are perpendicular

if and only if IV + mm' + nn' = 0. They are parallel (in the same sense)
if
I
if I = V, m = m' n =
= m', n = n'.
and only
= V,
and 'antiparaUel'
n'\
if
and only
if
21.33 Direction ratios

It
is
often convenient to specify the direction of a line
by a
three numbers which are proportional to the direction cosines
set of
m, n.
of the line. For
I,
Any such three numbers are called direction ratios

example, the line in the plane xOy which bisects the angle xOy has
a =
\n,
f$
\-n,
y=
\n, so that its direction cosines are {1/^2, 1/^2, 0};
a convenient set of direction ratios for this bisector would be 1

In general, suppose I m n = p q r;f then I = Xp, m = Xq,n
where A is determined from equation (i) by
:
\2 (p 2 + q2 + r2 ) =
0.
Xr
1.
Hence when the direction ratios p:q:r are given, the direction cosines
can be written down as
2
2
{pN(P +q* + r ),
In any problem
it is
qlyl(p*
+ q* + r 2 r^(p 2 + q2 + r2 )}.
),
important to observe whether the numbers
is understood to mean that o = 0; if

f An equation a:b = a':b' in which a' =
= 0, the equation means that 6 = 0. An equation a:b:c = a':b':c' in which (for
example) c' = means that a:b = a':b' and c = 0, and so on. Cf. 11.43(2).
b'
'
708
THE PLANE AND LINE
[21.33
meant to be
direction cosines or
p, q, r specifying a direction are
direction ratios.
We remark
the two senses of a
that direction ratios do not distinguish
line.
Examples
(i) If 6 is the acute angle between two lines having direction ratios p:q:r,
p' q' : r', then by equation (ii)
:
{pp + qq' + rr ')

'
a
COS U
V(2>
+? +
r*)
V(P'
+ ?' 2 + r'*)
where the sign is chosen so that the expression is positive.

In particular, the lines will be perpendicular if and only if
pp' + qq' + rr'
(the 'perpendicularity condition').
They will be parallel

If
(ii)
cos a
The
(iii)
P is
x/OP,
or antiparallel
'
The
lines
OP
if
q r
:
= p'
P P on Ox, Oy, Oz are x

P P i is x x :y y :z z
x
OP, OQ have
direction ratios I:
q' : r'.
are {x/OP,y/OP,z/OP}; for
A convenient set of direction ratios for OP is x
projections of
ratios for the line
cc
l9
y 2 yi,
z%
z.
z x Thus
.
1.
mm,
V m'
:
n'.
Find
direction
OB which is perpendicular to both OP and OQ.
OR have direction ratios p

lp+mq+nr =
Let
and only
if
(x,y,z), the direction cosines of

etc.
set of direction ratios for

(iv)
'
'*
Solving these for p q r (see

:
p:qir
r.
Then by the perpendicularity
and
1.43 (2)),
Vp + m'q + n'r =
condition
0.
we have
= mn'm'n:nl'n'l:lm' l'm.
Exercise 21(6)
C(5, - 3, 7), D( - 3, 5, 5), prove AB CD.

- 1), C( -4, - 3, 0),D(6, -2, 4), prove AB JL CD.
Prove that the points - 5, 2, 7), - 9, 3, 6), (3, 0, 9) are collinear.
Prove that (2, 3, 0), (1, 5, 2), (3, 7, 1), (4, 5, 1) are the vertices of a square.
Find the direction
For .4(3,
2, 5),
2 For A{2, -4,

3
B(
3),
- 1,
B(3,
6, 4),
||
2,
(
ratios of the lines
through
O which make equal angles
with the coordinate axes.
6 Calculate the angle between any two diagonals of a cube.

7 Find the angles between the diagonals of a rectangular box whose edges
are a,
b, c.
8 Calculate the angles of the triangle whose vertices are A(2,
5(6,-2,-9),
9
From P{x, y, z) a
direction cosines
where
=5 Ix
1, 3),
0(5, 1,-1).
{I,
p = ON, and
+ my + nz.
line through O with

has coordinates (pl,pm,pn)
direction ratios for PN. Hence prove that
drawn
to
m, n} at N. Prove that
perpendicular
write
down
is
meet the
THE PLANE AND LINE
21.4]
is the foot of the perpendicular

10 If
coordinates of M.
*1 1
If the directions p q 1 : rlt p a q2 r2

:
p3
709
N to OP in no.
from
9,
find the
q3 ra are parallel to the same plane,

:
prove that
'
Pi
?i
*i
p%
q%
r2
?s
rs
Pa
0.
[They are perpendicular to the normal to the plane.]

*12 Prove that the converse of no. 11
true. [Use
is
Theorem II of 11.43.]
*13 If Ox, Oy, Oz and Ox', Oy', Oz' are two systems
5f, Z?" of rectangular axes with the common origin O,
let Ox', Oy', Oz' have direction cosines (^.w^Wj),
(l 2 ,m 2 ,n 2 ), (l ,m ,n ) wo S?.
3
3
3
(i) Prove that
Z*
+ m*+n* = l\+m\ + n\ = Zf+m + n =
and
i
a is
+m m +w
a
2 W3
l3 l1
+m m +n
3
m m
(ii) Verify that

l 2 l3 ), (m^
2
the direction cosines of Ox, Oy, Oz
that
,
3 ),
n1
(n ly
n 2 n3
,
are
Fig. 226
wo f", and hence
+ + ll = mf +m|+m| = n*+n+n* =
and
m1 n 1 +m2 ni +m
14
Rotation of axes.
If
has coordinates
n3 =
(i)
x'
[x'
n^+n^+n^ = m
l1
(x, y, z)
= ll x + m1 y+n1 z,
y'
wo 7 and
+ l 2 m 2 + l 3 m3 =
(x' t y', z')
= l2 x+m 2 y+n2 z,
projection of OP on Ox'; use no.
(ii)
z'
wo Sf",
0.
prove that
= l3 x+m3 y+nz z.
9.]
Also prove that
l1 x'
+ la y' + l3 z',
[Symmetry; or multiply x',
= ml x'+m 2 y' + m3 z',
y', z'
*15 Explain geometrically
by llt
why
l% , l3
in
x 2 +y 2 +z*
(i),
= nx x' + n2 y' + n 3 z'.
add, and use no. 13
= x' 2 +y' 2 +z' 2 and

,
(ii).]
verify this
algebraically.
21.4
The plane
In this section we obtain the equations of planes determined
by-
show that the general linear equation in

x, y, z is the equation of some plane in space. The reader should note
resemblances to some of the equations obtained in 15.2.
various conditions, and
THE PLANE AND LINE
710
[21.41
21.41 Equation of a plane in 'perpendicular form'
Let the perpendicular from

to the given plane have foot N. If
ON has length p and direction cosines {I, m, n}, then is the point
(pl,pm, pn).
P(x, y, z)
any point of the plane,

then PN0N. Hence the direction
given by xpl:ypm:zpn is perIf P(x, y,
z) is
by
pendicular to that given
m, n},
{I,
N(pl,
pm, pn)
and so
+ (y pm) m + (z pn) n = 0,
Ix + my + nz p(l 2 + m 2 + n 2 = p.
(x pi)
i.e.
The equation
Ix
which
Fig. 227
+ my + nz = p,
is satisfied
coordinates of any point of the plane,
by the
consequently the equation of the plane.

in x, y,
z.
Ax+By + Cz + D = Q
21.42 General linear equation

(1)
is
We observe that it is linear
Let Pj and
be two distinct points which satisfy the above
equation; then
Axx + Byx + Cz1 + D =

Multiply the
W6get
first
of these
0,
Ax2 +By2 + Cz z +D =
H^) +B ^)P+cP ^) +D
X
in the ratio k
Ax + By + Cz + D =
satisfy
By
is
arbitrary, this
(i)
+ h), the second by kj(l + h), and add;
by
which shows that the point dividing
Since k
0.
means that
'
:
'
also satisfies
0.
all
(ii)
points of the line
P^
(ii).
definition a plane
line joining
equation
(ii)
is
a locus in space
any two points of

represents
it lies
(or surface)
such that the
on the locus; hence
entirely
some plane.
The normal to this plane has direction ratios A:B:C. For if

P1 and P2 are any two points in the plane, then by subtraction of
equations (i) we have
(2)
A (xx - x2 + B{yt - y2 + C(z1 - z 2 =

)
0.
711
THE PLANE AND LINE
This shows that the direction A B C is perpendicular to the direction
x1 x2 :y 1 y 2 :z 1 z2 i.e. to PX P^ for any line PjP2 in the plane.
Hence the direction A B C is perpendicular to the plane.
21.43]
At least one of the coefficients in (ii) is non-zero. On dividing by

it we obtain an equation containing three arbitrary coefficients. This
confirms the geometrical fact that a plane is determined by three
(3)
independent conditions.
21.43 Conditions for Ax + By + Cz +

to represent the
The planes
D = 0, A'x +B'y + C'z + D' = Q
same plane
and only
are parallel if
A'
B'
if their
C'
A=B = C =k
normals are
parallel,
i.e.
(say) '
The equation of the second plane can therefore be written

k{Ax + By + Cz) + D'
0.
These parallel planes will be the same plane if and only if they have
z ); and then
a point in common, say (x y
Ax + By + Cz + D =
0,
Jc{-D) + D'
so that
k{Ax
0,
Hence the planes are identical
if
i.e.
+ By + Cz + D' =
)
0,
D'/D.
and only if
'
_ IT _ (7 _ >
A ~ B ~ C ~ D'
^1/
i.e. if
corresponding coefficients are proportional; in general the latter
will not
be equal.
21.44 Plane having normal
I:
mm and passing through P,
By 21.41 the plane with normal in direction l:m:n has an equation

of the Jform
lx+my + nz = p,
,
even when I, m, n are direction ratios and not direction cosines. Since
the plane passes through {xx ,yx> z-^,
lxx
By
+ myx + nz 1 = p.
subtraction,
l{x
- Xj) + m{y -yj + niz-
0.
(iii)
THE PLANE AND LINE
712
This relation holds for any point

therefore
(x, y, z)
of the required plane, and
the equation of the plane.
is
Alternatively, consider the equation
some plane
therefore represents
tion
[21.45
l:m:n
It is linear in x, y, z
(iii).
whose normal has

Hence it
(21.42(1)),
by
(21.42(2)). It is satisfied
{xx ,y x ,z x ).
and
direcis
the
required equation.
21.45 Plane
P,P2 P8
Method
Suppose
equation
1.
is
has normal
.
n; then
by 21.44 its
0.
l(x2
- xx + m(y 2 - yx + n(z 2 - zx ) =
l(x3
- x x + m(ys - yx + n(z3 - z x =
Ehmination of
I,
m, n from
x ~ xx
this
y-Vx
x x y%~ y\
xz ~ x i Vz~ Vl
x%
as the equation of the plane
P1 P2 P3
0.
homogeneous system of three

z
~ zi
z%
~ i\
ZZ
~ Zl
Let the required equation be
Ax + By + Cz+D =
This
equations gives
2.
P2 P3 must satisfy this, so
and
Method
- xx + m(y - yd + n(z - zx =
,
l(x
The points
this plane
is satisfied
by Px
0.
and Ps so
,
Ax x + By x + Czx + Dz=0,
Elimination of A, B, G,
Axz + Byz + Czz + D =
0,
Ax3 + Byz + Cz z + D =
0.
D from this homogeneous system of four equations
gives
xx
y1
zx
y%
^3
Vz
%3
as the required equation. It is easy to reduce this fourth-order determinant to

the third-order one just obtained, and vice versa.
THE PLANE AND LINE
21.46J
713
21.46 Intercept form: plane making intercepts a, b, c
on the
coordinate axes
The required plane passes through the points (a, 0,0), (0,6,0),
(0, 0, c). Any plane through (a, 0, 0) has an equation of the form
l(x
This
is satisfied
by
a) + my + nz =
0.
(0, b, 0), (0, 0, c) if
al + bm =
Hence
al
al + cn =
0,
= bm =
0.
cn,
l\m\n = -\\\-.
so that
b c
and the required equation is

x "y z
-+!+a o c
i.
21.47 Angle between two planes
The angle between two
intersecting planes (a dihedral angle) is
by
between the perpendiculars drawn in each to

clearly equal to that between their normals.
definition the acute angle
the
common line, and is
Given two planes
Ax+By + Cz + D =
A'x + B'y + C'z+D'
0,
their normals have directions
A B
the planes
by
is
therefore given
cose/
In particular,
C,
0,
A' B' C. The angle 6 between

:
(see 21.33, ex.
(i))
(AA' + BB' + CC)

2
2
V (A* + B + C ) y/(A
'
+ B'* + C" 2
the planes are perpendicular if and only if
AA' + BB' + CC =
0.
They are parallel if and only if their normals are parallel,
i.e.
A:B:C = A':B':C'.
Exercise 21(c)
Find the locus of points equidistant from (2, 1, 3) and (1, 3, 2).
2 Find the equation of the plane which bisects AB and is perpendicular to
CD, where A{Z, - 2, 1), J?(5, 4, - 2), (7(2, 4, - 3), D{ - 1, 3, 2).
1
3
is
Find the equation of the plane through ( 2,4,

1) and (6, 3, 2).
parallel to the line joining (3, 5,
0)
and 3,2, 9) which

(
THE PLANE AND LINE
714
4 Obtain the equation of the plane through
[21.5
- 1),
(2, 2,
(7, 0, 6), (3, 4, 2).
Find the equations of the two planes through (0, 4, 3) and (6, 4, 3),
other than the plane through O, which make intercepts on the axes whose sum
5
zero.
is
6 If ^1(3, 0, 0), B(2, 3, 0), 0(1, 1, 1), find (i) the angle between planes
(ii) the angle between line BC and plane OAB.
OBC,
OAB;
At
XO Y =
three points O,
X,
Y on a horizontal plane, where OX = c = OY and
sunk to meet a seam of coal at depths p, q, r

Assuming that the coal face is plane, find the angle between this
plane and the horizontal, and the distances from O of the points where this
plane meets OX and OY.
8 If A(a, 0,0), B(0,6,0), (7(0, 0,c), P(a,b,c), prove that the angle between
OP and plane ABC is sin" 1 {Bq/p), where p 2 = a 2 + 6 2 + c 2 andg~ 2 = a~ 2 + &~ 2 + c~ 2
Also prove that the distance between the feet of the perpendiculars from and
P to ABO is <J{p* - 9g 2 ), and find the angle between planes PBO, PGA.
9 Find the equation of the plane bisecting PX P Z a* right-angles.
*10 Show that the two detenriinantal equations in 21.45 are equivalent.
1 1 Prove that the plane through P 1 and P 2 which is parallel to the direction
\tt,
vertical shafts are
respectively.
q r has equation
:
z1
X-i
12 Prove that the plane through

q r, p' q' r' has equation
:
y-yx
Xo
which is
0.
parallel to
each of the directions
x-xx y-y x z-z x

p
p'
q'
r'
0.
13 Sides of a plane. Find the value of k I if the point dividing P-lP2 in the
= 0. Deduce that x a are on the
ratio k I lies in the plane Ax + By + Cz +
same or opposite sides of this plane according as Ax1 + By1 + Cz1 +D,
Ax 2 + By z + Cz 2 + have the same or opposite signs.
:
P P
,
21.5
The
line
A straight line in
planes
(6)
space can be determined
the join of two points
(c)
by
(a)
the meet of two
a single point together with a set
of direction ratios.
We begin most conveniently with case (c).

21.51 Line through
in direction
l:m:n
Let P(x, y, z) be any point on the line; then a set of direction ratios
x x1 :yy 1 :z z 1 Since l:m:n is also such a set of
for the line is
direction ratios, hence
x x1 y yx
:
z1 =
n.
THE PLANE AND LINE
21.52]
715
This can be expressed in the formf
x-x1 ^ y-y1 = z-z1
These equations are satisfied by any point of the line, and are therefore
the equations of the
line.
Notice that two equations are necessary to determine a line in space:

a single linear equation represents a plane. The two equations (i) are
in fact the equations of two planes, each of which contains the line;
G
'
x-xx = z-zx
x-xx = y-yx
"
represent
two such
We refer to
(i)
'
planes.
as the symmetrical equations of a line.
Example
Equation of the line
PP
X
(case (6) above).
Direction ratios of the line

has equations
PX P% are
xx x % yx 1/ 2 zx z 2 Hence the
y yx
x-xx
2/1
line
z-zx
2/2
21.52 Parametric equations of a line
Putting each of the ratios in
x = xx + M,
(i)
above equal to
= y1 + \m,
zx
A,
we have
+ Xn.
(ii)
These are the parametric equations of the line through Px in direction

l:m:n, A being the parameter (cf. 15.26$). They are particularly
useful when dealing with intersections of the line with a line, plane,
or other surface.
t If the line
is
parallel to
a coordinate plane, say to yOz, then w
= 0. The equation
xx1 :yy1 :zz 1 = l:m:0
(i)'
x = Urn
z t = 0.
(see the footnote on p. 707) that x x^.y

consistent with the geometrical situation, since every point of the line has its
z-coordinate constant, say z = z x : the line lies in the plane whose equation is z = z x .
then means
and
(i)',
with a similar
This
is
We
continue to write
= - =
as alternative to
understanding when two of I, m, n are zero.

% Unless I, m, n are direction cosines, A is not the distance of the point
(x x +\l, y x +Xm, z 1 +Aro) from P x but it is proportional to this distance.
;
48
gpmii
THE PLANE AND LINE
716
[21.52
Examples
Find
(i)
the length of the perpendicular from
A(3,
7,
2)
to the line
x- 10 _ y+8 _ z + 5
~
~~~T'
3
the coordinates of its foot N.
The parametric equations of the
and find
line,
obtained by putting the ratios in
its
equations equal to A, are
= 3A+10,
= -4A-8,
= A-5.
Calling this general point P, the direction ratios of
AP are
3A + 7:-4A-15:A-3.
AP
3:-4:
will
be perpendicular to the given
1) if
and only
(whose direction ratios are
line
if
3(3A + 7)-4(-4A-15) + l(A-3) = 0,

= 3. Hence the foot N of the perpendicular from A to the line
by putting A = 3 in the coordinates of the general point P; this
from which A
is
obtained
gives N(l, 4,-8).

It now follows that
AN
22 + 3 2 + 62
49,
AN = 7.
.\
(ii) Find the image of the point P(3, - 5, 2) in the plane 2x + ly - 3a = 27.
By definition, the image P' of P in the plane is such that PP' is perpendicular
to the plane and is bisected by it.

Since the normal to the plane has direction ratios 2
the normal through

6
parametrically
or ^
J
P is
x-Z
_
~2~~
2A + 3,
3,
the equation of
_ z-2
~ -3'
y+5
7
= 7A-5,
oi.o
= - 3A
+ 2.
This point will be P', the image of P, provided that the mid-point of P'P
on the plane, i.e.
2(A + 3) + 7(|A-5)-3(-|A + 2) = 27,
lies
from which A
(iii)
Find
the
2.
Hence P' is the point
image of the
(7, 9,
- 4).
line
3
x-2
__ _ y__ 1 _ z +
5
in the plane x 2y + 3z = 5.
find (a) the point Q where the line and plane meet; (6) the image P' of
the point P(2, 1, 3) of the line; (c) the required line as the join of P', Q.
(a) The parametric equations of the given line are
We
a;
The line
3A + 2,
= 2\+l,
cuts the given plane at the point
(3A + 2)
i.e.
hence
is (5, 3, 2).
for
= 5A-3.
which
- 2(2A + 1) + 3(5A - 3) =
5,
THE PLANE AND LINE
21.53]
The method of ex.
(6)
P'(4,
-3,
(c)
shows that the image of
(ii)
717
P in the given plane is
3).
The line P'Q has direction ratios
- 1, so its equations can be written
g-2
x-5
___ _
__ _ y-S
_
(iv)
Condition for two linen
Suppose that the
coplanar.
to be
lines
xa
yb
y b'_z c'
m'
n'
x a'
'
are coplanar. Then either they are parallel, or they intersect.

n = V m' n'.
If they are parallel, then I
If the lines intersect, then the common point has coordinates
:
+ Al, b + Am, c + An)
for
some
A,
+ pi', b' + pm', c' + fin')
for
some
fi.
(a
and
also
(a'
Hence there
exist values of A
and p
for
which
= (U
6 6' + Am pm' = 0, r
c c'+Anpn' = 0J
a-a' + Al-/il'
Elimination of A,
(11.43, Corollary I (6)) gives the condition
a a'
b b'
c c'
The condition
is
(iii)
also satisfied
I'
m'
n'
when the
=0.
lines are parallel, for in this case the
second and third columns of the deterrninant are proportional.

This necessary condition for two lines to be coplanar is also sufficient. For
when it is satisfied, then by 11.43, Theorem II, there exist numbers a, /?, y
not all zero such that
C (a-a')+ fil+yV = 0,
0,
+fin+ yn'
0.
a(b-b')+fim + ym'
and
a(c
c')
and hence
If a = 0, then 1 1
: n = V : m' : n', so that the lines are parallel,
coplanar.
If a 4= 0, the above equations can be written in the form (iii), which show
that, for some pair of values of A and p, the point (a + Al, b + Am, c + An) of the
first line coincides with the point (a' + pi', V + pm', c' + pn') of the second. The
lines therefore intersect, and hence are coplanar.
21.53 Line of intersection of two planes
Given two planes

ax + by + cz + d
0,
a'x + b'y + c'z + d'
=
48-2
THE PLANE AND LINE
718
which
intersect,
we require to
[21.54
express the equations of their
common
linef in the symmetrical form.
The planes
not be parallel
will
be'
b'c,
ca'
if
and only
c'a,
ab'
if
not all of
a'b
When this is so, let the common line have direction ratios
l:m:n. Then since this line lies in each plane, it is perpendicular to
the normal to each plane, i.e. to the directions a\b:c,a' :b' :c' Hence
are zero.
'.
al +
bm + cn
a'l
0,
+ b'm + c'n =
0,
from which (11.43(2))
be'
We now
b'c
ca'
c'a
ab'
a'b
require the coordinates of one point on the line of inter-
section. This
can be chosen in infinitely
many ways;
e.g.
we may find
the point where the line meets any one of the coordinate planes.
Example
Find symmetrical equations for
the line of intersection of the planes
2x-3y+z =
2l-3m + n =
5Z
0,
l:m:n =
and hence
5x + 4y-3z
6,
If the required line has direction ratios
n,
l.
then
+ 4m-3n =
0,
5: 11 :23.
Let us find the point where the line cuts the plane x
coordinates are given by
_
_
hence y = 5, z = 9, and a point on the line
equations of the line are therefore
x
5
0.
The
y-
and
z-
z+9
= y+5 =_ _
23
~TT
is (0,
5, 9). Symmetrical
21.54 Distance of a point from a plane
and a plane ax + by + cz + d = 0, let

be the foot
of the perpendicular from P1 to this plane. We require to find the
length of PX N.
The normal through Px to the plane has equations
Given a point
x-Xi = V-Vi = z-Zi

a
t
The two equations
'
just written are equations of the
common line
(ease (a)).
THE PLANE AND LINE
21.55]
719
or parametrically
xx + Aa, y = yx + A6,
These expressions
+ Ac.
if
+ b(yx + A6) + c{zx + Ac) + d =
A=
_ ^+^+2Y d
With this value of A we have, by the
PX N2 =
zx
they satisfy the
i.e. if
a{xx + Aa)
from which
be the coordinates of
will
equation of the plane,
(Aa) 2 + (A6) 2
0,
distance formula,
+ (Ac) 2 = A2 (a2 + 6 2 + c2 )
a2 + 6 2 + c2
PX N =
Hence
where the sign
is
axx + byx + czx + d

V(a
+ 6 2 + c2)
chosen so that the expression
is
positive.
Example
Planes bisecting the angles between two given planes.
JfP(x, y, z)
is
any point on a plane which bisects an angle between the planes
ax+by + cz + d =
then the perpendiculars
0,
a'x + b'y + c'z + d'
0,
PN, PN' to these two planes are equal. Hence
ax + by + cz+d
ât + tf + c*) ~
a'x + b'y + c'z+d'

V('
+ &' a + c/2
'
)
and these are the equations of the two bisector planes.
21.55 Areas and volumes

Area of triangle PX P2 P3 Let a, ft, y be the angles between the plane
planes yOz, zOx, xOy. Then cos a, cob ft, cosy are
8 and the coordinate
the direction cosines of the normal to this plane, and hence
(1)
PPP
X
cos2 a + cos 2 ft
Let
(iv)
1.
A be the area of the triangle Pj^P^P^, and let the areas of its orthogonal
on the planes yOz, zOx, xOy be A x A 2 A 8 Then by 17.24(4),
projections
A x = A cos a,
and hence by
The
cos 2 y
projections of
A 3 = A cos y,
A 2 = A cos ft,
A 2 = A 2 + A2 + A 2
(iv),
P P P3 on plane yOz are the points (0, yu

x,
2,
x ),
(0,
2,
v)
z 2 ),
THE PLANE AND LINE
720
[21.55
y3 z 3 ) of space. Regarded as points of the plane yOz referred to axes Oy, Oz,
they have coordinates (y^Zj), (y2 ,z 2 ), iy3 ,z3 ). Hence by 15.16(2),
(0,
2/i
A x = i y2
z2
2/s
z8
1
2/i
Aa = +
Similarly
x2
z2
^3
23
A3 =
2/s
On substituting these expressions in
we
(v),
obtain a formula for
in terms
of the coordinates of the vertices of the triangle.

(2)
Volume
of tetrahedron
PPPP
1
The volume
3.
is
given by
i x (area of one face) x (perpendicular to that face from the remaining vertex).
If V is the required volume,
dicular from
to the plane
A the area of triangle PX P 2 P3 and h the perpenP]P 8 Pg, then

V - \bJi.
(vi)
,
The plane PX P % P3 has equation

x
2/i
XZ
If we expand this determinant
2/1
z3
2/2
2/3
xt
-y
(see 21.45,
z
Method
1
1
0.
y2
z2
2/3
23
first
row,
we
2/1
2/2
2/3
by the
*1
x2
x3
23
2)
+2
^3
obtain (11.7)
xx
2/1
21
x2
2/2
22
x3
2/3
23
0.
The coefficients of x, y, z are numerically equal to the expressions 2A X 2A 2

2A 3 in (1).
The perpendicular distance h of P from the plane P1 P 2 P8 is obtained (see
21.54) by writing x y z Q for x, y, z in the left-hand side of this equation, and
then dividing by the square root of the sum of the squares of the coefficients
,
of x, y,
2:
Xa
h=
Using
(vi)
and
(v),
2/0
2/i
Xi
2/2
22
2/8
23
-r2V(A + A + A).
we now have
xa
V=l
2/o
za
*i
2/i
2/a
*2
2/3
where the sign is chosen to make the result
positive.
THE PLANE AND LINE
21.55]
721
Example*
be the points which have

With the notation of Ex. 21 (b), no. 13, let I, J,
coordinates (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1) wo Ox'y'z'. Then triangle OJK has area J,
and tetrahedron OIJK has volume \.
Referred to axes Oxyz, the points are I(l v m^rtj), J(J 2 ,m 2 ,n a ), K{l9 ,m3 ,na ),
and so
1
volume
ml
OIJK - \ h
h
n2
na
Hence
ra 2
a
1.
Exercise 21(d)
1
Find the point where the
line
z
x 1 _ y + 3 _
~
2 ~
5
cuts the plane Zx 2y+z
Also find the distance between
8.
(1,
4)
and
l:m:n
cuts
3,
this point.
2 Find the points where the line through

the coordinate planes.
(a, b, c)
in direction
3 O is the centroid of the triangle whose vertices are the points where the
a
+ n a = 1. The
plane Ix+my+nz = p cuts the coordinate axes, and i a
perpendicular at O to this plane meets the coordinate planes at A, B, C. Prove
+m
13
V
+
QA + QB QG~
4 Find the perpendicular distance of (5, 4,
1)
from the
line
x-6 _ y+15 _ 2-14

~ 8
5 ~
1
5
Obtain the equations of the

a;
line
through
(1, 2, 3)
which meets the
line
+ l _ y-2 _ g + 4
~ ~Y~
1
2
~~
is parallel to the plane x + 5y+z = 7. Give the point of intersection.

6 Prove that the line x1 = 9y+18 = 3z 9 is parallel to the plane
3cc 3y + lOz = 26. Find the image of the line in this plane.
7 Find the image of the line
and
x+1 _ y-2 _ z-3

~ -6
2 ~
1
in the plane
3a;
+ 2y 5z =
24.
THE PLANE AND LINE
722
8 Obtain the equation of the plane which contains the parallel lines
x1
2
x 4
_z 4
= y+2
-3
4
y3
2+1
-3
'
'
9 Prove that the lines
g-1
a-2
_ y-3 _ z + 4 a;-3_2/+l
______
__________
are coplanar. Find their
taining them.
common
10 Obtain the condition in ex.

11
line
Prove that the
2x-y-z =
16,
and the equation of the plane con-
point,
(iv)
of 21.52
line 3x + 2y+z =
Ix+lOy-Sz = 2.
4,
~^2
by using Ex. 21 (c),
x + y 2z
1 is
no. 12.
perpendicular to the
12 Find the equation of the plane through O which is perpendicular to the

of the planes x + y + z = 2, 3x y + 2z = 1.
common line
13
), and a line I through Q has direction ratios 4:1:1.

meets the line V at P, where V has equations 3% 3y + 4 = 0,
12. Prove that OPQ is perpendicular to both I and V.
a point on V and JS is a point on I such that PR = QS, prove that
Q is the point (f f
,
OQ
x + 2y + 2z
The
If
line
is
OR 2 OS
14
is
constant,
and
state its value.
plane makes angle 60 with the line x = y = z and 45 with the line
= y z. Find the angle which it makes with the plane x = 0.
15 Find the equations of the two lines through
O which meet the line
at angles of 60.
16 Find the equations of the lines which meet the line
x+5
2
at 60
and which
lie
in the plane
_ y+6 _ z+7
~ 2
= 0.
1, 2) from the plane
x + y + 2z+l
17 Calculate the distance of the point
(3,
5x - 6y -30z
23.
18 Find the equations of the planes which bisect the angles between the
planes 2x-3y + 6z = 1, 4x + 3y~12z + 2 = 0.
*19 Find the area of the triangle formed by the lines in which the plane
+ my + nz = p cuts the coordinate planes (Imn 4= 0).
Ix
*20 Interpret geometrically the determinant
xi
*3
Vz
2a
Va
za
THE PLANE AND LINE
21.6J
723
Planes in space
21.6
common line
Consider the equation a + fox' = 0, where k is constant and
21.61 Planes through a
a = ax + by + cz + d,
a'
0, i.e.
a'x + b'y + c'z + a".
z,
coordinates of
Hence a + ka' =
of the planes a 0,
a'
and therefore represents some plane. It is satisfied

any point P which satisfies both a = and
by any point on the common fine of these planes.
It is linear in x, y,
by the
<x'
represents
a'
0,
a plane through
the line of intersection
provided that such a line
are parallel, then clearly
a + fox' =
is
exists. If a
0,
a plane parallel to both.
common line of a = 0, a' =

a + fox' = for some value of
Conversely, every plane through the
can be represented by an equation

(except the plane a' = itselff). For
if
a point (not on the comgives a unique value of k,
1 is
mon line) of such a plane, then <x x + ka'x =
and the required equation is aa^ = a'a v

case of a + fox'
arose in 21.54, example.
viz. cl x \ol'x ,
Examples
(i)
Find the equations of the orthogonal projection
of the line
x1 = y+l z 3
~~4~
-1 ~
2
the plane x + 2y+z = 8.
Two planes through the given line are
x1 y+l
on
2-1
a;-|-2y+l
i.e.
and
x1 z 3
and
2x-z+l =
0.
Hence any plane through the line has an equation of the form
i.e.
(2x-z+l) + k(x + 2y+l) =
0,
(2 + k)x+2ky-z + (l + k) =
0.
The orthogonal projection of the line is the meet of the plane x + 2y + z = 8

with the plane through the line and perpendicular to this given plane. We
therefore choose k so that the directions 1:2:1 and 2 + k 2k 1 are per:
pendicular:
so that k
(2 + ^ + 4^-1 =
This and
0,
\. The required plane through the
line is therefore
2x-z+l-\(x + 2y+l) =
9a; 2y 5z = 4.
i.e.
x+2y+z =
0,
S are the equations of the projection.
f This exception can be avoided,
if
necessary,
by using the equation Aa+ A'a' =
0.
THE PLANE AND LINE
724
(ii) If the direction ratios of a vertical line are 1 :

of a line of greatest slope of the plane 2x y 3z = 4.
[21.62
2, find direction
ratios
cut the given plane at P, and let PQ

Let the vertical through the origin
be the line of greatest slope through P. Then the plane OPQ must be perpendicular to the given plane.
The equations
of OP are
n
x
1
which are equivalent to
Hence any plane through
= y0~~^2'
z
2x + z
0,
0.
OP has an equation of the form

2x+z + ky =
0.
This will be the plane OPQ if k is chosen so that the direction 2 k

pendicular to 2 1 3 (the normal to the given plane)
:
1 is
per-
4-fc-3 =
i.e.
0,
1.
Hence the plane OPQ is 2x + y + z = 0, and this equation together with

2x y 3 = 4 determines the line of greatest slope through P. Its direction is
I
'.mm, where
n,
2Z
hence
+m+n =
,
and
OJ
2l
m 3n =
0;
2.
(hi) Show that the planes Zx + y + Zz = 4, a; 2/-5 = 2, and 6x + 4y+ 15z = 7

pass through a common line, and find direction ratios for this line.
Any plane through the line of intersection of the first two planes has an
equation of the form
3x+y + Sz-4: + k(x-y-5z-2) =

i.e.
(k
0,
+ 3)x + (l-k)y + (3-5k)z =
This will represent the same plane as 6x + 4y + 15z
k+ S
_
~6~~
1-k _ 3- 5k _
15
4 ~
2k + 4.
7 if and only if (21.43)
2k + 4
"
The first of these equations gives k = f and this value is found to satisfy
the second and third. Hence the three given planes possess a common line, whose
direction ratios l:m:n are given by any two of the equations
;
3Z+m + 3n =
Thus
0,
l-m-5n
0,
6Z
+ 4m+ 15n =
l:m:n = -2:18:-4 = l:-9:2.
21.62 Incidence of three planes

Let
be the equations of three
= a1 x + b 1 y + c1 z + d1 =
0,
a a = a^x + b^y + CiZ + d^ =
0,
a 8 = aa x + b a y + ca z + d8 =
0,
distinct planes.
0.
THE PLANE AND LINE
21.62]
725
If (x,y,z) satisfies all three equations, then as in 11.41
Ax = A
(1
Ay =
>,
A<
Az
>,
where
A=
If
=|=
a 2 a8
,
If
A=
0,
A<
aa
i
ax
bx
a2
62
a3
63
A(2 = a 2
a.
do
>
A<3)
Co
we have
3>,
-dx
d%
da
A< x
a2
>
cc L ,
(i)
&i
62
c2
63
the equations possess a unique solution
dz
dz
(x, y, z), i.e. the
a imigtte common point.

then by Theorem II of 11.43 there exist numbers
planes
fcaue
0,
zero such that
m+c
1w =
0,
=
as l + b a m + c3 n =
0.
c^f
+ o1
a 2 Z + & 2 ra + c 2 n
m, n not
I,
all
0,
mm
Hence the
line with direction ratios I:

is perpendicular to each of the
directions ax : b x : cx , o 2 : 2 : c2 , a3 : 6 S : c3 Since these are the directions of the
normals to <x x , a 2 , a 8 , these planes must all be parallel to some line.
.
Conversely, if the planes are all parallel to a line having direction ratios
l'.m:n, then the above three homogeneous equations in three unknowns
I, m, n hold, and so A =
by 11.43, Theorem I.
Hence alf a 2 , a3 are parallel to some line if and only if A = 0. There are various
possibilities; to illustrate them, let a plane perpendicular to this line cut
a 2 , as in lines A x , A 2 , A3 .
(i) All of a
(fig. 228). This is so if and only if
l9 a 2 , a 3 are parallel
a1
Two
:b 1 xc1
a2 : & 2 : c 2
= a3
c3 .
of a x a 2 a 3 are parallel, and the third intersects them (fig. 229). This
happens if and only if just two of the ratio-sets ax b x clt a 2 & 2 c2 a3 3 c3 are
(ii)
equal.
Fig. 228
In both of these cases

are proportional.
we
certainly
have A
(iii) No two of a lt a , a are parallel. This occurs

a
3
ratio -sets are equal. The planes may
(a)
(6)
meet
meet
in pairs in three parallel lines

in a common line (fig. 231).
(fig.
since at least
two columns
when no two
of the above
230), or
Unless A(1) = A(2) = A(8) = 0, the three planes cannot possess any point in
common; this follows from equations (i) (and the general hypothesis that A = 0)
THE PLANE AND LINE
726
Since
(a)
(iii)
when A =
[21.62
and (iii) (6) are mutually exclusive, (iii) (a) occurs when and only
but at least one of A(1) A(2) A(3) is non-zero; and the planes have a
common line
(case
(iii) (&))
if
=A =A =
and only if A = A(1)
(2)
(3)
0.
The algebra
in 11.42(1) corresponds to the case (iii) (6), but includes the

possibility that two of the planes may coincide; that of 11.42 (2) corresponds to
the possibility of all the planes coinciding.
Fig. 231
Fig. 230
Exercise 21 (e)
1
P is the point 2, 3, 2), and I is the line

(
x-2 _ y-1 _ 2 + 3
~ ~T~ ~ ~2~*
~~3~
Find the equation of the plane determined by P and Z.

2 Find the equation of the plane through the line
x 1 _
_ 2+2
and parallel to the line 2x + 5y + 3z = 8, x y 5z

3 Find the plane through
25
yZ
x=
~3~
3.
and perpendicular to the plane 2x + ly Sz = 4.

4 Find direction ratios for the projection of
x 1 _
_ z+2
on the plane 2x + y 3z = 9.
5 Find the equations of the projection of the line
on the plane 3x + 2y+z

obtain
its
Bx-y + 2z=l, x + 2y-z = 2

= 0. Verify that ( 1, 1, 1) lies on
the projection, and
equations in symmetrical form.
6 Taking Oz to be vertical, find direction ratios for a line of greatest slope

of the plane through (0, 0, 0), (3, 5, - 2), (4, 1, 1).
7 Find the equations of the planes through the line Zx 2y 3z which make
angle 30 with the plane z = 0. If Oz is vertical, prove that the lines of greatest
-1
slope of these planes make an angle tan J with the given line.
8 Obtain the equations of the projection V of the line I whose equations are
2x + y 4 0,y + 2z 8 = on the plane a whose equation is 2x y 2 + 3 = 0.
If V is a line of greatest slope in a and the angle between V and the vertical is 60,
find direction ratios for either possible vertical.
THE PLANE AND LINE
21.7]
727
9 Find the equations of the three planes which pass through the line of
intersection of
two of the planes
x+y+z + 3 =
2x + y + 2z + 5
0,
and are perpendicular to the
x + Sy + 2z + 6
0,
third.
Prove that the planes so obtained have a common line, and that the plane
through perpendicular to this line is Ix + 5y 2z = 0.
10 Show that the planes x + 2y z = 0, Zx y + z = 3, and <ix + 3y 2z = 24
form a triangular prism, and that the lengths of the sides of a normal crosssection are in the ratio ^13 ^/58 5^3. [Use the sine rule.]
:
Skew
21.7
lines
21.71 Geometrical introduction
Two lines in space may

intersect nor
in
(iii)
be
parallel.
(i)
intersect,
In cases
(i)
(ii)
and
be
parallel, or
(ii)
the lines are coplanar;
(iii)
neither
the lines are said to be skew.
Fig. 232
Two skew lines have infinitely many common transversals;
for
any
point on one can be joined to any point on the other. Cf. the example
below.
both
We now prove that there is exactly one transversal which cuts
lines at right-angles,
sections
is
Let AB,
draw
and that the distance between the
the shortest distance between the two
CD be the given skew lines.
inter-
lines.
Through any point
X on AB
XY parallel to CD. Then the plane AXY contains AB, and is
parallel to
CD;
a line through
for if
CD
met plane
parallel to
AXY,
XY, i.e.
say at E, we could draw
parallel to
CD; and
this is im-
possible.
AX Y be the line PF,
Let the orthogonal projection of CD on plane

meeting AB at P. (If PF did not cut AB, then
CD
is parallel
have
CD AB,
||
to plane
AXY,
therefore
PF \\AB; and since

CD \\PF. Hence we should
contradicting the hypothesis of skewness.)
P is the projection of some point of CD, say Q.
The point
THE PLANE AND LINE
728
[21.72
We prove that PQ is the unique common perpendicular of AB and

since PQ is perpendicular to plane AXY, hence PQ is
perpendicular to AB and to PF. Also, since CD PF, PQ is perCD. For
\\
pendicular to CD.
The uniqueness follows from the steps of the

construction for PQ.
If H, K are any two points of AB, CD respectively, then HK > PQ.
To prove this, let the perpendicular from K to plane AXY have
foot N; then N lies on PF, and KNNH, so that HK > KN (the
hypotenuse being the longest side of triangle
KNH).
PQ and NK are perpendicular to PF and coplanar,

and
since
QK \\PN, PQKN is
a rectangle, so that
Since both
PQ \\NK;
PQ = KN. Thus
hence
HK > PQ.
It follows that
lines. It is
PQ is
the shortest distance between the two skew
equal to the perpendicular distance from any point
K on
CD to the plane AX Y.
Example
Prove that through a given point
skew lines I, V.
there is
a unique common transversal of two
Let the given point be P, not on either line I, V If a line through P meets I,
must lie in the plane (P, I). If a line through P meets V, it must lie in the plane
(P, V). Hence a line through P meeting both I and V would have to lie in both
.
it
these planes.
Now
these planes certainly intersect, because

lies in both;
common line which passes through P, and this is
transversal of I, V through P.
hence they have a unique

the
common
21.72 Length of the
Let the lines AB,
common
perpendicular
CD in 21.71 have equations
xa
yb
c
n
y b'
m'
x a'
V
c'
n'
Then the plane AX Y, which is parallel to CD and contains AB, has an

equation of the form
p{x-a) + q(y-b) + r{z-c) =
=
pi' + qm' + rn' =
pi + qm + rn
where
and
since its
0,
normal
p,q,r gives
is
perpendicular to both
_c
x_a
y_h
m'
n'
AB and CD.
=
Elimination of
'
21.73]
as the equation
THE PLANE AND LINE

of plane AXY. Its normal therefore
ra*10S
mn' m'n
nl'
n'l
lm'
729
has direction
I'm.
The length of PQ is equal to the perpendicular distance of any point

Since (a', b', c') is a point on CD, we have
K of CD from this plane.
a'
PQ =
a b'-b c'-c
I
m'
n'
2
2
J{{mn' - m'n) 2 + (nl' - n'l) + (lm' - I'm) }
where the sign is to be chosen so that the
21.73 Equations of the
common
result is positive.
perpendicular
The line PQ is the line of intersection of the planes QAB, PCD.

The plane QAB has an equation of the form
f{x-a) + g(y-b) + h(z-c)
f{mn' - m'n) + g(nl' - n'l)
normal
h gives
since its
/, g,
0,
fl+gm + hn =
where
and
is
+ h(lm' I'm) =
perpendicular to both
xa
yb
mn' m'n
lm'
as the equation of QAB. Similarly, plane
zc'
m'
n'
n'l
These are the two equations of the
21.74 Alternative
PCD has equation
yb'
nl'
line
I'm
xa'
mn' m'n
Ehmination of
c
n
n'l
nl'
AB and PQ.
0,
lm'
=0.
I'm
PQ.
method
Although the methods in 21.72, 21.73 give the results for two general
often more convenient in a given particular case to find the
coordinates of P, Q, and from these deduce the length and equations
lines, it is
of PQ, as follows.
THE PLANE AND LINE
730
Since
[21.74
P lies on AB, its coordinates are of the form

(a
Q on CD
Similarly,
Direction ratios for
+ XI, b + Xm, c + Xn).
has
coordinates
(a' +/il',b'
+/im',c' +/in').
PQ are therefore
a a' + XI /il' b b' + Xm /im'

:
:c
c' + Xn /in'.
PQ is perpendicular to AB (whose direction ratios are l:m:n) and

to CD (l':m':n') hence
As
l(a
- a') + m(b - b') + n(c - c')
+ X(l 2 + m 2 + n 2 - /i(W + mm' + nn') =

)
and
l'(
a -a') + m'{b-V) + n'{c-c')

+X(ll'
From
these A,
/i
+ mm' + nn')-/i(l' 2 + m' 2 + n' 2 =

)
0.
can be calculated, and then the coordinates of
and Q found.
Example
Find
the shortest distance between the lines
_ y _
x 2__y\_z + 2
~~2~'
~~3~
2~^3~1
and find equations for the line along which it lies.

Any point P on the first line is (2A, 3A, A), and any point Q on the second is
(2 + Z/i, 1 5/i, 2 + 2/jl). Hence PQ has direction ratios
2A-3/t-2:-3A + 5/t-l:A-2/t + 2.
If
is
first line,
2(2A-3/t-2)-3(-3A + 5/t-l) + (A-2/t + 2) =

14A-23/t+l
i.e.
If
0.
PQ is perpendicular to the second line,

3(2A-3/t-2)-5(-3A + 5/t-l) + 2(A-2/t+2) =
23A- 38/ + 3 =
i.e.
and so
PQ =
^3.
Equations of PQ are
+ (i) 2 + (i) 2
^^
(i)
a;
0,
0.
On solving we find A =
/i =
Hence P
sx). By the distance formula,
(21,
i.e.
0,
-21 = y + * = z-^f.
is
31, ^), and Q
is
THE PLANE AND LINE
21.75]
731
21.75 Standard form for the equations of two skew lines

Calculations for proving properties of
by a
skew
lines
can be simplified
suitable choice of coordinate axes as follows.
CD are the skew lines, let their common perpendicular PQ
If AB,
To introduce
as much symmetry as possible,

and through O draw lines OB', OD'
parallel to AB, CD respectively. For Ox, Oy choose (again with a
view to symmetry) the bisectors of the angles between OB', OD', and
label them in such a way that Oxyz is a right-handed system.
be chosen for
choose
z-axis.
at the mid-point of PQ,
Fig. 233
From the construction, the plane xOy is parallel to both AB and

CD, and hence is perpendicular to PQ, i.e. to Oz; also xOy is a rightangle. The coordinate axes are thus mutually perpendicular.
Let angle B'OD' be 20; by definition this is the angle between AB
and CD (21.32). Then OB' makes angles \ir-0, 0, \tt with Ox, Oy, Oz,
and therefore has direction cosines {sin#, cos#, 0}; these are the
direction cosines of the parallel line AB. Also OD' makes angles
\n + 0, 0, \tt with the axes, and its direction cosines are
{ sin#,
which are
also those of
Putting
y
cos
(0, 0,
-c) and
+c
is (0, 0, c).
x
'
sin
y
~~
cos 6
The equations of
z
m = cot#, these can be written in the standard forms

y mx
49
0},
CD.
PQ = 2c, then P is
AB, CD are therefore
If
sin
cos#,
= z + c,
y + mx =
= z c.
(i)
GPM
II
THE PLANE AND LINE
732
[21.75
Example
A line is drawn to meet the lines
and to make a constant angle with Oz. Prove

an ellipse.
The point P on the first line having ^-coordinate A has y = mX, z = c,
and so is P(A, mA, c). Similarly, a point Q on the second line is Q{/i, m/i, c).
If M(x, y, z) is the mid-point of PQ, then
(i)
that the locus of the mid-point of the intercept is
= J(A+/t), y - m( A -//,),
for PQ are A - (i m( A +/*):- 2c.
x
Direction ratios
Oz, which has direction cosines
COS QL
0.
If PQ
makes angle a with
then
{0, 0, 1},
-2c
V{(A-/*)
On
+ m 2 (A+/t) 2 + 4c 2}
squaring and rearranging, and vising the above equations to eliminate
A and/*,
I
v+m
(2a;)
+ 4c a =
4c 2 sec 2 a,
k 2 /m2
where k
fc
is zero shows that

The fact that the z-coordinate of
xOy and the above equation in (x, y) represents an ellipse in
c tan a.
in the plane
lies
this
plane.
Exercise 21(/)
1
Obtain direction ratios of the line through O which meets each of the
z-3
x-l
_ y-2 _
"~2~~~~
__
3~
[Method of 21.71, ex.]

2 Find the equations of the
x+2
4~'
line
through
of the lines
_ y-3 _ z-4
~ 3 ~ 2
(
lines
'
6, 4, 6) which meets
each
-=
=2^3'
x
X
= V~ =
z
Z
Also find the points of intersection.

3 Prove that there are two
meet the lines
_
a._
and
find the points
4==
y
__
lines
,
which meet Ox at right-angles and also

~
a;+l_^
+ 2_z n
___________
z 13
where they meet Ox. [Use the parametric equations of the
lines.]
4 Prove geometrically that three given skew

two of which intersect.
lines
have
infinitely
common transversals, no
Find the shortest
5
distance between the following pairs of skew lines.
_ _
x+ 2
6 y
y
_
+2
and
x+5
y+ 6
z-1
y-5 2-2
x+2
= x + 2z-ll and -- = ?- =
-.
,
many
THE PLANE AND LINE
= y-5
= z-4
and + = y = 2-19
43
x+1
and
a;
[use the formula in 21.721
find equations of the line along
733
which
it lies.
passes through A{2, 2, 2) and B( - 1, - 1, - 3), and a

CQD passes through (7(2, 3, 1) in such a way that the common
perpendicular PQ has direction ratios
5 3. Find the equations of the locus
of Q and the length of PQ.
APB
fixed line
8
variable line
From the result of 21.72 deduce the condition for the lines
x a_y b_z c
x a'
'
_ y b'
m'
c'
n'
to intersect.
Two skew lines I, I' are met by their common perpendicular at A on I and B on I';
P, Q are variable points on I, V respectively, and
is the mid-point of PQ
(new. 10-13).
10 If AQ 1_ BP and I, V are not perpendicular, prove that

lies on a hyperbola whose asymptotes are parallel to I, V. [Choose axes as in 21.75.]
11
AP + BQ is constant, prove that the locus of M is an ellipse.

If PQ = AP BQ and 2a is the angle between
V prove that (with axes
2
If
12
as in 21.75)
the plane x
I,
PQ makes an angle
\tt
whose diameter
lies
13 Prove that
on the
AP.BQ
dicular, or (6) the planes
circle
a with
Ox, and that the meet of

is
with
AB.
is constant when (a) the lines AQ,

APQ, BQP are perpendicular.
BP
are perpen-
14 Prove that the coordinates of any point equidistant from the lines
= z + c, y + mx = = z c satisfy the equation mxy = (l+m 2 )cz.
ymx =
Miscellaneous Exercise 21 (g)

1
If
AB + CD = AC + BD\ prove BC
2
_|_
AD.
edges AB, CD of the tetrahedron ABCD are perpendicular. Prove

that the distance between the mid-points of AC, BD is equal to the distance
between the mid-points of AD, BC.
If also the edges AC,
are perpendicular, prove that the third pair BC,
are perpendicular.
Two
BD
AD
3 Find the ratio in which N, the foot of the perpendicular from O, divides
the join of A(4t, 6, 0) and 5(1, 2, 1); and prove that
does not lie between
and B.
P moves with uniform speed in a straight line from A(0, 0, 12) to B(3, 4, 0)
Find the coordinates of P after it has been moving for seconds.
For what value of is P nearest to 01
4
in 13 seconds.
If C is (5, 7, 2) and CP meets the plane z

instant when
leaves A.
at Q, find the speed of
Q at the
5 If a
moving rod has
{I,
m, n} at time
direction cosines
t
and
{I
+ 8l,m + 8m, n + 8n}
at time
+ 8t,
prove that the angle 86 turned through in time 8t is given approximately by

2
2
(80) = (8l) + (8m) 2 + (8n) 2 . [Use cos* = 1 - \x 2 + 0(* 4 ) see Ex. 6(6), no. 21.]
:
49-2
THE PLANE AND LINE
734
which intersects and is per6 Find the equations of the line through
pendicular to the line x + 2y + 3z + 4 = 0, 2x + Zy + 4z + 5 = 0, and find the
point of intersection.
7 Find the angle between the line 6x + Ay 5z
Prove that these
lines intersect,
4,
x 5y + 2z
and obtain the equation of their
+ l')x + (m + m')y + (n + n')z =
Hence
given
0,
find the equations of the lines
12
and
8 Prove that any point equidistant from the lines through

direction cosines {I, m, n}, {V, m',n'} lies in one of the planes
(l
'
-1
(l-l')x +
plane.
O which have
(m-m')y + (n-n')z =
0.
which bisect the angles between the
lines.
9 Find the coordinates of the point P on the intersection of the planes

2x + 2y z = 0, x + y 3z = which has least distance from the line I joining
the points (-2,3, 2), ( 5, 5, 3). Find the point Q on I which is nearest to P.
The plane 4x + ly + 4z + 81 =
is rotated through a right-angle about its

with the plane 5x + Zy + lOz = 25. Find the equation of the
plane in its new position. Also find the distance between the feet of the perpendiculars from O to the plane in its two positions.
10
line of intersection
11
Obtain the equation of the plane through the origin and the
x-1 _ y-2 _ 2-3

~2~ ~ 1
-2
line
'
Find the equations of the line meeting Ox at right-angles whose projection on

this plane coincides with the given line.
12 Write down the equation of the plane nAB which bisects the line AB at
right-angles, where A is (a,b,c) and B is (d,e,f). Prove that, for any points
A, B, C, the planes nAB nBC ttca have in general a common line A. If .4(1, 0, 1),
from A is -&V 22
B(0, 1, 1), C(2, 2, 0), show that the distance of
,
= p, ?te vx = q, fix-Ay = r possess a

common line if and only if Xp +/iq + vr = 0, and show that this line lies in the
plane px + qy + rz = 0.
at P, P', and meets the planes
14 A line meets the planes a = 0, of =
a Aa' = at Q, Q'. Prove that Q, Of divide PP' internally and externally in
13
Prove that the planes vy /iz
the same ratio.

1 5 Prove that the two lines through (a, a, a) which lie in the plane x + y + z
and are inclined at 30 to the plane x = have equations
xa
~~2~
y ct
T+V6
za
= 3a
x a_ y a
_ za
~
~2~
1-V5" 1 + V5'
1-V5'
Find the angle between these

on the plane x = 0.
lines,
and
also the angle
between
their pro-
jections
1 6 Show that the line of shortest distance between Oz and the j oin of the point
P(p,p,c) on the line x = y, z = c, to Q(q, -q, -c) on the line x = y, z = c,
-1
divides PQ in the ratio p 2 q*. Prove also that this line makes angle tan (p/q)
with the first line and angle tan -1 (q/p) with the second.
:
THE PLANE AND LINE

17 Verify that the line x
y=
As p
cy
varies,
cy
y mx =
= z,
prove that
such
all
735
mpz cuts each of the three lines

= z c, y+mx =
lines lie
= z + c.
on the surface whose equation
is
mxz.
18 If r
is
any transversal of the three
y mx =
and
= p,
a is
= z c,
lines
z,
y + mx
= z + c,
x,
y + mz
= x+c,
any transversal of the three lines

y mz
= xc,
prove that r and s intersect.

19 Points P, P' are taken on the lines y = x,z = \; y x, z 1 respecsuch that OP = 30P'. Prove that the meet of PP' with the plane z =
lies on the curve 2a;2 5xy + 2y a + 1 = 0, z = 0.
tively,
20 The common perpendicular to two skew lines y mx = = z + c,

y + mx = = z c meets them at .4, P respectively. Points P on the first and
Q on the second line are such that AP = BQ. Prove that PQ lies on one of the
surfaces
mxz + cy
0,
yz + cmx
0.
21 Discuss the intersections of the line
x-xx _ y-yx _ z-z x

I
and the plane ax + by + cz + d
(a) algebraically, (6)
geometrically, showing
that:
+ bm + cn 4= 0, there is a unique point of intersection;

+ bm + cn = 0, the line and plane are parallel unless also
axx + by x + cz x + d = 0, in which case the line lies in the plane.
(i)
if al
(ii)
if al
(iii)
736
22
THE SPHERE; SPHERICAL
TRIGONOMETRY
Coordinate geometry of the sphere
22.1
22.11 Equation of a sphere
The distance formula shows that the sphere of centre

radius r (denned as the locus of points
has equation
{x
When expanded,
P in space such that
. a f + y- 0? + {z - C
{
this takes the
2
)
(ii)
and
CP =
r)
(i)
form
pleting the square for the terms involving x, y,

(x
b, c)
rK
x 2 + y2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d

Conversely,
C{a,
0.
(ii)
by separately comand z:
(i)
+ u) 2 + (y + v) 2 + (z + w) 2 u 2 + v 2 + w 2 d.
+ v 2 + w 2 > d, (ii) is therefore the equation of the sphere having

centre u, v, w) and radius ^(u 2 + v 2 + w 2 d).
If u2 + v 2 + w 2 = d, (ii) represents the single point u, v, w).
We may call this a point-sphere.
When u 2 + v 2 + w 2 < d, the equation does not represent any locus.
If u2
The
slightly
more general equation

cx 2 + cy 2 + cz 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d
0,
can be written in the 'normalised' form (ii) on dividing

by c, and hence in general this also represents a sphere. We therefore
take (ii) as the standard general equation of a sphere, and observe
where
that
c 4= 0,
it
involves four arbitrary coefficients u,
v,
w, d. Consequently
a sphere can be determined by four independent conditions.
22.12
Some
definitions
and
results
from pure geometry
A line and sphere, a plane and sphere,
or two spheres are said to

have
more
than
one point in common;
when they
(b) touch when they have exactly one point in common.
The following results are proved in elementary solid geometry.
(a) intersect
sphere; spherical trigonometry
22.13]
If a plane
(i)
circle
and sphere
(whose centre
is
intersect,
they do so in
all
737
points of a
the foot of the perpendicular from the centre
of the sphere to this plane).

If the plane already passes through C, the circle cut on the sphere
a great
is called
(ii)
If
on
(iii)
of the sphere; otherwise
two spheres
(whose plane
lies
circle
is
intersect,
it is
they do so in
all
a small
circle.
points of a circle
perpendicular to the line of centres and whose centre
this line).
If a line touches a sphere at P,
GP. Conversely,
all lines
through
perpendicular to the radius
it is
P which are perpendicular to CP
will touch the sphere at P. All such lines therefore he in a plane through
P which has PG for normal.

(iv)
If a plane touches a sphere at P,
radius GP. Conversely, a plane through
it is
P and perpendicular to CP
touches the sphere at P.

It follows that just one plane can touch a sphere at a given point P,
and that
all
tangent lines at
P he in this tangent plane.
Example
Sphere on diameter
PX P V
PP P
If P(x, y, z) is any point on the required sphere, then the plane

x
a cuts
hence (by 'angle in a
the sphere in a great circle having diameter PiPa ,
semi-circle')
lt
a have direction ratios
a . Since
1 J_
PP
PP PP
PP
x-x 1 :y-y1 :z-z 1
x-x 2 :y-y 2 :z-z
it
hence by the perpendicularity condition,

{x
- xj) (x -<r a + (y-yx) (y-y 2 + (e-z 1 (z-z a =

)
This relation, satisfied by any point
0.
of the sphere on diameter
PiP a
is
the
required equation.
22.13 Tangent plane at
We
employ some of the
results in 22.12. Algebraical treatments
using the ratio quadratic or the 'distance quadratic' are indicated

in Ex. 22
(a),
nos. 26-30, 23-25; these are applicable to surfaces
general than the sphere, whereas the present
is
not.
For simplicity we first discuss the sphere of radius

origin
its
equation
is
x% + y% + z
more
and centre the
Given a point Px on this sphere, the direction ratios of OP\ are #i /i z x

The plane through Px and perpendicular to OPx therefore has equation
:
i.e.
Xi{x-xx ) + y x (y-yx ) + z x {z-z x ) =

xxx + yy 1 + zz x = x\ + y\ + z\.
0,
738
Since
x lies
on the sphere, we have xf + yf + zf =
equation
becomes
^
By 22.12,
If
1 is
(iv) this
xx 1 + yy 1 + zz 1
,
2
,
[22.14
and the above
9
2
(m)
represents the tangent plane at
Px
a point on the general sphere
x 2 + y2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d
whose centre
is
C(
u,
0,
v, w), then direction ratios for

Xj^
CP1 are
+ uiyj^ + v.z-L + w.
The plane through Px and perpendicular to this direction has equation
(xû) {x-xj + fa + v) (y-yj + fa + w) {z-z x ) =

i.e.
(x1
Since
+ u)x+(y1 + v)y+(z 1 + w)z =
0,
x\ + y\ + z\ + uxx + vyx + wz x
Px lies on the sphere,

xl + yl + zl + 2ux1 + 2vy 1 + 2wz 1 + d
0.
By adding the last two equations,

(x 1
+ u)x + (y1 + v)y + (z 1 + w)z + ux 1 + vy 1 + wz 1 + d =
0,
(iv)
which is the equation of the tangent plane at Px to the general sphere.

Since (iv) can be arranged as
xx 1 + yy1 + zz 1 + u(x + x 1 ) + v(y + y 1 ) + w(z + z 1 ) + d
we
see that the 'rule of alternate suffixes' (15.63,
valid as a
0,
Remark)
is still
mnemonic for writing down the equation of a tangent plane
to a sphere.
22.14 Examples
(i)
Conditionfor the plane Ix + my + nz
= pto touch the sphere x* + y 2 +z 2 =
r2 .
The plane and sphere will touch if and only if (22.12, (iv)) the perpendicular
distance of the centre from the plane is equal to the radius, i.e.
p/<J(l
p =
1
i.e.
Also see Ex. 22

(ii)
Find
(a),
+ m2 + n 2 =
)
(l
+m +n
2
r,
).
no. 17.
the equations of the tangent planes to the sphere
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 -6x + 6y + 2z-2
which pass through the line x 2z + 4
0,
0.
22.14]
739
The sphere has centre (3, - 3, - l)andradius J{( - 3) 2 + 3 2 + l 2 -( -2)} =J21.

Any plane through the given line is (21.61)
(x-2z + 4) + ky = 0,
and this
will
touch the sphere
if
and only
3 -3fe + 2
if (as in ex. (i))
+4
-V{l 2 + ^ 2 + (-2) 3}
'
(9-3A;) = 21(5 + F),

= and so k = 4 or . The required tangent planes
x-fy-2z + = 0, 2x-y-4z + % = 0.
2
i.e.
from which 2k 2 + 9k + 4
are therefore
4:
Plane of contact from Px to the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = r 2

Let a line through Px touch the sphere at P 2 Then the tangent plane at
(iii)
xxz + yy 2 + zz 2
and
(since this contains the tangent line
passes through
2 Pi)
xx x2 + yx y 2 + z x z z
which shows that the coordinates of P 2
2 is
x.
Hence
2
,
satisfy the linear equation
= r2
xx x+yx y+z x z
(v)
Therefore the points of contact of all tangent lines from x lie in the plane (v),
which is called the plane of contact from x Its normal has direction ratios
x\ Vi zi so *nat tne plane is perpendicular to OPx
This plane cuts the sphere in a circle, and hence the points of contact of
tangent lines fromPx lie on this circle. The tangent lines themselves lie on a right
tangent cone from x
circular cone with vertex
x , called the
'
'
Condition for the line
(iv)
x-xx _ y-yx _ z-z x
to
touch the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2
The point
my
(x1
lf
r 2 ; tangent cone
from
Px
+ M, yx + Am, z x + Aw) of the line also lies on

(xx + AZ) 2 + (t/x + Am) 2 + Zl + Aw) 2 = r\
the sphere
if
and
i.e. if
satisfies
A 2 (Z 2 + m 2 + w 2 + 2A(Z*1 + myx + nz x + (x2 + y\ + z\ - r 2 =

)
( vi)
0.
In general this quadraticf gives two values of A (corifirming algebraically

that a line can meet a sphere in at most two points); but the line and sphere
will touch when there is a repeated root, i.e.
(lx x
When
+ myx + nz x 2 =
)
{I
+ m2 +
2
)
(x2
this condition is satisfied, the line lies
Elimination of I
+ y\ + z\ - r 2
).
on the tangent cone from
w from the condition and the equations of the line
{Lxx (x - xx )} 2
x.
gives
{L(x -xx ) 2} {x\ + y\ + z\ - r2 ).
This equation is satisfied by the coordinates of any point P on any tangent line
through P x and therefore represents the tangent cone. A more convenient
form of the equation is given in Ex. 22 (a), no. 28.
,
The
'distance quadratic'': see footnote J
on
p. 715.
740
[22.14
(v) Orthogonal spheres.
The angle of intersection of two spheres at a common point P is denned to be
are the centres, then this

the angle between the tangent planes at P. If C,
angle is equal to that between the radii CP, CP because these are normal to
the respective tangent planes. When the angle is a right-angle, the spheres are
orthogonal; in this case triangle
is right-angled at P, and so
GPC
CO = CP + CP
2
If the spheres
are
r
+ 2wz + aj =
+y +z +
+
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2u'x + 2v'y + 2w'z + d' =
x
9
2
a
2
o
2ux
a
2
o
2vy
C( u, v, w), C(u',v',w'), and
then
n
0,
0,
the orthogonality condition
becomes
(u -u') 2 + (v- v') 2 + (w- w') 2
(u 2 + v 2 +
2mm' + 2vv' + 2ww'
which reduces to
- d) + (u' 2 + v' 2 + w' 2 - d'),
= d + d'.
(vii)
condition is satisfied, then by adding the expression

u 2 +v 2 + w 2 +u' 2 +v' 2 + w' 2 to both sides we obtain the previous equation,
2
which is equivalent to G'C 2 = CP 2 +
The converse of the theorem of
Pythagoras then shows that CP JL CP, so that the spheres are orthogonal.
Conversely,
if this
CP
Exercise 22(a)
point moves so that the square of its distance from ( 1, 2, 1) is equal to

distance from the plane 2x Sy + 6z 8. Show that it lies on a sphere, and
state the centre.
1
its
AP :PB = A
are fixed points, and

varies so that
2 A,
constant. Find the locus of P. [Choose axes so that
Find
the equation of the sphere through
(0,1, 3), (1,2, 4), (3, 0,2), (2, 3,1).
1, 1, 2) and having its
(1, 2,1
(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)
6
axes,
),
(0, 3, 1),
which has
its
1,
where A
is
A is (a, 0, 0), B( a, 0, 0).]
centre in the plane 3w + 2z
1.
radius as small as possible.
and the points where the plane 2x + 3y + z =

and find its diameter.
6 cuts the coordinate
7 Find the equation of the sphere which circumscribes the tetrahedron

whose faces lie in the planes x = 0, y = 0, z = 0, x + 2y + Zz = 4.
8 A sphere of radius r passes through O. Show that the ends of the diameter
parallel to Oz lie one on each of the spheres x2 + y 2 + z 2 2rz = 0.
9 Spheres are drawn through (2,0,0) and (8,0,0) to touch Oy and Oz.
Prove that there are four such spheres, and give their equations.
10 Find the centres of the two spheres which touch the plane 3x + 4z = 47
at (5, 4, 8) and which touch the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1.
1 1 Find the centre and radius of the sphere which touches the plane
Sx + 2y-z + 2
at
1,
sum
2,
When
1)
and cuts orthogonally the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 4a; + Qy + 4 =
the spheres certainly do intersect; for it implies that the

greater than the distance between the centres.
(vii) is satisfied,
of the radii
is
0.
741
12 Find the centres and radii of the two spheres whose centres lie in the octant
for which all of x, y, z are positive, and which touch the planes x = 0, y = 0,
2 = 0, 2x + 2y + z = 4.
13 A sphere is inscribed in the tetrahedron whose faces lie in the planes
x = 0, y = 0, z = 0, 2x + 6y + Bz = 14. Find its equation.
14 Three spheres have centres (0, 0, 0), (3a, 0, 0), (0, 4a, 0) and radii a, 2a, 3a
respectively. Two planes, including an acute angle 0, are such that every one
of the spheres touches both planes. Prove that cos = -g.
15 Spheres 8 lt 8 2 *3 have centres (0, 0, 0), (3, 0, 0), (0, 30, 0) and radii 1, 1, 19
respectively. Find the equations of all common tangent planes n of the spheres
such that and ss lie on opposite sides of n, and s 2 3 lie on the same side. Show
that two such planes exist, and that the acute angle
between them satisfies
9cos0 = 7. [Use Ex. 21 (c), no. 13.]
16 Find the tangent planes to the sphere x 2 + y 2 +z 2 2x + fy 6z+ 10 =
which pass through the line
x + S _ y+1 _ z-5
,
" -3 ~ ~T~'
14
17 Obtain the result of 22.14. ex.
(i)
by comparing the equations
lx+my + nz=p and xx1 + yy1 + zz l =

Hence obtain the point of contact when the condition
r2 .
is satisfied.
= p to touch the sphere

2
2
a
x + y + 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0.
Find the equation of the sphere having centre (5, 2, 3) and touching the
18 Find the condition for the plane Ix + my + nz
19
~ -3
Also find the equation of the tangent plane which contains this tangent
20 Prove that a tangent
line.
from the point Px outside the sphere
line
= x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2v,x + 2vy + 2ivz + d where 8n = x\ + y2 + z\ + 2ux^ + 2vyx + 2toz 1 + d.

8
has length ^8lt

21 Show that the points from which equal tangents can be drawn to the three
,
spheres
xz + y * + z 2
and
he on the
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2x-2y + 2z-
1,
0,
+ y + z -x + 4:y-6z-2 =
2
line
Also find the point of this line from which the length of the tangents
22
(i)
is least.
Prove that the points from which tangents to the spheres
= x 2 + y2 +z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2ivz + d = 0,

a' = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2u'x + 2v y + 2w z + d' =
are of equal lenglh he in the plane 8 s' = 0.
s
(ii)
their
If the spheres
common
to
intersect, explain
why the
plane s s'
contains
circle.
23 By taking P
(vi)
8, s'
on the sphere in 22.14, ex. (iv), use the 'distance quadratic'

line through P x in direction l:m:n will have no point
show that the
742
[22.2
other than x in common with the sphere (i.e. will be a tangent line at x ) if
and only if lxx +myx + nzx = 0. (This confirms that the tangent line is perpendicular to OPx see 22.12, (iii).)
:
*24 If s (x 2 , 2 , 2 ) is any point on the tangent line at x in direction l:m:n,

prove that (x2 xx ) x x + (y2 y x ) yx + (z 2 z x ) z x = 0. [Eliminate I
n from the
result of no. 23 and the equations {x 2 xx )jl = (y 2 yx )/m = (z 2 z x )fn.~\
Deduce that all tangent lines at Px lie in the plane xx1 + yy1 +zz 1 r 2 (the
tangent plane at Px ).
:
*25 Use the 'distance quadratic (vi) to show that the mid-points of all chords
I
n lie in the plane he + my + nz = (which is clearly normal to
'
in direction
this direction).
*26 The ratio quadratic. Show that the point dividing

on the sphere s = if and only if
P%
hi the ratio k:l
lies
s 22 k 2 + 2s X2 kl + s xx l 2
0.
(Here s may denote x + y +z r or the general expression in no. 20; the

notation of 19.12 is used, extended to three variables in the obvious way.)
2
Px on s = 0, deduce from no. 26 that P2 lies on a tangent line

and only if s X2 = 0. Hence show that the tangent plane at Px is sx = 0.
*28 By expressing the condition for equal roots, deduce from no. 26 that the
tangent cone from Px has equation ssxx s 2
*29 Prove that the plane of contact of tangents from Px has equation sx = 0.
*30 A line through the fixed point Px meets s at A, B, and P 2 is chosen so that
Px P2 divide AB internally and externally in the same ratio. When the line
through Px varies, prove that P2 moves in the plane sx = 0.
*27 Taking
at
if
22.2
s = ks'
22.21
The
If s
s
general principle
0, s'
represent any two loci in space or in a plane, then
ks' represents
points
(if
some
locus which passes through their
any). For, points
will also satisfy s
whose coordinates
satisfy 5
common
and s'
ks'.
In this section we consider the equation s = ks' when k is constant

(i.e. independent of x, y, z) and one of s = 0, s' =
represents a sphere,
while the other represents either a plane or a sphere.
22.22 Spheres through a given circle
(1)
If
= x 2 + y 2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2ivz + d =
represents a sphere,
and
s'
= Ax + By + Cz + D =
0,
then provided that these loci intersect, they do so in a circle. The pair
of equations s = 0, s' =
are therefore sufficient to determine a circle
in space,
and can be referred to as the equations
of the circle.
As
for
22.22]
743
line, more than one equation is needed; a circle cannot be

more simply than by one linear and one second-degree
the straight
specified
equation, although the latter

e.g. see ex.
(iii)
below, where
The equation
ks' =
may
not be the equation of a sphere:
represents a cylinder.
it
a sphere, a
form appropriate for the
general equation of a sphere (22.11). If s, s' intersect, then the locus
is a sphere through the circle determined by s = 0, s' = 0. If s, s'
touch, then s = ks' represents a sphere through their common point,
i.e. touching s at its contact with s'. In both cases the constant k can
be chosen to make the sphere satisfy one further condition.
s
(k constant) will represent
single point, or nothing, since it has the
If
(2)
= x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d =
& x2 + y2 + z2 + 2u'x + 2v'y + 2w'z + d' =

both represent spheres, then s = ks' (k constant) will
and
s'
sphere, a single point, or nothing, provided that k
=|=
represent a
1; if
1, it
represents a plane.
If
s, s'
intersect,
then they do so in a circle, and s = ks' represents

circle unless k = 1, in which case the locus
a sphere through this
becomes s s' =
and is the plane containing the common circle
(cf. Ex. 22 (a), no. 22 (ii)). The two second-degree equations 5 = 0,
could be taken as equations of the circle of intersection, but
s' =
this circle can be represented more simply as in (1) by the linear
equation s s' = and one second-degree equation, say s = 0.
If
(k
s'
s, s'
1)
touch, then s
a sphere (k #= 1) or a plane
point, i.e. touching both s and
ks' represents
common
through their single
at this point.
Examples
(i)
Find the equation of the sphere having the

x
+y +z =
2
circle
2x-3y + 6z =
16,
as a great circle, and give its centre and radius.

Any sphere through the given circle has an equation of the form
x* + y* + z 2 -16 + k(2x-Sy +
6z-l)
0.
Since the centre of a great circle coincides with the centre of the sphere, hence
the centre ( k, fk, 3k) must lie in the plane 2x3y + z = l. The condition
for this gives k = f , so that the required sphere has centre (f , f f ) and
equation
x z + + z 2_ iq_z( 2x- 3y + 6z- 7) = 0,
,
i.e.
x* + y 2 + z z -x + %y-if-z-14:
Its radius is therefore J{(
- f 2 + (f 2 + - f 2 + 14} =
)
Jl5.
0.
744
Find
(ii)
the equation of the sphere
x i + y 2 + z i + x + 3y-6z-B
at (1, 2, 3)
and passes through
The point
(1, 2, 3)
(2, 0, 1).
(1,2, 3) certainly lies
on the given sphere. The tangent plane at
has equation f
a;
i.e.
+ 22/ + 3z + i(a:+l) + |(2/ + 2)-3(2 + 3)-3 =

Zx + ly-11 = 0.
Any sphere touching the given sphere at (1, 2, 3)

through (2, 0, 1)
the required equation is
It passes
+ 2 - 6 - 3 + k(6 - 17)
+ y2 + 2 2 + 5x +19y- 662+I =
1 l(sc 2
Find the equation
4+
if
has an equation of the form
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + x + 3y-Qz-B + k(3x + 7y-n)
(iii)
[22.3
which touches the sphere
0.
0, i.e.
Hence
0.
of the sphere through the circle
= 1, 2 =
+ z + Sx 5y + 62 + 8 =
x 2 + y 2 -4x + 2y
which
is orthogonal to the
sphere x
+y
The equation x 2 + y 2 4x + 2y =
circular cylinder: see 22.3, ex.
The given circle
is
(o;
(i).
t/
6.
+ 2 2 -4a; + 2t/-l) +
The required sphere

a;
22.3
2
2/
0.
can be written
be orthogonal to the given sphere
cuts the sphere
+ y + z -4x + 2y-l =
ifc2
0.
if (22.14, ex. (v))
3(-2)-5.1 + 3&
i.e. if
circle
0.
does not represent a sphere but a right
that in which the plane z
Any sphere| through this

It will
= 8-1,
therefore has equation
+ z 2 -4a; + 22/ + 62-l =
0.
Surfaces in general
An equation fix, y,z) =
some or all of x,
explicitly involving
y, z represents
a locus in space called a surface (cf. 9.23). For example, when the function is
linear in x, y and z, the equation represents a plane surface or plane; when of
the type considered in 22.11, it represents a spherical surface or sphere. A few
other special classes of equations will be noticed here because of their geometrical significance.
Examples
(i)
= 0. The points in the plane xOy whose coordinates satisfy this

on a curve <f in that plane. If P(*1 ylf 0) lies on ^f, then the point
f(x, y)
equation
lie
Q( xi> Vi> Zi) satisfies f(x, y) = for arbitrary z x (since f(x, y) does not involve z).
Hence Q can be any point on the line through which is parallel to Oz. As
Written down by using 'alternate suffixes'.

f
J Had we used the two given equations, we should not be writing down the equation
of a sphere.

745
the line PQ generates a right cylinder whose cross-section by the
22.3]
varies
on %
plane
xOy
to
',
is
Thus f(x, y)
represents
a cylinder with generators
parallel
Oz.
Thus in ex. (hi) of 22. 22 the equation x 2 + y z 4x + 2y = 1 represents a cylinder

whose section by the xy -plane is the circle with centre (2, 1, 0) and radius ^/6.
Homogeneous equation f(x,y,z)
(ii)
0.
Iff(x,y, z) is homogeneous of degree n
in (x,y,z), then (1.52(4))
= X nf(x,y,z)
f(Xx, Xy, Xz)
A and x,
on the surface
for all
y, z for
which the functions are denned. If P(x, y, z)
is
a point
other than O, then (Ax, Xy, Xz) also lies on this

f(x, y, z)
surface for all X; i.e. every point of the line
lies on the surface, which is
OP
therefore a cone with vertex O.

(iii) Surface of revolution. Let the curve/(a;, y) =
in the xy-jA&ne be rotated
about Ox, thereby generating a surface of revolution with axis Ox. Let Q(x y 0)
be any point on the curve, and P(x, y, z) be its position in space at some stage
of the rotation; then P lies on a circle whose plane is perpendicular to Ox and
passes through Q, and whose centre C lies on Ox. Thus
,
y9
Since
lies
= CQ = CP =
J(y + z*),
on the curve, we have f(x y

,
x
0,
f(x,^y 2 + z 2 )) =
which
is
= OG =
x.
and hence
0,
the equation of the surface of revolution. Cf. the
Remark in
7.5.
If two surfaces intersect, they do so usually in points of a curve (although

they may possess isolated points in common). In general this curve does not lie
entirely in one plane (as was the case for the intersection of two spheres), and
consequently is called a twisted curve or a skew curve or a space curve. It is
determined by two equations, viz. those of the surfaces of which it is the intersection. Any other pair of surfaces through the curve would equally well serve
to detemiine it.
Exercise 22(b)
1 Write down the centre and radius of the circle of intersection of the sphere
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 - 16 and the plane 3x + 2y-z = 0.
2 If a sphere of radius r is cut by a plane distant c from the centre (c < r),
prove geometrically that the circle of intersection has radius *J(r 2 c 2 ). What
happens when c = r?
3 Show that the meet of the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 2x 4y 6z 11 =
and
the plane 2x y + 2z 15 =
is a circle of centre (3, 1, 5), and find its radius.
[Use 22.12, (i).]
4 Find the equation of the sphere which has

quadrant of the ay-plane, and cuts the planes x =
its
0,
centre in the positive

= 0, 2 = 0in circles of
radii 3 4, 5 respectively.
;
5 Obtain the equation of the plane through A{1, 0, 0), B(0, 3,

and also that of the sphere through these points and the origin.
centre of circle ABC.
0),
C(0, 0,
- 1),
Hence find the
746
6 Find the circumcentre of the triangle whose vertices are
(2, 0, 4). (2, 4, 2),
(0,2,4).
7 Prove that the spheres

(x - a) 2 + (y - b) 2 + (z - c) 2
and
(x
= r2
a l)(x a) + (y b m)(y b) + (z c n)(z c) =
r2
cut along a great circle of the former.

8 Find the equations of the two spheres through the circle
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 -2x-4y
which touch the plane
4tx
+ By =
x + 2y + 3z
0,
8,
25.
9 Find the equations of the spheres through the circle
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2x + 2y
x+y =
which intersect the plane
x+y+z+ 4
0,
0,
in circles of radius 3.
10 Find the equation of the sphere through the

and the point (1, 2, 1).
circle
x 2 + y 2 + 2x
0, z
1 1 Spheres are drawn through the circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2 , z = 0. Prove that the

locus of the ends of their diameters parallel to Ox is the rectangular hyperbola
x 2 -z 2
a2 y
,
0.
12 Show that every sphere through the circle x 2 + z 2 = a 2 , y = is orthogonal

to every sphere through the circle x*+ y % + 4ax + a 2 = 0, z = 0. Find the two
spheres (one from each of the above systems) which cut the sphere
3(c a
in the
13
s
same great
+ y2 +
2
)
+ 2a(2x + 2y-z) = a 2
circle.
Find the equation of that sphere through the intersection of the spheres
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 4:x-2y + 2z + 5
s'
0,
which has the smallest radius, and state

is
best written s + k(s *')
= x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2x-8y + 2z + 9 =
this radius.
[The system of spheres
0.]
14 Prove that the circles
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 -9x + 4y + 5z -
x
lie
+ y + z + 6x-10y + Qz-l =
2
on the same sphere, and find
its
7%-2y + z =
0,
0,
4,
4%-6y=l
equation.
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 - 6x - 8y - 24z + 120
16 Find the sphere which touches the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 2x + 6y 4z + 6

at (3, 1, 2) and passes through O.
15 Show that the spheres x + y + z 2

touch, and find the common point.
2
36,
17 A system of spheres is such that any two touch at the fixed point O. Prove
that any sphere which cuts each sphere of the system orthogonally will pass
through O. If such spheres also pass through a fixed point A, prove that they
22.4J
pass through a fixed circle. [Choose

at
for ay-plane.]
* 18
and the common tangent plane
Interpret the following
(i)
down
f(x,z)
(iii)
0;
f(y,<J(x*+z*))
0;
(iv)
f{z,J(a? + y*))
the equations of the projection on the plane
xOy of the
0.
circle
1.
Show
*20
(ii)
0;
*19 Write
in no.
and
for origin,
747
that the right circular cone with vertex O, semi-vertical angle a,

= z 2 tan2 a.
axis Oz has equation x 2 + y 2
22.4
The
22.41
Some
spherical triangle
definitions
and simple properties
Consider a sphere of centre
a great
circle
and a small
O and radius r.
In 22.12,
(i)
we
defined
of the sphere to be the section made by a plane through 0,
be any other plane section. Thus although
circle to
great circles have radius
r,
a small
circle
all
can have any radius between
and zero.
The ends of a diameter of the sphere are called antipodal points.
There is a unique great circle through two non-antipodal points
P, Q; for there is a unique plane through O, P, Q, and this cuts the
sphere in a unique great circle. Consequently there are just two great
circle arcs joining P, Q, viz. the minor and major arcs of this great
circle. The minor arc is called the arc PQ; its length is the spherical
distance between P and Q.
The axis of a circle on the sphere is that diameter of the sphere
which is perpendicular to the plane of the circle. Its extremities are
poles of the circle, and the nearer one is called the pole.
A circle on the sphere which passes through the poles of a given
circle is called a secondary to that circle. Hence every secondary is a
great circle; and a given circle has infinitely many secondaries. Two
great circles have a unique common
r
secondary:
it lies
mined by their
in the plane deter-
axes.
Defining the angle between two curves

at a
common point
tween the tangents
AB, AG of great
common secondary
to be the angle bethere, let the arcs

circles
meet their
and let
at B, C;
AC
AB',
be the tangents to these arcs
at A. Since AB'
are both perpen,
dicular to
50
OA
AC
and
lie
in the planes
AOB, AOG
respectively, the
GFMII
748
B'AC
angle
between the arcs
is
the angle
BOC
[22.42
between their
Hence
planes.
the angle between two great circles
the angle between their planes
==
the angle at
common
lune
is
subtended by the arc intercepted on their
secondary.
the figure on a sphere formed
by two
great semi-circles.
the semi-circles is called the angle of the lune.
The angle between

Assuming that areas of lunes on the same sphere are proportional to
their angles, then for a lune of angle 6,
area of lune
area of sphere
_
2n
since the whole sphere can be regarded as a lune of angle 2n. Since
the sphere has area
4fly 2 ,
area of lune
2r 2 6.
(i)
22.42 Sides and angles
The
figure
on a sphere formed by three minor arcs of three great
a spherical triangle. Its sides a, b, c are the three arcangles between the arcs b, c; c, a; a, b are its angles
the
lengths, and
circles is called
A, B, C.
There are two different ways of joining two non-antipodal points
by an arc of a great circle. Hence if no two of the points f A,B,C are
antipodal, there are eight different figures having these for vertices.
Only one such figure is a spherical triangle, viz. that formed by the
minor arcs BC, CA, AB.

Taking the sphere to have unit radius, J the length of an arc of a great
circle is the radian measure of the angle subtended by it at the centre O.
subtended by the arcs
Hence the sides a, b, c are the angles at
BC, CA, AB; and since these are minor arcs, each of a, b, c is less than n.
a of the spherical triangle ABC is BOG, a plane angle; and the
that between the planes OBA, OCA (a dihedral angle). Therefore
relations between sides, angles of a spherical triangle are equivalent to relations
between plane angles, dihedral angles of a trihedral angle. It follows that
The
angle
side
is
any two
sides of
a spherical
triangle are together greater than the third,
(ii)
use the same letter for a vertex, the angle at the vertex, and the measure of
f
this angle, as in plane trigonometry; similarly for a side and its measure.
this will be the case throughout.
% Except in 22.44 and 22.54,
We
22.43]
since in a trihedral angle the

the
749
sum of two plane angles is greater than the third;t
sum of the sides of a spherical triangle is less than
2n,
(in)
than the circumference of a great circle) since the sum of the plane
angles of a trihedral angle is less than four right-angles, f Cf. Ex. 22(d), no. 20.
less
(i.e.
Fig. 235
Each angle of a spherical triangle is less than n. For if possible suppose

let arc AB be produced to meet arc CA again at A'. Then
A, A' are antipodal, and arc CA ^ &tqAA' = n, i.e. b ^ n, contra-
B^tt\
dicting the definition of 'spherical triangle'.
However, a spherical triangle

angles obtuse;
22.43
and
may have
may
one, two, or three
one, two, or three of its
be right-angles. Also see
(3).
22.43 Polar triangle; supplemental relations

(1)
and
If A'
is
that pole of BG which
B', G' are defined similarly
A'B'G'
is
is
by
on the same side of the plane
OBG as A
cyclic interchange of the letters,
a spherical trianglej called the polar triangle of ABC.
then
We now prove
the following reciprocal property.
Fig. 236
If A'B'G' is the polar triangle of ABC, then ABG is the polar triangle of A'B'G'.
Proof. Since B' is the pole of GA, B'A = \ir; and since G' is the pole of AB,
C'A = \tt. Therefore A is a pole of B'G'.
f This
%
is
proved in
geometry (Euclid xi, 20, 21).

verify this statement.
solid
The reader should
50-2
750
[22.44
As A' and A are on the same side of plane OBC, and the distance of A' from
any point on BG is \tt, hence A A' < \tt. Thus, since the distance of A from any
point on B'C is \n, A and A' must be on the same side of the plane OB'C.
Therefore A is that pole of B'G' which is on the same side of plane OB'C as
A'; and B, G have the corresponding properties obtained by cyclic interchange.
Hence ABC is the polar triangle of A'B'C.
(2) Sides, angles of the polar triangle are respectively the supplements of the
corresponding angles, sides of the original triangle.
Proof. Let G'A' cut
at X. and BG at Y. Since CA' is secondary to
= B. Also
= \<n = YA'. As YA' =
and BG, therefore
+ XA', then
infer the
+
+ XA' = Ti, so that CA' = n-XY, i.e. V = n-B.
supplemental relations
AB
AB
CX XY
We
= tt-A,
a'
Since
3)
= n-B,
b'
c'
7T-C.
(iv)
ABC is the polar triangle of A' B'C, we also have

a
XY
CX
XY
tt-A',
= n-B',
= n-C.
(v)
The sum of the angles of a spherical triangle lies between 2 and 6 right-angles.
By applying (iii) to the polar triangle A'B'C,
Proof.
<
From
(iv) this
<
becomes
i.e.
+ b' + c' <
2n.
3n (A+B + G)
<
< A +B+C <
3n.
7T
The expression
a'
2n,
(vi)
E = A+B + C n is called the spherical excess

ABC it is the amount by which the sum of
of the spherical triangle
the angles of the spherical triangle exceeds the
plane triangle.
By
<
(vi),
<
sum
of those of any
2n.
22.44 Area
Given the spherical triangle ABC on a sphere of centre

and
r, produce the sides AC, BC to cut the great circle AB again
at A', B' By considering areas on the hemisphere shown (fig. 237),
and using
* K(i),
radius
'
ABC+
sx
lune
ABA'C
=2Ar\
ABC+
s%
lune
BAB'C
ABC + CB'A' = lune with angle C =

Adding,
2ABC + area of hemisphere =

.'.
area of triangle
ABC =
2(A
(A
2Br*,
2Cr 2
+ B + C) r2
+ B + C - n) r 2
= Er2
(vii)
22.5]
22.5
751
Triangle formulae
We continue to assume that the sphere has unit radius until 22.54.
22.51 Cosine rule
cos a
and two
cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos A,
similar formulae
interchange of the
which can be obtained from
(viii)
this
by
cyclic
letters.
Fig. 237
The
Fig. 238
important because all the remaining triangle

formulae can be deduced from it. In calculation it can be used to find
cosine rule
is
a side of the triangle when the other two sides and the included
(6) an angle when the three sides are known; this
exactly the situation in the plane case.
(a)
angle are known;

is
First proof, using projection
(fig.
238).
N be the projection of C on the plane AOB,

projections of N on OA, OB respectively.
Let
Since
OP
is
and P, Q be the
CN and NP, therefore OP is perCNP, and hence OP j_ PC because PC is a
perpendicular to
pendicular to the plane
line in this plane. Similarly
OQ _L QC.
Projecting on OB,
proj. of
i.e.
Now
ON = proj. of OP + pro
j.
of PN.
OQ = OP cos c + PN cos {\n - c).

OQ = OC cos a, OP = OC cos b,
752
and
since
[22.52
CPN is the angle between the planes OAB, OAC, viz. A,
PN = PC coa A = OCsin&.cosA
Substituting,
we get formula
(viii).
Second proof, using coordinates (fig. 239).

Choose axes at the centre O of the sphere, with Oz along OA, and let the other
vertices B, C have cartesian coordinates (x^y^Zj), (x 2 y%, % ) and spherical
polar coordinates (1, d x
x ), (1, d 2
2 ): see 21.12 (2) and Ex. 21 (a), no. 15.
,
, <f>
OC have direction cosines {xx y x z x ), {x % y 2 z 2},

= xx x 2 + y x y 2 + z x z 2
= sin 6 X cos t sin 6 Z cos 2 + 8U1 î sul 0i si11 ^2 sul 02 + cos ^1
= COS d x COS 2 + SU1 #1 sul #2 COS (01 02)
= cose cos 6 + sin c sin 6 cos .4
6X = c, d 2 = b, and 1 2 = A.
Since OB,
cos a
<f>
because
<j)
cos ^2
<fi
Fig. 239
Example
Median of a spherical triangle.
The arc of the great circle joining a vertex
opposite side BC is called a median of the triangle

Since angles CA'A, AA'B are supplementary,
+ cost's =
cos
to the mid-point
ABC
(fig.
A' of the
240).
0.
By applying the cosine rule to each of triangles AA'G, ABA', this becomes
cos 6 cos A A' cos
cose cos AA' cos \a
= 0,
+
.4.4
sin A A' sin
sin
and on
'
\a
sinâ
solving for cos AA',

cos
A A' =
cos b + cos c
2 cos \a
22.52 Sine rule

sin a
sinyl
sinfe
sinJB
_ sine
sinC
(ix)
22.52]
753
Geometrical proof.
From fig. 238 we have
NG = PCainA = OCsin6 sin 4,

NC = QCsinB = OC sin a sin B
and
since
CQN is the angle between the planes OBA,

sin 6 sin
A=
OBG,
viz.
B. Hence
sina sinjB,
-sina- = -sin b
sini
sin
from which
by projecting from A onto plane OBC, we can prove
Similarly,
sin b
sine
sinC
sinJ5
Deduction from the cosine rule.

sin.
A 1 cos 2 A
(cos a
cos b cos c) 2
sin 2 6 sin2 c
cos 2 b)
cos 2 c) (cos a cos b cos c) 2

sin 2 b sin2 c
_ 1 cos 2 a cos 2 6 cos 2 c + 2 cos a cos b
cos c
sin 2 b sin 2 c
sin^l
Scos 2 a + 2cosacos6 cose)
+a/(1
sina
'
sina sin6 sine
and this expression is symmetrical in a, b, c. Hence it is also equal to

and to sin C/sinc. The sine rule can therefore be written in
sin^B/sinfe
the 'completed form'

sin^L
sina
sini?
sin b
sinff
2
_
- +V(1 -Scos q + 2cosa cos6
where the positive sign of the square root

sines are positive (all sides
cose)
'
sin a sin b sine
sine
is
taken because
and angles lying between
and
all
The reader may verify that the expression under the square root
can be written
1
cos c
cos b
cos c
cos a
cos b
cos a
the
n, 22.42).
sign
754
[22.53
Examples
(i)
If A' is the mid-point of BG,
cot A
cot/?
= BAA' and y = A'AG, prove
fi
sinC
sinB
sin .4
cot y cot /?
and
sin (6 + c) sin (6 c)
sine sin .4
sinfe
By applying the sine rule to triangles ABA', AA'G in fig.
and
240,
siny
sin/5
sinâ
sinB
sinÛ.'
sinC'
sin /? sin G = sin (A /?) sin B,

sin/?(eos.4 sinB + sinC) = cos/? sin.4 sin B,
sin G
cot /? = cot A + -
so
A sinJ5
sin B
coty = cot A +
smA sinC"
sin
Similarly ,
.'.
coty cot ft
sin 2
sax
B- sin G
2
A sinSsinC
sin 2 b
sin 2 c
by the
sine rule,
sin .4 sin 6 sine
sin (6 + c) sin (6
c)
after reduction.
siab sine sin .4

sin
(ii)
Prove
that
(B + G)
= sinB4
sin(B + C)
:
sini
cos
sinC- cos is,

GH
sin 6 cos c cos a cos b

-.
r-r
sin
JXby using both

and
^
smi
sin
+ cos c
+ cosa
cos b
sin^l
sin a sin o
sin c cos 6
+-.
sina
sin b sin c (cos c cos a cos 6)
rules,
cos c cos a
.
sine sin a
+ sin b sin c (cos 6 cos c cos a)
sin 2 a sin 6 sine
+ cos c) 1 cos a)
2
1
cos a) sin 6 sin c
sin 6 sin c(cos 6

(
cos 6 + cos c
1
+ cos a
22.53 Supplemental formulae

If the formulae
(viii), (x)
relations (iv), (v) are used,
the cosine rule
with
are applied to the polar triangle A'B'C and the

are obtained for triangle ABC. Thus
new formulae
= coso cose +sinoit sine cos A*>

A' = n a, etc.
a' 7T A,
cos a
, ,

cos A = cos B cos G sin B sin G cos a,
cos A = cos i? cos (7 + sin B sin C cos a.
22.54]
gives
i.e.
Similarly the sine rule in

sin a
sinA
its
sin b
sin c
sinB
sinC
755
(xi)
completed form gives
+ V( 1 ^ cos2 ^ 2 cos ^1
sin
cos 2? cos C)
A sin S sin G
22.54 Triangle on the general sphere
When the sphere has radius r
ABC
#= 1,
the sides of the spherical triangle
centre.
no longer equal to the angles which they subtend at the

If we continue to denote these angles by a, b, c, and call the
sides a,
/?,
are
y,
then
a
-,
B
-,
r
y-.
r
All the preceding formulae remain valid because their proofs used the
angles at the centre
and not the actual
sides of the triangle.
Example
By
using the expansions of coax, sin* (Ex. 6(6), nos. 21, 20), the cosine
(viii) can be written
formula
l-ia 2 + ... = (l-^6 2 + ...)(l-ic2 + ...) + (6-...)(c-...)cos^,

where the dots denote terms of order 3 or
4.
On introducing the sides a, /?, y and simplifying,

aa
this
becomes
^2 + 72-2^7003^+0
When r - 00, the spherical triangle ABC tends to the plane triangle ABC
with sides a, /?. 7. and in the limit we obtain the cosine rule of plane trigonometry. The sine rule can be treated similarly.
Exercise 22(c)
1
Write out the formulae for cos 6, cos c corresponding to formula
2 If G
3
\n, a
\n, b
\n, find c
A = \n,
show that
and the area of the
is the mid-point of side

b = c = \n, and
cos a = 1/^3 and that the areas of the triangles
the ratio (3n 8a)
(viii).
triangle.
AG.
If
BDG = a,
ABD. ABC
are in
tt.
4 If B, G are points on the equator whose longitudes differ by 90, and A is

a point in latitude A on the meridian through G, prove that in the triangle
ABC the side AB and the angle A are both right-angles.
If
the mid -point of AB, has latitude a, and the difference of the longitudes
of
and B is /? show that y/2 sin a = sin A and tan ft = cos A.
M
M
Prove that if C is a right-angle, then sin 6 = tan a cot A.

A ship sails from a place A on the equator along a great circle which makes
an angle of 60 with the equator. Find the difference in the longitudes of A
and the place B on the path of the ship where it first reaches the latitude 30.
5
756
Taking the radius of the Earth to be 3960 miles, find (correct to three signiby the path of the ship, the meridian through
ficant figures) the area included
B, and the equator.
6 Two points A, B on the Earth's surface have latitude A, and their difference in longitude is 8 radians. If r is the radius of the Earth, show that (i) their
distance apart along the parallel of latitude joining them is r8 cos A; (ii) their
distance apart along the great circle joining them is 2r sin -1 (cos A sin %8). [For
(ii) use half the isosceles spherical triangle ABC, where C is the north pole.]
7 In no. 6 (ii) prove that the greatest latitude L reached on the great circle
course is given by tanZr = tan A sec %8. [If
is the point of latitude L, the
spherical triangle
is right-angled at D.]
ACD
8 If
D is any point on BC, prove that

cos AD sin a = cos b sin BD + cos c sin DC.
[Method of 22.51, ex.]

9 The internal and external bisectors of angle
sin i?D
sine
DC
sin 6
sin
10
side
A meet BC at D, D'.
Prove
sinPD'
saxD'C'
The arc of the great circle through the vertex A which meets the opposite
BC at right-angles is called the altitude from A. If a, y are the altitudes
/?,
from A, B,C, prove that
= sin/? sin6 = siny sine = 2w,

n = <J( 1 S cos 2 a + 2 cos a cos b cos c).
sina sina
where
*n
-o
*11 Prove
sin(6 + c)
thatx
xi.
sin a
= cosP + cosC
1 cos A
*12 Verify as in 22.54 that the sine rule of plane trigonometry

the spherical case.
is
the limit of
Miscellaneous Exercise 22{d)

1
A rectangular box has edges of lengths a, b, c, and P moves so that the sum
of the squares of its distances from the six faces is equal to 2d 2 , where d is the
length of a diagonal of the box and
is constant. Prove that the locus of
is
a sphere if 2m 2 > 1.
2 Through a point
three mutually perpendicular lines are drawn: one
passes through a fixed point C on Oz, while the others meet Ox, Oy respectively.
Prove that the locus of is a sphere with centre C.
Find the coordinates of the point of the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 4x + 2y 4 =

which is nearest to the plane x + 4y + z = 19, and calculate its distance from
3
this plane.
4 Find the equations of the diameter of the sphere x z + y z + z 2 = 29 such

that a rotation about it will transfer the point (4, 3, 2) to (5, 0, 2) along a
great circle. Find also the angle through which the sphere must be rotated.
5 A line in direction I '.mm is drawn through (0, 0, a) to touch the sphere
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 - 2ax = 0. Prove that m 2 + 2nl = 0.
Find the coordinates of the point P in which this line meets the plane 2 = 0,
and prove that as the line varies, P traces the parabola y % 2ax, 2 = 0.

6 If the plane ax + by + cz + d
757
touches the sphere
(x-l) 2 + y 2 + (z-l) 2 =l,
If this plane also passes through
line
a2 + b 2 + c2
prove that
(a + c
(0, 0, 2),
which touches the parabola y2
+ d) 2
show that it cuts the plane z =
4x, z
and that if I + m + w
a
0, 0), (2a, 0, 0), (0, 26, 0)
{c
-w
which
the distance between their centres

2
in
0.
7 Show that there are two spheres through (0,

touch the line
.
xa _ yo _ zc
2
is
+ 6 2 + c 2 )}*.
(a 2
8 Prove that the centre of a sphere which touches each of the lines
= z c, y+mx =
y mx =
lies
on the surface mxy
1+ m
2
)
cz
= z+c
0.
A line A passes through O and touches each of the spheres

x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ax+p
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2by + q
0,
0.
that the angle

between A and Oz is given by sin 2 <f> = p/a 2 + q/b 2 Also
find the distance between the contacts of A with the two spheres.
Show
10 Find the condition for xjl
= y/m =
z/n to touch the sphere
+y +z + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d =

2
and
0,
find the point of contact. Hence show that the tangent cone from
equation d(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) = (ux + vy + wz) 2
has
Two skew lines AP, A'P' are met by their common perpendicular at
O is the mid-point of AA'; 2a, is the angle between the lines, and
A A' = 2c. If AP. A 'P' has either of the values c 2 sec 2 a, 2 cosec 2 a, prove that
PP' touches the sphere with centre O and radius c.
11
A, A', and
12 Prove that there are eight spheres of radius 5 which are orthogonal to the
sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 16, touch Ox, and cut off a segment of length 2 from Oy.
13 Through the circle of intersection of x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 25 and x + 2y + 2z = 9,
two spheres slf s 2 are drawn to touch the plane 4* + 3y = 30. Find the equations
of these spheres, and the coordinates of the point through which pass all the
common tangent planes of *x and s 2
14 Prove that in general two spheres can be drawn to pass through a given
circle and to touch a given plane. If the circle lies in the plane z =
and has
a given radius r, and if the plane is x cos 6 + z sin 6 = 0, show that when the
distance between the centres of the two spheres is constant and equal to 2c,
then the locus of the centre of the circle is the line -pair x = J(r 2 + c 2 cos 2 6),
.
0.
Given a sphere of centre O and radius a, let n be a plane through O and

be an extremity of the diameter normal to n. If P is any point of the sphere
other than N, let NP meet n at P'. Choosing axes at O with Oz along ON, let
P' have coordinates (u,v, 0). Show that NP' has equations x ut, y = vt,
z = o(l t), and that NP' meets the sphere at points for which t =
or
15
758
2a /(u + v + w 2 ). Hence write down the coordinates of P. (This gives a rational

parametric representation of the sphere x 2 + y 2 +z 2 = a 2 the parameters
being u, v.)
2
16 (i) From the cosine formulae for cose and cos b, eliminate cos 6,
substitute sin 6 = sinB sine/sin (7, to prove the 'four-parts formula'
cosa cos 2?
(ii)
and then
= sina cote sinB cotC.
Similarly prove
cosa cos C
sina cot 6 sin O cot B.
AD bisects angle A
internally, prove cot^4D = (cot6 + cotc)/2cos^.

ABD, ADC; angles ADB, CDA are supplementary.]
If D is a point on BO, BAD /?, and DAG = y, prove that
cot AD saiA = cot6 sin /#+ cote sin y.
17 If
[Apply no. 16 to triangles

18
[Method of no.
17.]
19 If a spherical triangle has area one-quarter that of the whole sphere, prove
that cos a + cos b + cos c = 1, and deduce that each median is the supplement
of half the side which it bisects. [Use 22.52, ex. (ii); and 22.51, ex.]
20
cosa
(i)
Prove
(ii)
of 22.42
by using the
cosine formula.
> cos 6 cose sin 6 sine = cos(6 + c), which

If 6 + c > n, then 6 + c> a since a < n."]
n>
A<n,
+ c < n.
[Since
< b+c
if b
Use the result of 22.44 to infer that A + B + C

0. By writing
the supplemental inequality (cf. 22.53), deduce (iii) of 22.42.
(ii)
down
implies a
(25)
ANSWERS TO VOLUME
II
Exercise 10(a), p. 369
+ l)
2 (a-2)(3a+l)(2a + 3).
(2a-l).
(a
(a-l)(a + 2)(a 2 +a + 2).
= -l,
-2.
8 |(9a-l).
11
1, 3, 6. 0.
13
-1,
15 a
19
25,
4,
= -2, 6 = 3.
3a 3 + a 2 + lx+ 1.
6 a
12
1,
-6,
10 a 3 + a 2 + 3a + 4.
-2.
0,
(a 2 -3a-5).
-2,
14 a
(a-b)(a-c)(a-d)
(i)
17 Put
1.
x - b )( x - c )(x-d)
(
= - 1.
= - (b + c),
3, 6
a;
etc.
(x-a)(x-c)(x-d)
(b-a) (b-c) (b-d)
(x-a)(x-b)(x-d)
(c-a)(c-b)(c-d)
21
-1,2,3.
7 7,1.
(x-a)(x-b)(x-c)
(d-a)(d-b){d-c)'
3a*.
Exercise 10(6), p. 373
(x-2y + 4)(2x + y-l).
+ y + 8z)(x-y-6z).
10, -7.
5 3(y + z)(z +x)(x+ y).
-(y-z)(z-a)(a-2/)(a + + z).
7 (?/-z)(z-a)(a-y)(a + + z).
2
2
+ z a + 2/z + za + a2/).
5(?/ + z)(z + a)(a + y)(a +
Si/z(2/ 2
10
(x
2/
2/
2/
(i)
(iv)
15
(ii)
(iii)
-z 2 ),
a(?/-z) 3 .
+ y + z 2 (ii) a 2 2 + y 2z 2 + z 2a 2 (iii) bc(b - c) + ca(c - a) + ab{a - b)

6c + 6 2 ca + c2a6;
(iv) 6c 2 + ca 2 + a6 2 + 6 c + c 2 a + a 2 6.
2
*/
Babc(b-c)(c-a)(a-b);
5(6-c)(c-a)(a-6)(a 2 + 6 2 + c2 -6c-ca-a6).
Exercise 10(c), p. 378

(iii)-l;
(i)
15;
(i)
4a 2 -2a-3
b/a
(i)
10;
(i)
a3 + 8a2 + 17a+6
(iii)
a3 - 2x % - Ix + 12
(v)
<
(ii)
0, cja
f;
>
0;
(ii)
(v) 13;
(vii)
(vi)
0;
(iii)
80;
12a 2 + 2a-
(viii)
0.
0.
(ii)-A;
(iii)
4a 3 - 17a 2 + 14a-
6 12y-20y-y
(iv) 19;
9a 2 -28a + 16
0;
=
=
29;
(iv)
0;
(ii)
0;
(iv)
= 0.
a = -i,
V;
(vi) 353;
(v) 29;
= 0;
32
a
14a + 17a - 4 =
4a3 + 8a2 + a-
i(lV7).
0;
(vii)
-58.
343.
ANSWERS
(26)
2p
(i)
+ 21r =
+ (3q-p )x + q(3q-p )x + q
a 2 J3y = ft yoc = y 2 a/?;
x* + 3px 3 +3p 2x 2 +p 3x + q = 0.
10 x
3
.
-p 3r =
(i)
11
(ii)
9pq;
(ii)
0;
pa,
a 2 /?y =
p 3r q a
etc.;
Exercise 10 (J), p. 382
= x + 2.
(a 2 -6 2 2 =
(i)
2 x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2
2(6
+ m + n = 0; (ii) see
2
2
2
y -4ax = c (a; + a)
l
(i)
1.
6 6 4 c 4 + c 4 a 4 + a4 6 4
-c4 ).
16.32.
the locus of points from which the tangents to y 2

angle tan -1 c.
(ii)
13
16
18
19
include an
2
= a6 2 + a 2 6 2 (&-2).
10
+ 2 = 2(a 2 + 6 2
x = abc, y E6c, z Ea.
12 1, 1, 3 in any order.
any
5
in
order.
14 1. 2, 3 in any order.
2,
1,
8
2 =
0.
17 27p 4 = 256g 3
4p + 27g
(6r eg) (ag bp) 2 = (op ar) 3
2
If p(aj) =
+ 2&; + c) - 1 g(a:), then
~
p'(x) = (r - 1 (x 2 + 2bx + c) r 2 2(x + 6) g(x) + (x + 2bx + o)'" 1 g'(x)
9 y2
11
4aa;
a;
a;
t/
).
(a;
Hence x + 26a; + c is a factor of (x + b) g(x).

2
if
+ 26a; + c, so
6 2 = c, then
is
a factor of g(x).
a;
+ 26a; + c is a factor
x 2 + 2bx + c = (a; + 6) 2
a;
Exercise
1
a;
+ 3.
2a;
If b 4= c, then x + 6 is not a factor of

of g(x), and the result follows. However,
so that a; + 6 (but not necessarily (x + b) 2 )
2
10(<?), p.
388
+ 7.
a;
-2a; +
+ 2)(a; 2 -a;+ l) 2
5.
4 (a;-2) 2 (a;+l)(a; + 3).
(z
6 (a;-l) 3 (a;+l) 2 (a:-2).
-f
--^(12a; + 35), -^(24a; 2 -
8 2;
i(-lV6)
twice.
twice.
14a;
+ 43).
Miscellaneous Exercise 10(/), p. 388

2 No.
6
(i)
(ii)
(b-c)(c-a)(a-b)(a + b + c);
(6-c)(c-a)(a-6)(a 2 + 6 2 + c 2 + 6c + ca + a6).
+ 2)(a;-l) 2
11 (i) A = 3(1 2/t)/(/t 2) 2
We find fi = 3 or f, and a; =
12 2ac' + 2a'c-66' = 0.
8
*/
(a;
9 a 4 - 4ac 3 + 36 4
(ii)
or
roots of A//
0.
+ 2/*(3-2A) + (4A-3) =
respectively.
0.
ANSWERS
(27)
14 (i) Coeff. of x 2 zero; (ii) constant term zero; (iii) coeff. of x a equal to minus
the constant term; (iv) coeff. of x 2 equal to constant term.
17 2p\
24
(i)
x +a = 0.
= 3; x = 1 twice; (ii) k
m = - 20, c = 7; m = 108,
25
(i)
27 p/g
= 0; V2-3, V3-3.
20 x ja + y /b + 2 /c = 2.
= f; x =
thrice.
(ii) m = 44, c = - 121.
c = 135;
18
19 b x* + 2(ab - 2h
2
t/
-52/ 2 + 6
2
constant.
is

1
2.
40.
5 Zi(y2-ya)+x<s (ya -y1 )+x9 (y1
-y i
13
14
15
0.
18.
24
11
0.
12
-90.
16
0.
17
0.
19 a4 (a;-l) 2 (a; 2 -l).
18 x(x-l) z (x*-l).
20 Sa 8 -3afec
0.
).
6 a3 + 6 3 + c8 -3a6c.
0.
82.
(Sa)(Sa 2 -26c).
26 S cos
0.
22
(i)
and
(ii)
A.
^ + 2 cos J. cos B cos C =
1.
23
9,
28
(ii)
V3.
38
Exercise 11 (ft), p. 410

1
-|,
f,z
2 4,3,-1.
l.
2,-1,-2.
(*-^-<*>, etc
a) (c a)
A = 1, x-.y.z = 1:-1:0; A = - 2, J2 J2 1; A = 3, 1:1:- 2^2.
A = 3, a = , y = |; A = 14, x = -f, y = f.
(i) x = -3,y = 3/(1 A;), z = (l-4fc)/(l-fc);
(ii) a; = A, y = A, z = 2 A;
(iii) inconsistent.
bc + ca + ab = 2abc+ 1.
.
(o
9
10
11

1
(b-c)(c-a)(a-b).
(b
(&-c)(c-a)(a-6).
2 (b-c)(c-a)(a-b)(a + b + c).
c)(c-a)(a-b)(a + b + c).
2
4 (6-c) (c-a) (a-6)
(6
-(6-c)(c-a)(a-&)(a + 6 + c)(a + 6 + c 2 ).
[Use result of 11.5, ex.

2
9 (6-c)(c-a)(a-6)S(a 2 + 6c).
11
11
a;
(b-l)c-l)
a(b
a)(c a)
etc.
+ ca + ab).
-(6-c)(c-a)(a-6).
-c 2 )(c 2 -a 2 )(a 2 -6 2 ).
(bc
(i).]
10
cc
12 x
=
=
abc, 'y
= - S6c,
(-&)(a-c)
p 2 + bc
etc.
2a.
ANSWERS
(28)
Exercise 11(d), p. 415

2
2x
6x
3x 2
logx
1/x
[Derive by columns.!
2x
-2/x
8 2(y-z)(z-x)(x-y).
9 56. [First interchange c x and c 2 then rx and r 2 .]

,
13 x = -8, y = 14, z = -2, =
15 (ic a) (a; 6) (a; c) (6 c) (c a) (a b). With notation of Ex.

no. 22,
v^ = (b-c)(c-a)(a-b), V 2 = (b-c)(c-a)(a-b)(a + b + c),
Vx = (b c) (c a) (a 6) (6c + ca + a6).
10
-32.
-550.
11
4.
11(e),
Miscellaneous Exercise 11(e), p. 416

1
The equation is
linear in x, y,
and
4 (6-c)(c-a)(a-6).
is satisfied
by
(xx
yx ) and
(x %
y 2 ).
4=(b-c)(c-a)(a-b)(a + b + c).
6 (6-c)(c-a)(a-6)(a6c+l).
7 (6-c)(c-a)(a-6)(a-d)(6-d)(c-d).
8 2abc(a + b + c) 3
ap
11
ap
aq
aq
+
cp
12 x
13 x
br
dr
bs
+
cp
ds
twice, 2. [c 2 -> c 2
6, c,
br
bs
cq
1
+ 2sin0 costf.
10 sin 2 0-2cos 2
x,
dr
cq
remove cc
ds
1;
c 3 -> c8 c2 .]
a 3 /6c.
15 Three distinct collinear points cannot be concyclic.
17
(i)
(iii)
18
(i)
Unique solution x
3,
1,
0;
(ii)
a;
= 3 2A, y = 1 A, z =
A;
inconsistent.
=(=
3;
A=
(ii)
19 A = -l, fc= 18,

y-2aL,z = 3a + 2.
20
A=
22
(ii)
l,a:6:c
x=
+ a)
6-4a-3/?,
(iii)
2/
a, z
3, fi
1
2
(x
(x + a) 3
(x
+ b)
+ b)?
2
(x
{x
x+b
x+c
(x + a) 2
(x + b) 2
(x
+ c)
x+a
(x
+ a) 3
= - 18,
|,4:4:5.
+ cf
+ c)
x+a
10.
= /?; A = - 19,
= 0:-2:l; A = |,4:4:-3; A =
(x
3, /* 4= 10:
x+b
(x
+ b) 3
x+c
(x
+ c) 3
a,
ANSWERS
(29)

1
81a^-216a;
+ 3x + 2x2 -2x*-Zx*-x*.
14
15
18
6 969.
5 60.
9 3 7 xl54.
12
2 x 5 + 5x3 + 10x + 5/x* +
+ 216a; -96a;+16.
a
11
(i)
1-2166;
8 7920.
0-9039.
(ii)
= f x 58 x 2 18
Coefficient of the 6th term = 231 x 4 11 x 56
nC
+ a C (r ^ 2).
r + 2 "CU + "CU =
r
+ 1 C = "(7 +
r
"-^.i + 2 CV_ 2 + + -'+ 1 C + 1.
5th term
13
7.
1/x*.
+ 12x + 54x2 + 100*3 + I5x* + ....
-105x2-".
-16x217.
10
. . .
19 724.
Exercise 12(), p. 425

3 n.2"-1 .
10
"
t2
0.
(n+ l)( n + 2)
{(n-1)!} 2 '
13
6
(i) 4 ;
14
(i)
(ii)
2080, 2016.
a x2n + aJ x 2n - 1 + ...+azn ,
(l
+ *+a;a ) B
+ a1 a; + a 2 iB + ... +a 2B a;*;
= ao-^x + a^x 2 ...+a 2u x Zn

(iv)(3 n -l); (v)(n + l)3.
(1 x + x 2
(ii)
0.
(l +a.)n+2_ (n + 2 ) a; -l
1 )*

1
(n+l)
(2ra
+ l).
2 |n(4w a -l).
(-l^-^w+l).
a = 2, 6 = -3, c =
7 n(n+l)(7w + 2).
-3,
eZ
9 $n(w+l)(n-4).
0;
%n(n+ 1) (n 2 + 3w- 1).

10
^n(n+l)(n + 2)(8n+l).
11
f(2n+l)(2ra + 3)(2w + 5)(2n + 7)-|.3.5.7.
12
in(n+l)(n + 6)(n + 7).
14
i3
n
19
4\3.5
4w + 5
2(n+l)
4"
13
.
2(n +
2)' 4'
20 wsin# + sin(n + 2)0 siand
(2w + 3)(2n + 5)/' 60'
12n+ll
11
120~ 8(2n + 3) (2n + 5)'
4~2(n+l)(n + 2)
4
Jsn(n+l)(n + 2)(3n + 5).
3(3w+l)' 3
5
1
13
1Q
17
36
6(n+l)
11
120'
17
2
.
3(n +
3)'
36"
cosecfl.
(2n-l)+f sin(2n + l)0cosec0. 22 cot0-cot(2"0).

23 cot 0-2" cot (2*0).
24 2 2n eosec 2 (2 0)-cosec a 0.
21
fl
25 2cosec20sinn0sec(w+l)0.
51
26 tan- 1 {n/(n + 2)}; \n.

GPMII
ANSWERS
(30)

8 (a + 26).
Exercise 12(e), p. 442

4 d.
o.
6 d.
10 d.
11
c.
12 d.
c.
c.
o.
13 d.
14
c.
15
o.
Exercise 12(f), p. 446

1
6
8
10
12
2 D.
0.
4 c
for all
0.
< a; < 1, c; x 3* 1- d.
< a: < 1, C; x ^ 1, D.
< a; < 1, C; a; 2* 1, D.
{ra^-fn+lja^+l} (a:-l)-
s$ a;
7 d for
11
2
if
all
a;
^ a; <
^ a: <
>
C;
1,
>
D.
0.
>
1, C; x >
n(n+l) if x =
1;
1,
|, C;
a;
|, d.
1,
D.
].
Exercise 12(g), p. 450

2
p>
1,
C;
p<
d.
1,
7r/2a,
7r/2a+l/a 2
-1
c.
Exercise 12(A), p. 459

o.
c.
4 d.
c.
6 No.
a.c.
by comparison with 2(l/r
10 c for
all x.
<
<
c;
\x\
2, C;
\x\
12
|*|
13
\x\
1,
11
>
).
\x\
<
1.
2,
D; x
1,
d.
2,
D; (x
c;
|a;|
>
1,
= -2,
2.
<
|a;|
See 12.72(2).
1,
O; \x\
d.
C).
Exercise 12(0, P- 465

1
log 2.
2*-
sin (ir?r)
all x.
r\
r=l
i?r.
S a**- !! +
1
- l) r} cos (%rn)
r
r=o
9 sina; + 7fcCosa:
10 {4(w-
1)
fc
2* cos (%rn)
r =0
sinar
all x.
'
/i
"
cosa;
all
x and
+ l}{4(n-2) 2 + 1} ... {2 2 + l}/(2n)
!.
h.
all x.
>
1,
D.
ANSWERS
(31)
Exercise 120), P 468

1
i(r+l)(r + 2)(-x)
'
3,5
";
r
1
'
(2r
~ 1)
-3x + 6x 2 - I0x* +
(-fa;)%r>
(2r ~ 3)
-;,
(r+l)a;r+ l
(S^
(r 2
(-)', r
(-l)'- 1
I>
>
+ ^-^* + ^-...;
2; 2
<
\x\
3
+ 3* + 7a: 2 + 13rc 3 +
+---;
<
14 1st term.
15
33-6241.
19
|*|
<
2;
21
|a;|
<
1;
22
W<
l!
a;
a;
27
18
< .
20
+1, -1,
according as r
w + r _l)i
28
1.
|*|
A{5 + (-2)'}.
<
1;
2 1 "'-r-4.
Sp +
3p,
25
1,
3p + 2 (p
0, 1,2, ...).
2.4.6...(2r)
r>L
'
10^-11.
26
+ 4*-3*
1.3.6... (2r-l)
#f
l
<
23 EaGhlS
J^h'
24 fV3.
2.
16 9-8995.
i{2-'-(-3)-'}.
<
10
27th and 28th terms.
a;
<
1.
13
l_| _| 2 + i| 8 + ..
|*|
1.
|ar|
- 10(3aO- u
12 5th term.
17
1.
^ - W* + -i W < h
i-|a; + fa; a
1;
<
\x\
-fa +
1;
* + 2a:2 + 3:3 + 4a4 +
+ r+l)a;r
8 672a; 6
3 5
(I-*) 3
Exercise 12 (A:), p. 472

3
r-1
-e
71
111
+
+ -'
2l-3i
-Ii
23
4H
l-e~3
25
1
2!
(-1)'
r 2 -4r+l
1+
23
22
+ 2-! + 3"! + -
27
h....
4!
()
6!
7 |(e4 -e- 4 ).
10 2Ve.
12
+ (-!)'
(iii)
v
-.
{(x-l)e*+l- J* 2}/*8
8
11
if
4= 0;
2e.
(e*-l-a;)/a;
0if* =
if
fe.
0;
if
0.
0.
51-2
2.
ANSWERS
(32)
Exercise 12(/), p. 475

1
--*',
r=l
log2-S -(-*)', -2 <a><
_2 5iliV-l<x<l.
4 jli-iy-i-V' + Wx',
r=l
5
*+
-ifr=3p, -ifr = 3pl; -l<a;<l.
--
1.
>
r
- for
a:
2r-l
2 '" 1
,
IV
Of
- for x 2r
*log2.
14 logf.
rxr
-log(l-a; 2 ).
16
17 log 2.
19 log 2-*.
18 log4-l.
21
1.
/_J)r-l
oo
+x
-|a;--)log
+J
ay
1
4\
1\
1 /
<
\x\
2r
8 2a + a: 2 -\%; 8 + |a;4
15
-%<x<%.
r=l
2r 1
:(-l) r *r -1
-n
00
2.
r=l r
**
20 ilog2.
if
a;
if
4= 0;
0.
a;
23
-H)
log(l-a?)-i
logW-
24
a;
if
>
x 4=0;
if
35
0.
25 Each
1.
2 log cos a.
is
Exercise 12 (m), p. 481

5
13
17
1-4142136.
+ fa; 2
+
l + hp-&P*.
âr
l+x 2 + fa: 8
12 f + f<r.
0037.
14
15
0-393.
19 loga.
18
Miscellaneous Exercise 12 (), p. 482

3
(2n)!/(n!) 2 .
(i)
2-
|(r-l)r;
n+1
(r- l)r+
(ii)
2.
12
(i)
log sin 6 - log sin
19
(i)
and
\x\
23
2.
27
r(r+
12
2(n + 2)
1)
- 1;
2(n +
<
+ 2.
(ii)
$ n log 2;
3)'
the smaller of
l/|a|, l/\fi\.
(iv)
10
(iii)
27.
f.
24 1+logf
25 e~K
26
0.
28
29 3-logl6.
30
^.
f.
-7T.
^cot -cot0;
22 x
12*
(ii)
20
15, 18.
r8 ;
(iii)
9 $(w 2 + n + 2).
8 in.
21
1,
6~ x cot 6.
ANSWERS
(33)
+ 3a;+a:a )e".
31
(l
33
(i)
|(cha;
+ cosa;);
i(ahx-ainx).
(ii)
34 1-609.

1
5 + 11*.
7 tt+A*.
10
9
cos (0 + 0)
11
+ 3*.
+ 0*.
2i,
-4, -8*.
+ * sin (0 + 0).
+ i sin (0-0).
12 cos (0-0)
" 2+ y:-
X= {x-l)* + y*' Y=
15
o,
17
(a?
2y
{x-l)* + y 2
14
6 41
-10.
-1 + 3*.
-9 + 19*.
3*.
'
(*=E\\
-3a^/ 2 )
16 2 + *.
+ *(3a; 2y-t/3 );
26 {ad be, bd],
(a;
- 3a>*/ 2
-i(3x 2y-y3 ).
{ad, be}.
7r)+*'sin( tt)).
2(cos^7r + *sin|7J-).
2 2(cos(
V 2 rcos|7r+*'sin|7r).
4 V2
2(cosf7r + *sin^7r).
6 cos \n + * sin \tt.
+*sin( -%nj).
c s(
(
7 cos \tx + * sin

8 2 cos 0 (cos 0 + * sin \Q) or
- 2 cos 0 {cos (\d + 7r) +
sin (\Q + 7r)}.

*
sin
(a
or
+
/?)}
fi)
+
- 2 cos (a - /?) {cos (a +/? + 2?r) + * sin (a +^ + 27r)}.
2 n
2
(a; +2/
13 (w-l) 2 + 2 = 9.
2
2
(C + t/)(a? + W2/)(o; + w 2/); (x + coy) (x + (o y).
*'
9 2 cos i(a - /?) {cos (a
10
16

2 2z s + z 1
32 a .
(Zz x
4 The region between the

5
13
(i) 5,
3;
(ii) 9. 0.
1,2) and radii 2,
3.
to the least value of
j|
is
the foot of the per-
to the line.
17 z(cosf7r + *sin7r), z(cosf7r + *'sinf7r).
15
18 r{cos(a + for)
20 Straight
of centre
10 Apply no. 9 after the product construction.
The point corresponding
pendicular from
+ A;z a )/(Z + A;)-
circles
line
+ *sin(a + jtor)}, k
through
0,1,2,3,4.
and perpendicular to P*PS
ANSWERS
(34)

2
(ii)
*,
V2
V3.
- 2,
6 The root z
<, 0)2 '
V3'
The division process introduces

and dividend.
divisor
V3.
11
-3.
-4,
14
-4,-1,2,5.
15
16
17
18
20
2, w, (oK
w2
12
+4,
+ 3(a-/fc)y 2 + 3(fc 2 -2afc + &)y-fc 8 + 3afc 2 -3&fc + c;

= 1 or -3; x = -2, -4, 1V15= 2; 4 + 22/3 9t/ 2 16t/ 6 = 0.
3
(i) y -2qy 2 + (q*+pr)y + (r*-pqr) = 0;
a
2
(ii) ry -(q + 3r)y + (p + 2q + dr)y-(p + q+l) = 0.
2
3
q (y+l) +p*(y + 2) = 0.
8
2/
f.
0.
same type as
in
= b/a is real,
coefficients of the
9 pr-4s.
13
o),(o, (o\
so
/?
5.
a.
2/
If.
2 |,-2.
4 (-2,-1),
(0,1).
7 Boots in (ax a 2 ), (a3 a4 ), (a 5 a 6 ).

,
- 47 <
16
14
12 (2,3).
<
One
None.
6 (1,2).
(-1,0), (1,2).
root.
11
15
1, 2),
<
6, 5).
< 11.
(
98.

-2-0945.
2-0946.
2 0-2261.
1-52.
6 0-3399, 2-2618,-2-6018.
7 1-3569, 1-6920, -3-0489.

1-3503.
10
11
4-4934.
4-25.
9 0-057, 1-468.
8 0-567.
1-87.
12
14 K+1/2K*-1I4JZ:*.
15 Newton's
method fails; but put x = 2nn + h and expand.
Miscellaneous Exercise 13(g), p 525

2 s + ic.
7
(ii)
(i)
(ii)
10
i(ll-t), -i(3 +
Point dividing
focus
lf
r 2 +/) 2
2r/>cos(0 a).
5i).
PiP 2 in the ratio k
k;
(V3-l)(l-i), i(2V3-l)-i(V3-2)i.
Straight line y = 1; (ii) circle x 2 + y z = 4& 2 (iii) arc of a circle through

and containing angle \tt', (iv) branch of a hyperbola which encloses the
is the other focus).
s (P x
(i)
P P
11
(ii)
x*-y 2 =
2.

ANSWERS
12
a;
18
P describes
16 y
+2/ -(a/w)a;
14 If
(i)
or
3
(35)
= 0, a; +2/ + (a/v)t/ = (if u 4= 0, v 4= 0).

= 1 counterclockwise, Q moves from oo to + oo along Oy.
(c-a)(a;2 +y8 + 2(d-6)a; + (ad-6c) = 0.
|z|
as**
";
(ii)
p=i
32a3l>_
p=l
2 a:
Bâ^x ^.
3 - 2
p=i
+ d* = 0; or b = = d and
83a: 4 - 6a: 3 + 14a; 2 - lx+ 1 = 0.
20
b 2 c-abd
22
a;
25
6= l-|+i-...-l/w.
27
1,
i(3V5), (1*V3).
29 (n + i)7r + 4(-l)- 1 /(2n+l)7r.
a2
5* 4c.
24 *
26
-f,
-|,i2.
28
- 1,
i(l
> p*.
ijZ), i(-
+ iVl5).

6
2 (2cos|0) cis70.
32,-fTT-.
(8/*
8 cis(0 + p7r), &
9 cos 30 + i sin 3(9
*4"
tt), r
0, 1,2, 3.
= 0, 1,...,5; cis(0 + for), k = 0, 1.

= cos 3 + 3i cos 2 sin0- 3cos0 sin 2 0-isin 3 0;
tan 30 = 3 tan - tan3 0)/( 1 - 3 tan 2 0).
(
cos0 isin0;
10
(i)
11
/2k+l \
cisl
n], k =
w
/
V
/
faA
2 \
n/
13
excluded
if
where &
0, 1,
]zj
(iv)
i cot
2n
...,n
1 if
is
2cosn0;
/2k+l
(
n)
(v)
0.
The
0, 1,
constant;
...,n-
sign
is
1.
correct since
argz
is
and
smfyr
>
0.
a rational multiple of n.

1
A(cos40 + 4cos20 + 3).
^(sin 50 -5 sin 30 +10 sin 0).
2 (cos40-4cos20 + 3).
4 aia(sin 90 - sin 70 -4 sin 50 + 4 sin 30 + 6 sin 0).

5
0, 1, ...,n
odd, and the value k
= sinfTT sin^7r >
(ii)
-Ti-s(sin 80 + 2 sin 60 -2 sin 40 + 6 sin 20).
6 -&(f cos 70 - f cos 50 + 7 cos 30 - 35 cos 0)
2*sinn0.
+ c.
1.
even.
sinf7r + sinf7r
(i)
12
1.
1,2, ...,n-l.
(2kn
\
^-ol\, k
20
...,n
, is
18 z 2 + z + 2
0, 1,
2*sin0;
(iii)
-|l+icot ),
14 itan
2cos0;
(ii)
in
is
ANSWERS
(36)
-i(ffrsmlO0-isin80-sm60 + 2sm40 + sm20-60) + c.
Th(w + fW3).
(i)
32c8 - 48c* + 18c 2 - 1;
10 7s-56s
12
16
+ 112s -64s
B
1- 18 2 + 48*4 -32s 6
(ii)
11
2nn$iT.
- 24s + 80s4 - 64s8
wcs n 1
(i)
(a)
(-
(ii)
(a)
(-l)*"- 1 *"- 1 (-1)*"*";
(-l)*"-
= nn or
+ nn.
n
n
1
- l)k -tu
- l)*<-.
13
l)*"s n
l) n %n
(6)
(6)
- l)*<"-, - l)k-frf-i.
(
17 See answer to Ex. 14(a), no. 9; tan -&n, tan -fen.

18
= SWt?
(c o)/( 1 6 + d) S0 X is zero
*!
(i)
(ii )
20
(v) (a) 2 n
-1 n
c -n.2"- 3 c B 2
or
an integral multiple of n.
+-1-T
\
en
n -6
5/.n
c
-2
/
4)(w
n(n
v
m 5)_/ 2"7
cn 6 +
...;
3!
.
,
(6)
I
f
n2
2!
w(w 2 -l 2 )
6!
,
n(n 2 -l 2 )(n 2 -3 2 )
5!
3!
n 2 -4 2
2 fw 2 -S
n
n"(n-2
4!
i,f
n 2 /n 2 -2 2 ^
n(n"-2)

1
(a 2
- 2z cos \tt + 1) (a: 2 - 2a: cos |7T + 1) (a? - 2a; cos %n + 1).
2
2 (x 2 - 2 V2 a; cos -^tt +
(a;
- 2a; cos
2)
(a;
+ 2)
+ 2 ^2a; cos J^7r + 2) (x 2 - 2 ^2* cos
2
x (a; + 2 V2a; cos &n + 2).
+ 1) (a: 2 - 2x cos $n + 1) (x 2 - 2x cos |7T + 1).

= - 1, a = 2^.
5
a = 2j3 + 7T/n.
4 x
1,
-l, a
tt
a;
2fi
+ n/n.
rtann^ =
cot{^+-*-
w
r=0
wo fi the result
8 Derive
10
|- cosec na sin â +
13
(i)
,..
n-i
14 (n)
16
of 14.33, ex.
^j^ja; 2 - 2a;cos â +
2r+l
2~* II sin?
4w
r=0
tt.
cot# ncotnfl
J*.
sin 6
rtTi
Equate
(iv).
coefficients of
a;
cos
2 " -2 .
cos (m/n)
^^ + lj.
ANSWERS
(37)
= 0.
= 0; i(V5l).
= 0.
4
+
7y
y
Hy 2 - 1 =
8x -6x-<j3
2 16z4 -20a; a + 5
4r 2 + 2a;-l
1.
(i)
0.

1
sin nff sec/?cos{a + (n
cosntf.
jsinJ.-^ sin(w+l)^l +
2 n cos n
sinn0.
+ (x+l)(l-x n )}/(x-l)K
{2nx n (x-l)
sinwJ.|^l -2^cos4
+^
cos (a 6).
7 cosec
1-1.
5
2 ie(l+*V3).
rcistf.
2e co80 cos(sin0).
4 2cosl.
* sin ten,
6 2ieoa! sin6a;.
af. all
8 e* 008 6 sin (a; sin (9),

10 e* sin (a; tan /?),
12
14
9 e- cos'^cos(a-sin/?
all x, 6.
\e- Je 00825 cos (sin 20).

(i)
w +v =
2
e 2x
(ii)
13 Line v
wsini/
cos/?), all a,
/?.
cos (sin 0) sh (cos 0), all 0.
11
all x.
a;.
r!
r-i
vcoay;
circle
0; line
=u
and a diameter.
Exercise 14(g), p. 560

4 cha; cosy + isha; siny.
5
2(cos x ch y + i sin x sh y) /(cos 2x + ch
2t/).
6 (sh2a; + tsin2t/)/(ch2a: + cos2y).

8
(i)
x + nni;
10 (2w7r
^7r)
+ 0i or n7T + yi. 9 (n + n + \i log 2.

both + or both signs being taken.
(ii) a;
+ *,
Hyperbola,
12
(i)
13
+ --+...,
+
3
7
!
(ii)
ellipse, in
the (w,v)-plane.
14 sh(cos<9) sin(sin0),
all z.
all 0.
11
15 {sh (cos 0) cos (sin 0)
+ sin (cos 0)
ch (sin 0)},
all 0.
Miscellaneous Exercise 14(A), p. 561

4
(i)
*cot
cis
\Tc7T.
1,2, ...,5;
7r,
2r+l
0. 1,
(ii)
1, cis
\n, cis(
^7T).
2n 1.
4n,
Take
a 2 -l
(i)
6 2 -l
b(a-b)l-bt
a(a-b)l-at--T7-r,Tr.
_,_
tan \ <j>.
r;
ab'
(ii)
-2 -
a % l-at
a 2 -l
(l-a) 2
a2
"
a2
ANSWERS
(38)
8
-9c + 1 =
8
11
8c
16
-i, -Kl+*cotir7r).
17 z acis|r7r, r
0;
\n,
0,
1,
2, 3. Put
{(
= - sin 2 0.
5.
0, 1,
23 cos u
2n.
|tt,
cos 0 sin 0,
chv
1) sin a
y cos a}
{x-l) 2 + y-
cos 0 + sin 0.
25 Denoting the vertices + a, + a + *a, a+ia, ahyA,B,G,D respecthen as z moves from O to A, w moves along the w-axis from to (a 2 0);
as z moves from A to B, w moves along the parabolic arc v 2 = 4a 2 (a 2 u) from
2
2
(a 2 0) to (0, 2a 2 ); from B to G, w moves along the parabolic arc v 2 = 4a (a + u)
from (0,2a 2 ) through ( 2 0) to (0, -2a 2 ); from G to D, w moves along arc
to O. w moves along the M-axis
v 2 = 4a 2 (a 2 u) from (0, 2a 2 ) to (a 2 0) ; from
tively,
from
(a 2 , 0) to 0.
27 \e-\
CO
29
3}
+ \e eos
206
cos (sin 2a),
np n
cosn0, where r
= + ^(a 2 + b 2 and cos0:sin0:

)
31 z = e^^Ce^'+De"'/"), where
plex constants.
33 x'
x cos 6 + y sin 0,
?/'
28 ch (a; cos 0) sin (x sin 0),
all a.
/*
= n2 +
fc
and C,
all x, 0.
a:b:r.
are arbitrary com-
= a; sin + y cos 0.

6
a;
+y =
8 x2 +
1 1
7 #+
2c cosec w.
2^ cos +
<y
h/x + kjy
2
?/
4c 2 cosec 2 o>.
csec 2 Jw.
9 Straight
12
2.
line.
Circle with centre 0.

1
x-2y =
4 l(x-y)
6
7(y r x)
6,
2x-y- 1 =
0.
0.
10x-9y =
16, lla;
+ 5y =
0.
(ii)(-l.l).
8 No.
7 Yes.
10 Yes.
9 Yes.
13 a + b + c
2 3x-5y + 9
0.
0.
14
Ssina =
0.
5.
ANSWERS
(39)

1
V2
4 bx 2 -2kcy + ay*
tan- (2^/21);
(i)
7 pq(x* + y*)
8
(iijtan- 1 **,
tan- ^,^),
0.
0.
(-&.-*);
(ii)
0;
2x* + xy- I5y*
(iv) 2 + 42/-2/ = 0.
10 3cc a + 40a*/ - lty2 = 0.
2
(iii)
- 2,
3)
-2).
(1,
-7y + 2y a =
3a; a
(i)
-26a^-llt/
(p* + q*)xy.
(iv)
(-1,4);
(i)47r,
llaj a
(ii)
(iii)
0;
xy
0;
12
2(flr
- g') x + 2(/-/') j/ + (c - c') =
0.
Exercise 15 (d), p. 592

1
x 2 + y*-2px-2qy
(i)
(*!
+ a; a x + (</i +
)
(aH/n t a*m/n).
(i)
x\ + y\
0.
s/ a )
x^x % + yx y% - a 2 , xxx + yy x
2a2 ;
x2 + 2/2
(ii)
c2
= a 2 (l+m2
= a8
).
2aa .
8 (i) Transverse common tangents divide the line of centres internally in

the ratio of the radii.
5x 12y =
(ii)
Ux4:j3y =
29,
{(Ti+r^x-ia^ +
61.
a^ = {fa-a^-^+r^y*.
13 x* + y*-3x-5y+l
16 Straight line.
20 *2 +2/ 2 +a;-42/-2
14 a2 +2/ 2 + 2a;-82/ + 5
0.
0.
17
8 s' =
21
x*+y 2 + x + y-2 -
is
0.
a diameter of tr.
0.

1
2 x2 -xy-6y 2
-2,0.
New equation
3t/ a = 1.
is
1.
= a2
xy
Jtan-1 ^
6 za +
Miscellaneous Exercise 15(/), p. 601

2
< 1 * 2 <3<4
(grfe
=1.
7 3(a + 6) 2
4(/i 2
-af)x = (hf- bg) y, 2gx + 2fy + c =
-5a; + 5?/
12
15
(i)
17
3x*-8xy-3y* =
2/
-o6).
11
0.
(x-xx ){x -x2 =

)
0;
(a, 3a)
fa.
13 (a + rcos0, asin0).
0.
a?
(y - x (y - 2x - 4?/ = 0.
(ii)
0;
2
2/
2)
0.
ANSWERS
(40)
19
+ 2gl + cl 2 )x 2 + 2(fl+gm + clm)xy + (l + 2fm + cm 2 )y 2 -
(1
b(b-a)~2mh
m(a-b)-2lh
\2{am 2 -2hlm + bl 2 )' 2(am 2 -2hlm + bl 2 ))''
20 (l-h)(x 2 + y 2 )
21
6(a; 3
+ 2/
3
)
h(x + y); (a + k) (x 2 + y 2 )
X+
+ k(x y) =
0;
_
~
'
0.
Zaxy(x y).
Exercise 16(a), p. 60S

1
2/(f 1
+ *2
2 a(t+l/t) 2
).
10 Focus A, directrix
I.
= x + a, x + 2y + 4a =
5 y
11
Each
15
2:1.
is
equivalent to
10
0.
tx t%
= 1.
17
+ (a 2 6 2 )* = 0.
= 2(* + |); 2y = 4a+l,
The
directrix.
4a(x + a).
12 y 2
(i)
Equally inclined to the
axis.
19 xa* + ybi
20 $y
6y
9x + 4.
25 The directrix.

3
= a(x-Ba).
4 s = -t-2jt.
= 3a, 3a; = 33a, 4x + y = 72a.
x + 4a -0,y 2 = 16a(a;-6a), y 2 = 2a(#-4a).
7 xy
13
6 (-2a,
0).
t/

1
3x.
-f.

Mid-point of OG, where O is the point of contact and C is the centre; line
perpendicular to OG at distance \OG from O on the side remote from G.
1
2 x 2 +y 2 -(p + g)x
/
_b
4ac-b 2\
\~2a'~~ 4a
)''
r2 + vq
T
y+pq = 0.
H*
*'
10 x = 2a if the normals meet on the curve at a point distinct from

the locus stated if the normal at one passes through the other.
12 y 2
a(x-Za).
20 (2a-b)y 2
23 {yi(yy1 ) 2a(x x1 )}
the form in 16.26, ex. (v).
24 (ii)=l.
(y
y1
2
)
4a 2x.
4ax
(y
25 x + 2y-S
P and Q;
22 yyl -2a{x + x1
1 ),
0; (4,2).
0.
which can be reduced to
ANSWERS
(41)

26
PN' 2 B'N' N'B = OA 2 OB 2
/a.
5 Ellipse with semi-axes a,
10
ay
(i)
bxt&aa;
17 (a/a) cos <fi + (y/b) sin
8 %a, \b.
x 2/a 2 + y 2 /b 2
(ii)
6.
cos 2 a.
15
(i)
-30.
20 nab.
1.

2
d-<j)
7T.
4 Tangents at corresponding points meet on the major
ON'.OT' = bK
11
22 \x + %y
x+y-S=
1;
(a(a 2
19
0, a;-5t/
+9 =
axis.
-6 2 )/(a 2 + 6 2 ),0).
0.
24 Tangents at the extremities of a focal chord meet on the corresponding

directrix.
l*4-i)$4-i)-@+*-i)->*+*-*+*.
= -a 2 e 2 .PN.
b 2 .OQ'
(2a 2 -6 2 ) 2
7 a2x2 + b 2y2
(Aft
1-
62
-.
(1.
V
'
- 62
a*6*/(a2
NN' is the normal at the point

where A = ab/(a 2 b 2
2
.
2).
1
cos (it 0), Xa sin (tt 0)),
).
Exercise 17 (J), p. 641

1
10
= 0.
aW + btm2 =
5x + 3y
(ii)
2
2n
2
;
4 Ji&tf + b 2 )}.
-\.
(ii)
x /a
+y
/b 2

1
/a
+y
lb 2
1.
hyperbola having focus S and the given circle for auxiliary circle;
8
passes through the point on the circle diametrically opposite to S.
9 4y
13 If
(g
= z5<jn.
Tib
- 62
(i)
x2 + y2
a2 + b2 ;
(ii)
ky 2
b 2 (k-x).
{f, g),
x 2 - 2fgxy + (f 2 - a 2 ) y 2
14 x 2 la 2 + y 2 /b 2
52
12
k2
0,
{gx -y(f- ae)} {gx - y(f+ae)}
0.
GPM II
ANSWERS
(42)
20 b^h
- a x + 2a
2
3,
25 (0,1);
2,
hkxy + a*(k z - b 2 ) y 2
0.
- 1, 1), - 3, 1); x = 2, x = - 6.
2V2; f; (2,f), (0,*); x = 10, a = -8.
+5 =
V3; ; (*,*),(-*,*); s-y-3 = 0,
23 (-2,1); 2,V3;
24
i;
0.

2
B;
A branch of a hyperbola with foci A, B: if .45 > m>, the branch enclosing
If AB = nv, the perpendicular bisector
HAB < nv. the branch enclosing A.
of^B.
3 That branch of a hyperbola with
the smaller
14
15
A,
B which contains the
centre of
- oo < t < - 1, A'Q'; - 1 < t < 0, PA;

> 0; (6) <x a = 1.
x/a + il-WJy/b = h + z
(1 +
(l + *2 Wa + (l-* 2 )y/6 = 2t.
(l-* 2 )aa;-(l+ 2 }fo/ = (a 2 + 6 2 (1 -<4 )/2*.
Referring to
(i)
AQ; 1<
13
foci
circle.
fig.
< +oo P'A'.

:
<t<
182:
(ii)
1,
(a)

12 3x 2 - 7*2/ + 2y 2 + 5x - 5y + 3
13
2x + y-Z -
0,
x-3i/ + 2
=
0;
0.
2* 2 -5^-3i/ 2 + a; + ll2/-4
0.

4 Write the equation as xy + ?/C
31
2c2
33
(-d/c,a/c).
4i>,
i?-
Miscellaneous Exercise 18 (a*), p. 661

3
x 2 \a 2 -y 2 \b 2
(a>
6).
5 Branch of a hyperbola which contains the centre of the smaller circle, if

both contacts are external or both internal. Ellipse if one contact is external
and the other

6 Foci A,
12 (x lt
18
(i)
20
(i)
21
(i)
internal.
B in either case.
10 (u + w) xja + (u-w)y/b + v
0.
14 See 18.53, example.
2/ x ).
= 0; (6) repeated line x = 0; (ii) ( *J(a -b 2 0).

pa 3 = qb 2 (ii) r = 0.
2
r
(a sin2 6 - b 2 cos 2 6) r 2 + 2(a 2 y sin - b x x cos
+ {a?y\-b 2x\ + a 2 b k) = 0;
(a)
Repeated line y
),
(9)
(iii)
OK, OK'
hyperbola or to
are the semi-diameters

conjugate.
its
drawn
in the given directions to the
ANSWERS
22 The case k
23 (0,0);
in no. 21
^13;
2, 3;
^13); y
(0,
24 (-1,-2); |,2; f;
same argument
the
(ii):
(|,
(43)
4A/13; y
-2), (-, -2);
a;
applies.
f.
* = -if;
4#- 3y =
25
(0,1);
+ ,i); * =
2, 4aj
+ 3y+10 =
0.
*; y=i-

1
-12 + ^-1.
a b2
^
a2
+ ^-1.
2
2 y21 -4axl ,y1 y2 -2a(x 1 + x2 ).
x^-c ^(x^ + x^-c
(Zajj
5 8
+ myl + n) (l'xl + m'y x + n')

i(lx! + my! + n) (l'x 2 + m'y 2 + n') + l(lx 2 + my 2 + n) (l'x t + m'y x + n').
,
passes through the mid-point of
8 pb - 2rh + ga
P P2
X
9 (ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 ) (a + b)
0.
11
(ax1 +hy1 +g){x-x1 )
13
(i)
2(ab - h 2 ) (x 2 + y 2 ).
+ (kx1 + by1 +f)(y-y = 0.

= 0; (ii) ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + c =
1)
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + gx+fy + c
gx+fy + c =
(iii)
14 (*/o) sin ^ + (y/6) cos <f>

15 Either
0,
0;
0.
or h
the point at the end of the question.
0; at
and
0.

3a/
+ 2?/
-9a;-22/
0.
3aj
- 294a/ + 120?/ - 273a; + 691*/+ 1572 = 0.

(a-b)h' = (a'-b')h.
lla; 2 -25a^+llt/ 2 = 0, (x + y) 2 = 47, (a-y) 2 = 3.
/
a 2 -b 2 \ 2
/6 2 \ 8
* 2 + 2 + 2ae 8ar = a 2 (l-e 2 -e4
9 la
+y 2 =
11
165a:
).
2/
7 sin ci =
- cos
cos 20;
cos 3 0,
sin3 0j;
j
(a 2 sin 2
+ 6 2 cos 2 0) l
(a;
15
(i)
ah
12
+ y 2 )-c(34 + l)a:-c<2 (^ + 3)t/ + 3c 2 f(4 +l) =
0;
f^+l))'
17
a/?
:
h2 k3
:
fcy.
(t 2
3)
+ 1\)
(t 3
- tj)
+ *|)
(t x
-t2 )(l+
).
The
circumcircle
of a triangle circumscribed to a parabola passes through the focus.

52-2
ANSWERS
(44)
Miscellaneous Exercise 19(c), p. 682

8
10
12
+ b (x - y 2 = 1 - m2 a 2 b 2
25x 2 - (k + 1) y 2 - (k + 26) y + (Qk+ 169) =
~ *
^12^1
(a
0;
x 2 + i.
- X +
3 + r 3 r x sin (0 3
-2 orcos((9-a)+p 2 cos 2 a =
tangents at O are Oy, Ox.
2 r 2 r3 sin (0 2 5
(a) r 2
(i)
(ii)
6 (!V( a2 + 62 )> tan- 1

10 r cos (0
0; (6) r
= 0.
2
= 2asin0;
)
(6/o)).
2a cos (0j a) cos (02 a);
=
a + a)
sin (0X -
r 008(0-20!
11
12 6 2c 2 +
through 0.
Circle
+ a) =
2a cos 2 (0x-a).
2ac=l.
- 1), 6 = Z/V(e 2 - 1).

2 Parabola 2a/r = 1 - cos 0.
2
2
3 Conic with I = ifc/a, e = (b + c */a.
5 (2 - e 2 )/2Z.
8 l\r e cos (0 y) + sec \{<x /?) cos {0 (a + /?)}, which is therefore obtainable by writing a y, /? y, y for a, /?,
in the standard equation.
1
Z/(e 2
(Z,tt).
LL' may be the same
15 Concavities of the arcs
or opposite
in sense.
2Zsec0, sec^.
18
(ii)
21
The
25
directrix Ijr
1 jp)
cos (0 - a)
of the parabola
cos
+ (d6/dr) a sin (0 - a) =
Ijr
= 1+ cos 0.
1 /r.
Miscellaneous Exercise 20(c), p. 698

3
(a sin a
6 sin /?) sin =
(6
cos /? a cos a) cos 0;

(a6/r)sin(a /?)
asin(a 0) 6sin(/? 0).
4 r -{acos(0-a) + &cos(0-/?)}/- + afecos(a-/?)

2
(2-e
9 Ife
12
14
e2/
<
e
2
)/Z.
(ii)
0.
asec 8 Ja cos(0-^ Ja).
= cos _1 ( e); ife ^ 1, there is no such a; r = Zcosec 2 0.

+ 2eZr cos = 2 the auxiliary circle if e 4= 1 the directrix if e =
l,a
2
)
+ Z# =
>
0.

1
+ ,+,+), (-,+,+), (-,-,+),
(-,-,-),( + ,-,-).
(
Plane yOz;
(i)
PB =
*J(z
(ii)
zOx;
+ x 2 PC =
),
(iii)
xOy;
J(x 2 + y 2 ).
+ ,-,+),
(iv) #-axis;
+ ,+,-).. (-,+,-),
(v) y-axis;
4 15^2.
(vi) 2-axis.
ANSWERS
7 2V46, 2V38.
13
14
(iii)
15
on a line
*J{x
cos^:sin0:
),
Oz, radius h;
r =
cos <j> sin ^
J(x
+ y2
x:y:p.
on a half-plane through Oz;
(ii)
parallel to Oz.
x = rsin# cos0, y
2
3:4,5:7,-2:1.
= pcos^, y = psintfi; p =
(i) On a cylinder with axis
(45)
+y +z
2
2
),
rsin# sin0,
:
rooad;
x y
:
*J(x
+ y 2 ),
cos
sin 0:1
^/(a;
f/ )
r.
16 (i) On a sphere with centre 0, radius k; (ii) on a cone with vertex O and
semi- vertical angle a; (iii) on a half-plane through Oz; (iv) generator of cone;
(v) great semi-circle of sphere; (vi) small circle of sphere.

5
6cos-H.
1:1:1, 1:-1:1, 1:1:-1, -1:1:1.
7 cos-
{(6
+c -a
2
2
)
/(a
+b +c
)},
etc.
-7
109
piy
p2x
10
\0P
'
p *z \
Each
15
OP OP2}'
2
is
equal to
OP
'
x-4y + 5z = 0.
4 5a? + 2y-3z = 17.
6
(i)
cos" 1 (1/^14);
= 31.
3 3x + 3y-z =
= 18, 2a;- 3y- 6z = 6.
2 6x + 2y-10z
5
(ii)
6x + 3/- 2z
6.
sin-^l/Ve).
7 cos-^c/Vttp-g^ + fp-r^ + c 2 }], cp/(p-q), cp/(p-r).

8 cos- 1 {(a- 2 + 6" 2 - c- 2 )/(a~ 2 + 6~ 2 + c~ 2 )}.
9 (aJi-âj + ^-^Jy-KZi-z^z
1
- (A Xl + Byx + CZi + D)/( Ax 2 +
l{x\-x\ + y\-y\ + z\-z\).
% + Cz +
2
Z>).
Exercise 21 (d), p. 721

1
(11,22,19); 5V38.
(0,
,_4 = -9 ,-9 = -3, + 21.
6 om/i, c ero/Z), (a bl/m, 0, c bnjm), (a cZ/w, 6 cm/n, 0).
8 5-22/-19z + 27
12 3# + 3/-4z
14 60.
0.
0.
7^
- 1), -y-z =
13
(4, 2,
^.
4
3.
12.
15 x
\y
-z, x
= -y =
\z.
ANSWERS
(46)
_
16
17
19
x-3 = y-2
_ =
\2 +
+3
j *J2
*J2+1
18
2.
2a;
V(^ + w + ^
-^
2lmn
2
rt
A
(both upper signs, or both lower).
,
+ 60y- 1622 + 27 =
0,
54a- lSy- 62+1 =
20 6 x volume of
2
)-
0.
OP^P^.

1
= 1.
12a;-lty +
9x-3y-z+U = 0.
2 3x + y-2z
42
3a;-% + 72 + 4 =
7.
4 2:-l:l.
3a;
+ 2?/ + 2,
21
_ = v
2-^- =
a;+
'
6 7:-ll:10.
7
8
+ 2(3 a/3) - 3(4 *J3) z = (both upper or both lower signs).

- 1 or 1 - 1 0.
2x-y-z + 3 = = x + y + z-6; 1
x-y + z+1 = 0, 4x- 6^-2-3 = 0, lx-9y + 2z - 0.
3a;
t/

1
10:3:-4.
= ** =
(3,0,0), (ff,0,0).

z-1
7 13;
2/-2_2-3
-
9 See 21.52, ex.
^;
(4, 2, 6),
- 1, - 1,
2V3.
0).
5.
x-2_ -^_2-ff_
2/
Vi7-
(iv).
Miscellaneous Exercise 21(g), p. 733

I3t
18:5,
{I
y
~
(1, 1,
lx-8y + 3z =
-1).
0;
13a;
122,
156-12^
13~~
7 60; * + 2/-2
-i, -*).
J'
144
l3"
V709
5
325
0.
= S(mn' - m'w) x (all + or all-).

10 -42/+62 = 106; ^293.
20y + 23z = 0.
V) x + (m m') y + (w n')z
9 (0,0,0),
11
z
~l (t>
i'
4t
\13'13'
12
6
(,-^),a-i) + (y - -f )(6-e) + ( S -^)(o-/) = 0.
15
cos -1 ^, cos _1 f.

2
+ 2 + 16a-3l2/-82 + 34 =
2
7(a;
A sphere if A 4=
2/
0,
the plane bisecting
(-f,fi
).
AB at right-angles if A =
1.
ANSWERS
3
2(x2 +y 2 + z 2 )-lx-6y-9z+lB
4 x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2x-2y + 2z-%
+ y + z )-12x-6y-4z =
0.
7 3(x
10 (2,4,4),
81(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )-126(x + y + z)
16
a;
18
{lu+mv+nw-p) 2 =
19 (a;-5) 2 +
(ii)
(2/
0.
5)
+ (t/ 4) 2 + (z 4) 2 =
41.
(-1, -5,|), |V14.
2.
13
22
9 (11
+ 2y - 2z + 15 =
- 2a; - 2t/ - 2z - 1 =
0; 7.
(f, 4, ft).
12 (*,*,*), i; (2,2,2),
3(x 2 + t/ 2 + z 2 )
0.
- 0.
6 6(z 2 + 2/ 2 + z 2 )-18a;-36i/-12z
(47)
+ 98 =
4y + 3z -
0,
(l 2
+ m 2 +n
+ 2) 2 + (z-3) 2 =
11
0.
0.
15
2x + 2yz-3.
17
(Zr 2 /p,
mr2 /p, rar 2 /p).
)(u 2 + v i + w 2 -d).
49; 2x + 3y + 6z
Tangents from a point on the
= U.
21
(A>A>-A)-
common circle have equal lengths
zero.

1
(0, 0, 0).
2 Plane touches
4.
4 x 2 + y 2 + z 2 -8x-6y
3x + y-3z
3,
+ y +z -x-3y+z =
2
0;
(A, tf,
circle.
0.
-*)
6 (2,2,3).
8 a 2 + 2/ 2 + z 2 +
6z-16 =
9 x 2 + y 2 + z 2 -2z-8
0,
10 x
+ y + z + 2x-8z =
12
a;
13
5(* 2 + 2/ 2 + z 2 )
2
2/
16
a;
a;
5(* 2
2
0,
2
1/
2
2/
+ z 2 )-14a;-28y-12z + 32 =
+ z 2 + 2(te + 20y + 18z + 72 =
a;
2
2/
+ z 2 + 4oa;-2az + a 2 =
+ 19a;-132/+10z + 27 =
6z-5 =
+ y + z + + 92/-4z =
2
0.
0.
0.
+ z + 2a2/-a =
2
14 * 2 + </ 2 + z 2 -2a; + 2</ +

2
0,
a;
0.
0; 3/VlO.
15
0.
0.
18 Cylinder with generators parallel to

(iii) Oy, (iv) Oz.
(i)
Ox,
(ii)
Oy; surface of revolution
with axis
19
10 2 +12a;i/ + 52/ 2
16.

1
cos b
\ttt
cose cos a + sine sin a cos B, cos c

2
.
cos a cos b + sin a sin b cos (7.
19 28'; 1,440,000 sq. miles.
ANSWERS
(48)
Miscellaneous Exercise 22 (</), p. 756
+ z -2cz = 0.
(2 + JV2, -1 + 2V2,V 2
2 x* + y
3
4 ^
a
13
( 7
1
^, cos- !!.
V2-6).
(-alln,-am/n).
= dSZ 2 (AZ,Am,An) where A = dj(Lul).

(a? 4) +
4) 2 + (2 3) 2 = 25.
_42 -7 = 0,
a;2 + 2/2 + 2;2_2 a;_4
5(a;2 + 2/2 + z
+ 22a; + 442/ + 44z-323 =
2 2
2
a2
a(u + v
2a v
2a w
2' u 2
2
2
2
2
W + y + a2
w +v +a
+v +a
10 (SwZ) 2
12
)>
|Vp~ Vl-
2/
'
)'
'
0; (3,6,6).
xxiii
INDEX TO VOLUME
Numbers
* means 'Also
refer to pages.
see this entry in the
Absolute convergence (a.c.), 452, 551

A.c, 452, 551
Affix, 495
d'Alembert's
ratio test, 443, 456
theorem, 507
Alternate suffixes, rule of, 587
Altitude of spherical triangle, 756
am, amp, 495
Amplitude, 495
Angle
dihedral, 713, 748
of lune, 748
trihedral, 748
Angle between
circles, 591
curves, 747
line-pair, 580
planes, 713
sensed lines, 707
spheres, 740
Antiparallel, 707
Antipodal points, 747
A.P., sines or cosines of angles in, 431,
548
Apollonius
circle of, 504
hyperbola of, 658
Approximations, 476
formal, 479
Area
and orthogonal projection, 627
of lune, 748
of spherical triangle, 750
of triangle, 568, 719
495
Argand, 488
arg,
Argand representation,
Index of Vol. I\
Auxiliary
circle, 623,
652
Axes (of coordinates)

change of. 595
left-handed, 700
oblique, 565
rectangular, in space, 700
right-handed, 700
rotation of, 596, 597, 709
Axis
conjugate, 654
major, 621
minor, 621
of circle on sphere, 747
of parabola, 603
transverse, 621
Bifocal property, 624, 647
Binomial
466
466
Binomial theorem, 419, 434
general term, 420
greatest term, 421
use trigonometrically, 534
coefficients, 424,
series, 463,
c,
437
C + iS method for
integration, 555
series,
548
Cardan and complex numbers, 487

Cardan's method, 390
Centre of
circle, 586
ellipse, 621
hyperbola, 621
line-pair, 584,
597
sphere, 736
488, 499, 504
difference, 501
loci,
II
500, 504
product; 502
quotient, 503
square root, 506
sum, 500
Argument, 495, 500
Asymptote(s), 646
as coordinate axes, 657
as limit of a tangent, 653
of hyperbola, 646, 653
polar equations of, 692
Centroid
and coordinate axes. 601
of tetrahedron, 704
Ceva's theorem, 574
Change of
axes, 595
origin, 596, 705
Chord
604
segments of, 671, 696
Chord having a given mid-point, 638,
649
for s = 0, 669, 670
focal,
INDEX
xxiv
Chord of
686
conic (polar equation), 693
ellipse, 630, 631
hyperbola, 648, 651, 658
parabola, 605, 606
a = 0, 665
circle (polar equation),
Chord
of
contact,
587,
610,
Conormal points on
649
to s
668
0,
ellipse,
622
Cotes's properties, 542
equations in space, 742

general equation, 586
great, 737, 747
of Apollonius, 504
of curvature, 611, 679, *
on given diameter, 586
polar equation, 686
small, 737, 747
Circles, family or system of, 593
cis, 530
Cofactor, 402
alien,
636
hyperbola, 661
parabola, 613
Contact
double, 611, 675
of two conies, 679
ellipse,
Circle
and
633,
standard equations, 600

system of, 675
Conjugate diameters, 640, 649, 655, 670
extremities of, 640, 656
Conjugate
hyperbolas, 654
of z, 497
surds, 511
403
403
mth-order and (m+ 1) -point, 680, *

Contact condition for line with
circle, 587
ellipse, 633, 634
hyperbola, 649
parabola, 609
s = 0, 667
sphere, 739
Contact condition for plane and sphere, 738
Convergence, 436, 551
Colatitude, 702
absolute, 452, 551

conditional (c.c), 454
Collinear points, 570
interval of, 456
true,
Comparison
of series and product, 543
series, 440
tests, 439
Complete quadrilateral, 577
Complex algebra
and real algebra, 492
completeness
of,
492
Complex numbers, 489

and laws of algebra, 494
conjugate, 497
'real',
496
Compound
angles, 537
Concurrence of
lines, 576,
Concyclic points on
ellipse, 628, 678
hyperbola, 660
parabola, 604
Cone, 745
Confocal conies, 662
Conic, 594
general, 664
pole at focus, 688

proper, 690
Conic sections, 594

Conies
degenerate, 595
family of, 675
net of, 681
pencil of, 675
577
speed of, 446

Coordinate planes, 700
Coordinates
cylindrical polar (p, 0, z), 701
plane cartesian and polar, 565, *
rectangular cartesian in space, 701
spherical polar (r, 6, <j>), 702
Coplanar lines, condition for, 717
Coprime, 384
Corresponding points on ellipse and
auxiliary circle, 623
Cosine rule, 751
Cotes's properties, 542
Cramer's rule, 404
Cube roots of unity, 497
Curvature, circle of, 611, 679
Curve, skew, space or twisted, 745
Cyclic
expression, 373
interchange, 373
order, 373
Cylinder, 745
Cylindrical coordinates (p,
D, 437
deg, 383
Derived polynomial, 509

Determinant
cofactor in, 402
derivative of, 413
<j>,
z),
702
INDEX
Determinant
(cont.)
elements of, 394

expansion of, 394, 395
factorisation of, 411
fourth-order, 414
leading diagonal of, 395
leading term in, 395
minor in, 402
multiplication of, 417
notation c, r, 397
row and column operations, 393

rows and columns, 393
second-order, 393
symmetric. 403
third-order, 394
transpose of, 393
triangular', 399
Determinants and linear equations, 404
Diameters, 615, 639, 649, 669
conjugate, 640, 649, 655.. 670
equi-conjugate, 641
extremities of, 640, 656
ordinates to, 615
Difference method, 423
Dihedral angle, 713, 748
pin construction, 625

(jj, r) equation wo centre, 641
(p, r) equation wo focus, 634
Elliptic trammel, 624
Equating
coefficients, 367,
cosines, 706
509
parts, 496
Equations
approximate solution of, 521, *
cubic, 375, 390
homogeneous linear, 407
linear simultaneous, 391, 404
quadratic, 374
quartic, 377
reciprocal, 527
transformation of, 513
with rational coefficients, 511, 516
with 'real' coefficients, 510
Error in =, 476
Euclid's algorithm, 384
and imaginary
real
Euler's
constant y, 450, *
exponential forms, 555
E volute,
613, *
exp, 480, 552
Expansion
in power
Direction
ratios,
XXV
series,
461
formal, 464, 479
707
circle, 633, 649, 697

Directrices, polar equations of, 691
Director
of a determinant, 394, 395

of circular functions of
compound
angles, 537
Directrix, 594
Discriminant of 8, 583
Distance formula
cartesian, 566, 702
polar, 684
Distance of a point from a
line, 575
plane, 718
Distance quadratic, 617, 638, 670
Divergence, 437
proper, 437
Division
external, 567, 703
internal, 566, 703
long, 363
successive, 384
Dominated, 518
Double contact, 611, 675
of circular functions of multiple angles,
535
Factor
repeated, 381
simple, 381
Factorisation
in complex algebra, 507
in real algebra, 515
of a determinant, 411
of a polynomial, 366, 507, 515, 538
of sinnfl, 542
Finite series, 422
trigonometric, 431, 548
Focal
chord, 604
distances, 624, 647
634
Focus, 594
radii,
e,
irrationality of, 470,
Eccentric angle, 627

Eccentricity, 594
Eliminant, 379, 408
Focus-directrix property, 594, 603, 620

Foucault's pendulum, 563
Fregier point, 671
Elimination, 378
Function
Ellipse, 594, 620,
as orthogonal projection of a circle, 626

conjugate diameters as coordinate
axes, 640
alternating, 372
cyclic, 373
skew, 372
symmetric, 371
INDEX
xxvi
by C+iS, 555
Functions of a complex variable, 550

circular, 557
exponential, 552
hyperbolic, 558
Fundamental theorem of algebra, 507
Integration
Gauss, 489
Gauss's theorem, 507
General conic s = 0, 664
General equation of second degree in x, y,
581, 664
Isomorphism, 491
Intersect, 736
Interval of convergence, 456

Irreducible
polynomial, 385
rational function, 386
and line-pair, 582, 584

General linear equation(s)
in x, y, 571
in x, y, z, 710
representing the same plane, 711
Geometrical progression (g.p.), 437, 551
G. P., 437, 551
Gradient of a line, 567
von Graeffe's method of root-squaring,
523
Great circle, 737, 747
Gregory's series, 463, 476
Hamilton, 493
Harmonic
conjugate, 668
division,
590
series S(l/r),
438
H. O.F., 383
process, 384
theorem, 385
Highest common factor (h.c.:f.) 383
Horner's method, 522
Hyperbola, 594, 621, 645, 658
asymptotes, 646
asymptotes as coordinate axes, 657
mechanical construction, 648
of Apollonius, 658
(p, r) equation wo focus, 662
rectangular, 647, 659
Joachimsthal's ratio quadratic,

635
for * = 0, 666
for sphere, 742
58%
Latus rectum, 603, 621

Legendre polynomial Pn (x), 519
Leibniz's
476
theorem on alternating series, 451
theorem on nth derivative of uv, 434, *
Limit of
a complex function, 550
xn \n !, 455
Limits, calculation of, 480
Line (see 'straight line')
series for \ix,
Line of intersection of two planes, 717

Linear system of equations, 391, 404
homogeneous, 407
inconsistent, 391, 406
indeterminate, 391, 407
non-homogeneous, 408
solution in ratios, 409
three equations, three unknowns, 392
two equations, two unknowns, 391
two homogeneous equations,

unknowns, 409
three
Line-pairs, 579
angle between, 580

angle-bisectors, 581
centre of, 584, 597
coincident, 580, 582
general, 581
intersecting, 584
i,
intersection of, 584, 597
487
as an operator, 488
Identity, 364
of form, values, 367
necessary condition
expression, 487
number, 487
part, 496
Induction hypothesis, 434
Infinite series, 423, 436 (also see
and integrals, 447
of complex terms, 550
rearrangement of, 457
regrouping of, 457
Integral test, 448
parallel,
582
through
origin, 580,
for,
582
584
vertex of, 584, 597

Loci in the complex plane, 500, 504
Long division, 363
Longitude, 702
Lune, 748
Image, 716
Imaginary
'series')
610,
Machin, 476
Maclaurin-Cauchy integral test, 448
Maclaurin's series, 460
Mathematical Induction, 433
and difference method, 435
Matrices, 493
INDEX
Medians of
spherical triangle, 752
tetrahedron, 704
Menelaus's theorem, 574
Minor, 402
Modulus, 495, 499
Modulus-argument form, 494
of expz, 554
de Moivre's
property of the circle, 542
theorem, 528
Multiple angles and powers, 535
Net of conies, 681

Newton's theorem, 638
Normal
to
ellipse,
636
hyperbola, 649, 651

parabola, 612, 614
rectangular hyperbola, 659
Notation
c, r, 397
s,
x,
565, 701
8 U n , * 12 , 664.
ur sn s, Ewr 422
Number, *
,
Pappus's theorem, 679

Parabola, 594, 603
Parametric representation(s) of
ellipse, 627, 628
hyperbola, 649, 650, 658
parabola, 603
Partial fractions,
theory, 386
use of, 430, *
Pascal's
theorem, 679
triangle, 421, 470
Pencil of conies, 675
Period of
expz, 554
generalised circular functions, 557
generalised hyperbolic functions, 558
Perpendicular from a point to a
line,
575
plane, 718
plane, 710
xxvii
complex, 489
imaginary, 487
of a point, 495
purely imaginary, 496
real, 488
'real', 496
Number-pairs, 489
Oblique axes, 565
Octants, 701
Operator i, 488
Order of a root, 381
Ordered
pairs, 489
triplets, 493
Ordinates to a diameter, 615
Orthocentre, 609
Orthocentric points, 659
Orthogonal
circles, 591
projection, 625, 626
spheres, 740
Osborn's rule, 559, *
Outside of
conic s = 0, 667
ellipse, 643
parabola, 610
Pair of tangents, 589, 596, 610, 649
to s = 0, 667
Perpendicularity condition for

directions in space, 707, 708
lines in a plane, 571, 581
planes, 713
n, calculation of,
476
II-notation, 539
Plane
as a surface, 710, 744
distance of a point from, 718
of contact, 739, 742
Plane, forms of equation, 709
intercept form, 713
P^Pa, 712
perpendicular form, 710
through P x perpendicular to l:m:n,
711
Planes
bisecting angles between
two
planes,
719
incidence of three, 724
through a
common line,
Polar coordinates
Polar equation of
circle, 686
conic, focus as pole, 688,

line, 684,
723
(see 'coordinates'),
690
685
Polar of a point, 591, 612, 635

reciprocal property, 591, 669
wo line-pair, 668
wo s = 0, 668
Polar triangle (on sphere), 749
Pole of
circle on a sphere, 747
line wo a conic, 591
plane polar coordinates, *
Polynomial equations, 374
INDEX
xxviii
Section formulae, 566, 703

Segments of a chord, 671, 696
Semi-convergent, 454
Polynomial(s)
change of sign, 517
coprime, 384
Sequence and
derived, 509
in more than one variable, 370
irreducible, 385
Power
series,
angles, 534
of integers, series
of,
oscillating,
Product for sinnfl, 543

Proper conic, 690
Series (special)
of, 521,
Quaternions, 493
Ratio equation or quadratic (see

Joachimsthars ratio quadratic')
Ratio test
d'Alembert's, 443
modified, 456
Rational function
irreducible, 386
proper, 386
Ray, unit, 706
'Real', 496
Real part, 496
Rectangular hyperbola, 647, 659
Remainder theorem, 364
'
Riemann's rearrangement theorem, 458

theorem for polynomials, 518 *
;
546
changing sign of, 513

common, 380
conjugate complex, 510
diminishing of, 513
equal, 381
given trigonometrically, 545
location of, 516
multiple, 381
multiplying of, 513

of general polynomial equation, 515
of unity, 497, 531
r-fold, 381
repeated, 381
simple, 381
squaring of, 513
Rotation of axes, 596, 597, 709
ks', 674, 742
degenerate cases, 675
Secondary, 747
sine,
461
trigonometric, 431, 548

Series (types)
alternating, 451
550
(also see 'infinite
Maclaurin, 460
power, 423
Series
Root-squaring, 523
Root(s)
geometric, 437, 551

Gregory's, 463, 476
logarithmic, 462, 472
powers of integers, 426
ahx, 471
S(l/r 2 ), 543
series')
Rolle's
428
429
'fraction',
infinite, 423, 436,
580
root, 381, 509
coefficients, 374, 512,
'factor',
finite,
factor, 381, 509
and
a x, 471
binomial, 463, 466
cha;, 471
comparison, 440
cosine, 461
exponential, 461, 470, 552
422
harmonic, 438
Repeated
line,
437
properly divergent, 437
426
Proportional parts, method
422
absolutely convergent, 452, 551

convergent, 436, 551
divergent, 437
423
Powers
and multiple
series,
Series (properties)
and approximations, 476

and product, comparison
notation s, sn ur 422
,
terms
of,
of,
543
422
Sides of a
conic, 666
line,
573
plane, 714
S-notation, 373, 422

Sine rule, 752
'completed' form, 753
Simson
Skew
687
727
perpendicular, 728
line,
lines,
common
common
transversal through a given
point, 728
standard equations, 731

Small circle, 737, 747
Speed of convergence, 446
Sphere
'normalised equation', 736
INDEX
Sphere (cont.)
on diameter P1 P 2 737
Spheres through a given circle, 742
general curve, 618

hyperbola, 649, 651, 658
parabola, 607
s = 0, 666, 667
Spherical
coordinates (r, 6, 0), 702
distance, 747
excess, 750
Spherical triangle, 748. 755

altitude, 756
angles, 748. 755

area, 750
cosine rule, 751

four-parts formula, 758
Tartaglia, 390
Theory of Numbers, 386

Touch, 608, 736, *
Transformation of equations, 513
Translation of axes, 596, 705
Transpose, 393
Trial exponentials, 555,
Triangle
formulae, 751
median, 752
sides, 748, 755
sine rule, 752
Straight line, distance of a point from,
xxix
inequalities, 501,
inequality for infinite series, 454
Unit ray, 706
575
Straight line, forms of equation, 570, 684
general equation, 571, 685
gradient form, 570
intercept form, 571
joining (rlf dj, (r 8 , 2 ), 684
X
2 , 572, 715
parametric form, 572, 573, 715
perpendicular form, 573, 685
symmetrical equations, 715
through t in direction l:m:n, 714
through 1 with gradient m, 570
Successive division process, 384
PP
P
P
Supplemental
chords. 642
formulae, 754
relations, 750
Sum
of finite series, 422
to infinity, 423, 436, 551
to n terms, 422
Summation by
diagonals, 553
Surds, conjugate, 511
Surface of revolution, 745
Surfaces, 744
Vectors, 493, 496

Vertex of
line-pair, 584, 597
parabola, 603
Vertices of ellipse, hyperbola. 621
Volume of tetrahedron, 720
wo, xxi
489
397
cr , 424
"Cr, 419
[a, 6],
c,
470.
e,
m,
706
l:m:n, 707 and footnote
{I,
n},
0'
2>(),
P( )> 518
519
(x),
tk
Pi, etc., 565, 701

r,
397
a lf s lv s l2
a, sn , 422
s,
Taking
ur 422
arguments, 496
conjugates, 497
moduli, 496
Tangency and repeated roots, 608
\z\,
664
Tangent
and normal as coordinate axes, 671
at the vertex (of parabola), 603
cone (to sphere), 739, 742
general definition, 607, *
plane (to sphere), 737, 742
Tangent to
circle, 587, 687
ellipse,
632
495
497
496
z, z*,
X
||,
is
parallel to
_|_, is
perpendicular to
y, 450,
476
n, 539
77,
S, 373, 422
2wr 422
Zwr c, Tmt d, 437
,
<m,
497
565
{to},
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References and Abbreviations

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10,41 Further examples,

h.c.f. process, p. 382.

Miscellaneous Exercise 10(f)

Chapter 11. Determinants and Systems of

Linear simultaneous equations

equations in two unknowns, p. 391. 11.12 Three

11.21 Determinants of order 2, p. 393. 11.22 Determinants of

Minors and cofactors

11.32 Expansion by-

Determinants and linear simultaneous equations

11.41 Cramer's rule, p. 404. 11.42

The binomial theorem

12.22 General methods

finite series, p. 423.

12.26 'Fraction' series, p. 429.

12,25 'Factor' series, p. 428.

infinite series, p. 436,

Series of positive terms

Comparison tests, p. 439. 12.42 d'AIcmbert's ratio

and negative terms

12.51 Alternating signs (theorem of Leibniz), p. 451,

Expansion of a function as a power series, p. 460.

Applications of the series in 12,62

12.71 Binomial series, p. 466. 12,72 Exponential series, p. 470.

the calculation of n, p, 476

12.81 Estimation of the error in s = s nt p. 476. 12,82 Formal