A First Course in Continuum Mechanics, Y.C. Fung

A HIST
COUISE
IN CONTINUUM MECHANICS
Third Edition
A FUST COU1SE
IN
CONTINUUM
for
Physical
MECHANICS
and Biohgical
Engineers and Scientists
Y.
C.
Fung
Professor of Applied
University
Mechanics
of California,
and Bioengineering
San Diego
PRENTICE HALL, EnglewoodCUffs,
New
Jersey
07632
Library
of
Congress Cataloging-in-PublicationData
Fung, Y. C. (Yuan-cheng)
A first course in continuum
mechanics:
for physical and

\342\200\224
3rd ed.
and engineers / Y.C.Fung.
biological scientists
cm.
p.
Includes bibliographical
references
and index.
ISBN 0-13-061524-2
1.
I.
mechanics.
Continuum
Title.
1994
QA808.F86
92-39910
531\342\200\224dc20
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who
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Manufacturing
for
the
application
of mechanics,
by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
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Cliffs, New Jersey 07632
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\302\251
1994,1977,1969
A Simon
and to
Luna, Conrad, and Brenda.

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615244
Preface
Third Edition
to the
Prefaceto the
First
Edition
Introduction
1.1
The objective
1.2
Applications
1.3
What
1.4
1.5
Our definition
of this
to science
The classical
of a continuum:
in our
definition of a
1.7
Abstract copy of a real continuum
1.8
What is continuum
1.9
Axioms
1.10
1.11
mechanics
of continuum
continuum
about?
mechanics
of continua depending
example of a hierarchy
in a scientific inquiry
of the object involved
7
biological
size
definition
continuum
of a
1.6 The conceptof stress
the
and technology
2
is mechanics?
prototype
course
Elementary topic through
which
basic ideas
evolved
on
12
IX
Contents
viii
Vectors
2.1
2.2
and Tensors
39
39
Vectors
The
2.4
Translation and
2.5
2.6
convention
summation
Coordinate
44
of coordinates
rotation
in general
transformation
of scalars,
definitions
Analytical
tensors
2.7
41
Vector equations
2.3
49
53
vectors, and
The significance
6.1
Cartesian
Notations
2.9
Quotient rule
2.10
Partial
6.2
6.3
58
and tensors: Boldfaceor indices?
of tensor
for vectors
strain components in polar coordinates

of the strain-displacement relations in
5.9 Direct derivation
128
coordinates
131
5.10 Other strain measures
5.8
equations
60
7.1
Stress
64
64
3.2
The
3.3
69
Cauchy's formula
Equations of equilibrium
Change of stress components
3.4
3.5
of motion
3.6
3.7
Stress
and
Plane state of stress

Mohr's circle for plane
4.4
Mohr's circlesfor
Principal
4.6
Shearing stresses
Stress-deviation
4.8
Lame's stress
Axes
88
89
Infinitesimal
Principal
7.6
Materials
148
dimensions
155
156
fluid
157
Hookean elastic solid

Effect of temperature
more
with
154
of materials
properties
fluid
Isotropic
8.3
Isotropic tensors
8.4
8.5
8.8
stress states
The concept of
8.2
8.7
92
stress
161
mechanical behavior
complex
94
material
161
165
isotropy
165
tensor
Isotropic
tensors
Isotropic
materials
of rank
169
of rank
170
172
axes of stress and of strain

Coincidenceof principal
173
isotropy
Other methods of characterizing
the
from
a
material's
isotropy
Can we recognize
172
173
mierostructure?
Mechanical Properties of Real

99
tensor
102
ellipsoid
112
112
interpretation
Finite
Specification of the
Newtonian
9.1
Fluids
9.2
Viscosity
rotation
terms
of displacements
of infinitesimal strain
121
122
components
strains:
Mohr's circle
strain
124
117
components
Plasticity
9.4
Materials
with
9.5
Nonlinear
9.6
119
9.7
9.8
131
and Solids
183
9.3
tissues
Fluids
181
of metals
115
Geometric
three
154
7.3
7.4
7.5
8.1
76
97
Strain components in
5.6
in
94
Deformation
5.5
5.7
coordinates
Deformation
5.2 The strain

5.4
components
Equations
7.2 The nonviscous
8.6
stresses
4.7
5.3
Compatibility
Isotropy
78
three-dimensional
4.5
5.1
of strain
165
of
88
Introduction
Analysis of
curvilinear
orthogonal
Principal
4.3
4.2
146
condition
72
in transformation
conditions
boundary
Principal Stresses
4.1
66
Stress components in
145
145
The compatibility
75
coordinates
polar
Conditions
Compatibility
fields
Velocity
Constitutive
3.1 Theideaof stress
and
125
58
59
derivatives
laws
Infinitesimal
Velocity Fields
55
2.8
Contents
nonlinear
stress-strain
186
188
elasticity
relationships
of rubber and
biological
191
193
Linear viscoelasticbodies
viscoelasticity
Quasi-linear
fluids
Non-Newtonian
9.9
Viscoplastic
9.10
and
Sol-gel transformation
materials
of biological
201
tissues
202
thixotropy
204
197
xi
X
10
Derivation of
Field
Equations
10.1
Gauss's theorem
10.2
Material description of the motion of a continuum

Spatial description of the motion of a continuum
The material derivative of a volume integral
The equation of continuity
217
The equations of motion
218
Moment of momentum
219
220
The balance of energy
and continuity in polar
The equations of motion
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
10.8
10.9
Contents
209
13.3
209
13.4
212
Field Equations
and
in
Conditions
Boundary
Fluid
13.5
215
13 6
13.8
Index
231
Mechanics
between two
Dynamic
11.5
Laminar
235
fluids
and Reynolds number

flow in a horizontal channel
or tube
similarity
11.6 Boundary layer

11.7 Laminar boundary
11.8
Nonviscous
11.9
Vorticity
layer
Some Simple Problemsin

12.1
Basic equations
of
bodies
270
12.2
Plane
12.3
Simplifications
elastic
waves
Introduction
13.2
How to
body
for homogeneous,
isotropic
272
cylindrical
shaft
274
281
and
13.1
270
274
Biomechanics
Stress, Strain,
257
265
elasticity
Torsion of a circular
12.5 Beams
278
13
254
fluids
flow
Elasticity
12.4
12.6
251
253.
flow
11.11 Compressiblenonviscous
11.12 Subsonic and supersonic
11.13 Applications to biology
12
247
over a flat plate
249
circulation
and
240
244
fluid
11.10 Irrotational
238
Active
Remodeling
285
of Structures
285
discover
285
the zero-stress
state of material
in a
solid
example
Changeof
290
shapes
and
Morphological
a change in blood pressure
of mechanical
RemodeUng
structural
13.7 Stressanalysis
231
11.1 The Navier-Stokes
equations
11.2 Boundary conditions at a solid-fluid interface
233
11.3 Surface tension and the boundary
conditions
at an interface
11.4
of a structure: A biological
state
Remodeling the zero-stress
288
in stress
of active remodeling due to change
Materialsthat
temperature:
zero-stressstatewith
their
remember\"
214
223
coordinates
11
Contents
with
remodeUng
.,
vessel due
tn
to
292
properties
the zero-stress state
Stress-growthrelationship
,
ri_,
of blood
299
294
taken
into
account
296
The objective of this

the
formulation
mathematical
is the
edition
sameas that
of the
earlier editions:To emphasize
to reduce vague
mechanics,
a habit of questioning,
statements, and to cultivate
of problems
in
ideas
into
precise
analyzing,
in engineering and science. I have stressed applications even

edition. Thus, at the very beginning, continua are defined
the book, no discrimination
with regard to real materials.
was made
Throughout
is included in science,
is
Biology
against biological materials.
bioengineering
Mechanics is not limited
to physics.
included in engineering.
In this book, I often ask the reader to formulate
equations,
regardless of
whether he or she can solve them or not. I have known many students who have
exercises
without ever formulating
a problem of their own. I
worked innumerable
many problems of their
hopethat they will learn things the other way, to generate
the methods
of solution and subtleties of the
own and then strive to discover
nature and to think
of problems
in
solutions.
They are encouraged to observe
and
then
to
first
and
science
take
the
to
write
down
a
step
engineering
possible
and
designing,
more
inventing
in this
strongly
conditions.This first step\342\200\224to

derive the
of this book.
At the outset, the concept of continua
book is organized as follows.
is
treatment
of stress and strain. The practical
Then follows a thorough
stress and strain, and the concept of
of determining the principal
are given emphasis in two separate chapters. In Chapter 7, idealized
The important
of fluids and solidsare presented.
concept of isotropy
setof governing
equations
basic governing
This
explained.
techniques
compatibility,
specifications
is described
solids are
and boundary
equations\342\200\224is an
in detail
discussed in
in
Chapter
Chapter
objective
8. The
9. In
mechanical
properties
Chapter 10, basicconservation
of real
fluids
laws
and
of me-
xtii
Preface
XIV
to the Third
Edition
features of the flows of ideal and

of
theories
viscous fluids, boundary
layer theory, linearized theory of elasticity,
new.
is
last
described.The
are
waves
13,
Chapter,
bending and torsion, and elastic
It deals
when it is subjected to stress.
It deals with long-term
changes in material
It is concerned
with the stressand remodeling of materials.
with
active
chanics
are given. In
growth
law.
Chapters 11 and
12, some
growth
textbooks of fluid and

with the materials discussedin traditional
9 and 13 may seem
in
considered
some of the materials
Chapters
solid mechanics,
in
the
sense
exotic
of being rare.
not
are
exotic. But they are not. They
certainly
or
are certamly
rubber
like
solids
muscle,
or
blood
heart,
lung,
Fluids like
paint;
about their
and precious; and it does not hurt to learn something
common
Compared
constitutive
equations.
A large number
of problems
is dispersed
throughout the book. Many
are new
and
design,
problems
that
are
exercises
10,
Chapters
especially
in the text.
derived
some of the formulas
train the reader in applying
obtains a clear idea about the stress, strain, and constitutive
If the reader
from this book, and knows how to use them in formulating scientific and
equations
edition. Most
problems for inventing.
for this
are
engineering problems, I
problems
A few,
shall
for formulation,
in
for
2 and
be very happy.
This
7.
C. Fung
La Jolla,
California
book is
a series of
intended for
courses
in
students
mechanics.
who are beginning

of science and engineering
have had courses
normally
students
At this
stage,
course
differential equations.
vector analysis,
and solid
physics,
in calculus,
for studies in fluid
foundation
a
mechanics then provides
i in continuum
and
of science engineering.
and other branches
sciences,
be physical rather
mechanics, material
should
the
approach
for a beginner,
mechanics
It is my opinion that,
continuum
use
who
To engineers and physicists
of conception
mathematical.
than
in its simplicity
lies
of the subject
attraction
introduced to
constantly, the primary
the students should be
Therefore,
in applications.
concreteness
and
as
the applications as soon possible.
he must find answers
questions
or
engineer, the important
field
For the scientist
the governing
I
state
the problem? How shall
I formulate
What
to are: How shall
alternate
hypotheses?
How shall I choose
conditions?
and boundary
How
equations
or improve my hypotheses?
or
deny
would justify
How much time is
kind of experiments
errors
appear?
Where
might
which
the investigation be?
should
are questions
exhaustive
At what cost? These
solution?
reasonable
a
obtain
to
analyses
which
employ
required
of spthesis,
and are questions
\"first
concern active investigators,
the scope of this
are
beyond
these
to
questions
answers
reader
the
ask
as tools. Complete
In this book, I often
but we can make a good beginning.
and
course,\"
his equations
solve
can
he
of whether
regardless
have read
who
formulate
problems,
to
many students
known
have
mathematical subtleties.!
a problem
understandall the
without ever formulating
exercises
of
and worked innumerable
books
problems
many
many
to generate
will learn the other way,
I
they
They
of their own. hope
subtleties of solutions.
to discover the methods and
own and then strive
and elementary
their
xv
-Mi
Preface
Kvi
to the
First
Edition
nature and to think

of problems in engineering
to
write
down
a
step
possible set of governing
equations
and boundary conditions. This \"first step\"\342\200\224to
derive
the basic governing
equations\342\200\224is
the object of this book. Perhaps
it is justifiable for a \"first course\"
to be
concerned only with this first step. But the preparation required
for taking this
For such a step to be firm,
one would have to understand
the
step is extensive.
basic concepts of mechanics
and their mathematical expressions.To be able to use
with confidence
these basic equations
one must know their origins and their
derivations.
the discussions of basic ideas must be thorough. It is for this
Therefore,
reason that the first ten chapters of this book are rather
and detailed.
comprehensive
As for the organization of the book: At the outset, the concept of continua
of stress and strain follows.
is explained. Then a thorough treatment of the concepts
stress and strain, and the
The practical
of determining the principal
techniques
in
of
are
two
separate chapters. The
concept compatibility,
given emphasis
description
of motion is considered. In Chapter
7, an idealized specification of fluids and
of isotropy is described in detail in
solids is presented. The important
concept
fluids and solids appear
Chapter 8. Data on the mechanical properties of common
in Chapter
treatment
of the basic conservation
laws
9. In Chapter 10, a thorough
of perfect fluids,
of physics is given.
with Chapter 11, somefeatures
Beginning
theories
of
viscous flow, boundary
layer theory, linearized theory of elasticity,
and
described
The
and
elastic
waves
are
last
two
torsion,
bending
briefly.
chapters
a glimpse into the rich fields of fluid and solid mechanics;
to treat them
provide
comprehensively would require many volumes at a more advanced mathematical
level. The introduction given
here should prepare the student to enter these fields
should be
encouraged to
and then to take
with
the
reader
from this
mathematics
and
physics.
of this book was a pleasant experience.

My wife, Luna, cooperated
she gave up her teaching
when I
A mathematician,
career
the
task.
throughout
the
came to La Jolla. Willing to learn some mechanics, she worked through
that
Many passagesare clearer becauseof her declaration
manuscript very thoroughly.
she did not understand.
at the
My friend, Chia-Shun Yih, Timoshenko Professor
read through the manuscript and gave me many
valuable
University of Michigan,
comments. I am also grateful
to Drs. Pin Tong of the Massachusetts
Institute of
Technology and Gilbert Hegemier of the University of California, San Diego,for
The
writing
Edition
observe
the stress, strain, and constitutive

obtains clear ideas about
this
I
consider
would
book,
introductory text a success.Beyond
equations
is provided. Many
are
discussions
this, only a sketch of someclassical
problems
as an integral part of the text.
given in the exercises, which should be regarded
I have quoted frequently
and borrowed
book,
heavily from my previous
which can be used for a course following
the
Foundations of Solid Mechanics,
\"first
course\"
at
the
one.
for
this
was
for
class
The
material
organized
present
my
where
on
San
the
curriculum
offers
of
California,
Diego,
University
emphasis
The book should be useful
for
general sciencesbefore specialization.
undergraduates
and younger graduate students who have a reasonable background in
If
First
the first
ease.
greater
Preface
to the
made the
work a pleasure.
:1
Y.
C. Fung
La Jolla,
California
i
5
FIIST
COUISE
IN CONTINUUM
MECHANICS
The
definition
examples
elementary
1.1
THE
OBJECTIVE
Our
OF THIS
vague questions
to cultivate a habit of
and
for
materials
real-world
through which basic ideas
is presented,
of mechanics
as are
evolved.
COURSE
is to learn how
objective
reduce
engineering
of continua
to
formulate
and ideas into
problems
precise
designing,
analyzing,
questioning,
in mechanics and how
mathematical
statements, as well
and inventing
in
to
as
science.
is flying above us. The

a few questions. Suppose an airplane
Let us consider
How
must be under strain in order to support the passengers and freight.
much strain are the wings subjected to? If you were flying a glider, and an anvil
would carry the craft higher.
current
Dare you fly
the thermal
cloud appeared,
into the cloud? Have the wings sufficient strength? Ahead you see the Golden
Gate Bridge. Its cables support a tremendous load. How does one desip such
cables?The cloud contains water and the countryside needs that water. If the cloud
were seeded,would that produce rain? And would the rain fall where needed?
Would
the amount of rainfall be adequate and not produce a flood? In the distance
station.
How is the heat transported
in the reactor?
is a nuclear reactor power
there
in the reactor? How doesone assess
the
kind of thermal stresses are there
What
What happens to the earth in an
against
earthquakes?
safety of the power station
about the globe, you may wonder how the continents float,
earthquake? Thinking
What changes
move, or tear apart. And how about ourselves: How do we breathe?
take placein our lungs if we do a yoga exercise and stand on our heads?
are concerned
with force, motion,
all these questions
flow,
Interestingly,
or
external
interaction
between
of
bodies,
matter,
deformation,
energy, properties
between one part of a body and another part; and changes in
interaction
internal
or irreversibly. These changes,
or permanently,
reversibly
matter,
temporarily
can be reduced to certain
with the axiomsof continuum
mechanics,
together
wings
differential
precise
equations
quantitative
and boundary
conditions. By
information. In
this
book,
solving
we deal
such equations, we obtain

the fundamental
prin-
with
Introduction
Chap.
Sec. 1.5
Our
Definition
of a Continuum
and boundary conditions. Although

equations
ciples that underlie these differential
we shall not
once
they are formulated,
it would be nice to solve these
equations
formulation:
detail.
Our
is
in
solutions
their
in discussing
objective
becomeinvolved
the
formal reduction of general
1.2 APPLICATIONSTO SCIENCE
AND
ideas to
form.
a mathematical
TECHNOLOGY
taken in this book will be aimed at serving science

approach
to the student; hence, the
the
I
want
and
applications to be apparent
technology.
of scientific
to be solved are often stated in terms
the
and
problems
examples
to
with
A person's frame of mind
designing
regard
research or engineering
design.
The
mathematical
things, devices, methods, theories,

a habit.
strengthened
by constant practice\342\200\224byforming
and
1.3
WHAT
inventing
domains
can be
and experiments
A sequence of spatial
converging on P.
1.1
Figure
limiting
value
is defined
as the
of the
density
at the
mass distribution
point P
and
by p(P):
is denoted
(1.4-2)
P(P)=lin3.
IS MECHANICS?
K\342\200\236->0
of matter
and the forces that
Mechanics is the study of the motion (or equilibrium)

is based on the concepts of time,
Mechanics
cause such motion (or equilibrium).
is needed for the
of mechanics
A
and
matter.
knowledge
force, energy,
space,
and
of
engineering.
branches
biology,
of
all
chemistry,
physics,
study
If the
density is well
defined
distributed.
considerationcan
so on.
energy, and
A similar
of
density
be used
and
PROTOTYPE
OF A
CONTINUUM:THE
DEFINITION
We say that
from mathematics.
of a continuum is derived
The classical concept
real numbers
Between
any two distinct
the real number system is a continuum.
there are infinitely
many real
real number, and therefore,
distinct
there is another
time
can
we
feel
that
numbers.
Intuitively,
numbers between any two distinct real
can
three-dimensional
that
a
t
and
space
be represented by a real number system
time and
we
z.
number
Thus,
identify
real
three
x,
y,
be
systems
represented
onP:
of
and the
be V\342\200\236
T\342\200\236
form the ratio MJVn. Then if
Per.,
r.cT..\342\200\236
volume
energy exist
in
is continuum
of momentum,
density
is a
material
the mathematical
for
the
which
sense. The
usual
definition
of a material
continuum.
mechanics.
However,
and technology,
no cell aggregate can
either.
by
continuum.
space together as a four-dimensional
to matter, we speak of a continuous
a
continuum
of
the
concept
Extending
illustrated
be
best
by considering the
of matter in space. This may
distribution
its
measured
be
of
matter
mass, and let us
amount
by
concept of density. Let the
1.1. Let us
as
in
a
certain
T0,
matter
Fig.
a
certain
space
assumelhat
permeates
T2, . . . , converging
\302\260VU
consider a point P in T0 and a sequence of subspaces
Let the
continuum
to be continuously
is said
if we adhere
set of
the
because
use to science
to it, it will be of no
would
no
rigorously
gas
For example,
such a definition is empty.
real-world systemssatisfying
And no
free
mean
the
path.
than
smaller
becomes
when
V\342\200\236
satisfy Eq. (1.4-2)
No
sized.
polycrystalline
atomic
becomes
when V\342\200\236
fluid would satisfy the equation
can meet
and no polymer plastic
no ceramic,
structure,
metal or fiber composite
cell, and
no
single
animal,
of
any
no living organism, no tissue
this
requirement;
This is the
CLASSICAL
mass
to define the
material
the densitiesof mass, momentum,

a material continuum
mechanics
of such
1.4 A
in V0, the
everywhere
the
mass of the
limit of
(1.4-1)
(\302\253 i,2,...).
matter
exists
MJV\342\200\236
contained
as n
->
We
be M\342\200\236.
in T\342\200\236
<\302\273
-\302\273
and V\342\200\236
0, the
1.5 OUR
DEFINITION
OF A
CONTINUUM
to the classical approach

in a way similar
as a continuum
will be bounded below
the size of V\342\200\236
that
in the preceding section,except
isomorphism
presented
one-to-one
a
to have
will not be required
the material particles
and
and have voids
discrete
be
may
The material
particles
the real number system.
P
with
a
of the material, consider point
of the density
the
For
concept
with
between them.
in
.
V0,
T,, T2,. . , T\342\200\236
also a sequence of subspaces
in a space T0. Consider
the next one and all enclosing
each
enclosing
V\342\200\236
respectively,
volumesVx, V2,...,
We shall
define
a material
Introduction
P. As n
the
->
with
an acceptable
as n -> co. The

quantity
acceptablevariability
<e
'n
said to be the
is then
density
of the
at P
material
with an
e in a
Sec. 1.6), we
unit
volume
acceptable
and the
OF
STRESS
(see
and it
would
shall
deal
be
IN OUR DEFINITION
OF A CONTINUUM
Consider
a material
S within
B,
B
and
occupying
consider
a spatial
region
the interaction
(Fig.
Fipre 1.2
Stress
principle.
variability
with the force acting

on
to
consider
a
whether
limit
necessary
of force
per unit area exists at any point on the surface with an acceptable variability
in a defining limit area. If it does exist,
then the limit is called the traction
or stress,
and the collective entity
of tractions in every
orientation
of the surface is called
the stress tensor. Further, in
the change of spacingbetween
Chap. 5 we shall consider
and define the strain tensor. The existence
particles
of strain components will be
associated with an acceptable
variability and a defining limit length.
of acceptable
If, with a clear understanding
variabilities and defining
limit
lengths, areas, and volumes, the density,
momentum,
energy, stress, and strain
can be defined at every point in the
spaceT0, and if they are all continuous functions
of spatial
coordinates in V0, then we say that the material
in V0 is a continuum.
If a material is a continuum
in the classical sense, then it is also a continuum
in our sense. For a classicalcontinuum
the acceptable
variability and the defining
limit length, area, and volume are zero.
In other
books on continuum
the authors say or imply that to
mechanics,
decide whether
continuum
mechanics is applicable to scienceand
is a
technology
matter for the experimenters in each discipline to decide. I
that every
say instead
experimenterknows that the classical theory does not apply; hence, it is the
of the theorist to refine
the theory to fit the real world. Our
responsibility
approach does
fit
fields
of
science
and
many
technology;the need to specify acceptable variabilities
and
defining dimensions is the price we pay.
surface
Continuum
Real
M\342\200\236
^
defining limit volume w.

We define the momentum of the material
particles per
each associated
per unit volume similarly,
with an
THE CONCEPT
Abstract Copy of a
1.7
e if
variability
and a defining volume. Later

a surface of a material
body,
1.6
Sec.
tends to a finite
of V\342\200\236
w. Let the mass of
positive number
in T\342\200\236
be M\342\200\236.
The sequence of the ratios M\342\200\236IV\342\200\236
is said to have
enclosed
p--
energy
the limit
\302\260\302\260,
material
limit
Chap.
1.2). Imagine a closed

material
outside S
on the location and size of the area and the

The force Af depends
that as AS tends to a small
the assumption
of the normal. We introduce
orientation
limit
dfldS with an acceptable
a
to
tends
AF/AS
definite
but boundedsize a, the ratio
AS about
the
on
the
any point
moment
the
surface
of force acting
variability e, and
an acceptable
with
boundedarea
a
but
small
the
limit
in
vanishes
area
the
of
within
as
will be written
vector
variability. The limiting
normal.
v of
to denote the direction of the normal
the superscript v is introduced
and
or
stress
the
the
called
T
is
vector,
vector
traction,
the surface AS. The limiting
the
surface.
on
area
unit
acting
represents the force per
closed surface S in the
that there is defined upon any imagined
The assertion
field whose action on the material
occupying
interior of a continuum a stress vector
upon it
to S is equipollent to the action of the exterior material
interior
the
where
space
as an axiom;
and Cauchy. We accept this principle
is the stress principle
ofEuler
is no a priori
there
For
example,
however, it is no more than a basic simplification.
the surface
of
the
two
sides
on
material
of
the
interaction
why the
justification
the
who
do
not
like
some
momentless.
be
Indeed,
people
element AS must
about any point
idea that the moment of the forces acting on the surface AS
restrictive
of the stress
the area vanishes in the limit have proposed a generalization
within
in a
element
surface
small
across
that
any
principle of Euler and Cauchy, namely,
to
is
interior
the
material
exterior
equipollent
upon
material, the action of the
stress and
of
the
The
couple
concept
theory
a force and a couple.
requires
resulting
So far, no real application
theory.
is much more complex than the conventional
has been found for the couple-stress theory; hence, we shall not discuss it further
in this book.
between the
and that in the interior. Let AS be a small surface element

on S. Let us draw,
from
a point on AS, a unit vector v normal to AS, with its direction
outward
pointing
from the interior of S. Then
we can
the two sides of AS
to
distinguish
to which this normal
1.7 ABSTRACT
COPY
OF A
REAL
CONTINUUM
according
the direction of v. Let the side

vector points be called the
side. Consider the part of material lying on the
positive
side. This part
positive
exerts
a force AF on the other
on the negative side of the
part, which is situated
Once it
is decided that
a material
an abstract copy of the

make
The abstract copy is isomorphic
as a continuum, one can

to the classical definition.
with the real number system: It is an idealization
real
body can be regarded

material according
Introduction
Chap.
1.9 AXIOMS
The
need
entirely
different
1.8 WHATIS CONTINUUM
MECHANICS
axioms
we
ABOUT?
shall
call
a continuum
in this
thermodynamics
of
Continua
book.
There are three
axioms of continuum mechanics. First,

additional
a material
under the action of forces.Hence,two particles
continuum remains a continuum
that are neighbors at one time remain neighbors at all times. We do allow bodies
must be
to be breakable (i.e., they can be fractured); but the surfacesof fracture
identified as newly created external surfaces. In living bodies, we allow new growth
new cells migrated
mass increased,
into an area of
cellular or extracellular
(e.g.,
cells by division) and resorption (cellular
or proliferated from existing
the
body,
out of an area of the body,
or cells
mass reduced, cells migrated
or extracellular
washed away by blood, or absorbed in tissue). Each newly
died and subsequently
added or resorbed cell creates a new surface in the body.
The second axiom of continuum mechanics is that stress, as described in Sec.
in Chap. 5, can be defined
in the body.
everywhere
1.6, and strain, as described
The third axiom of continuum mechanicsis that the stress at a point is related to
the strain and the rate of change of strain with respect to time at the same point.
It asserts that the stress at any point
This axiom is a great simplifying
assumption.
on
the
deformation
in the immediate
in the body depends
only
neighborhood of
be
influenced
other
This
stress-strain
that
by
parameters,
relationship may
point.
muscle contraction, ion
electric charges, nerve impulses,
as temperature,
such
transport, etc., but these influences can be studied separately.
1.10 A
OF A
EXAMPLE
BIOLOGICAL
DEPENDING
THE
ON
SIZE OF
OF CONTINUA
HIERARCHY
THE OBJECTINVOLVED
INQUIRY
with telescopic views of the sky

We are familiar
ceramics.
As scales of observation
and
tissues, metals,
An
different.
enclosed in a closed surface a body. The surface may

be real, like the skin of a man or the shell of an airplane. But it may also be
imaginary, visualized to enclosea bit of space.
Real-world material
are subjected to forces acting
on their bodies
objects
and electromagnetic
(such as gravitational
forces) and forces acting on their surfaces
We
a Hierarchy
of continuum mechanics. In
of physics are taken as the axioms
use Newton's laws of motion and the first and second laws of
IN A SCIENTIFIC
descriptions.
of
MECHANICS
OF CONTINUUM
particular,
system.
The constitutive
of an abstract copy of a real material
in a certain
equation
of another copy of the
range of sizes may differ from the constitutive
equation
same material in a different
of the real
range of sizes. If the constitutive
equations
material
were the same for consecutive
of sizes, then the abstract copy has
ranges
one constitutive equation in the total range. If the constitutive equations of the
real material are different
in different ranges of sizes, then
the abstract copies in
successive
constitutive
a
ranges of sizes have different
equations. This is indeed
useful feature of our system, because it allows us to recognize
different structures
of an object at different dimensionsof observation,
to ask different questions at
different
levels of sizes, and to gain a better understanding of the whole.
The hierarchy of the constitutive
dimensions
of
equations at different
observation of a material is related
to the similarity or dissimilarity
of the structure of
the
at different dimensions.The structure
material
of a material may be fractal,
in successive ranges of sizes;or it may not be fractal. For example,
i.e., self-similar
the
of the lung, from the largest
bronchi to the
geometric
pattern of the airways
smallest
fractal
in
is
structure, so the bronchi in this range of sizes
bronchioles,
can be expected
to obey the same constitutive equation. The structural
of
pattern
the alveolar ducts, from the respiratory bronchiole to the alveolar sacs, is another
a different constitutive
is expected to hold in this range.
fractal;
hence,
equation
The pulmonary
alveoli\342\200\224thealveolar
walls\342\200\224are
not fractal at all; neither are the
and elastin fibers in the alveolar walls. Hence, their mechanical
collagen
properties
Example
Biological
be transmitted
idealized
the
wind and rain, burdens

to be carried, and loads to
pressure,
(such as atmospheric
to a remote place).If the body is a continuum
in the sense described
in the preceding
section, then we would want to know how the material in the
forces. The determination
of the internal condition of
body reacts to the external
a body in response to external forces is what continuum mechanics is about.
real material.
The rules of idealization are as follows:

The mass density of
in
is
the
same
as
the
real
one
the
of
When
its definition.
system
range
a set of forces is applied
and the abstract
to both the real material
the stress
copy,
and strain of the two systems are the same,exceptthat the calculus of the idealized
that of the real material
can be carried out rigorously,
whereas
would have
system
a limitation on the lower bound of sizes and a statistical variability
that must be
of the real material
evaluated. The constitutive
is used to describe the
equation
real
the
idealized
The
mechanical
of
satisfies
the equations
copy.
system
properties
of motion (or equilibrium), continuity, and balanceof energy of the idealized system
a library full of results
with
errors
whose bounds can be calculated.
Often,
concerning the abstract
copy exists and can be borrowed. The known,
acceptable
dimensions
will allow us to evaluate
the difference between
variability and defining
and let us know something about
the
real material and the abstraction
the real
of the
Sec. 1.10
is the human
composed of three
example
to be
considered
venous tree. Theairway

which
enter
speaking)
called
tree
lung.
trees:
and microscopic views of cells,

the object appears
change,
Figure 1.3
an airway
is for ventilation.
shows that the

tree, an arterial
The trachea
is divided
lung may
tree,
be
and a
into bronchi,
the lung and subdivide repeatedly (in humans, 23 times,

statistically
into smaller and smaller branches and, finally, into the smallest units,
pulmonary
alveoli.
Figure
1.4 shows a
photograph of human
alveoli,
as seen
Introduction
Chap.
sketch showing the lung as composed of

Figure 1.3 A conceptual
three trees: the airway tree (trachea-bronchi-bronchioles-alveolar
arterial tree (arteriesducts-alveoli), shown on the left; the pulmonary
arterioles-capillaries), shown at the center; and the pulmonary venous
tree (venules-veins-left
atrium), shown on the right. Total height on
the order of 40 cm.
in a microscope. The photo covers a small area within the little circle on the left
in Fig. 1.3. The walls
border of the leftmost drawing
of the alveoli are capillary
blood vessels. Every wall of each alveolus is exposed to gas on both sides. The
also bifurcates again and again until it becomes
pulmonary
artery
capillary blood
vessels that he in the alveolar wall. The venous tree begins with the capillaries in
the alveolar wall. The veins converge repeatedly until they become pulmonary
veins, which enter the left atrium of the heart. The main function of the lung takes
blood takes up oxygen from the gas in the alveoli
place in the alveoli. The venous
and releases carbon dioxide
to the alveolar gas. The gas exchange
takes place across
the
a micrograph
alveolar
wall. Figure 1.5 shows
of the alveolar walls enclosed
in
a small circle on the left border of Fig. 1.4. Figure
1.6 shows the collagen fibers
in the alveolar walls. The collagen
fibers were stained with
silver and appear as
black bundles. The collagen
fibers
are formed by fibrils. Fibrils are formed by
molecules. One could go on to smaller hierarchies consisting
of molecules,
collagen
atoms, nuclei, and quarks.
on what property of the lung we wish to investigate,
we may
Depending
consider the lung as a continuum at successivehierarchies.
For example, if one is
interested
the difference in strain in the upper part of the human
in comparing
then the individual
from that in the lower
alveoli
can be considered
lung
part,
and one can speak of deformation
infinitesimal
averaged over volumes that are
large compared with the volume of a single alveolus,but small compared with the
whole
in studying the interaction
lung. Such an approximation would be appropriate
Introduction
10
Figure 1.5 A
circle on the
in the walls
view of
magnified
the
alveolar
left border of Fig. 1.4, showing

(also called
the interalveolar
Chap.
Sec. 1.10
Biological
Example
of
a Hierarchy
of
11
Continua
walls enclosed in a small

the capillary blood
septa).
A =
alveolar
vessels
gas
space.
the distribution
of pleural pressure, or the
is related to
lung (becauseventilation
alveolar
For these problems, a hierarchy
with
size, which is proportional to the strain).
a minimum dimension on the order of 1 cm will suffice. On the other hand,
if one
is interested in the blood flow in the large pulmonary
then the blood can
artery,
and the blood vessel wall can be regarded as
be regarded as a homogeneous fluid
a continuum,
with a minimum dimensionfor the definition of stress and strain on
the
order
of 10 urn. If one is interested instead in the stress in a single alveolar
wall
(with a plane area on the order of 100 x 100|xm2 and a thickness of about
10 u,m), then even the individual
and elastin fibers in the wall cannot be
collagen
and the wall must be considered
a composite structure made of several
ignored,
different
materials and constructed in a special way. What
lands of averages are
useful
on what the purpose of one'sinvestigation
is. Engineers,
depend
biologists,
and
are concerned about these questions.
We bend the classical
physicists
continuummechanics
in this direction to make it useful for dealing
with practical
between the
distribution
problems.
lung
and
the chest
of ventilation
in
wall,
the whole
Figure 1.6
lung
inflated
Collagen
fibers
to a transpulmonary
in a
pulmonary
pressure
alveolar
(alveolar
wall
gas
of
a human
pressure
minus
on border; 800 pixels

of 10 cm H20. Scale is marked
are equal to 200 |xm in tissue. OsO, fixed. Silver stained. Black lines
are collagen fibers. Larger ones are about 1 urn wide. From Sobin,
and Elastin Fibers in
S.S., Fung, Y.C., and Tremer, H.M., \"Collagen
Alveolar Walls,\" /. Appl. Physiology
Human Pulmonary
64(4): 1659-
pleural
pressure)
1675,1988. Reproduced by
permission.
12
Introduction
1.11 ELEMENTARY
Sec. 1.11
EVOLVED
on
As an introduction
to the
rest
that are
useful
and
simpleand
include Newton's
mechanics.
These
of the
some
book,
that have been fundamental
in the history of
the equations of equilibrium,
of motion,
laws
elementary
a plate, and a
diagrams, the analyses of a truss, a beam, a block,
shell, and the classical beam theory. If you are familiar with these topics, you can
If some points are new to you, I can assure you that learning
go over them quickly.
them would not be a waste of your time.
of free-body
If I
= /,
Let K
7th
be
particle
consists of an
of mutual
that is the
resultant
laws are
that
space
obeys
stated with
Euclidean
to material
respect
geometry. A
particles in
material
positive
of the particle can be described

mass of the particle. The location
frame
Cartesian
of
reference. It is assumed
that an
to
a
rectangular
respect
with
to
which
the
Newtonian
inertial frame of reference
exists,
respect
equations
of motion are valid. It can be shown that any frame of reference moving with a
frame is again
inertial.
Consider a
with respect to an inertial
uniform velocity
velocity, and acceleration of this particle be
particle of mass m. Let the position,
denoted by the vectors x, v, and a, respectively, all defined in an inertial frame of
the
measure,
with
reference.By
dx
a =
It>
total
force acting
on the
(11W)
Jf
= 0,
If F
particle.
v =
F t4 0,
then Newton'ssecond law
Newton's
then
dt
Eq. (1.11-3)
states
is written
as an equation
appears
first law
inertial
jtat
Wf +
+
F\342\200\236,
(/
\302\245? \302\243
ja\\
(1.11-6)
F\342\200\236.
. , K).
1,2,..
(1.11-7)
particle
system.
(1.11-2)
Equilibrium
acceleration
i.e., one in which there is no
is equilibrium,
A special motion
particles of the system.
becomes
At equilibrium, Eq. (1.11-7)
= ma.
(1.11-3)
K
(I
Summing
over
I from 1
to K, we
obtain
of two
(1.11-4)
forces. The
term
-ma
In the
last
is called
sum,
Wu
appears,
consider
is influenced
a system
by all the
of particles
other particles
that
interact
in the
with each
system. Let
an
other.
index
That
/ denote
the
is, for a body

body
(1.11-9)
also;
appears
(1.11-5). Therefore, Eq. (1.11-9)

2 Ff
Every
Fj,
is zero.
in
equilibrium,
(1.11-8)
= 0.
reduces
to Eq.
according
whenever
for any
= l,2,...,K).
Fi,
+ \302\243
\302\243
\302\245?
\302\243
(-ma) = 0,
of equilibrium
= 0,
+ SF\342\200\236
Fl\302\243)
force.
Now,
The totality of K equations

is described by such an equation.
describes the motion of the system.
Wu
how the forces of interaction
To make further progress, we must specify
material
of
the
property of
is a statement
can be computed. Such a specification
material
the
of
constitutive
equation
and is referred to as a
the system of particles
Each
D'Alembert'sprinciple.
particle
m,v,
that
states that the sum of the external

force acting
Equation (1.11\342\200\2244)
the
and the inertial force vanishes;
on a particle
i.e., the inertial force balances
called
of
motion
stated
in
this
is
external force. The Newtonian
way
equation
the
Thus,
particles.
Jth particle is, therefore,
of the
of motion
as
F +
it
constant.
= F, or F
-mv
When
between
dv
states that
If
in agreement
definition,
Let F be the
(1.11-5)
0.
F\342\200\236
a three-dimensional
has a unique,
particle
summed)
interaction
F,
The equation
Newton's
particle
with Eq. (1.11-5).

force
The
F, that acts on the
in the system.
the total number of particles
force
an internal
and
as
such
gravity,
external force F'c),
(/ not
=
we set F\302\273 0,
then
Laws of Motion
Newton's
of
= -\302\245\342\200\236
or
Fa
F\342\200\236
topics
the use
that
F\302\273,
and
by particle number
J. Then Newton's third
exerted
states that
law
us consider
let
number
particle
of interaction
particle I on
the force
denote
13
Which BasicIdeas Evolved
through
Topics
Elementary
particle. Let Fw
the 2th
WHICH BASICIDEAS
THROUGH
TOPICS
Chap. 1
they
add
up to
(1.11-10)
= 0.
the summation
zero,
to
of all
external
forces
acting on
14
Introduction
Next, let us
consider the
Chap.
Sec.1.11
through
Topics
Elementary
15
of a body to rotate. If a body is pivoted

F;, then the moment of the force about 0
that
tends to cause the body to rotate
about 0 is given by the vector product r, x
F;, where 17 is a radius vector from 0 to any point on the line of action of the force
F,. Forming a vector product
of r, with Eq. (1.11-8),i.e., with every term of that
at a point 0
I =
equation, setting
1 to K,
/from
on
is acted
and
and
by
1,2,...
tendency
a force
K,
the results
adding
to simplify
Eq. (1.11-5)
using
2 r, x
The choice of
of
equilibrium
the
the
on the body
acting
point 0
is arbitrary.
body: The
about
FfJ
together, i.e., summing

grand total, we obtain
0.
of the
over
(1.11-11)
we obtain the
Hence,
summation
point
any
the
second condition
moments of all
the external
Figure 1.7 A simply-supported,

truss loaded by a force
pin-jointed
of the joints,
W. (a) Nomenclature
of
(a, b,...),
and the lengths of the

members, (L). (b) Forces in
members when W = 1. + for
- for
The
forces
is zero.
tension,
Use of Free-BodyDiagram
in the
Analysis of
Problems
The word
body or the phrase a system

of particles used in the previous section can
be interpreted
in the most general way.
If a machine is in equilibrium,
every part
of it is in equilibrium.
By a proper selectionof the parts to be examined, a variety
of information
can be obtained.
This method is like a surgeon's
of a
exploration
diseased organ by biopsy. With imagined sections, we cut free certain
parts of the
conditions
of equilibrium. A diagram
body and examine their
of the part with all
the external forces
on
it
acting
clearly indicated is called a free-body diagram. The
method
we use is therefore called
the free-body method.
Let us
first
truss as a free
compute
body.
It
the reactions at the two supports. Consider the whole

forces:
to three external
W, RL, and RR [Fig.
is subjected
The conditionsof equilibrium
1.7(b)].
(1) Summation
of vertical
are:
is zero:
forces
= Q.
W-RL-R\302\253
Example 1.
of a
Analysis
Trussesare frame
construction
sites,
typical truss
bolted
that
Truss
(2)
structures
TV towers,
of a small
together.
railway
The joints at
the members
are joined
seen
commonly
radio
astronomical
bridge.
a,b,c,.
together
the
horizontal
reaction from the
bridges,
buildings, lifts in
etc. Figure 1.7(a)
It is made of steel members
ab,
be,
truss.
foundation
The support at /
is eliminated.
rests on
of moments
Summation
about the
W-3L shows
ac,...,
. . may be considered pin joints, meaning

with pins and are free to rotate relative to
at the ends a and /, which anchor
supported\"
each other. The whole truss is \"simply

the truss but impose no moment on the
that
in
antennas,
a roller
so
Trusses are made with slender members. The weights

of these members are
with the load carried
compared
by the truss. Hence, as a first approximation,
we may ignore the weights of the members.
Since
each member is pin jointed and is considered
weightless, the condition
of equilibrium
of the member requires that
the pair of forces
coming from the
joints must be equal and opposite. Hence, each member can transmit forces only
along its axis.
Let the truss be loaded with a weight W at the center (point g). We would
like to know the load acting in various members of the truss.
compression.
triangles on members ab, be, ef

and vertical
show the horizontal
and the resultant of
components
the load in these members.
point
a is
zero:
= 0.
RR-6L
The solutions are RR = RL = WI2.

we wish to know the tension in the members ab and ac. For this purpose,
Next,
ab'c'
ab and ac with an imaginary plane and consider the portion
we cut through
as a free body [see Fig. 1.7(c)]. At the cut and exposed end b', the tension Fo6 acts
in the member ab. The tension
Foc acts at the cut c' of ac. At the support, a force
all the forces in the
W/2 acts (the reaction RL just computed). Now, summing
of F, we obtain
F denote the magnitude
vertical direction, and letting
small
Since
sin 0
0 = 45\302\260,
Summing
all
the
Fab
= 0.
= V2/2, and we obtain Fab = -W/V2.

forces in the horizontal direction yields
Foi cos 0
Hence, for 0
sin 0
and
45\302\260
Fab
Fac
- W/V2, we
= 0.
obtain
Fac = WI2.
Introduction
16
ChapTl
Feg
1, we obtain
of the truss.
Hef
cut
we compute the tensions in the members df, ef, and eg. We pass a
a
free
the
truss
as
of
left
body
the
consider
and
members
portion
these
we resolve the tension in the member ef into
For convenience,
Next,
through
1.7(d)].
forces
Vsf. All the external
Hef and the vertical
two components: the horizontal
are:
conditions
in Fig. 1.7(d). The equilibrium
on this free body are shown
acting
[see Fig.
-W/2.
obtain
similar
Example
2. A
in
e/is
illustrates
Simply
through/'
andg'.
a simply
compressive
member
that resists
supported beam.
Summation
of all
resist moment.
Let us
(2) Summation
of all
+ Fes = 0.
+ v.-o.
y
(3)
of moments
y-2L
(4) Sum
of moments
about the
point
F(yL
about the
3, we obtain
reactions
+ 0-F1,+
are supported
at the supports are
0-F,
-W;
in
an imaginary plane
perpendicular
that
do not
W/2.
obviously
to
on pins
load. For
this
purpose,
let us
at a distance x from
of the left portion of the
the beam
the free-body
of all
forces
in the horizontal direction
vanish:
H = Q.
(2)
Sum of all forces
(3)
Sum
in
the
vertical
direction
vanish:
= 0.
= 0.
=
1.8(a)
the beam resists the external
point/vanish:
Fdf
Fig.
e vanish:
condition
The
Consider
(1) Sum
y3L.-JVL
Hence, from
beam
M,
Sum
discussed
by
shown in
of the
the left
forces vanish:
vertical
truss
or compression
the truss resists the load by tension
whereas
and
tensile
distributed
it
continuously
resists
ask how
with
1.8(a)
Figure
diagram
end [Fig. 1.8(b)].
S
cut surface, there acts a \"shear force\"
the
At
in
1.8(b).
Fig.
beam, as shown
a
and
the cut,
couple
force\" H perpendicular to
an \"axial
are
tangential to the cut,
of equilibrium
conditions
The
beam.
the
in
the bending moment
called
horizontal forces vanish:

Fdf + Hcf
by bending.
is similar to the
load
lateral
function
Its
stresses.
The ends
make a cut
(1)
members
Beam
Example 1. However,
beam
in the members, the
the
condition
compression.
Supported
A beam is a solid
to
diagram of a part of the truss
left of the cutting surface
passing
from
other
-W/2; and, finally,

can be done for
calculation
Vcf
Since the load in every member

presented as in Fig. 1.7(b).
member in units of W and
each
in
load
the
is proportional to W, we may express
to know whether a member
it is important
set W equal to 1. For the truss design,
at both ends is said to subject
rod pushed
to tension or compression.(A
is subjected
The
to tension.)
at both ends is said to be subject
to compression; a rod pulled
member
A
in
that
compression.
member in tension is different from
design of a steel
fail by elastic
a member in compressionmay
fail
yielding;
by plastic
in tension
may
the
in
equations
etc.,
preceding
of Fac, Fab, Vc{, Hcf,
buckling. Whereas the signs
(which
the free-body
on
diagram
draw
we
vectors
on the directions of the
depend
of the stress in each member
character
the tension-compression
is done arbitrarily),
the convention
the final result in Fig. 1.7(b), with
is fixed by the load W. We present
member is in
the
is in tension, we give the load a positive sign; if
that
if a member
we see that the
in
1.7(b),
Fig.
sign. Thus,
the load a negative
compression, we give
the
and
and
ac,
eg are in tension;
membersbe,
the
in
is
ab
compression;
member
member
Figure 1.7 (Cont.)(d) Free-body
~Evolv~'
can be
The results
Figure 1.7 (Cont.)(c)Free-body

ab' and
diagram of the members
condition 2, we
= 3W/2; from
\"
Basic ^
>ugh'
/Topi
Elen
Sec.',,,.-.
from
condition 4,
we
obtain
of
the
moments
of all forces
about the
left
end support
vanish:
18
Introduction
Chap.
Sec.
1.11
Elementary Topicsthrough
Which
Basic Ideas
19
Evolved
/7W~
(a)
Figure
1.8
beam,
(a)
A simply supported
A sketch of the beam of
HTTT
L, loaded by a force W. (b)

Free-body
diagram of a part of the
beam to the left of a plane
to the beam axis at a
perpendicular
distance x from the left end. The
length
W_
(a)
S, tension, H, and bending

moment, M, act in the crosssection
at x. (c) The bending
moment
diagram showing the bending
and
moment,
M, in the ordinate
die position
of the cross section, x,
in the abscissa.
The lengm of the
base is L. The maximum
bending
moment is WLI4 and acts in the
crosssection located at x = LI2.
shear,
!b)
1.9
Figure
The
the
Stresses in a
block,
of reference x, y,
(a)
z,
loading, W, acting on the
frame
block,(b) Free-body
the part
of the block
and
diagram of
above the
z = 0. (c) Free-body
diagram
of the upper part of the block cut
vector v
by a plane whose normal
makes an angle 9 with the z-axis.
(d) The force acting on the inclined
with normal vector v is
plane
resolved into a normal force, N,
and a shear force, S. (e) The
and shear
of the normal
variations
stresses acting on die inclined
and t, respectively, are
o-\342\200\236
plane,
plane
in a cross section at a distance x from the left end, the stresses in the beam
are equipollent to a shear force S ~ WI2 and a moment M = Wxl2.
as shown in Fig. 1.8(c). Such a figure is called
As x varies, the moment varies,
a bending moment diagram of a beam subjected to a specific loading. Knowing
the
we
can
the
stresses
in
a
beam.
moment,
acting
compute
bending
[SeeEq. (1.1131)infra.] Beams are generally designed on the basis of the maximum
bending
moments they have to resist.
Thus,
Example
Stresses in
3.
Consider
shown
the
a Block
a block
of solid
plotted
material
in Fig. 1.9(a). The block

stress in the block.
Let us assume
are uniform
stresses
rectangular
that
in
Cartesian
compressed
is a rectangular
by a load W
acting
parallelepiped. We wish
(e)
end, as
on its
sufficiently
the block, i.e., everywhere

coordinates x, y, z, as shown
away from the ends, the

the same. Let us erecta set of
far
in the
figure,
with
the
of the resultant
force is W,
the stress
case, we say that

stress with a magnitude
this
acting
z-axis
an imaginary plane z = 0 through

the
of the upper part of the block, Fig.
on the surface z = 0 must
have a resultant force and a
The stresses
acting
resultant
moment.
Applying
once
the horizontal
that
the
conditions
component of the
of equilibrium
resultant
force
as before,
vanishes,
we
that the
find
vertical
at
that the resultant
and
on a plane
z =
moment is zero. In
0 isa compressive,
normal
parallel to the axis of the block. Let us pass

block and consider the free-body
diagram
1.9(b).
the angle of
8.
to know
component
at a distance
against
inclination,
(1.11-12)
'A'
where A is the
normal
normal
to the axis of
compressed
in
that
cross-sectional
area of the
block
(cut by the plane
z = 0
is
the block). The stress is compressive because the material
It is normal because cr is a force (per unit area)
direction.
20
Introduction
0. We indicate
(normal) to the surface z
by giving it a negative value.
Next, let us make a cut with a plane that is inclined
perpendicular
of the
Chap. 1
Sec.1.11
the compressive nature
1 kilogram
stress
plane. The
normal
inclined
cos(v,
at an
angle 6 to
1 pound
the xy-
to express the orientation of a

is to specify the
plane
vector of the plane. Let v be the unit normal vector
(of unit length) of the
and z be a unit vector in the direction of the
plane,
then vz =
z-axis;
= cos 8. Consider
the
half
the
of
block
as
a
z)
free
as shown
upper
N=-W
The cross-sectional
normal
block cut
denoting the
=
- cos2
8WIA,
cr\342\200\236
S=-Wsin
8.
(1.11-13)
plane v is Alcos 8, where A is the

Dividing
by the area of the surface on which
results
and t, we obtain
by a\342\200\236
area.
cross-sectional
they act and
of the
area
cos6,
by the
N and
t =
- sin 9 cos BWIA.
(1.11-14)
are the normal stress and shear stress, respectively,

on the inclined
acting
surface v. We give the normal stress a\342\200\236
a negative value to indicate
that it is a
compressivestress. If the load W is reversed so that the block is pulled, then the
material on the two sides of the plane v tends to be
pulled apart. We say in that
case that the stress is in tension and indicate that fact
a positive
by assigning cr\342\200\236
These
numerical value.
The sign
convention
of the shear stress will be discussed in Sec. 3.1.
The normal and shear stresses cr\342\200\236
and t vary with the
8. If we plot them
angle
as a function of 6, we obtain
the curves shown in Fig. 1.9(e). We see that cr\342\200\236
is a
maximum when 0 = 0, whereas the shear t reaches a maximum
when
0 = 45\302\260,
and that the maximum
shear is Tmnx = iWIA.
The principal
that we learn from this example
lesson
is that there are two
of stress, normal and shear, whose
values at any given point in a
components
body
of the surface on which the stress acts. Thus,
depend on the direction
stress is a
vector (o-\342\200\236,
with another vector
t) associated
(v). To specify a stress, we have to
two vectors. To specify
the
state
stress
at a given point in a continuum,
specify
fully
of
we must know the stresses acting on all possible planes v
(i.e., sections oriented
in all possible directions).
A quantity such as the state of stress is called a tensor.
this example tells us that stress is a tensorial
Thus,
quantity.
In the International System of Units
(SI Units), the basic unit of force is the
newton
is the meter (m). Thus,
the basic unit of stress
is
(n) and that of length
newton per square meter (n/m2), ox pascal (Pa, in honor of
Pascal). We also have
1 MPa = 1 n/mm2.
A force of 1 n can accelerate a
of mass 1 kg to 1 m/sec2.
body
A force of 1 dyne can accelerate a body of mass 1 gram to 1 cm/sec2.
Hence, 1
= 10\"5 newton.
are some conversion factors:
dyne
Following
per
1 dyne/cm2
1 atmosphere
in Fig. 1.9(c). The balance

of forces requires that the resultant force
on the
acting
plane v (a plane whose unit normal vector is v) is exactly
to
This
-W.
equal
resultant
can be resolved into two components, one normal
and one tangential
to
the surface, as shown
in Fig. 1.9(c). Let these
be N and S,
then [see
respectively;
Fig. 1.9(d)]
221
0.453592
kg
= 6.894757 kPa
(psi)
inch
square
newton
newtons
mass avoirdupois =
1 pound
body,
= 4.448
force
1 pound
way
simplest
= 9.806 65
force (kgf)
= 0.100 n/m2
= 1.013 25 x
105
= 1.013
n/m2
25 bar
1 ton ~ ix
=
n/m2 =
Hg at 0\302\260C 133.322
=
n/m2
1 cm H20 at 4\302\260C 98.063 8
= 0.1 newton sec/m2=
1 poise (viscosity)
1 mm
lcp
= 0.001
21
through
Topics
Elementary
kPa
0.1Pa-sec
Pa-sec
has practical value. If you have large blocks and small

the large ones can take larger loads, and
obviously
blocks of the same material,
break at the same critical state
the small ones can take smaller loads; but both will
look at stresses.
of stress. Hence, engineers
The
notion
Example 4. Stressesin
of stress
a Plate
material.
thickness and homogeneous
plate of uniform
Consider a thin rectangular
distributed
to
a
is
uniformly
subjected
As shown in Figs. 1.10(a) and (b), the plate
z =
and no load on the surface
- \302\261a
and y = \302\2615
load acting on the surfaces x
=
a
is
of a
the stress acting on the edge x
In Fig. 1.10(b), it is shown that
\302\261hl2.
=
a
x
the
on
edge
is equal to the total load
o^ per unit area. (or^.
magnitude
stress
The
x
the
a.)
area of the plate cut by
plane
divided
by the cross-sectional
unit area. In Fig. 1.10(c), it is
= b is of magnitude
per
o-\342\200\236,
the
on
y
edge
acting
= a (t^ is
to a shear stress tv on the edge x
that the plate is subjected
shown
x = a in the direction of the yacting on the edge
to the total shear load
equal
= a) and a shear stress
cross-sectionalarea of the section x
axis, divided by the
= b. o^, ayy, Tfl,, and tyx are called stresses because they are all
t,j on the edge y
in units of force per unit area.
in Fig. 1.10(b), we
to the plate shown
of equilibrium
Applying the equations
=
to
that acting on the
is
-a
x
equal
see that the stress o-K acting on the edge
in Fig.
shown
the
to
of
plate
=
the equations
equilibrium
a. Applying
edge x
=
=
on
a, that ryx y b and
x = -a is equal to t^ on x
1.10(c), we see that t^ on
all forces (stresses
= - b are also equal, and further, that by taking the moment of
y
about the origin
0, we obtain
x cross-sectional
area)
2a-txy-2bh
The
ayy.
If a
Tyx
The
state of stress
state of stress
plate is subjected
[a superposition
of stress
is specified
in
in
the
the
to both
of the
2b-Tyx-2ah
= 0,
or
t^ =
jyx.
specified by axx and

is specified by txy = Tyx.
plate shown in Fig. 1.10(c)
and the shear stresses\342\200\242:\342\200\236,
the normal stresses(xm a\342\200\236
plate shown
condition shown
by the four
in
Fig.
in Fig.
numbers cr^, t%,
1.10(b) is
1.10(b) and (c)], then

=
r^). To
txy, tyx (tyx
the
state
clarify
this
Introduction
22
Chap. 1
Sec. 1.11
through
Topics
Elementary
>
1.11
Figure
A pressurized
(a) A diametrical
shell,
spherical
cross section of the shell in a plane
mi
through the center of the

shell, showing the inner radius, r\342\200\236
the wall
the outer radius, r\342\200\236,
thickness, h, and the internal
passing
fyc
\\
_J\302\273x
-a
\302\253!\302\273\342\200\224
-o 0
t
-b
diagram
1
tt
,yy
p,. (b) A free-body

of a thin slice of the shell
cut by two parallel planes at a small
distance apart, one on each side of
the center of the sphere, and a
flurd plane normal to the first two
and passing through the center of
The circumferential
the sphere.
stress o- is a stress acting on, and
to the last mentioned crossnormal
sectional
plane, or is not uniform
across the wall of the shell. The
value of cr is (a). The value
average
of (o-> is computed in the text.
pressure,
\\
-6
WWII
(b)
(a)
(c)
Stressesin
Figure 1.10
a plate, (a) Side view of a plate in the yzthe stress <r\342\200\236

to
acting in cross sections perpendicular
the y-axis. (b) Plan view of a plate in the *y-plane,
showing the normal
stress o-\342\200\236
to the *-axis and in the
acting on a cross section normal
direction
of the *-axis;
and the normal
stress a\342\200\236
acting on crosssectional plane 1 to y in the direction of y. (c) The shear stress tv is a
force per unit area acting in a plane cross section 1 to the *-axis, and
in the direction
of y-axis. If the outer normal
of the cross section points
in the positive
direction of die r-axis,then a positive tw is a stress
in the positive direction of the y-axis. If the outer normal
pointing
then a positive
in
points to -x direction
t, is a stress vector pointing
-y direction. Similarly,
t,, is a stress vector acting in cross section 1 to
of x.
y and in the direction
showing
plane,
double subscriptnotation,
we specify the rule that the first index
of the stress denotes
the plane on which the stress acts, whereas
the second index denotes the direction
in
which the force acts. Thus, the tensorial character of stress mentioned
at the end
of Example
3 becomes even clearer in the
present example.
(b)
due to
therefore,
wall stress
is ir(r?
rj)
(a-). The
balance of the
forces
in equilibrium
ir(r*
rf)(v) = ,irr?p,
(Ul-15)
or
(cr)
This is a useful
formula
rlPl
pr
'rl-r,
that is valid
(1.11-16)
+ rf
h(ra
as well as thin-walled,
for thick-walled,
Pressurized
The wall
to know
Spherical
If a pressure
normal stress
in
p,
the
acts
on the
wall will
outside of the
shell,
as in
Fig.
1.12,
tensile
<o->
If the
shell is subjected
the resulting
be
Shell
inflated balloon shown in Fig. 1.11(a) is in tension. We would like

stress in the wall. For this purpose,
it is simplest to cut the
as a free body, as
sphere with a diametrical plane and consider the hemisphere
shown
in Fig. 1.11(b). Let the inner radius of the shell be rh the outer radius be
and the thickness of the wall be h = r\342\200\236
r\342\200\236
r,-. The internal
pressure pt acts on
the inner wall. The resultant
force
is irr?p,-. The
pressure
acting on a hemisphere
normal stress in the wall of the shell is not uniform;
the calculation
of this must
await
a general formulation (Chap. 10, et seq.),but it is easy to calculate
the
on a
average tensile stress in the wall. Let (a) be the average normal stress acting
surface normal to the wall (i.e., passing through the center of the sphere).
The
- irr?. The resultant
area of the wall on the diametrical
tensile
force
plane is itrl
of an
the
spherical
shells.
rlp0
Example 5.
requires,
that
to both
(1.11-17)
+ ry
h(r\342\200\236
an internal and
an
external
pressure,
and the
shell
A spherical
external
to
pressure.
subjected
Fiprel.12
wall
24
Introduction
of the
reduce
sphere is very
thin,
then
r-,
r\342\200\236
h;r\342\200\236
r;
Chap.
r, and the foregoing equations
Sec. 1.11
Elementary
of forces
balance
Topics
through
on the
semicircular
acting
in the
ring
25
vertical direction requires
that
to
2{o-s)(r0
r^L = 2r,LPi.
(1.11-19)
Hence,
Example 6.
Pressurized
Circular
Cylindrical
Tanks
Consider a cylindrical
shell subjected
to an internal pressure p\342\200\236
as shown in Fig.
Let us pass two planes perpendicular
to the axis of the cylinder to cut the
1.13(a).
shell into a ring, pass another
to cut the ring
plane through the axis of the cylinder
into two halves, and isolate the semicircular
in Fig.
ring as a free body, as shown
1.13(b). The stress acting on the radial cut CD is normal to the surface and is
directed in the direction of increasing polar angle 6 in polar coordinates; hence, it
will be denoted by or\342\200\236.
As in Example 5, we do not know the exact distribution
of
but if (a0) denotes
Go in the cross section,
the average value
of o-\342\200\236
over the cross
section, then (cre) multiplied by the area (r\342\200\236
force acting in
r)L is the resultant
the cross section CD. Similarly,
the tensile force in the section EF
[Fig. 1.13(b)]
is also
of pressure acting on the inside is
((rs)(r0
r^L. The resultant
2r,Lp,. The
is another
which
very
useful
formula.
exact
consider the
and
plane perpendicular to its axis
can examine the
we
in
as
shown
as a free body,
Fig. 1.13(c),
left half of the tank
x on a cross
direction
axial
the
acts
in
that
stress
axial
o-,
average value of the
- rf).
the area on which
ax acts is it(;^
that
note
We
to
x.
section
perpendicular
a
acts
has
the internal
projected
pressure/),On the other hand, the surface on which
of forces in the axial
area in the axial direction equal to irr}. Hence, the balance
direction yields
If we cut the
cylinder
by a
Trrfc
or
to =
If the
shell
equations
Qj
Ht
wall
are
thin, so that
simplified to
is very
A'
<o-0>
(a)
(1.11-21)
r?)
(ffj},r(r2
(1.11-20)
-^-,
Simple Beam
Consider
tanplar
ra
'-f,
(l-H-22)
î-
r,-
= h
(ux)
and thus,
= r, then
= rt
r\342\200\236
these
(1.11-23)
g.
Theory
a prismatic
beam of a
cross section
as
acting on its ends,
uniform
isotropic
Hookean
material
with
a rec-
M
to a pair of bending moments of magnitude
subjected
is
beam
of
the
section
cross
the
If
in Fig. 1.14(a).
shown
will
beam
the
the
end
moments,
to the
containing
plane
with respect
as shown in Fig. 1.14(b). The deflection
into a circular arc in the same plane,
cross section is
arc because of symmetry, since every
must be a circular
curve
is small
deflection
the
that
Let us assume
strain.
and
subjected to the same stress
of
frame
a
choose
We
rectangular
of the beam).
with the length
(compared
axis of
the
of
direction
the
in
longitudinal
the Jr-axis pointing
reference x y z, with
to x and
to x but in the plane of bending, and z normal
the beam, y perpendicular
at the centroid
of the coordinates will be chosen
The
symmetric
deflect
(c)
Fipre 1.13 A
pressurized
cylindrical tank, (a) The shell seen in a
cross section passing through the central axis of the shell, (b) A freeto
body
diagram of a part of the shell cut by two planes
perpendicular
the central axis and a third plane containing the central axis, (c) A
free-body
diagram of a part of the shell to the left of a plane
to the central axis.
perpendicular
y. [See Fig.
1.14(a).]
of one crosssection,
The deflection
surface
(the
plane y
origin
that will become clear shortly.

of the centroidal
by the deflection
beam can be described
undeflected
the
in
= 0 when the beam is
configuration) and
for reasons
of the
Introduction
26
Chap.
Sec.1.11
Since only
A
must
act on
moments
pure bending
\\r-7V
A is
where
Neutral plane
says
is unstressed
of the
beam, (a) The configuration
1.14 Bending of a prismatic
a uniform bending
bent
beam
The
by
state,
at
zero-stress
(b)
beam
theory, the
of the classical beam
moment M. (c) Under the hypotheses
beam bounded by two crossform of a small segment of the
deformed
in (b) is shown. R is the
sectional planes A and B in (a) and A', B'
which the origin of the
on
surface
neutral
radius of curvature of the
of the
The distribution
coordinates system x, v, z is located,(d)
stress is zero
the beam. The bending
of
cross
section
a
in
stress
bending
the
under
of
v
function
a
linear
is
on the neutral surface, and
to the neutral axis
that plane cross sections perpendicular
assumption
deformation.
in
remain
bending
Fipre
o\"zr
Tjy
7yz
component
to Hooke's
va. We
now
Substituting
Eq.
into
(1.11-25)
this
section. This
- 0
y
make
of stress, whereas <%

we have
law,
the
=
We
now
and
denote
define the last
(1.11-25)
(1.11-29)
j\\.AfdA.
as the
integral
yields
equation
M =
area moment of inertia
of the
cross section
it by I:
a-11-30)
i^lfdA.
Then
the
foregoing
equations
M
may
as*
be written
\302\260a ffo
r~'-
Yi
\342\226\240Mc
cr\302\260=
ci 11
ia\\
(i.n-31)
T'
c'
edge of the cross

stress in the beam.
The stress ct0 is the largest bending
section. [See Fig. 1.14(d).]
outer edgeof the
the
stress because it is associated with
It is called the outer fiber
For a rectangular
of the cross-sectional geometry.
a
beam cross section, /is property
we have c =
in
shown
Fig. 1.14(a),
h and width b, as
cross section with depth
where c is the
W2
and
/ =
largest
distance
from the
neutral
surface
to the
~\302\253r\\
formulas
E-.
\342\200\242Ee^r
the cross
(1.11-28)
(1.11-24)
a stress
centroidal
M^jja^dA.
cross sections
surface. Consider two neighboring
any displacements
= 0 when the beam is unloaded.
the
to
y
plane
A and B that are perpendicular
A and B are deformed
into a circular arc, the two planes
When the beam is bent
arc.
normal to the
[SeeFig. 1.14(c).] That A'
remain
into planes A' and B' that
to the
are perpendicular
That
they
is because of symmetry.
and B' are planes
of the
curvature
of
the
radius
Let
centroidal arc is also because of symmetry.
relative
a
to
bent
are
angle
B'
A'
and
sections
cross
the
centroidal arc be R, When
at a distance y above the
a
line
whereas
is
RdO;
arc
length
of dd, the centroidal
The change in length is y dB. A
centroidal line will have a length (R + y)d6.
strain
division by its original length R dd yields the
be
be the
cross
to this
will
d'11^)
centroid
plane
In response to the strain ea, there

assumption that aa is the only nonvanishing
= Ta = 0. Then
=
=
according
(1.11-25)
Eq.
Substituting
are not strained in the axial

surface of the beam.
z-axis must be equal
of the bending stress o^ about the
The resultant moment
of area dA'mn
A force o^ dA acting on an element
to the external moment M.
is
moment
the bending
has a moment arm y; hence,
section
(b)
relative
cross section, and
plane
as origin. The centroidal
on it
Material
particles
to
(1.11-25)].
Eq.
[according
called the neutral
therefore
is
This plane
direction.
choice of the
bending
during
the
= 0,
= 0) must
(y
origin
our original
explains
(d)
that the
area in
cross section.
over the entire
y<L4
which
(1.11-26)
is an element of
dA
the cross section,
extends
the integration
into Eq. (1.11-26)yields
(a)
'
axial force
resultant
= 0,
JôvL4
X
the beam, the
is,
That
vanish.
27
through
Topics
Elementary
\"Thirty important
of memorizing.
thirty lines worthy
in this book are marked
by black
triangles on the right.
These are
Introduction
Chap. 1
Sec.
Which
Eiementary Topicsthrough
rll
Basic ideas
29
Evolved
28
Theseformulas
give
us the
stress and
strain
in a prismatic
beam when
it is
end
Clamped
and slope vanish):
(deflection
(1
be considered
cL
lWl)
taKv
true
along
(1.11-34)
= 0.
dx
the beam.
Free end
and
(moment
shear specified):
=
Figure
dy
= 0,
(1.11-33)
0.
= 0,
1.15
a distributed
beam
subjected
vfy
M,
(1.11-35)
- s
Eig
to
loading.
of Beams
Deflection
deflection of a beam
in Fig. 1.16. Let
illustrated
beams
the
consider
a lateral load. For example,
under
of the neutral surface) be y(x). When y(x)
deflection curve (deflection
the beam
can be approximated
of the beam), its curvature
is small (much less than the length
leadsto the basic equation
and the use of Eq. (1.11-31)
by dlyldxl,
Based on
such
an empirical
observation, we
can
analyze the
(1.11-32)
EI
dx1
equations
dx
But
since
If
M =
d1yldxt,
then
equation
(so
supported
as in
use the exact expression

of
Eq. (1.11-32):
place
Eq. (1.11-35).
valid), but the
leads to the
which
can be
for VR,
in
W
\\dx)
(1.11-37)
'
EI
~~\"j j
Simply
(l.U-36)
we should
dx\"
= w.
dx
have S = El d^yldx1
that the preceding analysis
11 +
/1
dS_
we must
is small
curvature
the
slope is finite,
following
EI
= S,
Simply
supported
end
be integrated
beam
to obtain
(1.11-38)
\342\226\240
ttiilLw
\342\200\224.\342\200\224\342\200\224i
\342\226\240\302\273
pree endd
Cantilevered
\302\253
beam
HILL
Clamped
Figure
end
cantilever
Figure 1.16
Clamped beam
1.17
beams.
End
conditions
of
Bending
beam.
of
31
Introduction
30
where A and B are arbitrary

A = B
at x = 0 then yield
constants.
= 0, so that
The boundary
the solution is
Chap.
conditions v = dyldx
Chap.
Problems
the ground, the

at 1 km above
between molecules. For air
3 x 104
and at 200 km, it is
is
9.5
cm;
it
1<T6cm; at 100 km,
free path is 8 x
the
mean
atmosphere,
reenters
it
as
the flow of air around your spacecraft
cm. To analyze
At what level and
of continuum mechanics?
method
the
use
to
would it be permissible
of
What kind
problems do you
air a continuum?
the average distance
of
= 0
Mx2
can you consider

purpose
earth safely?
the spacecraft back to
to
bring
solve
to
and
have
a patient who has a dime-shaped
have
and
you
a surgeon,
are
that
After
cutting
you
it is cancerous.
Suppose
would like to remove because
the
dime-sized piece of skin you
the healthy skin to cover up
sew
to
like
up
would
the diseased tissue, you
away
Invent a way to do the job
planning.
to do some engineering
would the
hole. Here is a chance
mean by \"best.\" How
First define what you
results.
best
the
so as to obtain
expect?
would
you
What kind of healing process
skin survive the surgery?
which way
healthy
as a continuum? In
skin
the
treat
want? Can you
of
final result do you
What
Does the location
this problem?
concept to deal with
the continuum
use
make a
would you
or the abdomen)
the
back,
on the face, the hand,
the cancerous lesion (e.g.,
what
for
In
this
special
becauseM =
case,
the
boundary
on the
conditions
free
end
are
also satisfied
const.
After all,
all the boundary conditions in general?
we, however, satisfy
that
we
have
four
so
conditions
two
two
ends
with
boundary
each,
beam has
our differential equation (1.11-32) is only of the second order.
whereas
Can
our
conditions,
to satisfy all
constants
a sufficient number of arbitrary
we going to have
reflection tells us,
as it stands, is no. A further
boundary conditions?The answer,
that for a general loading, the differential
by
equation must be obtained
however,
must be
with
Thus, the general equation
Eq. (1.11-32).
combining Eq. (1.11-36)
Are
dS
which is a fourth-order
conditions.
In the
case of a
differential
uniform
d2M
d2
to your
boundary
we have
the
improve
w(x).
(1.11-41)
of the truss by
safety
one of
Then,
the truss would
if
E&
method?
a lift to
are challenged to design
to be built in town, and you
designs,
A 100-storybuilding is
alternative
several
process. Make
the construction
is a goodone.
elevate heavy material in
why your choice
them. Explain
from
among
choice
a
and then make
and felt that he could
truss shown in Fig. PI .6(a)
1.6 An engineer looked at the simpleadding another member AB, as shown in Fig. P1.6(b).
difference
1.5
(d2y\\
able to handle four
equation,
beam,
1.4
the members
AB,CD,
were broken
AC, BD, and AD
by
some accident,
not immediately collapse.
equation, exact only in the pure bending

Equation (1.11-40) is an approximate
in the general
describe beam deflection
to
but it is used often
of a prismatic
beam,
for
a
slender
In
cross
section.
beam, it
of
variable
general,
case, even for beams
close approximations. Significant
constructions
not slender or for sandwich
shear deflection becomes significant.
yields
deviation
with
the beam is
occurs only when
soft core material in which
1000*
very
1000
(b)
(a)
P1.6 (a) A statically

indeterminate truss.
determinate truss,(b) A
statically
lipre
PROBLEMS
1.1
of water in ice
with a slight reduction in volume. The molecules
some
Construct
feature.
this
examples
to achieve
macroscopic
themselves
rearrange
a solid structure into one that can be deformed
that can do the same, i.e., change
Ice melts
into water
Now,
such as airplanes,
the character of
the truss in Fig.
easily.
1.2
1.3
When a truck of premixed concrete poursthe mixture into a mold at a construction

in a grain
site, the mixture can be treated as a fluid continuum. Similarly, rice flowing
the lava flow
chute of a silo can be considered as a fluid. Solar flares, sunspots, and
in which an
Name 10 more examples
are other examples.
after a volcanic explosion
a fluid and to which the continuum concept can
like
flows
bodies
of
solid
aggregate
be applied in some sense.
You are faced
a spacecraft that you would like to bring back to the earth.
Consider
You
earth's
into
the
atmosphere.
frictional
of
with the problem
heating upon reentry
of the mean free path between collisions is a measure
know that for a gas, the length
for critical public structures

is a great idea, especially
member AB changes
another
But introducing
bridges, and ships.
in every member of
load
this, find first the
the truss. To understand
of the truss of
member
in
every
the load
determine
information
P1.6(a). Then,
additional
cannot do it. Why? What
the
You'll find that you
the loads in all
fail-safe
also.
construction
Fig. P1.6(b)
how do you determine
additional information,
is needed? With the
for the additional safety?
do
members? What cost you pay
indeterminate
a
in Fig. 1.6(b) is called statically
A truss like that shown
Note:
statics alone.
by
determined
be
in the bars cannot
because the
1.7
Galileo,
tension
in his Tivo
New Sciences, posed
in the manner
rested on two supports,
the following problem:

of
a simply supported
structure
A column of marble
beam.
The citizens of
32
Introduction
Rome were worried

They inserted a
broke.
about
third
the
support
Chap.
of the column and sought to increase the support.

in the middle of the span, as in Fig. P1.7. The column
safety
33
Problems
Chap.
1.11
One
man is twice as tall as another man.
doing exactly the same stationary
stressesin
Why?
their
Assume that
gymnastic
they are
completely similar and

to the same
maneuver. Are they subjected
bones and muscles?
is 2. The ratio of the mass of the

Answer. The ratio of the linear dimensions
areas is 4. The ratio of the stresses
the
of
ratio
The
corresponding
organs is 8.
corresponding
\342\226\240>Ah.\342\200\236-,,riJ,\342\200\236s&
A-&>,\302\243f.,^
Figure P1.7 Galileo's problem

1.8
is 2.
v...^,uv,0,.\302\273illi!,,.nrî<,.v^
of a fallen
column.
1.12The
It is pretty easy to demonstrate that the tension in an Achilles tendon is considerable

when we stand on tiptoe or when we poise for a jump. A tension gauge can be built
we would have used to measure
the tension in the string of
using the same principle
a bow or in a rubber slingshot. Design such a gauge.
Hint.
deflection
If we pull on a bow as shown in Fig. PI.11,

= Fl(2 sin 6).
angle 6, show that T
and
if
a lateral force
F induces a
Figure P1.8 Measurement

tension in a string.
1.9 Comparethe
for the
vertebra
following
(a) A secretary
and (ii) with
(b) A
moment acting on the
bending
spinal
column
at the
level
of a lumbar
bends down to pick up a book
skier skiis
with arms straight
(i)
Discuss these casesquantitatively
doctor always
artery.
A small
balloon.
How far
in
tension cr and the radius

is related to the surface
a soap bubble
law.
Derive this equation, which is known as Laplace's
one
two
blow
bubbles,
and
close
it,
a valve in the middle,
P = 4u/7?.
the equation
Take a pippette, put
at each end. (See Fig. PI.12.)
valve so that the gas in
middle
R by
diameters change?
Explain
Answer. The small
bubble
One bubble is large and one is small. Now open the

can move. In which way will the bubble
the two bubbles
in detail.
will
disappear.
(i) with
knees straight
Figure P1.12 Collapse

a large
soap bubble into
cases:
on the floor
and (ii)
with proper free-body
the
diagrams.
trys to \"feel
on your radial
your pulse\" by putting his fingers
can find by doing this, let us considera simpler case.
To understand what he
balloon is inflated by air at a
pressure
of p pascals.
I press
my
finger
on the
(See Fig. PI.10.) I assume that the bending resistanceof the wall is negligible.
down should I press so that the pressureacting on my finger is exactly pi
Hint. Considerthe free-body diagram of a small piece of the balloon under the finger.
when the spot under the finger becomes flattened into a plane surface.
Consider the condition
bronchioles,
the mouth,
nose, trachea, bronchi,
a person breathes, air enters
which are the final units of respiration.
the
in
alveoli,
ends
and
ducts
and
in Prob.
liken each alveolus to the gas bubble considered
Most textbooks of physiology
in
ventilated
parallel
consists of 300 million bubbles
1.12 and state that a human lung
One cannot
of Prob. 1.12to this statement.
Now, apply the results
to the atmosphere.
for the largest one.
that all the alveoli will collapse except
conclusion
help reaching the

So the lung would consist of one open
What is the correct answer?
wrong?
Hint.
Mammalian
wall to two neighboring

and the gas bubble
septa,
alveolus.
This is
obviously
dM
hence,
in a
balloon.
the
d2M
pressure
What went
as
are so
-d?
Feeling
absurd.
well packed that each wall of an alveolus serves

called interalveolar
alveoli. Hence, the walls are more accurately
alveoli.
the
for
pulmonary
analogy is incorrect
lungs
\342\200\236
S =
P1.10
one.
alveolar
in a beam, S the shear,

1.14 Let M denotebending moment
diagram in Fig. P1.21,
according to the free-body
Figure
of a small
1.13 When
with elbows hugging
waist.
1.10 Your
of
knees bent.
water
gas pressure
dS
W=dl>
and
w the load.
Show that,
35
Introduction
34
Chap. 1
Chap. 1
Problems
wdx
=
WW
Fipre
M+dM
Solution.
S + dS
Figure P1.14 Equilibrium

beam segment.
\342\200\224dx-
1,15 Using
the differential
distribution
in the beams
of;
moment
find the bending
equation derived in Prob. 1.14,
shown in Figs. P1.15(a) and (b) under a loading
per unit length
of
P1.17
Redundant
supports.
indeterminate
at A is statically
supported
To solve the problem, we
alone.
statics
at A cannot be computed by
A beam clamped
at B and simply
because the reaction

of the beam.
must consider the elasticity
Take the support of A
follows.
as
is
One method
deflection at A due to
the
beam. We can find
the beam becomes a

this be 8^', which
Let
P.
load
away.
the
Then
cantilever
to P.
is proportional
This produces
loaded by a force R at the tip.
beam
the same cantilever
consider
Next,
+ fff = 0.
8\342\204\242
Hence,
move.
the end A doesnot
at the end A. In reality,
a deflection 8\342\204\242
moment
the
R. With R known, we can then complete
From this equation, we can compute
diagram.
in
unlike Galileo's rocksdiscussed
rests on three hinges which,
(Fig. P1.18)
and pull can be
both
that
push
foundation
to the
Prob. 1.7, are so rigidly attached
beam
moment distribution in the
with which the bending
1.18 A beam
sustained. Sketch a
can be calculated.
x0MlXhi
P1.15
Bending of beams
distributed
under a sinusoidally
load, (a) Beam is cantilevered, i.e.,
at the
free at one end and clamped
Figure
other, (b) Beamis
one of the supports, so that the problem

Solution. First, withdraw
of the withdrawn
at the location
deflection
determinate. Compute the
load P.
of the withdrawn support,
a force R at the location
Next,
simply
supported.
displacement
apply
at this point.
The condition
at
that is simply supported
W pounds tries to walk over a plank
1,16 A personweighing
two ends acrossa river. (See Fig. P1.16.) The plank will break whenever the bending
moment exceeds Ma. At what place (*) will the plank break and the personfall into
method
equation to compute
can be completed.
statically
due to
the
and compute
the
must vanish provides an

net displacement at all the supports
diagram
and the moment
are
known,
the
forces
all
reaction R. Then
that
the
becomes
support
the
the river?
Answer, x
= j[L \302\261
(L2
4K)\"1],
where
K =
LMJW.
Figure
PL16
over a
plank.
person
walking
7MT/
wm
w\"/
Fipre P1.18 Redundant
Hint. Let x
and
be
atxis
1.17
A hinge is added to the left end of a cantilever beam that is loaded by a constant force
determine the bending moment in the
P, as shown in Fig. PI.17. How would you
beam?
supports.
The wind load on the trunk is

on a palm tree. (See Fig. P1.19.)
1,19 A strong wind blows
diameter of the trunk and
local
of the trunk, where D is the
w = kD per unit length
tree is
the
with
height so that the
the diameter vary
should
it is a constant. How
the
that
Note
wind?
in
to bottom with respect to bending
strong from top
uniformly
to D\\ and
is
trunk
tree
proportional
the cross section of the
area moment of inertia of
~ MD~3, where M is the
is proportional to Mcll
due to bending
stress
iber
outer
the
moment contributed by the leaves.
moment. Ignore the bending
bending
moment
from the treetop. The bending
measured downward
MG0
=
\302\243(x-9\302\253>(9*
37
Chap.
Introduction
36
Chap.
A red bloodcell
isotonic
a
buffered
in
suspended
of
body
plasma is an axisymmetric
revolution with a central cross
section as shown.
Figure
wind
Figure P1.19 A strong
blowing on a palm tree.
The
Problems
bending
maximum
D(x) so
stress at x is proportional
that M(x)ID\\x)
that in =
tree trunk should look
1. The
to M(x)ID3(x).
The problem is to determine

= const, -x\", and show
is constant. Try a power law, such as D(x)
like a slender cone.
for
results in aerodynamic
theory says that the best design
motion due
to
forward
air
resistance
an
of
(the
induced
airplane
the minimum
drag
is meant
to lifting the weight of the airplane) is one with elliptic loading. By loading
the lift
that
is
meant
unit
loading
force
lift
span. By elliptic
per
the aerodynamic
the
distance
the
be
wing
x
along
distribution from wing tip to wing tip is an ellipse. Let
the
of
b
the
wing
Let
be
the
semispan
of
the centerline
airplane.
span measured from
theorem says that the
the
Then
the
to
centerline
the
wing
tip).
from
(the distance
formula
is achieved if the lift is distributed according to the
induced
1.20Oneof
the most beautiful
minimum
drag
/c(l
\342\202\254(*)
k is a constant. This
where
lift
distribution,
P1.21
diagram
shows a free-body
Figure P1.22(b)
a person worldng.
shows
1.22 Figure P1.22(a)
intervertebral disc in the
an
through
section
cross
a
passing
with
The
of the upper body,
is sketched in Fig. P1.22(c).
structure of the lumbar spine
In
lumbar
region. The
moments.
torsion
and
cannot resist bending
discsserve as pivots of rotation: They the
are stressed. The
muscles
the
and
discs,
load, the vertebra,
whose
resisting the external
erector spinae,
line of the discsare the
centroidal
the
behind
muscles
of the disc.
center
major
the
behind
trunk
22% of the depth of the
centroid is located about
moment of the
arm of L, what is the bending
moment
a
with
For a load W acting
muscle for
erector
in the
spinae
tension
disc? How large is the
external load about the
a person of your size?
to this problem.
that lots of attention has been given
Low back pain is so common
some cases.It
in
strain
with
gages
the discshave been measured
The loads acting on
not take into
do
if we
obtained
with prediction can be
abdominal
was found that no agreement
the
tenses
one
up
when one lifts a heavy weight,
account the fact that
that it helps for a lifter
Show
increased.
is
in the abdomen
and
muscles so that the pressure
muscles. Ref. Schultz, A.B.,
and strong abdominal
abdomen
a
large
to have
Basic
Orthopaedic
In
of human spine.\"
J.A.: \"Biomechanics
337\342\200\224
Ashton-Miller,
Press, New York, 1991,pp.
and W.C. Hayes, Raven
Mow
V.C.
Biomechanics,ed. by
364.
xVFj\"2
shown in Fig. P1.20,
yields
the best fuel
economy.
has an elliptic loading. Consider the wing as a cantilever

the bending moment
beam. Compute the bending moment M{x) at x in the wing. Plot
due to aerodynamic load.
in
the
station
at
moment
wing
the
show
every
to
diagram
= A cos(irx/2L),
and the wing's
is approximated by t(x)
If the lift distribution
root.
the
to
relative
deflection
wing
the
find
wing tip
rigidity is EI(x),
bending
Assume that
the
airplane
irX
p=dC0S7\302\243
P1.20 The optimal

elliptic
an
aerodynamic loading acting on
airplane wing.
Figure
1.21 A red blood

without
shell with a very thin wall in
cell is an axisymmetric
a hole.
(See Fig.
with a Newtonian fluid,
P1.21.)
and it floats
People describe it as a
the shape of a doughnut
biconcave
in another Newtonian fluid.
disk.
It is
filled
By considering suitable
the
between
difference
we can compute the

diagrams of the red blood cell,
that the bending
internal pressurep, and external pressure p, under the assumption
do you reach? What
conclusion
What
be
can
cell
membrane
neglected.
the
rigidity of
Pivoi
(b!
free-body
is the physiological
significance
of this conclusion?
-vertebra
Figure
P1.22
Loads
in the spine
when a man
shoves
a weight.
33
Introduction
Chap.
entitled
1.23 Figure P1.23is a classicfrom a book by Giovanni Alphonso Borelli (1608-1679)
\"De Motu Animalium\"
published in 1680 (first part)
(On the Movement of Animals),
New York,
and 1681 (second part),
recently translated by P. Maquet, Springer-Verlag,
1989. The fipre shows a person
carrying a heavy load. Several parts are cut open to
can be obtained,
show how bones and muscles work in this effort. Further clarification
of course, by use of moredetailed
free-body diagrams. Use them
is the load acting on the hip joint when a 70 kg person walks
on the shoulder.
to estimate how large

a 30 kg globe
carrying
story needsa
mechanics.
of
A beautiful
2.1
Tensoris the
to tell.
language
beautiful
language
VECTORS
in a three-dimensional Euclidean
is defined as a directed
line
space
and a given direction.
We shall denote vectors
with a given magnitude
by
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
, or by boldface letters, u, v, F, T,
AB, Ft, \342\226\240
Two vectors are equal if they have the same direction and same magnitude.
1. The zero vector, denoted by 0, is a vector
of magnitude
A unit vector is a vector
of zero magnitude. We use the symbols
\\AB\\, |u|, and v to represent tie mapitudes
A vector
segment
and
u,
The
sum
v, respectively.
of two vectors
is
vector
multiplied
number, ka represents
+ BC
by a number
The
subtraction
= AC. Vector
ka is a vector
whose
to a. If k = 0,
of vectors can be defined

a
- b =a
the
by
addition
vector.
another
yields
having the same direction
a vector
times as large. If k is negative,

and whose direction is opposite
obtained
vector
another
law,\" and we write, for example,

and associative.
If
as a
magnitude
we have 0-a
\"parallelogram
is commutative
k is a positive real
k
and a magnitude
is |fc| times as large
= 0.
by
+ (-b).
eb e2, e3 be the unit vectors in the directions of the positive xh x2,

respectively, we can show that every vector in a three-dimensional
Euclidean
by a linear combination
space with coordinate axesxx, x2, *3 may be represented
of d, e2,and e3. Furthermore, if the vector u is represented by the linear
If
we let
%i axes,
combination
u = Kiei
then
i
I
Mi,
u2, u3
are the components of
u,
u2e2
and
+ \302\2533e3,
a can
be
(2-1-1)
represented
by a
matrix
M3).
(Ki, \302\2532,
39
Vectorsand
40
The
is then
|u|
magnitude
|u|
= 0 if
and therefore u
given
=
PROBLEMS
Vu! +
+ \302\253i>
ul
= h2 = u3 =
only if Ui
of u and v, denoted
product
2.1 Given
(2.1-2)
Answer:
is defined
by u>v,
by
the
2.2
6 is
where
magnitude
of the
first;
< 0<
(0
tt),
2.3 Prove
2.4 Find
the angle between the given vectors. This represents the product of the
of one vector and the component of the second
vector in the direction
that is,
\342\200\242
=
(magnitude of u) (component
of v
10
2.5
the scalar
+ u2e2 +
= liiei
v^, +
v2e2
be expressed
also
in
of the
terms
+ u2v2
m,Vi
u3v3.
of two vectors is a scalar

the scalar product
of two vectors u and v produces
another
= u x v. The
of w is defined as
magnitude
Whereas
|w| =
u and
between
angle
|u||v| sin
v,
plane determined by
Vector products
system.
to the
perpendicular
right-handed
u x
the vector (or

quantity,
vector w; and we write
w)
(0
< 6<
u and
v,
in
the
satisfy
(2.1-6)
of w
direction
the
and
ir),
a way
such
following
is defined
that
u, v,
e, x
fai
components
d
e2
three
|v|2).
coplanar
of
forces
and
and making angles of 60\302\260,
120\302\260,
with the x-axis.
2e, -
between n = 6e, +
the angles
cos\"1
3e3
and v
= -e,
+ 8e,+ 4e3.
(-|).
Given u = 3e, +
e3, v =
4ea
2e, +
5e3,
find the value of a so
that n +
otv
is
x v
relations,
e3
= u x
(u2v3
(u x v)-w is
=
u-(v x w).
Find
2.10Find
2.11Find
+ uxw
uxv
= e,
k(n x
the vector product
u3v2)e, +
the scalar triple
called
Ix -
2y
- 3z
the area of KABC
2e3,
evaluate
u-(v x
and
w)
of n, v, w. Show that (u
product
A{\\, 0, 2), \302\243(0,1,-1),
and
C(2,
v)-w
2, 3).
- 1 = 0.
in Prob. 2.9.
can
(u3V!
to both
a vector perpendicular
e3 x
et
2.2
= e2
VECTOR
7e2
u = 2e, +
3e2
- e3 and v =
e, -
2e2
+ 3k.
7e3.
or geometric
of vector analysis is to use symbols to represent physical
a
fact
or
a
to
and
geometric
by an equation.
physical relationship
express
quantities
the forces F(,), F(2), . . . , Fc\"' act,
if we have a particle on which
For example,
The
v).
be expressed
in
terms
of the
EQUATIONS
spirit
then we say
-
= e,
(11_7)
x e3 = 0
e2 x e3
=
- e2 + 2e3,w
the equation of the plane through
Answer: let
la/
= e,
+ 3e2,v
16.
Answer:
w form a
as follows:
u x v
n = 2e,
Given
Answer: V62/2.
= e2 X e2 = e3
=
2.9
as
relations:
= 0
these
Find
Answer:
2.8
x u
\342\226\240
Using
of
(u x v)-w.
x u)
-(v
ux(v +
2.7
(2.1-5)
cross)product
0 is the
force
resultant
at the origin
each acting outward on a body
+ v|2 = 2(|n|2 +
+ |u
Answer: -~.
u-v =
where
v|2
orthogonal to v.
components:
2),
(-5,1).
vectors u, v, |u magnitude and direction of the
the
segment AB has coordinates (-4,
of the
for any two
that,
Answer:
v3e3
2.6
two vectors can
of these
product
v =
u3e3
the direction of u.
Answer: 10(V\302\247- 1), 1 x.
If
u
lb
vector in
\342\200\224\302\273
+ 3e2,
= -2e,
270\302\260,
respectively,
(2.1-4)
along u).
+ 5e3, find a unit
and the midpoint

the coordinates of A and B.
If AB
Answer: (-3,1),
(2.1-3)
4e2
(V2710)u.
\342\200\224i
find
|u||v| cosd
u = -3e, +
vector
0.
formula
u-v =
41
Vector Equations
Sec. 2.2
by
and
The scalar (or dot)
Chap. 2
Tensors
+
\302\253iv3)e2
(u,v2
u2Vi)e3.
(2.1-8)
that
the
condition
of equilibrium
Fd) +
pro
+ ...
for this
particle
=
p(\302\273)
o.
is
(2.2-1)
42
and Tensors
Vectors
As another
example, we
if n is a
a plane
the following
equation
and p is a constant:
vector
unit
for the
say that
Chap.
vector r represents
be
shall
Then
the
force
produced
attraction between
on particle 1 due to the gravitational
2 is
, m^nii r,2
we mean
statement,
the preceding
obtain
rB.
43
Equations
(2.2-2)
that
the locus of the end point
of a radius vector r
equation is a plane. The geometric meaning is again clear.
The vector n, called the unit normal vector of the plane, is specified. The scalar
of r on n. Equation (2.2-2)then states
r-n represents the scalar projection
product
that if we consider all radius vectors r whose component
on n is a constant p, we
this
satisfying
Vector
1 and
r-n = p.
By
Sec. 2.2
a plane.
(See
Fig.
constant.
where G is the gravitational
2.13 Consider a particle constrained to move in a circular orbit at a constant speed.Let v
of the particle; i.e., what is the
be the velocity at any instant. What is the acceleration
vector dvldtl
The velocity vector v may be represented in polar coordinates as follows.
the unit vectors with origin at P in the directions of the radius,
(See Fig. P2.13.)
and the polar axis perpendicular to the plane of the orbit.
the tangent,
Thenv = v6, where v is the absolute value of v. Hence, by differentiation,
2.1.)
Answer.
Let r, 0, z,
be, respectively,
dv
it\"
Figure 2.1
r-n = p.
dd
dv.
dt
dt
V\342\200\224
+ -r%.
of a plane,
Equation
\\.
On the other
hand,
as they
elegant
are,
vector
are not
equations
always
Indeed, when Descartes introduced

analytic
geometry in which vectors
are expressed by their components
with respect to a fixed frame of reference,
was a great contribution. Thus,
with reference
to a set of rectangular
Cartesian
convenient.
coordinate
axes O-xyz, Eqs. (2.2-1)and
2^
= 0,
(2.2-2)
= 0,
EF?
i=l
i=l
ax +
by
may be written,
+ cz
2F\302\253
respectively, as
0,
(2.2-3)
i=I
F\302\256,
Ff,
particle
The last
(2.2-4)
p,
F<? represent
P2.13
moving
Velocity vector of a
in a circular orbit.
because v is a constant. To evaluate d^ldt, we note that 8 is a unit

to the vector
it can only change direction. dOldt is, therefore, perpendicular
the center of the
to f. Let u be the angular velocity of the particle about
term vanishes
vector;hence,
8, i.e., parallel
orbit.
the components of the vector F(0 with respect to the

frame of reference O-xyz;x, y, z represent the componentsof r; and a, b, c represent
those
of the unit normal vector n.
is the analytic form preferred? Why
are we willing to sacrifice
the
Why
The answer is compelling: We like to express
elegance of the vector notation?
in numbers. To specify
a radius vector, it is convenient
to specify
physical quantities
a triple of numbers
To
a
force
it
to
is
convenient
define
the
F,
(x, y, z).
specify
three components
Fz. In fact, in practical calculations,we use Eqs. (2.2-3)
Fx, F\342\200\236
and (2.2-4) much more frequently than Eqs. (2.2-1)and (2.2-2).
where
Figure
it
Obviously,
8 is turning
at a rate
of u
via.
Hence,
dhldt =
-(v/a)r,
and
dvldt
~(vVa)i.
a circular helix of radius a and pitch h at a
particle is constrained to move along
If the particle is located at
constant speed v. What is the acceleration of the particle?
vectors in terms of
and
acceleration
the
in
velocity
Fig. P2.14, express
P, as shown
2.14 A
PROBLEMS
2.12 Expressthe
law
for
for the
basic laws of elementary

the attraction or repulsion
electromagnetic
For example,
Newton's
physics\342\200\224e.g.,
electric
between
the
field\342\200\224in
form
of
vector
charges,
law of motion, Coulomb's

and Maxwell's equation
equations.
to express Newton's law of gravitation in

vector from
m2 be the masses of two particles. Let the position
vector form,
particle
let m, and
1 to particle 2
Figure P2.14
helical
orbit.
Vectorsand
44
unit vectorst,
helix
n, and b that are, respectively,
tangent,
Chap. 2
Tensors
and binormal to
normal,
the
Sec.
The Summation Convention
2.3
45
1 to n. An index that is summed over is called a dummy

index;
is not summed is called a free index.
Since a dummy index indicates summation, it is immaterial
which symbol is
used. Thus, a(xf is the same as\302\253,%,etc. This is analogous to the dummy variable
set of n
integers
one that
at P.
Answer. The velocity
vector
is parallel to
and
has a magnitude v.
Hence, v
= vt
and noting that v is a constant, we have dvldt = v dtldt. But since t

By differentiation,
a constant length of unity, dtldt must be perpendicular to t and, hence,must be a combination
of n and b. That is,
di
has
an integral,
in
e.g.,
fj(x)dx
\342\200\224
=
Kn + Tb
fj(y)dy.
dt
where k and t are constants. If the particle moves with unit velocity, the constants k and t
are called the curvature and the torsion of the space curve, respectively.
It is convenient
to use polar coordinates
for this problem.
Let the unit vectorsin the
and axial directions be r, 8, and z, respectively.
direction of the radial, circumferential,
Then
Examples
The
use of the
examples.Consider
rectangularCartesian
v =
hO
+ wi
oti
where \302\253
and w are the
+ u a%ldt
(duldt)Q
are related
by
and axial velocities, respectively.

Hence,
= \302\253
dhldt =
The velocities
circumferential
+ {dwldt)i + w{dildt)
In the time interval
= hullva, and v =
hlht
to v as follows:
/:. Hence,
w=
Af
-(uVaji.
Ittalu, the axial
position
dvldt =
h and w
z is changed
+ h1l{4rr(?)]m.
\302\253[1
where
(v, x)
numbers
convention may be illustrated

index and summation
by other
a unit vector v in a three-dimensional Euclidean space with
cosines a,- be defined
coordinates x, y, and z. Let the direction
= cos
denotes the
= 1,
a,(i
a2 =
(v, x),
that
a3 =
y),
v and the
between
angle
2, 3) represents
coordinate axes.Thefact
cos(v,
the
of the
the length
cos (v, z),
*-axis, and
of the
components
is unity
vector
as
so forth.
unit
The set of
on the
vector
is expressed by
the
equation
2.3 THE SUMMATION
or,
be mastered.
is usually denoted as xh i = 1,.. . , n.
A set of n variables xu x2,. . . ,xn
When
written
jtt, xt,. . . ,
singly, the symbol x-x stands for any one of the variables
in every case; the simplest way is to write, as
The range of i must be indicated
x\342\200\236.
illustrated
i = 1, 2, . . . , n. The symbol i is an index. An index may be
here,
A system of notations using indices is said to
either a subscript or a superscript.
For further
development, an
matter
important
to
a rectangular
equation
describing
at
and p
a three-dimensional
Cartesian frame of reference with

a,*! + a2x2
where
in
are constants. This
equation
a3x3
can be
axes
space referred
consider a line
Euclidean space with
z. The square of the length of the line
As
another
illustration,
in
a three-dimensional
v,
and
we
However,
preceding
equation
dxx
The
convention
and write the
with
8n =
(2.3-2)
then Eq.
(2.3-5)may
simple form
dz
x,
is
+ dz1.
dx2 = dy,
dx,
822
82I
S33
(2.3-5)
dx, = dz,
(2.3-6)
(2.3-3)
a term
of an
will denote a
index i is the
with
the
1,
(2.3-7)
be written
as
=
l-.jdxAx,,
(2.3-8)
that the range of the indices i and / is 1 to 3. Note that

in this expression, one over i and one over/. The symbol
summations
the Kronecker
delta.
in Eq. (2.3-7), is called
understanding
there are two

8,7, as defined
= 813 = S3i = 823 = 832 = 0,
ds2
follows: The repetition

of an index in
that
index
over
its
The range
to
range.
respect
is as
convention
dy1
element
with components Ax, dy,

Cartesian coordinates
as
=
a,Xi
p.
summation
rectangular
and
written
&n
summation
(2.3-1)
a,x; = p.
shall introduce the
in the
= dx2
element
If we define
1,
(2.3-4)
Xi, Xi, x-$, i.e.,
p,
= 1.
aia,-
ds2
a plane
(a3)2
simply,
of notation must
be an indicial notation.
Consideran
(a2)J +
(a,)2 +
CONVENTION
46
Tensors
and
Vectors
Chap.
Sec. 2.3
and Determinants
Matrices
The
Convention
Summation
The
of a
determinant
square
47
The rules of
more simply
rectangular
of determinants
matrix algebra and the evaluation
can be expressed
with the summation convention. An m X n matrix A is an ordered
array of mn
elements. We denote
812
/flu
is the sum of all the

each row and one from
row or column, and with sign specified
determinant
of a 3 x 3 matrix
A is
is a
matrix
elements of the matrix,

products
each column, and no two or more from
by a rule given shortly. For example,
written as det A and is defined as
number
that
taken one from
of the
any
the
Am
\302\25311
\302\25312
Al3
(a,7) =
A =
^21
A22
a-2,,
(2.3-9)
A =
det
det (a/;) =
\\aml
row and/th column of the matrix A. The index

i takes the values 1,2,...
A
,m, and the index/ takes the values 1, 2,...,\302\253.
of
is
A
another
denoted
whose
elements
are
the
same
as
matrix,
transpose
by AT,
those
of A, except that
the row numbers and column numbers are interchanged.
so that
au is the
element
the ith
in
Thus,
The
Then
/flu
AT =
a2l
am\\
sign is
the
Let
(2.3-10)
of two
3 x
3 matrices A
A-B
an
\\fl31
whose
element
in the
row
ith
a33j
= (6,7)is
(%), B
jbn
bn
ba\\
bn
b31
\\b31
a 3
a special
an
a33
flUfl22fl33
flUfl23fl32
(2.3-15)
fll2fl23fl31
+ OB^lfe
~
fll2a21\302\25333 \302\253B\302\2532zfl31
sign is negative.
called the permutation symbol and

symbol, e\342\200\236\342\200\236
equations
6111
=
=
=
= \302\243222
\302\243333\302\24311261a
6123
= 6231 = \342\202\254312
=
1,
anbn
022^21
\"
+ \302\25323&31
\\a3lbn
a32621
+ a33&3t
(2.3-11)
= 1 when
the
determinant
the
matrix
\342\200\242\342\226\240\342\226\240\\
det
Using the symbol
and /th column can
subscripts
of the
\342\200\242\342\200\242\342\200\242/
be written,
with
= 0,
(2.3-16)
whenever the values of any two indices coincide;

permute as 1, 2, 3; and ei//t = -1 otherwise. Then
(a(/) can be written as
e,7t vanishes
words,
e,7t
\342\200\224
\342\200\224
\342\202\254211
6221
6331
\342\200\224
!\342\200\242
= 6321 = e132 =
6213
b33j
aabM
x 3 square
In other
+ aab2i
laubn
a}l
dmnj
&\342\226\240}\302\243
#23
bu
(Xl\\
da1
/\302\253uAn
A23
the
positive; otherwise
introduce
us
by the
defined
a-bt
w
The product
matrix
defined as
#22
special rule of signs is as follows: Arrange the first index in the order 1,2,3.
index. If they permute as 1,2,3,1,2,3,...,
check the order of the second
then
an
Al2
(\302\253,#
#21
Qml
(%)
write Eq.
we can
e\342\200\236\342\200\236
erj,ar!fll2flfl
(2.3-17)
(2.1-8)defining
the vector
product u x
v as
the summation
11
x y
e\342\200\236,\302\253,v<er
(2.3-18)
convention, as
(A-B),, =
A vector u
may
be represented
|u|2
By this rule, the
scalar
by a row
(2.3-12)
(aikbki)
matrix
and
(\302\253,),
Eq. (2.1-2) can
+ u3 =
(\302\253,\342\200\242)\342\200\242
(\302\253/)r u] + \302\2532
=
of
product
two vectors
\302\253,\302\253,-.
u-v, Eq. (2.1-3),can
be written
(2.3-13)
The e-8
The
Identity
Kronecker
that will
delta and the
appear again
and
be written
symbol
permutation
again in this
eiji&st
book. They
\342\200\224
8/s8t,
are very important

quantities
are connected
by the identity
A
8j,8tj.
(2.3-19)
as
ipv =
= ihVi
(\302\253i)(v,)r
u2Vt
+ K3V3 = u,Vi.
This e-8 identity

(2.3-14)
be verified
is used
frequently enough to warrant
by actual trial.
special
attention
here. It can
48
and Tensors
Vectors
Chap,
Differentiation
., x,) be a
be written
shall
to differentiation
n variables xu x2,. . . , xn. Then
the summation convention
extend
shall
of
function
formulas.
Let
A x
its differential
p,
=
+ ---+-f dx\342\200\236
f
Sx\342\200\236 dXi
+ $-dx2
dx2
dxt.
(2.3-20)
(B x C) =
of A and B. Accordingly,
combination
and
respectively,
we may
write
+ |i(A-B)C
\\(A-C)B
are pure numbers,

cases,
|i by special
dxi
A-B,
of A, B, and C. We can, therefore, evaluate X,

independent
of the x-, y-, and
e.g., if i, j, k are the unit vectors in the directions
z-axes (a right-handed
rectangular Cartesian coordinate system), respectively, we may put
B = i, C = j, A = i to show that u. = -1; and B = i, C = j, A = j to show that \\ =
where X.,
as
df=$-dx1
to A-C and
are proportional
49
of Coordinates
Rotation
of A and C, and b must be a linear scalar
combination
a,
Fmally, we
f(xu x2,. .
Translation and
2.4
Sec.
1.
2.15 Write Eq. (2.2-1)or (2.2-3) in the index form. Let the components of F\"1 be written
= l,2,3;i.e.,F,
= F\342\200\236etc.
as F?,k
Answer.
3
8\342\200\236
(b)
3
8l78\342\200\236.
(c)
6
i\342\200\236fi;u
(d)
(e)
e,ikA,Ak
index
and
form,
prove
in Prob. 2.21 is valid for arbitrary

equation
as a proof of the e-8 identity.
(B X
C)],
its validity by means
vectors A,
B, C, this
x C)\342\200\236
6i\342\200\236\342\200\236a\342\200\236(B
e.nlme.\342\200\236lkambjCt.
6,\342\200\236\342\200\236fl\342\200\236e\342\200\236M6,c\302\273
By the e-8 identity, Eq. (2.3-19), this becomes

- ambmc, =
= aac\342\200\236b,
(8/;8mS
(A-C)(B),
SuSâJ^Ct. Hence,it
is 8,ja\342\200\236cmh/
(A-B)(C),.
2.4 TRANSLATION
8,75/t
2.17Write
(2.1-1) and (2.1-5)
in
the index form,
= K2V3 -
W2
HjVj,
Show that this can be shortened
2.21 Derive
vector
the
vector
the
uj>,.
three unit vectorsv0) =
Define
on
e\342\200\236
to solve Probs.
=
h2, u3)
(u\342\200\236
U,V3,
2.5 through 2.9.

and v = (v\342\200\236
i>2, v3) is the vector
Solution. Since
Hence, we
x (B x C) is
a plane.
lt>3
U,V2
If
a change
P has coordinates
without
a point
of
sets of rectangular Cartesian frames

the frame of reference O'-x'y' is
two
Consider
reference,
y =
vectors A,
B, C by
the method
(B x C) = (A-C)B
x' + h
y'
Oy
the
+ k
A x (B
x C) is
to B x C, it must lie in the plane

perpendicular
+ 6C, where a, b are scalar quantities.
(B x C) = \302\253B
of A, B, and
C; hence, a
must
= x
be a linear scalar
[y
k.
(2.4-1)
y
origin remains
an angle
x' cos
= x'
y
may write A x
a linear function
\\x'
through
x =
(A-B)C.
O-xy and O'-x'y'

O-xy by a shift of
is a translation. If
Ox
fixed, and the new axes are obtained
by rotating
6 in the counterclockwise direction, then the
to the
coordinates
transformation
of axes is a rotation. Let P have
(x, y), (x1,y') relative
old and new frames of reference, respectively.Then (see Fig. 2.2),
If
and
form.
arbitrary
transformation
or
eiikUjVt.
identity connecting three
from
then
x =
by writing
=
then the
orientation,
of reference
obtained
to the old and new frames

(x, y) and (x1, y') with respect
of
the
if the coordinates
new
and
origin 0' are (h, k)
respectively,
to O-xy,
relative
in
U2V,.
analysis:
A x
of B and C.
index
u-v =
origin
= H3V, -
Wi
2.20 Express Eqs. (2.1-7) in
e.g.,
the following:
2.18 Use the index form of vector equations

2.19 The vector product of two vectorsu
w = u x v whose components are
IV,
OF COORDINATES
ROTATION
Two-Dimensional Space
8\342\200\236
= 0
Eqs.
AND
= 0
Note.
For Eq. (2.1-1), we may do
vm - &2, vm = e3; then u = \302\253,'v(i).
the
that
=
(a)
(f) M,,,
But
proof may be regarded
S,kamback
2.16Show
of
Since the
Note.
Solution. [A x
= 0.
2^
2.21 in
2.22 Write the equation in Prob.

of the e-8 identity
(2.3-19).
PROBLEMS
y' sin d
sin 8 + y'
x' = x cos
y' = -x
9 +
sin
cos 6.
y sin 6
0 +
y cos 6
(2.4-2)
(2.4-3)
50
Chap. 2
and Tensors
Vectors
Sec.
Translation and
2.4
where 8,7
Kronecker delta. Hence,
is the
Pttfo
To clarify
the geometric
meaning of this
rotation transformation
along the x,!-axishas direction
2.2
Figure
Rotation
The fact
Then
a rotation
obviously,
xh x2 replace x,
specified by
and
x[, xi
can be
(2.4-3)
Eq.
X\\
pf/ are
where
of the
elements
frjX,;
square
^21
The
inverse transform
by the
represented
2)
(2.4-4)
-sin 6
P22/
cos
(2.4-5)
linear
other hand,
equations
inverse of the
from
(2.4-4),
matrix
the point
the
p/7 is the
the
element
matrix
(p;i)
(2.4-6)
row and
in
the/th
is the transpose
ith
of the
(P\302\253)r.
we obtain a
defines a rotation
of view
of the
(p/;)
in Eq.
fundamental
property
column
matrix
solution of the
(2.4-6)
must
set of simultaneous
be identified
= 1,2,. .. ,n,
matrix. A transformation
orthogonal.
The
For
is said
that
xraxes,
equation
(2.4-11)
1,2).
the x,!-axis
the
is perpendicular to
a unit
pBpp
0,
(2.4-12)
(z#j).
and (2.4-12), we obtain Eq. (2.4-10).

the p,/s are from Eq.
since we know what
direct
vector along
equation
(2.4-5), we
computation.
ado. The
preceding
of the
rectangular
ei-ei
In terms
of the
base
vectors,
matrix
product
of both
the vector s
to three
to 1,2,3.
xx,x2,
dimensions
without
Thus, consider two

x% and x[, xi, x'3,with
P with components
xl(ej-$,
as follows:
(2.4-14)
xjej.
with
sides of Eq. (2.4-14)
(2.4-13)
8,7.
be expressed
may
xft
xter^
(p,7) that
e,'-e;
b\342\200\236,
x =
A scalar
transformation
discussion can be extended

i, j can be extended
Cartesian coordinate systems
range of indices
origin O. Let x denote the position vector of a point

or
x[, xi, x\\. Let eb e2, e3 be unit vectors in the directionsof the positive
xu x2,x3
system. Let
Xj-axes.
They are called base vectors of the xh x2,x3 coordinate
xu x2,
ej, e{, e3 be the base vectors of the x[, xi, xi coordinate system. Note that since
we have
the coordinates are orthogonal,
(2.4-8)
e,-
gives
(2.4-15)
But
(2.4-9)
satisfies Eq. (2.4-9) is called an orthogonal

orthogonal if the associated matrix is
matrix of Eq. (2.4-5) defining
a rotation of coordinates is
orthogonal.
an orthogonal matrix, we have
(p^), i, j
the
Obviously,
as the
Cartesian coordinates:
of rectangular
the
Space
(p,7), i.e.,
(WT = (P./)\"1.
A matrix
(2.4-11)
(2.4-7)
(fe) = (P\302\253)Thus,
Eqs.
right-handed
the same
= U)
(W =
matrix
can
much
(P.-;), i-e.,
On the
vector along
Note: Alternatively,
verify Eq. (2.4-10) by
Three-Dimensional
(*'
to Eq. (2.4-2),
according
of the matrix
(p,7). It is clear that
(x
to the xr,
respect
sin 61
/cos6
of Eq. (2.4-4)is
where,
= 1,
(P*)2
with
matrix
P\342\200\236
pn\\
(&/) =
length
pnPi, +
Combining
= 1,
(i
P,-2
directly
issued from the origin
is expressed by
is unity
is expressedby
iijî
replace x',y'.
equation
=
a unit
that
the x'rsm
we let
p,h
vector
unit
of
coordinates.
index notion,
we rederive it
equation,
important
cosines
+
(P\302\253)2
Using the
fact that its
The
(2.4-10)
as follows.
for the
respectively.
51
of Coordinates
Rotation
x,-(e;-e,)
xfitj
= xr,
therefore,
to be
x, =
Now,
(e;-e;)x;.
(2.4-16)
define
(e;-e,)
= p;7;
(2.4-17)
52
Vectors
and Tensors
Chap.
Sec.2.5
then,
* =
both sides
dot
Next,
p\342\200\236x/'.(;
of Eq. (2.4-14)
with
(2.4-18)
1,2,3).
(e/-e,!)
B,7and (e,-e,0
x\\
(2.4-6)
(2.4-7)
are
(2.4\342\200\22419)
= 1, 2, 3).
(i
p^-,
(2.4-19)
value
determinant
the
of
p,7
of
generalizations
2.3 are
numbers
xu x2, x3
that
represent
also the components of the
radius
the coordinates of the

vector A. A recognition
point
U2
\"3
V,
\\>2
v3
Wl
W2
H>3
(2.4-21)
represents
x2,
x3 are
1:
Pb Pb|
and
(2.4-4)
Eqs.
U\\
right handed. Then it is clear

the volume of a unit cube and hence has the
and xi,
xb x2, x3
fr/l-
three-dimensional case.
of the coefficient p,7.That
shows the geometric meaning
(2.4-17)
and
and (2.4-8) hold for i, j = 1,2,3 is clearbecause
Eqs.(2.4-18)
Then,
inverse transformations of each other.
Eqs. (2.4-9) and
the
Now,
v)-w
|p.i
are
(2.4-10) Mow.
Fig.
that
assume that
to the
Equation
Eqs.
Let us
we obtain
therefore,
p,7;
and (2.4-19)
(2.4-18)
Equations
(u x
e,'. This gives
x/(ey-e;) = x/(e/-e,').
But
Volume
53
in General
Transformation
Coordinate
P22
Pa
Pm
P32
Pa
(2.4-22)
PROBLEMS
P in
of this fact
p2i
out Eq. (2.4-10) in extenso, and

= 1, 2, 3.
resulting equations; i
Solution. Let
of the six
the geometric meaning
interpret
2.23 Write
the index i stand for 1,2,3.
If i =
If i
1,/ =
= 1,
1:then
= 1.
+ p12p,2 + p13p13
p\342\200\236p\342\200\236
/ = 2: then
+ p12pE
p\342\200\236p21
(1)
= 0.
^n
(2)
means
of the vector (p,\342\200\236
p,2, p,3) is 1. Equation (2)
other.
to
each
are orthogonal
(1) means that the length

the vectors(p\342\200\236,
pa, Pu), (p21, p^, pB)
of i, j are similar.
Other combinations
Equation
2.24
alternative procedure. Differentiate

Derive Eq. (2.4-10) by the following
use Eq. (2.4-6)and the fact that
Then
to
with
x].
respect
of Eq. (2.4-4)
to simplify
Fipre 2.3
Radius
vector
and
coordinates.
dx'f.
pM.
gives us
immediately
rectangular
vector
Differentiating
f$,7 represents
\342\200\224
the cosine
p//A'>
of the
between
the axes Ox\\
8,,
$,kdxkl
we have BxjSx'j
(2.4-20)
\"\342\226\240'\342\200\242
Plt\342\204\242h
angle
obtain
IN GENERAL
2.5 COORDINATETRANSFORMATION
5\342\200\236-
in
Cartesian coordinates:
A-i
in which
of the components of a
the law of transformation
sides
=
both
Bxjix,
the results.
with respect to x'h we

Eq. (2.4-4)
i
to k and differentiating,
index
the
=
But x,
%x]. On changing
=
results
PuP,*.
these
8,,yields
Combining
Solution.
that
and
Oxr
the
form
Finally, let us point out that the three unit vectors along x[, x{, x|
three
a
of
volume
1.
The
any
parallelepiped having
edges of a cube with volume
vectors u, v, w as edges is given either by the triple product u-(v x w) or by its
u, v, w, in this order,
by whether the three vectors
negative; the sign is determined
or not. If they are right handed, then the volume
form a right-handed screw system
of their components:
is equal to the determinant
A set of independent
frame of reference.A
xu
variables
set of
the coordinates of a
x3 specifies
point
in a
equations
* = fi(xu
describes a transformation
x2,
from
x2, ij),
xh
x2,
(J
x3 to a
1,2,
set of new
(2.5-1)
3)
variables
xh
x2,
x3. The
inverse transformation
x, =
gi(xh
x\\, x3),
(i
= 1,2,
3)
(2.5-2)
54
Vectors
proceedsin
direction. In order
reverse
the
ensure
to
Sec.2.6
Chap. 2
and Tensors
reversible
in a certain region R of
that such a
exists and is in one-to-one

the
correspondence
variables (xb x2, x3)\342\200\224i.e.,
in order that each set of numbers
(xh x2, x3) defines a
set of numbers (xh x2, x3), for (x,, x2,x3) in the region R, and vice versa\342\200\224
unique
it is sufficient that
transformation
(1) The functions/first
derivatives
partial
(2) The Jacobian

of the region R.
That
are single
valued, are continuous,
and possess
in the region R.
determinant
J = det(3x,/3x/)doesnot
vanish
valid.
tfX;/
3x!
3xi
3xi
3x2
3x3
3x2
3x2
flx2
3xi
3x2
when J
Further,
at any point
transformation
given
3x3
3x3
3x2
3x3
x\302\260,
(x\302\260,
xf)
(2.5-4) can be solved

=
55
Tensors
only if Eq.
(2.5-3) is
to obtain
(2.5-6)'
djdxj
(2.5-2)
exists.
PROBLEM
5^0.
(2.5-3)
2.25
with the properties 1 and 2 are called admissible

Jacobian
is
then a right-hand set of
transformations.
everywhere,
positive
coordinates
is transformed
into another right-hand
set, and the transformation is
said
to be proper. If the Jacobian
is negative
a right-hand set of
everywhere,
coordinates
is transformed
into a left-hand
is said to
one, and the transformation
be improper.
In this book, we shall tacitly
assume
that our transformations are
transformations
Coordinate
-of,
neighborhood
\302\245>
0, Eq.
by Eq.
the methods of solving
simultaneous equations. One of the methods

to solve Eq. (2.5-4) for dxu dx2> dx,. Use the
defined in Eq. (2.3-16), to expressthe final result,
symbol e\342\200\236\342\200\236
permutation
in and on a circleof unit radius on a plane. The equation of the circle
(b) R is a region
is r = 1 in polar coordinates and x2 + y2 = 1 in rectangular Cartesian coordinates.
Show that the Jacobian / is equal to r and that the area of the circle is
Review
(a)
uses determinants.
3Xj
the
Vectors, and Cartesian
Scalars,
a small neighborhoodof the known point, an inverse

where c,7are constants.
Hence,
transformation [an approximation of Eq. (2.5-2)] can be found in a small
1 and 2 stated
earlier
are sufficient
conditions
neighborhood of the known point. Thus,
a
around
inverse
in
small
the
known
of
an
existence
conditionsfor the
region
point.
to new known points away from the initial
application of this argument
By repeated
known point, one can extend and find the region R in which a one-to-one inverse
continuous
3x3
3x3
in
of
dx-,
is,
3xi
exists
an inverse
Thus,
Definitions
Analytical
Use that
linear
method
If the
and
admissible
Significance
To appreciate
have found
or
proper.
the
that
of the
significance
(2.5-1),
and ask whether
neighborhood
of
this point.
we can find
We differentiate
let us
determinant,
to (xi,
X-J,
x3),
an inversetransformation
Eq. (2.5-1) to obtain
i.e.,
assume
that
dXi
~dxi
the Jacobian multiplied
they satisfy
small
Eq.
in a
2.6
ANALYTICAL DEFINITIONS OF
AND CARTESIANTENSORS
= l,2,3)
(i
(2.5-4)
at the point (x5,x^,x3). The Eq.

partial derivatives
dfldXj
(2.5-4)defines a linear transformation of the vector dxs to a vector dx,. If we solve
the set of linear
equations
(2.5-4) for dxh we know that the solution exists only if
the determinant of the coefficients
does not vanish:
evaluate
the
and (xh x2, x3) be two

related by the transformation
(2.5-5)
is the
where
p,7
coordinate
axes
Xi
Cartesian frames
of
(2.6-1)
P//X;
angle
between
unit vectors along
the
xt. Thus,
p2[ =
so forth.
of rectangular
law
direction cosine of the
and
sets
fixed
x2, x3)
reference
and
^h
of the differentials
VECTORS,
SCALARS,
X,
and
by the product
we
Let (xh
=
of
dr dO gives the area.
Jacobian
x\302\260,
(x\302\260h
x\302\260)
corresponds
an integration
Here,
of the Jacobian Determinant
The inverse transform
cos(x2,x,),
(2.6-2)
is
Xi
(3;,-x}.
(2.6-3)
Vectors
56
Tensors
and
Chap. 2
scalar, a vector,or a tensor, depending

upon
are
defined in the variables xu x2, x3 and how
system
when the variables xh x2, x3 are changed to xh x2, x3.
they are transformed
A system is called a scalar if it has only a single component^ in the variables
x-, and if $ and $ are numerically
Xi and a single component $ in the variables
equal at the correspondingpoints,
A systemof quantities
how the components of the
is called a
*(*,,
x2, x3) =
$(x,,
of rank 2 if it has three

in the variables xt and
in the variables %-, and three components \302\243,components \302\243,if the components are related
by the characteristic law
A system is
a vector
called
Xi,
\302\243/(*i>
X2,
\302\243i(*l>
field or a
(2.6-4)
x3).
x2,
Xi)
field
%k(xi,
x2, JC3) Pi*j
(ji(Xi,
Xi, X~i)$ki.
to a system
these definitions
Generalizing
x^
tensor
that
has nine
components when i
that has
it is a system
range over 1,2,3, we define a tensor field of rank 2 if

nine components% in the variables Xi ,x2,x3 and nine components% in
xh Xi, x3 and if the components are related
by the characteristic law
Xi, x3)
tij\\Xl,
X2, Xi)
=
=
tmn(xi,
Xi, Xi)$im$i\342\200\236,
security number, street

say about this matrix?
tmn\\X\\,
Xi, X3)$mi$nj,
example,
examples,
some
consider
examples to
following problems:
to specific
attention
the
of
that, if all components
Cartesian
they vanish in all other
2.26 Show
tmn
in
Vectors
and Tensors
Are
of
systems.
coordinate
(jti, x2, x3),
that
the
Eq.
be two
B\342\200\236
Let A,,,
Proof.
(2.6-1), we have
tensors. Under
the
B,i
A\342\200\236\302\243lm$,.,
A\342\200\236
or
coordinate
embodies our idea of a vector
the components (x,-0,

from
another
x2-0,x3-Q),
i.e.,
frame of reference, the
be computed from the old according

transformationof
the components of
and
(xs,
x2,
it
numerically
x3). When
components referred
to Eq.
expresses
(2.6-1),
which
in terms
Bm\342\200\236p,\342\200\236pin.
theorem is proved.
,,r be tensors.
B\342\200\236,..
the following theorem: Let AH...\342\200\236,.,
this vector is viewed

new frame can
is the law of
Our generalization of Eq.

all
is
which
vectors,
defines
equivalent to saying that we
Eq. (2.6-5),
can call an entity a vector if it behaves like a radius vector, namely,
if it has a fixed
direction and a fixed magnitude.
a matrix from a vector. We can
These remarks are intended to differentiate
in the form of a column matrix; but not all column
list the components of a vector
(2.6-1)into
radius
Proof.
Multiplying
both
sides of
the
Then
the equation
= B\342\200\236,...\342\200\236,(\342\226\240*!.
x2,. . . , xn)
is true in one
is a tensor equation; i.e., if this equation
coordinate
systems.
is true in all Cartesian
to the
by
=
\302\261
\302\261
ptap,\342\200\236(/L, B\342\200\236,\342\200\236)
B~\342\200\236
A.,....r(*i. x2, ...,x.)

of
given
we obtain
subtracting,
A,i
is designed
to follow the idea of a radius
vector.
vector joining the origin (0, 0,0) to a point
of vectors
transformation
the new components
Defined
radius vector, a
of
tensors of the
The sum or difference
of two Cartesian
2.27 Prove the following theorem:
of tensors
linear combination
rank.
same
Thus,
the
any
tensor
a
of
same rank is again
rank.
same
a tensor of the
of the same rank is again
and the
definition
We all know
equations,
tensor vanish in one coordinate system, then

the most important
This is perhaps
Cartesian
2.28 Prove
The analytical
tensor
If every component
follows immediately from Eq. (2.6-6).
The property
= 0 for all i, j.
side vanishes and \"t,,
then the right-hand
vanishes,
Adding
Why
significance
of tensor fields.
property
. .,
on
This Manner
the
discuss
PROBLEMS
definitions
Elaboration
57
Tensors
steps
mathematical
Proof.
These
Further generalization to tensor fields of higher ranks is immediate.
be modified to two dimensionsif the indices range over
can obviously
n. Since
our
1, 2, or to n dimensions if the range of the indices is 1, 2, .
from one rectangular
Cartesian
frame of
definitions are based on transformations
tensors. For
Cartesian
the systems so defined are called
reference to another,
will be used in this
book.
tensor
Cartesian
equations
only
simplicity,
Cartesian
are natural enough. These equations

to Eq. (2.6-6) for a tensor
(2.6-5) for a vector
of rank 1, we cannot help but call
if we call a vector a tensor
are so similar that
of these
the physical significance
is
What
etc.
2 or 3,
the others tensors of rank
to consider
is
this
answer
to
question
effective
most
way
The
higher order tensors?
we turn our
before
as the stress tensor. However,
such
concrete
the variables
(2.6-6)
and
social
to identify myself, I can list my age,
can you
in a column matrix. What
code
and
address,
zip
not a vector.
It is certainly
Nothing very interesting!
in Eq.
definition
the
given
we took in generalizing
matrices are vectors. For
The
Vectors,
of Scalars,
Definitions
(2.6-5)
and /
tjjfii,
Analytical
Sec. 2.6
equation
Cartesian
coordinate
system, then it
by
vector.
and
summing
over the
repeated
indices
yields
the equation
=
x\\,...,
xn).
. , x\342\200\236)
5\342\200\236...t(*\342\200\236
Xi, . \342\226\240
Afi...i(x\342\200\236
Alternatively, write the equation

of Probs.
Then apply the results
as
A - B
2.27
= 0. Then
of A
every component
and 2.26, in turn.
B vanishes.
Vectors
58
2.7 THE SIGNIFICANCE
OF TENSOR
The theorems
most
in one
can
coordinatesystem,
be obtained
of a given
fields
tensor
admissible
by
equation can be
EQUATIONS
vanish likewise
in all coordinate
systems that
Since the sum and difference of
same type, we deduce that if a tensor
one coordinate system, then it must hold for all
they
transformations.
are tensors of the
type
in
established
systems obtained
coordinate
Chap. 2
of tensor
property
important
vanish
Tensors
problems at the end of the previous section contain the

fields: // all the components of a tensor field
in the
stated
and
by
admissible
transformations.
Thus, the importance of tensor analysis may be summarizedby the following

with respect to any
statement: The form of an equation can have general validity
frame
of reference only if every term in the equation has the same tensor
characteristics.
If this condition is not satisfied,
a simple change of the system
of
reference will destroy the form of the relationship, and the form would, therefore,
be merely
fortuitous.
in any
analysis is as important as dimensional
analysis
formulation of physical
relations.
In dimensional analysis,
we study the changes a
with particular
choices
of fundamental units. Two
physical
undergoes
quantity
We see
that
quantities
physical
equation
respect
tensor
be equal unless they
cannot
have
the same
describing a physical relation cannot be correct

units.
to a change of fundamental
Because
equations are
of the
in harmony
design of the
with
tensor
transformation
unless
dimensions. An
it is invariant
with
laws, the tensorial
Sec. 2.9
59
Rule
Quotient
with
and tensors are resolved into their components
used. In this notation, vectors
etc. These
such as\302\253,-,
\302\253,7,
to a frame of reference and denoted by symbols
respect
usual
Mathematical
operations on them follow the
components are real numbers.
be
introduced.
to
Thus,
need
No special rules of combination
rules of arithmetic.
the index notation exhibits the rank
Furthermore,
we gain a measure of simplicity.
of reference
frame
It
displays the role of the
clearly.
and the range of a tensor
explicitly.
is also a
advantage of the index notation, however,

from the physical
of the reader away
attention
the
draws
It
weakness:
both systems.
with
and familiarize oneself
one has to be adaptive
The
last-mentioned
Hence,
entity.
2.9 QUOTIENTRULE
a set of
Consider
n3
functions
A(l,
1,1), .4(1,1,2),
.4(1,2,3), etc.,or A(i,

,n. Although
1,2,...
j, k)
the
for short, with each of the indices i, j, k ranging

we do not know
of components,
set of functions A(i, j, k) has the right number
nature of the
the
about
we
know
something
whether it is a tensor. Now suppose
is a method that enables
there
Then
tensor.
an
with
arbitrary
of A(i, j, k)
product
of
without
going to the trouble
A(i, j, k) is a tensor
us to establish whether
over
determining
the
law
of
transformation
For example,let
physics.
be
\302\243,(x)
convention
illumination
directly.
a vector. Let
us
used over i) is known
that the
suppose
to yield a tensor
productA(i,
of the type
j, /c)
Ajk(x),
i.e.,
2.8 NOTATIONS
FOR
AND TENSORS:
VECTORS
OR INDICES?
Then we can
In continuum
concerned
velocities,
mechanicswe are
forces, etc., and with
equations, etc.
For vectors, the
tensors describing stress, strain,

constitutive
notation
of boldface letters or an arrow,
u or
if, is agreeable
tensor of rank
2 may
usual
to all;
but for
be printed
with vectors describing
tensors,
as a boldface
there
are differences
letter or with
A(i,j,k)i,
BOLDFACE
a double
displacements,
into
The proof is very

as
x-coordinates
A(i, j,
such as
of opinion.
A
arrow or with
braces. Thus, if T is a tensor of rank 2, it may be printed

as T, T or {T}.
notation
is the simplest, but then you have to remember what the symbol
are
represents; it may be a vector or it may be a tensor. The other notations
cumbersome. More important
to the simple notation
arise when several
objections
vectors and tensors are associated together. In vector analysis, we have to
distinguishscalar
products from vector products. How about tensors? Shall we define
kinds
of tensor products? We have to, because there is a variety
of ways
many
tensors can be associated. The matter
becomes
For
this
in
reason,
complicated.
most theoretical works that require extensive use of tensors,
an index notation is
prove that
j, k) is a tensor of the type

Since A(i, j, fc) ijj is of the
simple.
A(i,
kjl, = A,t
a pair of
[A{i, /, *)
Now
I,- is an arbitrary
Aijk(x).
A ]k, it
type
side of
right-hand
is transformed
(2.9-2)
r, j)$J.
\342\200\242=
p7rptlA\342\200\236 P/rPfaMm.
=
this in the
Inserting
But \302\243m
p,\342\200\236,i,-.
the
of
side
to
one
all terms
equation,
Thefirst
(2.9-1)
Alk,
Eq. (2.9-2) and
transposing
we obtain
r, s)]l
p/rpt,p,.A(m,
vector. Hence, the
quantity
= 0.
within the
(2.9-3)
brackets must
vanish,
and we have
A(i, j,
which
is precisely
the
The pattern of
tensors.
law
the
k)
of transformation
preceding
example
of the
(2.9-4)
r, s),
PtaPyrPfaAOn,
tensor of the
can be
generalized
type
Aijk.
to higher
order
61
Vectors
60
and Tensors
Chap.
PARTIAL DERIVATIVES
only Cartesian
coordinatesare considered,
Xi
p,v and
where
Now,
a,-
Solution.
if \302\243,(jci,
Xi, jc3)
is a
is a tensor of
Prob. 2.29, A\342\200\236
From
A,, =
= 8,\342\200\236\342\200\236A\342\200\236\342\200\236
Amn,
= A\342\200\236\342\200\236p(mPte
A\342\200\236
g.
(Ufa,
of this
one obtains
equation,
*k*?\342\204\242
=
(2.10-2)
x^ pit,
x2,
o. g.
i!k
(210-3)
comma to denote
use a
differentiation.
partial
and
\342\226\240'
to Cartesian
provided
3, respectively,
that
$,
|, and
32v\342\200\236,
6
e\342\200\236*ei,
to fix,
3\\,
are
(U,-, and cry,*
cr,7
are
tensors
-<M*-*JWtojte
tensors.
d~vj
V(V-v)
PROBLEMS
over that index is called a
and summing
2.29 In any
equating two indices
a contraction over i and;'((',;' = 1, 2, 3) results
contraction.
Thus, for a tensor A\342\200\236k,
= A,u + Ank + Am. Prove that the contraction of any two indices
in a vector A\342\200\236t
- 2.
tensor of rank n results in a tensor of rank n
in a Cartesian
tensor A ,lt...m,
is that the result of contraction

The only significant
part of the statement
has
n.
Then
A\342\200\236k...\342\200\236
2) indices. To show
only (n
be a tensor of rank
Let A,lk...\342\200\236
Solution.
tensor,consider
the definition
A;jk...n
A contraction over
i and
Let r be the
Prove that,
with
- V-Vv =
of a
vector
_A
typical
the notations defined
grad
div v
Av.
a field
point in
in the following
and r be
the
Tensor
of
= u,v,
=
W,
\302\243/M\302\253/V*
0
1
1
a$
V<|>
(|>
dXt
(vector
Vv
av,
gradient)
dXj
^\302\253imo3...n\342\200\236PloiP/i>2P)to3\"'Pijan.
divv
of r.
magnitude
table,
V(
X
\342\200\242tto,o2i.3...ci\342\200\236Pl..|P;\302\2532p*\302\2533'\"Pii\302\253,1.
that
Eq. (2.4-10)
iî
BXjWi,
teiWJ
v (vector)
or inner product)
X = ii-v
(dot, scalar,
vector product)
or
(cross
w = u x v
of scalar field)
=
(gradient
=
grad v
=
radius
_ i_
BxfiXj
Rank
grad
j yields
Ant...n
But we know from
2.32
a'V|
Sxfix,
is a feasor.
that it is a
the following relations
axt
coordinates, $,,,
prove
a2i
f
v = e,/t
Sx
(c) curl curl
\342\200\2241\302\253\302\253.
Thus,
*\"\342\200\242*
ax/
to
convention
of solution.
&/
Eq.
scalar,
(c)
3xm
dxm dXj
Example
restrict ourselves
(2.6-4).
and
2.31 Use the index notation
of notations below):
table
the
(see
x v = -v x u
(a) u
(s-v)(t-u)
x t)-(u x v) = (s-u)(t-v)
(b) (s
Av
=
v
div
v
curl
curl
grad
statement.
a common practice to
tj
of a
definition
summation
which verifies the
of rank 1,2,
hence isscalar. Moredirectly,
Am\342\200\236p,\342\200\236,p,.\342\200\236
x2, x3) =
dXj
When we
2), and we have
we have
which obeys the
both sides
differentiating
is
a scalar.
0 and
rank
tensor, so that
!li _
It
that A ,, is
2, show
tensor of rank
A,v is a Cartesian
If
(2.10-1)
+ a,-,
Pax,
2.30
(n
are constants.
I,(xt,
then, on
the partial
tensor of rank
the statement.
proved
derivatives of any tensor

show
To
tensor.
a
Cartesian
this, let us consider
of
field behave like the components
related
and
x2,
by
x3)
coordinates
x2,
(xh
x})
two sets of Cartesian
(xu
When
law for a
obeys the transformation

Aai\342\200\236,\342\200\2363...\342\200\236n
Thus,
2.10
Partial Derivatives
2.10
Sec.
= V-v
av,
(divergence)
dx,
1
curl v =
x v
(curl)
t,ik
dx,
Hence,
=
Ai:k...\342\200\236
j4omi,3...ai,8ni\342\200\236Pin3---p\342\200\2360n
V2V
V-Vv =
1
Av
(Laplacian)
_\302\243%_
(3Vj\\ =
ixfix,
ix,\\6x,l
i_
63
62
and Tensors
Vectors
Chap.
(a) div (r\"r)

(n + 3)r\"
= 0
curl
(b)
(r\"r)
=
+ l)r\"-2
(c) A(r\")
rotation
(a) Let
of solution.
the components
* about
z. Comparethe
2.36
r be jc, (/ =
of
1, 2, 3).
flr
x,
dx.
'
dx.
2.33 A matrix-valued
3r\"
to.
A22
\\0
What are
fc
values
the
of
(a)
(b) a,;a,7, (c) a,7a;t
aH>
0\\
when i =
1; k
= 1 and
1; and
result.
yields a different
The rotation of coordinates
is also noncommutative; i.e., the transformation
matrices (|3,7) are noncommutative. Demonstrate this in a special case that is analogous
to the rigid-body
rotation of the book just considered.
First transform
x, y, z to x',
Then transform x\\ y', z' to x\", y\", z\" by a
about the y-axis.
y', z' by a rotation of 90\302\260
about z'.
Thus,
/0 0
y
-1 0
VI
Derive
the transformation
rotation.
2.35
Show that a
Infinitesimal
an
infinitesimal
rotation
/r\\
0/\\z/
matrix
different
rotations,
l\\
-1
VI
-10
\\0
in
1+
\342\200\224
yiUrr +I \"VV/IJ
<r,y)].
v(cr\342\200\236
fT-_
[a,:
longhand,
= x,Xl
the
form,
unabridged
0\\
0 1/ VI
from x, y, z to x\", y\", z\". Now, reverse

is obtained.
the orderof
result
however, are commutative. Demonstrate this by considering

by an angle 6 about y, followed
by another infinitesimal
y,Xi
= 0, where
2.38
Show that
2 39
Writ!down?M lelof
a
system. Take good
3/
But a reversal of the order of rotation
90\302\260
rotation
in
Xl
take a book,
rotation is noncommutative. For example,
with x-, y-, z-axes directed along the edges of the book.
a certain
90\302\260
about y; then rotate it 90\302\260
about z. We obtain
book
the
configuration.
~
+ <r\342\200\236)],
*\342\226\240\"
E
\302\260\"
6-\342\226\240\"
C
equation:
following
\\
fai
Let
is well known that rigid-body

and fix a frame of reference
First rotate
\302\273
i:\342\200\236\342\200\236.
3)r\".
6,24,2,3.
2.34 It
rotations
1 + v
= 2.
drawer.
out
given as follows:
/l
fl2l
2.37 Write
1x,x, = (n
+ nr\"
= 1, 2,3) is
a,;(!, /
quantity
of
1 +v
r\302\253g^^
V-(r\302\253r)=^(r%)
jr.
g22
dx.
+ n, ;jr'
the order
which
Br
= 3r\"
casein
dx,
%ixh
div(r\302\273r)
with the
in a single equation usmg index notation.
equations
e\342\200\236
-g[(rx,-v(<r\342\200\236
dx,
results
...
set of
Express the Mowing
=
= V-r
divr
Problems
is reversed.
n(n
Example
Chap. 2
basic
physics
= z;
= \302\253'.
= v,\302\2533
=
\302\253,\302\253,\302\253J
is the permutation
e\342\200\236,
symbol
and
in tensor notation,
and
book
go through it from begmnmg
laws of physics
is a
symmetric
<r\342\200\236
using
the indicial
to end.
Sec.3.1
65
of Stress
Notations
in the direction
surface with an outer normal pointing
Similarly, let AS2be the
in the
three
has
components
on AS,, T,
of the x2 axis. The stress vector acting
denoted
be
shall
by
directions of xu x2, x3. These stress components
tractions,
Ta, r3
= %.
(3.1-2)
the components of the

we obtain
square matrix,
we arrange
If
three surfaces in
on the
acting
= t21, r2 =
for AS3.
is similar
The situation
r,
or
stresses,
Components of
Stresses
In Chapter 1 we introduced
the concept of stress,
and analyzed the Cartesiantensors.
In this chapter
of the
stress
In Chapter
Surface normal
Surface normal
defined
the properties
discuss
we
2 we
normal
Surface
3
t13
tn
t33
tu
t]2
to x2
t2i
Tn
to x3
t31
t32
to xx
tensor.
normal
stresses,
Tlb rn> t33 are called
3.1. The components
Each of these
stresses.
shear
called
are
t!2) t]3, etc.,
components
and the remaining
or MILT2.
of force
per unit area,
dimension
the
has
components
exists in the literature.
stress
for
components
notations
in
diversity
This is
3.1 NOTATIONSOFSTRESS
in Fig.
illustrated
A.great
has been discussed

concept
rectangular parallelepiped, as shown in
of stress
The
(3.1-3)
in Sec.
Fig. 3.1.
1.6. Consider a
Let a rectangular
in a
continuum
frame
Cartesian
The most widely used notations in American

coordinates x, y, z,
Cartesian
of rectangular
/ov
txy
literature
are,
in
reference
to a system
txz\\
(3.1-4)
frx
T2),
0%
ffi2\\
(3.1-5)
o>,
J
-*-AT2
Figure
3.1
Notations
of
stress
components.
axesxu
with coordinate
the
to the edges of the parallelepiped

of the parallelepiped
with an outer normal
vector pointing
in the positive direction of the Xj-axis. Let the stress vector
acting
on AS, be denoted
by T, with three components
7\"i, T2, T3 in the directions of the
coordinate
axes xu x2,x3, respectively.
In this special case,we introduce
a new set
of symbols
for these stress components:
of
reference
be used.
Let the
surface
64
x2, x% parallel
AS, be a surface
T\\
Tlb
T2
T,2, I3
= T13.
Love*
(3.1-1)
Xx,
writes
is likely
reader
insist on
Yx
uniformity
use
Pearson*
and
for cr* and %y, and Todhunter
in the literature,
notations
these
all
to encounter
and
would use
whichever
notation
that happens
xx, xy. Since

we shall not
to be
no confusion.
to
that a stress will always be understood
to
again
emphasize
It is important
of a surface
side
the
on
positive
be the force (per unit area) that the part lying
exerts on the part lying
the positive side of the outer normal)
on
side
element (the
element
surface
of
a
points in the
normal
outer
the
if
on the negative side. Thus,
convenient.There
should be
of Elasticity.
Love. ^4 Treatise on the Mathematical Theory
1927.
ed.
4th
1892.
1st
Press.
ed.,
the Theory of Elasticity
and K. Pearson. A History of
fl. Todhunter
Press. Vol. 1,1886. Vol. 2,1893.
Cambridge: University
Materials.
*A. E. H.
Cambridge:
University
and of the Strength of
66
Stress
Laws
The
of Motion
x2-axisand T22 is positive, the vector representing

the
stress acting on the surface element will point in the positive
But if in is positive
while the outer normal
points in the negative x2then the stress vector
to the negative
acting on the elementalso points
of normal
component
Xrdirection.
axis
Sec. 3.2
of the
direction
positive
Chap. 3
direction,
*2-axisdirection.
(See
Fig. 3.2).
*-TlZ
Figure
moment
It-
*S
of momentum
domain B(t),
of
SK
Figure 3.2 Directions of positive

stress components.
about
element
r x
OF MOTION
space
occupied
be
9>
and
It is
by a
laws of motion.
Cartesian inertial frame
material body at any time t be denoted
on Newton's
a rectangular
Let
element
infinitesimal
integration
of the
is
and the
dv,
momentum over the
9
is the
linear
momentum
of the
body
domain
m
in
the
linear
Let
the
See Fig. 3,3.

of the coordinate
enclosing the point
at r. Then the mass
is (p dv) V. An
by B(t).
Let r be the position vector of a

point with respect to the origin
system. Now, consider an infinitesimal element of volume dv
at r. Let p be the density of the material,
and V be the velocity
of the
the coordinate
of reference.
momentum
B(t), i.e.,
Vpdv
configuration
V p
that
the rate of
about
the
easy to verify
choice of origin,
As we have
on material
forces.
dv,
dv
over the
(3.2-2)
of the body. Newton's laws, as stated

rate of change of the linear momentum
total applied force W< acting on the body, i.e.,
=
by Euler
for a
is equal to
the
(3.2-3)
f,
of momentum
change of moment
origin, i.e.,
It =
system xu x2, x3
of momentum
the
that
assert
continuum,
torque 2
shear.
Continuum mechanicsis founded
the origin, r x
is the moment
Similarly, positive values of tm, tb will imply shearing stress vectors pointing
to the positive xr, *3-axesif the outer normal
agrees in sense with x2-axis, whereas
the stress vectors point to the negative xr, ^-directions
if the outer normal disagrees
in sense
with the x2-axis,as illustrated
in Fig. 3.2. A careful
is
study of the figure
essential. Naturally, these rules agree with the usual notation
of tension,
3.2 THE LAWS
Body
i.e.,
-XZ
and
compression,
the
3.3
is equal to
1.
the
total
applied
(3.2-4)
then when Eq. (3.2-4) is valid for one

if Eq. (3.2-3) holds,
valid for all choices of origin.*
mentioned before, there are two types of external forces acting
that
it is
bodies
in
the
mechanics
of
continuous
media:
of volume of
body.
(1) Body forces, acting on elements
on surface elements.
(2) Surface forces, or stresses, acting
forces.
Examples of body forces are gravitational forces and electromagnetic
on a body and stress
forces are aerodynamic pressure acting
surface
of
Examples
contact between two bodies, or between one part of a body on
due to mechanical
another.
To specify a body force, we considera volume bounded by an arbitrary surface
force vector contributed by the body force is assumed
S (Fig. 3.3). The resultant
the
(3.2-1)
B(t). The integral
of the
and ?C of a fixed set of material

9 and It refer to the time rate of change of 3\302\260
'The derivatives
them by OT/Dr and DWDt, respectively.
(See Sec. 10.3.)
denote
we
shall
Later
particles.
Sec. 3.3
in the form
representable
enclosed in S, viz.,
to
Chap. 3
Stress
68
be
of a
volume
taken
integral
69
Formula
Cauchy's
3.3 CAUCHY'SFORMULA
over the
domain
derive a simple result which states

to a surface
exterior
action
the
of material
representing
that the stress vector
to the stress
direction
in
in magnitude and opposite
on the interior is equal
element
across the
the
exterior
on
the interior material
1^
vector
representing the action of
same surface element:
From
of
the equations
we shall first
motion,
T(+)
X*.
The vector
per
unit
X,
in
components Xh
M(LT)~2, is called
i.e.,
volume,
example,
the dimensions of force

force
body
per unit volume. For
Z2, X3, all of
with three
the
T<-) =
field,
a gravitational
Xt
To
pgi,
and
where
acceleration field
of a gravitational
are components
&\342\200\242
p is
and
the
density
this, we consider a small

thickness
6, as shown in Fig.
prove
small
where
the
the stress vector

torque about the origin
T is
on dS
acting
2 =
Xiv,
is given by
whose outer
vector is v.
normal
Similarly,
the expression
pillbox. The
these equations, we
have
equations
(3.3-1)
(3.2-7)
reverses,that
Now
once the
xfdS
\302\243r
No demand was
the
same
material
jjjrX
+JflrxXrfv
made on
particles at
all
the
domain
times.
B(t) other than
No special rule was
Vpdv.
that
it must
made about
(3.2-8)
particles, other
Equations (3.2-7)and
than
+ T(->
forces on
AS =
S.
the
of the
sides
for small
that
therefore,
of a
surface
AS,
0.
this result is to say that the stress vector is a function

of the normal vector
to a surface. When the sense of direction
also.
of the stress vector reverses
the components tih we can write down at
shall show that knowing
outer normal vector v whose
vector acting on any surface with unit
we
stress
of stating
stress vector is
componentsare vu v2, v3. This

Ti, T3given by Cauchy's formula:
r, =
consist of
the
denoted
by T,
with
components
A
v,T\342\200\236.
Tu
(3.3-2)
choice
that of continuity, i.e., that they form a continuum.

are applicable to any material
bodies. They can be
(3.2-8)
are also applicable
to a spoonful of water.
The
to an ocean, but they
applied
with the external boundary of an elastic
boundary surface of B(t) may coincide
thereof.
solid, but it may also include only a small portion
of the
(3.2-3) implies,
then follows.
Another way
vector
of the normal
of motion,
jt\\BY9dv,
\\BXdv
equation
of surface
contribution
across
(3.2-6)
jsidS
the
of motion
\"pillbox\"
T(+)AS
^r xTds +J^rxXdv.
Equation
Combining
>t'~!
as does the
with time vanish,
of area
while AS
zero,
Fipre 3.4 Equilibrium
,,
(3.2-5)
the linear
surfaces
parallel
shrinks to
^^s
T(+)
/
= <>TdS+
9?
AS
remains
momentum and its rate of change
with two
\"pillbox\"
3.4. When 8
the volume forces and
but finite,
(mass per unit volume) of the material.

on an imagined surface in the interior of a body is
The surface force acting
The surface force
and Cauchy's stress principle.
the stress vector conceived in Buler
can also be expressed in terms of a stress
on an external surface of a body
acting
vector. According
to this concept, the total force acting
upon the material occupying
the region B interior to a closed surface 5 is
4 (3.3-1)
_T(+).
Cauchy's
derivation.
Let us
to the
formula
consider
can be
derived
in
several
ways. We
shall
give an
elementary
by three surfaces parallel

an infinitesimal tetrahedron formed
v. (See Fig. 3.5.) Let
vector
unit
the
to
normal
one
and
coordinate planes
Chap. 3
Stress
70
Sec.3.3
71
Formula
Cauchy's
and e'
are
(-Tu
dS
6i)vi
+ (-Ta
+ e3)v3dS
+ e)dS
the
T,
Tm
Figure
3.5
tractions
Surface
on a
tetrahedron.
the area of the
surface
normal to v
be dS.Then
the areas of the other
three surfaces
are
= dS
= vi
dSi =
dS3
and
the
volume
cos (v,
= area of
v2dS
= Vi dS
of
surface
= area of surface
the tetrahedron
parallel
to the
parallel
to the jc3Xi-plane,
parallel
to the
j^-plane,
x^-plane,
height
acting
of the
on the
vertex P from
three coordinate
+
(-T\342\200\236\342\202\254i)dSi,
(-T21
the base
dS. The forces in

can be written
surfaces,
e2)rfS2,
(-T31
the
\342\202\2543)dS3,
the
of
compared with
the
pV,
noting
| h dS.
(3.3-3)
eu e2, e3, e,
that
e'
(3.3-4)
t3iVj,
components
on the basisof acceptable
normal to v has a component (Ti + e)dSin the positive ;traxis direction,

of change
has an ^-component
force
equal to (Xx + e.')dv, and the rate
body
of
linear momentum has a component
pVi dv, where Vi is the component
+ e3v3 +
terms that
positive
tu, t2i, t3i
the triangle
-\302\273
0, and
limit as h
+ t2!v2
t\342\200\236v,
e2v2
Ti,
as
to dS. The negative

sign
are the stresses at the vertex P opposite
are opposite in sense
the
to
three
surfaces
normals
the
outer
is obtained because
to the coordinate axes, and the e's are inserted becausethe tractions
with
respect
from P. If we assume that the stress field is continuous,
different
act at points slightly
then eb e2, e3 are infinitesimal quantities. On the other hand, the force acting on
where
continua
defined
h dS,
is small,
where h is the
direction of xu
Errors
Acceptable
Checking
exvr +
3
=
e')H dS
Other
is
dv =
and
and a Umiting
variability
In Sec. 1.6, the concept was applied

bound of dimensions.
approach that has a lower
an abstract copy of the real
we
Section
In
1.7,
adopted
of stress.
to the definition
of Cauchy's formula, Eq. (3.3-4),
In the proof
material as a way of idealization.
of calculus to throw
method
usual
the
followed
and
abstract
the
used
copy
we have
reach
Eq. (3.3-4).We claimed that
of terms in Eq. (3.3-3) and
away a number
the sum of the terms
Xi)
dS = area of surface
{Xi +
of Eq. (3.3-2).
component
us that the nine
assures
first
In Sec. 1.5,we
dSi
point P,
is thus
follow similarly.
stresses
t,;-are
components of
Cauchy'sformula
in a body.
element
across
traction
the
any
surface
to define
necessary and sufficient
the set of quantities
characterized
is
by
a
in
completely
body
Hence, the stress state
vector vh it follows
valid
and
for an arbitrary
vector
Eq. (3.3-2) is
Since
T,isa
t,-;.
tensor.
a
stress
called
be
will
t,-;
Henceforth,
that tu is a tensor.
which is the
i* A
to the
dS
e2)v2
taking
refer
Xi
of motion
and dS, one obtains
with
+ (I,
by dS,
through
Dividing
Tt and
Here,
The first equation
infinitesimal.
again
+(-t3i
vanish
direction of xx.
in the
acceleration
are retained;
TUvi,
e + tfc(e'
(3.3-5)
pV,)
i.e.,
(3.3-6)
v2!v2, t3iv3,
if we are not
0 and AS -> 0. Now,
as h -\302\273
Eq. (3.3-3) to the limit
restricted to
are
we
->
instead
but
-*
0 and AS
as h
0,
to take the limit
allowed
a
constant
than
multiplied
smaller
no
AS
h*
and
constant
accept h no smaller than a
= h* and
be evaluated for h
must
in
line
listed
(3.3-5)
then the
when
we take
quantity
(Iff,
with the quantities listed in line (3.3-6).
AS = const. -(h*f and must be compared
and the comparison be
be defined,
A standard of how small is negligible must
line
in
(3.3-5) negligible
made under that definition. If we find the quantity
then we can say that Eq. (3.3-3) or Eq.
in line
by
compared
with
those listed
is valid.
(3.3\342\200\2242)
continuum
theory
(3.3-6),
This tedious step

to
objects of the
should
real
be done,
world.
in
principle,
to
apply
the
73
Stress
72
Chap. 3
Sec.3.4
where 0
3.4 EQUATIONS
We
OF EQUILIBRIUM
shall
differential
now
transform
equations.
small
the equations of motion,

This can be done elegantly
(3,2-7) and (3.2-8),

theorem
by means of Gauss's
we
shall
here
but
pursue an
10,
into
Eqs.
in Chapter
formula, as is shown
to assure
clarity.
course
physical
elementary
with
parallelepiped
Consider the static equilibrium state of an infinitesimal
on the various surfaces
stresses
The
acting
surfacesparallel to the coordinate planes.
on the left-hand side, the force
are shown in Fig. 3.6. The force Tn dx2 dx3 acts
the right-hand side, etc. As it will be explained
+ (3tu/3jei) dxi] dxi dx3 acts on
[th
of continuity of the stresses.
the assumption
these expressions are based on
below,
The body force is X, dxx dx2 dx3.
and
Cauchy's
of Equilibrium
Equations
<a
be made arbitrarily
can
is finite, then the last term
small. With such
sufficiently
dx{
choosing
terms
by
with the other
s 1.If
compared
d2inldx\\
a choice, we have
Tn(x, +
dxu
x2, x3)
= ti,(x,,
component
+
~~
Bxi
body
dxA
dx-y
dx3
dx3 +
-tndxi
\342\200\224dx2\\
t2! +
- T3)dxi dx2 +
infinitesimal
The stresses indicated

with a nonuniform
concerned
stress
the
may be
explained
as follows.
We are
of
stress component is a function
x2,
x3).
Tn is a function of xu x2, x3: th(jci,
the stress component
position. Thus,
at (xt + dxu x2,
the
of
x7, x3), namely,
the
(xh
to
point
right
At a point slightly
+ dxh x2, x3). But if tu is a continuously
of the stress tu is t\342\200\236(xi
x3), the value
with a
theorem
to Taylor's
function of xh xlt x3, then, according
differentiable
dxu
x2, x3)
Figure 3.7
Componentsof
Dividing
we
by dx, dx2 dx3,
x2,
x3) +
dxi
dx3 =
0.
(3.4-1)
tractions
in ^-direction.
obtain
dXi
dX2
dX3
the indices leads to

permutation of
The whole
- and directions.
forSnS\342\204\242
A cvclic
= tu(xi,
dx\\
Every
remainder, we have
tu(xi +
te3
*3
figure
stress field.
\342\200\224\342\200\224
dx3\\ dxx dx2
-W,
components on an
parallelepiped.
in
IT31
\\
Xi
dx3 dx%
dx2
\\
- in dx3 dx\\
Equilibrating
x2, x3)dxh
on the surfaces where

+ {fcnldx^dxx
and t\342\200\236
3.6 we write, for short, tu
at X\\, x2, x3. The
and rear surfaces are located
bottom,
the stresses act. The left,
have lengths dxu dx2> dx3.
of
edges of the element
at (xh x2, x3). Equilibrium
are evaluated
All stresses and their derivatives
in the xr
forces
the
Consider
vanish.
that the resultant forces
the body demands
of surface force and one
six components
have
we
direction. As shown in Fig. 3.7,
force. The sum is
of
T23+3*rc&2
Figure 3.6
(xh
OX\\
In Fig.
Tn
\\
*2
\342\200\224
x3) +
x2,
dxi
-^
(xu
x2, x3)
dXi
+ xs
1 a2
+ dx\\--^j(xi+adxux2,x3)
2 oil
dXj
of
equilibrium
equations
*
set, wntten concsely,
similar
= 0.
of
(3.4-3)
This
If
is an
Sec. 3.5
Chap. 3
Stress
74
On dividing
important result. A shorter derivation will be given later, in Sec. 10.6.

of an element requires also that the resultant moment vanish.
The equilibrium
there do not exist
of moments
external
lead
will
proportional to a volume,
moments
conclusionthat
to the important
the stress
and
of Stress
Change
dx, and
by dxidx2
through
dx, ->
Components
in
Transformation
to the
passing
75
of Coordinates
as dxt -\302\273
0, dx2
limit
-> 0,
0, we obtain
the consideration
Tn =
tensor is symmetric,
t21.
(3.4-5)
of resultant
about Ox2 and Oxx lead to the general
moments
derivation will be given later, in Sec. 10.7.
by Eq. (3.4-3). A shorter
we have considered the condition of equilibrium.
If it is desired to
Similar considerations
i.e.,
result
Tf/
Ty,-.
given
(3.4-4)
So far,
equation of motion instead of that of equilibrium, it is necessary only

to our cubical element. According
the
D'Alembert principle
to the
apply
in motion may be considered
D'Alembert principle, a particle
in equilibrium
if the
of
and
the
the
mass
the
accelerationof
the
of
is
product
negative
particle
applied
as an external force on the particle. This is the inertial
force. For a system of
D'Alembert's
of the inertial forces on
principle applies if the resultant
particles,
all particles is applied to the center of mass of the system.
For the element considered in this section, if a (with components ah a2, a,)
represents the acceleration vector of the particle referred to an inertial frame of
force is
reference, then since the mass of the element is p dxt dx2 dx,, the inertial
of this to Eq. (3.4-1) and
dxt dx2 dx,. An addition
-pa,dividing
through by
the moment
as follows. Referring to Fig. 3.6 and considering
This is demonstrated
of all the forces about the jc3-axis,we see that those components of forces parallel
in planes containing Ox, do not contribute
to Ox, or lying
any moment. The
the
derive
to
T32+ajf^3
dxi dx2
dx, leads to
the
of motion,
equation
Sin
3t3i
3t2i
i.e.,
3.8
Figure
Components of
that contribute moment
tractions
do contribute
a moment
of the
moment arm
care
3t\"
j \\ j
j
+\342\200\224~dxAdx2dx,
Ti2
JT22
3xi
3tu
+ \342\200\224
dxA dx2
/
3*i
properly,
x3-axis
are shown
we have
a
a ^
+ Tn dx2 dx, \342\200\224
J** ,
\342\200\224
Tu
about the
dx, dxi
+ \342\200\224-dx2\\
dxidx,\342\200\224
t21
\\
|t32 + t^
ki
dx,\\
dxs dx2
dx,\\ dxvdx2
-y\"
-y-
3t2,
+ \342\200\224\342\200\224
dx2\\ dxi dx, dx2
I
dx2
in
Fig.
3.8.
3.5
OF STRESS COMPONENTS
OF COORDINATES
-j-
+ t,i
to a
the previous section, the components of stress
t,7 are defined with respect
rectangular Cartesian system xu x2, x,. Let us now take a second set of rectangular
but oriented
coordinates
Cartesian
x[, x2, x',, with the same origin
differently,
and consider the stress components in the new reference
system (Fig. 3.9). Let
be connected by the linear relations
these
coordinates
In
4 =
&\302\273
A
A
\342\200\224
dx% dx2
Xi
dxx dx2
dx, -^
X2
dxi dx2
(3tl- are
i,i is a tensor
to emphasize
the direction
M/.
cosinesof the
3.3) we can write
(Sec.
the importance
down
(A:
4-axis
(3.5-1)
1,2,3)
with respect
the transformation
law
to the
jc,-axis.
at once.
since
However,
insert an elementary derivation

of the result, we shall
in Sec, 3.3), which states that if dS is a surface
on Cauchy's formula
(derived
vector
v has components vh then the force per
whose unit outer normal
element
based
dxx
dx2
-^
unit
(3.4-7)
IN TRANSFORMATION
CHANGE
T22dXidx,\342\200\224
t32
X,.
aXj
where
+
the Ox3-axis.
about
components that
Therefore, taking
pa,
dx,
\342\200\224^
=
0.
area
acting on
dS is a vector
T with
r, =
components
i,,vh
(3.5-2)
Stress
Chap.
77
Curvilinear Coordinates
in Orthogonal
Stress Components
Sec. 3.6
if we
In fact,
to use spherical coordinates.
natural
sphere, it is
into a spherical cap,
of a flat sheet of metal
to study the explosiveforming
want
for the original state of
reference
of
frame
to use a rectangular
it may be useful
state.
frame of reference for the deformed
a
and
spherical-polar
the plate
of the
directions
the
in
stress
of
to resolve the components
It is appropriate
For
example,
subscripts.
and denote them by corresponding
coordinates
curvilinear
are related to the rectangular
which
z,
0,
r,
coordinates,
in a set of cylindrical
x, y, z by
coordinates
in a
distribution
Cartesian
x =
Given
it
the normal
v is chosen
to be
parallel to
v, = pH)
v2
is natural
to denote the
v3 =
Pe,
the stress
has
of the
component
product of Ti
and
vector T'
in
direction
the
the stress
of
the
axis
x'm
is given
by the
component
k
O\"o
T02
Tor
projection of T
+
fipmI
T;,PyPra)
ISP*
on
the 4,-axis
let us erect a local rectangular

the origin located
with
at the point (r, 6, z),
frame of reference x'y'z'
Cartesian
in the
the y'-axis
r,
of increasing
in the direction
at the point (r, 6, z), the x'-axis
in
Then,
z
to
3.10).
Fig.
(see
0, and the z'-axis parallel
of
To relate
direction
these stress
<rx,
rv, etc.,
increasing
x'-oxis
y -axis
to
components
+ T&a
+ TyjPt^
(3.6-2)
T2o
,)
Tzo
T/,pt/.
Hence,
p\342\200\236\342\200\236-.
t'km
Tr2\\
components
Tl =
The
or
Tor
Tor
vector T
Tr0
point (r, 0, z) by
T\342\200\236\\
ÔV
P\302\273,
then
Tr0
at a
stress tensor
of the
components
hrr
(3.6-1)
+ y2,
z = z,
axis x'k, so that
the
tan
r2 = x2
sin 0,
z = z,
of stress components under
Figure 3.9 Transformation

rotation of coordinate systems.
If
= r
stresses
Desired
stresses
6-
r cos 0,
6 -direction
T/3Pt;P\342\200\236,3;
r-direction
i.e.,
Ttm
(3.5-3)
Tf/PyP,,;.
we see that the stress components

Eq. (3.5-3) with Eq. (2.5-6),
of stress
the physical
2.
of
rank
concept
tensor
Thus,
Cartesian
a
like
transform
2 in a
rank
of
a
tensor
of
definition
described by t,7 agrees with the mathematical
If
we compare
Euclidean space.
polar
cylindrical
COMPONENTS
3.6 STRESS
IN ORTHOGONAL
CURVILINEAR
COORDINATES
Orthogonal
curvilinear
coordinates
are often introduced in
continuum
mechanics
For example,
are simplified by such a frame of reference.
conditions
if the boundary
tube or the torsion of a circular
a
circular
in
the
flow
cylindrical
to
if we want
study
to study the stress
to use cylindrical coordinates. If we wish
shaft, it is natural
conventional notation, the

define the stress components
z':
Trr =
etc. Since the
stresses
TiV) T,y,
listed in
Txy,
coordinate systems
are
Eq. (3.6-2)by
Tr0
x',y',
...
!>/,
well
z' and x, y,
defined.
identifying
Te0=
components in
coordinates.
Stress
3.10
Figure
Now we can
r, S, z
with
y',
(3.6-3)
T,y,
z are both
x',
Cartesian,
we can
Stress
78
apply the
to x,
(3.5-3). The
of Eq.
law
transformation
x', y', z' relative
y, z are (seeFig.
2.2 and
/ cos8
Sec.
3.7
Stress
Boundary
79
Conditions
axes
11
Eq. 2.4-3)
68
sin
of the
cosines
direction
Chap.
0\\
s.j;sof
\302\273\302\251-..\302\253\342\226\240:;\302\247
$4
(&/)
-sin
Hence,
of Eqs.
ax =
=
<ry
tX),
(3.5-3)
o> sin2 9
+ do cos2
= tzr sin
Spherical or
similar manner.
other
cr0 sin2 d
sin 0
(rs)
1/
- t^
sin
20,
\342\200\242f(ii-0...\302\253un
K - aIJ Vl
6 + Tr5 sin 20,
cos 6
- t!Ssin
(3.6-4)
we have
(3.6-3),
t2x = Tzrcos 0
t2),
and
o> cos2 6
(ov
cos 8
\\
by virtue
&
(a)
Tr0(cos2
1,(11
(3.6-5)
sin2
\342\200\224Jl\342\200\224
(b)
0),
0,
6 + tz\342\200\236
cos 0.
curvilinear
orthogonal
coordinates can
be
treated
in a
mm-
(0
fia-o^/a
3.7 STRESS
Problems
forces
inquire
building
in
mechanics
or velocities
into
known facts
appear
this
on the
displacements
way:
know something about the

solid
or fluid body and
the wind blows on a
example,
We
surface of a
what happens inside the body. For

is firm. What
foundation we known
use the
safe? To resolve
concerning the external world in the
beams?
Are they
differential
the interior of the
equations
body.
boundary conditions,
of the
usually
or
whose
columns and
then
CONDITIONS
BOUNDARY
then
complete
is found
information
stresses
questions,
form of boundary
to extend
the
(d)
acting in the
we set
such
(field equations)
If a solution
are the
down
the
conditions and
information
yg\\
to
the field equations

and
is obtained for the entire interior
to satisfy all
body.
On the surface of a body or at an interface between two bodies, the traction

(force per unit area) acting on the surface must be the same on both sides of the
of stress that defines the interaction
surface. This, indeed, is the basic concept
of
one part of a body on another.
Consider a cube composedof a hard material joined to a soft material, as
shown
in Fig. 3.11(a). Let the block be compressed between two plane walls. Both
the soft material
and the hard material
will be stressed. At a point
P on the interface
as shown
AB, the situation may be illustrated by a sequence of free-body
diagrams
in the figure. For the hard
on the positiveside of the interface
at P, there,
material,
acts a surface traction!10, Fig. 3.11(b). With
xh x%, x3 identified with the coordinates
o'xx
(el
Figure 3.11
Derivation
of the stress boundary
condition
at an
interface
between
AB between two continuous media 1 and 2. (b)

No. 1 at a point P on the
diagram of a small element of material
Free-body
AB of this element, (c) Freestress vector t\"1 acts on the surface
interface/The
No. 2 at P. (d) Free-body
diagram of
body
diagram of a small element of material
two materials,
a small
vertical
(a)
An interface
element including both materials, (e) Free-body

diagram of a
can be discondnuous at the interface.
element, showing that a\342\200\236
flat
small
Stress
80
f(j) =
[Fig.
stress
traction
3.11(d)],
which are the
oi?
o\302\273,
(3.7-1)
stresses in
on the
conditions
boundary
($ =
= og,
(!\302\273\342\226\240
the
media
and
(3.7-2)
2 at
their
interface.
that
Note
Indeed,
the compressive strain
the
about the stress

conditions indicate
nothing
to
be continuous across
not
are
These components
required
and
of materials 1 and 2 are unequal
if the elastic moduli
these interface
isxx, ayy, o-iy.
components
boundary.
then,
is uniform,
og#oS,
That these
discontinuities
be seen
Fig.
in
negligible
Then the
surface
are not
as the
in
with
conflict
any conditions
of equilibrium
compared
is said to
which
medium
with those in
be free,
=
0,
and
2 is so soft that its

1
medium
the boundary
=
o-\342\200\236
0,
(for
can
air vs. steel).
The
cleavage
surface?
the water
surface.
Velocity
profile
Wind
(3.7-4)
2 is known, then it can be considered

hand, if the traction in medium
conditions
1.
on
medium
load
Thus, the stress boundary
\"external\"
acting
usually
take
=
p3,
cr\342\200\236,2
(3.7-5)
set of
where pu p2, p3 are specific functions of location and time
normal.
the
outer
the
direction
of
in
local orthogonal axes with n pointing
it is a general
Although every surface is an interface between two spaces,
the other side
call
the
and
of
surface
one
side
to
attention
one's
confine
to
practice
For example, structural engineersspeak of the wind load on a building
\"external.\"
to the fluid dynamicist,
to the building.
as the \"external load\"
Reciprocally,
applied
a rigid border to the flow of air. The sameinterface
presents
the building is merely
to the two media. The basic justification
conditions
two different kindsof boundary
of the structure
elastic deformation
is that the small
for such a divergence of attitude
acting on
structural
tu t2 are a
boundary
water-air
the aerodynamicist who computes the aerodynamic

pressure
to the
is
all
deformation
elastic
the
whereas
important
structure,
for the aeroof
the
the safety
determines
Hence,
who
building.
analyst
At a point P, let us consider surfaces A-A,

3.4 In Fig. P3.4, water is shown in a reservoir.
surfaces
all possible
Consider
surfaces.
these
on
vectors
stress
acting
B-B, etc. Draw
vectors?
stress
the
P. What is the locus of all
passing through
Answer: A sphere.
to
the
Dynamic
conditions at the
interface.
and n,
unimportant
Figure P3.3
the form
o-\342\200\236\342\200\236
pi,
p\\,
<r\342\200\236h
is
failure?
other
on a solid body
words,
are approximations.
conditions are
= 0.
o>,
other
of water generates ripples,Fig. P3.3. Describe

3.3 A gentle breeze blowing over an expanse
at
conditions
Write down the boundary
the stressvector acting on the water surface.
stresses are
example,
not. In
If you pull on it
a long string.
T acts on every cross section of
modeof
(3.7-3)
<$#<#\342\226\240
3.11(e).
<r22
On the
general,
\302\253$*o\302\256
A special caseis one in

completely
in
it is
with a force T, it is clear that the same total

the string. If we consider the strength of the
tension
the cross section, the stronger it would be.
it is intuitively clear that the larger
string,
to
wish
and
compare the strengths of their materials,
Thus, if we have several strings
tension
on the stress (which in this caseis equal to the
based
be
should
the comparison
too
much
not
is
It
force.
total
than
rather
orkjhe
T divided by the cross-sectional area),
stress. In
ultimate
same
the
at
break
will
material
same
the
of
to hope that all strings
if an experiment were done and one
the problem would be very interesting
fact,
at the same stress.
did not break
material
same
the
of
made
discovered that all strings
small?
if the strings were extremely
What
a
such
of
contingency?
Could you conceive
10~3
10~2
cm,
0.1
1
cm,
diameters
cm,
of
cm,
For concreteness, consider nylon threads
that some other factors
uncertain
little
a
feel
to
would
you begin
..., 10~6 cm. When
of the threads? What are the factors?
in defining the strength
might enter the picture
it (a) by bending, and (b) by twisting. The way the
3.2 Take a piece of chalk and break
Can we predict the
in these two cases.Why?
different
will be
piece of chalk breaks
3.1 Consider
is the
elastician
PROBLEMS
More explicitly,
oS>
whereas for the
thin
of surface traction on the two sides of an interface.

condition of equality
to
and let the z-axis be normal
let the interface be the xy-plane,
three
the
equations
implies
(3.7-1)
xy. Then, the vector equation
This
is rigid,
T!2),
infinitesimally
requires that
fP).
81
Problems
dynamicist the building

conditions
both boundary
tensor
of an
equilibrium
Chap.
the traction
z, the unit normal vector v(1) has three components (0, 0,1), and
vector T1'1has three components olj'vf >, {i = 1,2,3), where a}]'is the
in the hard material. For the soft material, there must exist a similar
x, y,
with components afvf\\

Fig. 3.11(c). The
as shown in the free-body diagram
pillbox,
Chap.
3.5 Water
top of
in a reservoir is pouring
the dam, say,
10 cm above
close to
point
(Fig. P3.5). Consider
it. Again (as in Prob. 3.4), consider all surfaces
over a dam
the
passing
82
Stress
Chap.
83
Problems
Chap.
x.\342\200\236
y
3.6
Label
the stresses shown in Fig.
is the stress
What
through this point, and describe the stressvectors acting on these surfaces. Is the locus
of all the stressvectors a sphere?
Now consider a sequence of points closer and closer to the solid surface on the
top of the dam, say, at distances 1 cm, 10\"' cm, 10~z cm, 10\"3 cm, and 10\"1 cm. Would
locus
to change as the distance becomes
you expect the stress-vector
very small? Pay
attention
to the viscosity
of water.
particular
vector acting
the following plane,
on the
x +
are the normal
What
T, =
Answer:
P3.6.
3y
+ z,=
i, j, k to
denote
unit vectors in the directions
/ + n>
ltN25
Hence,
vir
the
x-,y-, z-axes, respectively,
The shear (tangential
is T, v, = n \342\226\240
of
= n. Then
+ 49 + 9
3\"
vir
f = (5i + 7j + 3k)/VIT. The normal

component
can be obtained by several methods:
component)
= s and the normal component
(1) Let the shear
LcJ/
\302\273
_
2\" J_
we have
plane?
direction cosines(l,3,l)/Vll.
\302\273
vn'
we use
vector to this
= f -shear == 0.771.
(0-1)+ (1-3)+ (21)

If
question?
of the stress
vector with
has a normal
the origin) of
side away from
1.
and tangential components
(5,7,3)/VIT; T(\")
The plane
Solution:
outer side (the

the place in
which passes through
83
ir
Ill)
83
11
hence
6V2
IP
(2)
The vector of the normal component plus the vector of the shear component equals
normal component lies in the direction of the unit normal
(li + 3j +
the vector T. The
=
lk)29/(llVH). Let the shear component vector be xi + yj + zk; then 29/(llVLT) + x
and
5/VIT,implying that x = (55 29)/36.5 = 0.712. Similarly, y = -0.274, z = 0.109,
the shear = (j2 + / + z2)\"2 = 0.771.
3.8 With reference to the x-, y-, and z-coordinates, the state of stressat a certain point of
a body is given by the following matrix:
Figure
3.7 The components

matrix:
P3.6
Stresses.
of a stress tensor at a certain place
in a body
may be presented
as
Find the
x + ly
/200
400
300\\
400
\\300
stress vector acting on a plane

+ 2z - 6
Answer:
= 0.
= 533i +
133j+
passing
33k.
kPa
-100/
through the
point
and parallel
to
the
plane
Stress
84
3.9 Does equilibrium
the following
exist for
a, =
<js
3r +
= Ix2
Answer: Yes, according
= \\ x2
i\342\200\236
if,
+ 3y2,
xy
ax
the absence of body

-
6xy
in
oriented
5,000kPa,
at
the origin.
A plane
a,
kPa,
5,000
tv
= a.
Figure P3.12
= t,: = Tjv. =
shear
maximum
stress in
3.13
Prove that
if crr
the material
stresses
is invariant.
as shown in Fig.
together
of plywood are spliced
be the minimum
must
what
1.4
is
MPa,
shear stress in the glue
be so chosen that the point in question is located

passing through this point may be represented by the equation.
+ nz = 0
on a shaft.
= 0, then under the coordinate transformation

given by
=
= cr\342\200\236
azy
= o> + <r/, that is, in a planar stress distribution, the
<jx + ay
have
Eq. (2.4-3), we
sum of the two normal
system
+ my
Key
0.
3.14 Two sheets
be
pieces
if
P3.14. If
length
the allowable
of
the splice
a 40 kN load is to be carried?
(1)
.Glue
cosine of the normal

to the plane.
(I, m, n) is the direction
Hence, (v,, v2, v3)
vector to assume all possible
(/, m, n) and I2 + m1 + n2 = 1. By permitting the normal
we obtain all the planes named in the problem.Now, the stress vector acting on
directions,
the plane [Eq. (1)] is (fu f2, T,) = (5,000/, 5,000m, 0). The normal component of surface
=
where
traction
is the component
vectors. That is, the

=
(normal
But
key
If,
kPa.
Let a coordinate
Solution:
lcmxlcmx2cm shear
= t\342\200\236
=
= 0.
t,\342\200\236
Show that the
directions.
all
at the point is 2,500
85
Problems
force?
Consider all planes passing through

this point. On each plane, there acts a stress vector
that can be resolved into two components: a normal stress and a shear stress. Consider
planes
Chap.
to Eq. (3.4-2).
at a point is a, =
3.10 The stress
Axy
stress distribution in
Chap.
normal
of
(T!j in
the
stress)2
(5,000)2(/2
+ m2 + n2 = 1; hence,
I2
(shear
To find the value

we set
stress)2
(5,000)2[1
n2
n that is less than 1 and that renders
of
Glue
of (v,),
i.e., the scalar product of these

+ m2). Hence, (shear stress)2=
stress = 5,000(/2
(T,)2
+ m2) - (5,000)2(/2
+ m2)2 = (5,000)2[/2 + m2 - (/2 + m2)2].
direction
40 kN
(1
Figure
Glued seam.
for a long time. Supposethat you want

propeller has been safely operated
and to rotate RN times faster, using a geometrically
to scale it up for a factor of RL in size
material. How would the tensile stress due to
different
a
similar
design, but perhaps
varies with the
force
and
with
RN7 The aerodynamic
RL
force
vary
the centrifugal
in
the
stress
the
propeller blade
bending
of the relative wind speed. How would
3.15A
(2)
n2)2]
the shear stressa relative
P3.14
maximum,
windmill
square
vary with RL and RN1
0 = \342\200\224(shearstress)2 =
The solution is n2 = {. Hence, from
and the final result that
(5,000)2/4,
3.11
find
plane
If
the state of stress at a point
the stress
Answer:
3.12
vector
x - xa + y
T =
and
+ 2(1 -
(5,000)2[-2n
Eq. (2), we obtain

the maximum
shear
3.16
n2)-2n].
the maximum shear stress squared,

stress is 2,500 kPa.
50
3.17
0\\
0 kPa,
silicone Silly
-100/
the magnitude of the normal and shearing stress

acting on
- z0 = 0.
= 16.7
a\342\204\242
Putty.
state in the rod. Use the

rod is twisted. Describe the stress
A circular cylindrical
the stress components
in
3.10.
or
Discuss,
particular,
P3.6
Fig.
notations shown in Fig.
of the rod.
surface
free
the
on
outer,
at a point
tank supported on top of a column
3.20 A water tower that consists of a big raindrop-shaped
lateral acceleration (in a
maximum
The
shakes.
is hit by an earthquake. The tower
is estimated to be 0.2times the gravitational
the
to
column)
direction perpendicular
is therefore
inertial force induced by the earthquake
3.19
the
+ z
y\342\200\236
-^ (100,50, -100)kPa,
the octahedral planes.
how they split? What does

broken by wind and observed
Have you seen tree branches
wood?
the
of
characteristics
the strength
this tell us about
celery, carrots,
to break various materials such as macaroni,
3.18 Experiment
by attempting
and magnesium, and
of aluminum
steel tools like drills and files, strips
high-carbon
of these materials.
characteristics
Discuss the strength
is
(x0, ya, z\342\200\236)
/100
with one of the + signs

\302\2611,
\302\2611),
(\302\2611,
The set of eight planes with direction numbers
x + y - z = 0] is
to
the
plane
chosen in each case [e.g., (1,1, -1), corresponding
=
by t,,, for which Ti;
Let the state of stressbe specified
called the octahedral planes.
of
each
on
stress
acting
the stressvector and the shear
0 whenever / \302\245=
j. Determine
kPa, t =
81.7lcPa.
For the keyed shaft shown in Fig. P3.12, detennine

the maximum
of the load P if the stress in the shear key is not to exceed 70 MPa.
permissible
value
acceleration. Themaximum
equal to 20%
of
lateral
the weight of the tank and
water
and acts in a horizontal direction.
86
Stress
The
3.21
acceleration is
vertical
maximum
state in the column.

Discuss the state of
about
stressdistribution
the same magnitude.
in an airplane
Chap.
Discuss the
wing during flight
stress
and during
landing.
3.22
Couette Flow. The space
two concentric cylinders

is filled with a fluid (Fig.
while the outer cylinder
is rotated at an
P3.22). Let the inner cylinder be stationary,
the
measured
on
the
co
If
inner
radians/sec.
is T, what
torque
cylinder
angular
speed
is the torque acting on the outer cylinder?
Why?
between
87
Problems
Chap.
and astronautical
is of great interest to aeronautical
in this problem
when light weight is mandatory.
structures are used extensively
Thin-walled
engineering.
these structures.
Elastic stability is a main concern in designing
Note. Thesubject
3.26 A rope is hung from the

in the rope.
of the rope. The only stress of

be chosen in the direction
=
is
=
the
Then
0.
t\342\200\236
equation of equilibrium
is cr,. We shall assume that t\342\200\236
Let the x-axis
Solution:
concern
where g is
cr, = 0
pg(L
when *
- x).The
= 0
pg
acceleration. The solution
the gravitational
cr,
But
Find the stress
Let the density of the rope be 2 g/cm3.
ceiling.
= L, the
is
+ const.
-pgx
\\
the constant is
of the rope. Hence,
=
pgL.
tension is at the ceiling, where <r,
maximum
length
pgL.
Thus,
ov =
L_J
Figure
P3.22
Couette
flow
meter.
that obeys the gas law pip

3.27 Consider a vertical column of an isothermal atmosphere
=
is
the density of the gas,p is the pressure, R is the gas
where
or
p
RT,
p
pIRT,
This gas is subjected to a gravitational
constant, and T is the absolute temperature.
If
to the ground.
unit volume, pointing
is
force
the
that
so
pg
per
body
acceleration
g
the
=
between
relation
the
determine
pressure
0
is
level z
at the ground
p0,
the
pressure
and the
3.23 In
desigmng
20,000
take?
a tie rod,
it is decided that
kPa (because of possible
not exceed
tension the rod can
the maximum shear stress must
yielding). What is
the
maximum
Use steel.
Answer: 40,000
Answer: p
p0
the ground.
exp [-(glRT)z].
3.27 is unrealistic for the earth's atmosphere.
of the height z, what would the solution be?
the solution given in Prob.
kPa.
3.24 Take a thin strip of steel of rectangular cross section (say, 0.5cm x 1 cm x 100 cm).
find the ultimate strength
of the steel. Let the strip be used to
Using a handbook,
sustain
a compressive load in the direction
of the longest edge. On the basis of the
ultimate
strength alone, how large a force should the strip be able to resist?
Now
the strip. The strip buckles at a load far smaller than is
try to compress
this phenomenon of elastic buckling.
expected. Explain
3.25 Roll a sheet of paper into a circular cylinder of radius about 3 or 4 cm. Such a tube
can sustain a fairly sizable end compression.
Stand the tube on the table and compress it with the palm of your hand. The
will fail by buckling.
Describe the buckling
cylinder
pattern. How large is the buckling
load compared with the strength of the paper in compression
if buckling can be avoided?
Since the paper does not tear after buckling, nor does it stretch, the metric of
the deformed
surface is identical with that of the original
one. Hence, the
transformation
from the cylinder to the buckled
surface is an isometric transformation.
It is known in differential
that if one surface can be transformed
geometry
isometrically into another, their total curvature must be the same at corresponding
curvatures.
points. Now, the total curvature of a surface is the product of the principal
For a flat sheet of paper, the total curvature is zero; so is that of the cylinder,
and so
also must be the
surface. In this way, we expect the postbuckling
surface
postbuckling
to be composed
of areas with zerototal curvature,
namely, flat triangular portions that
are assembled
together into a diamond
pattern.
Compare this with the experimental
findings.
height z above
3.28 Discuss why

If the temperature
3.29 Consider a
0. The
T is a known
state
two-dimensional
equations
of
equilibrium
!^ +
arbitrary
function
equations
are satisfied
\"'
-1
dy,
= ax
by,
ex
cr\342\200\236
<r\342\200\236
0\302\253fix
c and
identically
if cr\342\200\236
as, aX!
are derived from
an
\"
T\"
4c\"
x,
y s 1,
(a, b, c,
the
\"
Bxdy
by infinitely many
following
solutions.
stresses hold:
d are constants)
\302\256zy0.
Assume that the material

the shear stress aiy be in order to assure equilibrium?
law. What are the strains? Are they
Hooke's
of is isotropic and obeys
= b = 0, but
if the constant a
What kind of boundary conditions are satisfied
the plate is made

compatible?
_ Q
By
of equilibrium can be satisfied
3.30 In a square plate in the region
What must
9a,
dx
y) such that
i(x,
3f
Thus, the
By
equations
\"*
=
=
= t\342\200\236
t.,
of stress in a thin plate in which t\342\200\236
of body force are
the
absence
in
in
the
plate
acting
!!s= o
3x
Show that these
function
d do not
vanish?
89
Sec. 4.2
State
Plane
of Stress
is obviously useful, because

stresses
the matter is so
at
any point. In fact,
the state of stress
visualize
us
help
they
stop before
mechanics, we rarely
in continuum
that in solving problems
not
therefore,
important,
We need to know,
values.
to principal
the
also
the final answer is reduced
but
found in principle,
stresses exist and can be
stress
the
only that the principal
the
of
that
symmetry
We shall show
them.
To know
Principal stresses,
are
They are directly

them frequently;
evaluate
stress
They tell us the
concepts.
important
numerical
way.
4.1
stressinvariants,
related
to the
therefore, we
and
deviations,
state
of stress
the
maximum
shear
the simplest
of materials.
strength
devote
in
One has
to
chapter to them.
INTRODUCTION
components
can
be
<ri2
Oa\\
OH
^22
0-23
\\03i
cr32
033/
(oV;
a body.
0),),
an introduction,
as the
transform
\302\260
\302\260\\
h
0
\\0
<r2
o-3/
with respect to which the stress matrix

the correspondingstress components
and
is diagonal are called the principal axes,
coordinate
The
by the principal
stresses.
planes determined
are called the principal
is a
stresses
each of the principal
axes are called the principal planes. Physically,
vector
stress
the
plane,
normal stress acting on a principal plane. On a principal
The
is normal
particular
to the
set of coordinates
plane, and there
principal
shall
Finally, we shall
use the principal
of
1.2 PLANE
stress
the
STATE
state,
proceed
as well
notation.
three-dimensionalcasein abridged
stresses to discuss some geometric representations
to the
detail. Then we
Let us
components of a tensor under rotation

tensor is symmetric, a
the stress
because
shall show that
matrix of stress
the
which
to
with
can be found
respect
form
of
the
matrix
to
a
reduced
diagonal
the components of which

of coordinates. Later we
set of coordinates
/ffn
are
axes and
of finding
axes. Other symmetric
practical means
the existence of principal
for
is the basic reason
tensor
mathematical
process,
identical
an
and
analogy
such as the strain tensor, by
tensors,
we shall give
the proof
Indeed,
values.
axes and principal
must also have principal
into a principal one
a real-valued
symmetric matrix
of
reducing
We shall
for the possibility
dimensions.
n
to
can be extended
but
is not limited to three dimensions,
mechanical
consider
we
when
is of great importance
the
that such an extension
find
theory,
in general. In the vibration
acoustics
or
of elastic bodies,
vibrations
the principal
vibration frequencies, and
values correspond to the
these subjects
discuss
not
principal
shall
We
vibration.
the normal modes of
coordinates describe
to
study has much
out that the subject we are going
now; rather, we merely point
than to stress alone.
broader
applications
then neither the existence
if a tensor is not symmetric,
On the other hand,
form by
to diagonal
reduction
of
values nor the possibility
principal
of real-valued
is thus a great asset.
can be assured. Symmetry
rotation of coordinates
case in greater
two-dimensional
the
consider
we shall
As
We have seen that nine components of stress, of which six are independent,
at any given point in
the state of material interaction
necessary to specify
matrix
a
form
of stress
symmetric
These nine components
the principal
as to
some additional definitions.
introduce
OF STRESS
consider
a simplified
physical
situation
in which a thin
membrane
is stretched
is shown in Fig.
In this case,
example
its plane.
and
lying in
acting on its edges
= -h free (unstressed).
=
h and z
z
faces
the
4.1. We shall leave
are zero on the
cr\342\200\236
<r\302\253,
az\342\200\236
since the stress components
we can safely say that
by
An
forces
z=h
,z=-h
axes
is
no shear
component.
2h-
4.1
Figure
state
of
An
stress.
approximate
plane
Principal Stresses and
90
surface, they
membrane is
zero throughout the membrane becausethe
are approximately
very thin;
that
in
of stress
the ry-plane.
Plane
= 0.
tr\342\200\236
azy
=
Since
(4.2-1)
equations hold is called

plane stress we are concerned
these
which
in
symmetric
a plane
only
state of stress in
with the stress
we may
0 =
Tr,
oy =
Here,
for
we write
clarity,
oy
\"*
oy
0/
this
and
txj,
xy to x'y' and apply

the new frame of reference:
from
/oy
Try
0\\
Tr'v
ay
of direction
cosines
follows
equations, it
Cartesian
P21
P22
P23
\\P3I
P32
P33/
sin0
/cos0
0\\
Figure
in
(4.2-2)
1/
into Eq.
Change of coordinates
state of stress.
plane
and x', y' in place of xu x2 and x[, Xz, ay for

Ta; ixy for te,
direction cosines p,7accordingto Eq. (4.2-2), we obtain, on
of the
the
new
oy =
oy
Try
oy
= oy sin2
(-oy
oy
0 + oy cos2 0
oy)
sin 0
cos 0
(4.2-9)
(4.2-10)
^-=-2Txy,
etc., and
2ixy
sin 0
cos 0,
(4.2-3)
2txv
sin 0
cos 0,
(4.2-4)
iyy(cos2
sin2
0).
= 0 when
2t\"
tan 20
crx
(4.2-5)
(4.2-11)
a.
setting the
its extreme
derivative
value.
directions given
by
\302\261
Joy^]*
V\\
to zero, we can
be shown
and
(4.2-11)
Eq.
that
that
This
When
have
O'min
O\342\204\242
~\"
(42_12)
respect
to 0 and
+
2
Txy from
differentiating
equal
It can
to the
x'-, y'-axes corresponding
oy+_oy
Tmm
sin2 0
(4.2-8)
T\342\200\236cos2fl.
= o-x.+ oy,
+ ay
Jroax
hand, on
other
components:
cos2 0
(4.2-7)
\\
that
cr min
substituting
(3.5-3),
sin 20,
rxy
particular values of 0
are called the principal directions; the axes x' and y' are
by Eq. (4.2-11)
given
stresses.
axes, and oy, oy are called the principal
then called the principal
=
that
oy is
and
0,
Eqs. (4.2-10) show
are principal
axes, then iyy
Ex',y'
so is
of
0.
choices
all
to
with
Similarly,
minimum
or a
respect
either a maximum
we obtain
and
into
(4.2-7),
0
from
(4.2-6)
Eqs.
Eq. (4.2-11)
oy. On substituting
the result
On the
4.2
Writing x, y,
identifying
&sin20
The matrix
cos 0 0
-sin
\\
cr
= 2Txy,
Ty/
The directions
P\302\2532
0B\\
cos 20
o/
is
/Pll
(4.2-6)
\\
From these
cosinesbetween
the two systems of rectangular
can be expressedin terms of a single angle 0. (SeeFig. 4.2.)
coordinates
20 + rxy sin 20,
cos
for oyr
the direction
case,
oy
^-y-*
Ot-
In
\342\200\224
oy
\302\260*Uy
oy
We shall now consider a rotation of coordinates

the results of Sec.3.5to find the stress componentsin
\\0
+ cos20),
as
\342\200\236
\302\260V
for oyx, oy for ay,,
oy
oy +
-~^
= 1(1
cos2 0
0\\
- cos20),
1(1
write the preceding equations
matrix
I&X
91
of Stress
State
sin2
Obviously,
in the
components
Sec. 4.2
is,
Vzz =
The state
Chap. 4
Axes
Principal
Eq. (4.2-8)
an angle
find
with
0 at
which
iyy
reaches
from the principal

angle is \302\26145\302\260
is
of
value
the maximum
txy
this
//Oy
-M
Oy
I
+ r;.
sy
(4.2-13)
maximum of the shear stress acting on all planes parallel to the z-axis.
some other planes may
inclined to the z-axis are also considered,
planes
is the
a shear
higher
than
this. (See
Sec. 4.8.)
92
4.3 MOHR'S
A
FOR PLANE
CIRCLE
representation
geometric
1882,
(Zivilingenieur,
shear stresses acting

represents
normal
the
of Eqs.
(4.2-6)-(4.2-13)
stress and the
was
in Fig.
a stress plane
is shown
on
ordinate the
shear.
given
4.3.
in
by Otto Mohr
The normal and
which
the abscissa
For the normal
stress, a
needed.We
counterclockwise
4.2 is considered
rule, we
plot,
and the
\342\200\224txy
4.3. Then, the abscissa of P gives

located on
and the ordinate the shear. The point
the normal stress on that surface
whose
surface
a
on
PQ represents the stress acting
the other end of the diameter
an angle 0 + (ir/2) with the x-axis.
makes
normal
is valid, we note that Mohr's circle has a center
this construction
that
To
20 with the
angle
as shown
CA,
line
with
C as a
center, we
draw
a circle
Fig.
prove
(4.3-1)
OC
^p,
a radius
and
about the
which intersects the <r-axis at C. Next,

A and B. This is Mohr's circle.
in
located at C, where
and
center 0 is taken to be negative. Thus, Tiy in Fig.

and
this special
negative,
T,y is considered positive.
Following
in Fig. 4.3, the points
is
whoge abscissa is oyand whose ordinate
point B with abscissa vy and ordinate myx. Then we join the line AB,
moment
93
Stress
for Plane
Mohr's Circle
Sec. 4.3
an
a compression
as negative. For the shear, a special
Mohr's
circle
construction
(for
specify
only) that a shear is
as positive on a face of an element
when it yields a clockwise moment about
center
a
point 0 of the element. (SeeFig. 4.2.) A shear stress yielding
is plotted
rule is
the
Chap. 4
STRESS
p. 113). An example
on a surface are plotted
as positive
tension
taken
and Principal Axes
Stresses
Principal
\342\200\224
From Fig.
4.3, we
through
the abscissabf
see that
=
cr,.
OC + GP
= ~OC+
But we see also from
the
lCP
these
Substituting
results into
is exactly
Similarly,
%y
20 cos
(4.3-2)
(4
2a +
sin
26 sin
3-
2a).
that
sin
Eq. (4.3-3),we
y
2a)
= ^ZJU,
oy =
which
(cos
ffj,\\
P is
cos (20 -
diagram
cos 2a
lax
(4.3-4)
=|.
get
cos 26 +
J~-2
2a
Txy
(4.3-5)
sin 26,
the same as Eq. (4.2-6).

P:
we have the ordinate of
= GP sin (20
2a)
= -~\342\200\224-sin 20
Tj,
CP (sin 20
cos 2a
cos
20 sin
u 3
2a)
\302\253
cos 20,
is fixed
but differs in sign. The sign
which agrees with Eq. (4.2-8) in magnitude
according
A
circle.
Tjy,
Mohr's
positive-valued
here for
by the convention adopted
moment and would have been plotted
to Eq. (4.2-8),would be a counterclockwise
and the validity
agrees,
everything
ordinate on Mohr's circle.Hence,
with
negative
of Mohr's
of
To
with
obtain
the x-axis
the
stresses
acting on a
surface
in the counterclockwisedirection,
makes an angle 0
draw a radius CP that makes
whose
we
normal
the
circle is proved.
circle gives a visual

It tells us how
surface.
Mohr's
picture
of how the
to locate
the
stress varies
principal
are oriented
the maximum shear occurs
planes on which
calculation
direct
by
a
however,
planes. In practice,
stresses.
the
principal
4.5 is a faster way to compute
with the
orientation
It shows us that the

from the principal
at 45\302\260
axes.
solving
Eq. (4.5-3)
in
Sec.
94
Stresses
Principal
4.4 MQHR'S
FOR THREE-DIMENSIONAL
CIRCLES
Let
<Ti, cr2,
<r3
vector acting
which
instructive
stress and (en
largest
plane on
is very
result
This
area bounded by
shaded
the
the largest
which
cr1 and
cr3)/2
result that
are plotted
normal stress <rln)
if the
on a
plane,
with
cr
and
necessarily fall in a closed domain

the three circles with centers
on the
shear acts is inclined
the principal
at 45\302\260
from
planes on
The meaning of the three bounding

circles in Fig. 4.4 can be
explained easily.
z-axes
be chosen in the directions of the
axes. On a plane
principal
perpendicular to the x-axis, there acts a normal stress, say, ah and no shear. On
a plane normal to y, there acts a normal stress, say, cr2,and no shear. Now consider
all planes parallel
to the z-axis. For these
the normal and shear stresses
planes,
through
and
are
by Eqs.
exactly
(4.2-3) through
Hence, the Mohr-circleconstruction
(4.2-8).
the circle
these planes.
given
passing through
en, cr2 represents
or Eqs.
(4.2-5)
in Sec.
described
the totality of
all
(4.2-6)
4.3 applies,
stress
states on
the other two circles (one passing

cr2, cr3 and the
through
of all stress states acting
represent the totality
on all planes
to either the ;t-axisor the y-axis. It remains
parallel
to show that the stresses
only
on all other
planes lie in the shaded area. The proof is given in earlier editions
of
this book. It is quite lengthy and is omitted here.
other
in the body. Such a surface is

fulfill this requirement.at _any_point
that
the value of normal stress
and
a
normal
its
axis,
a
principal
called
principal plane,
stress.
a
on
the
principal
principal plane
acting
axis, and let cr be the
Let v be a unit vector in the direction of a principal
vector
stress
stress. Then the
acting on the surface normal
corresponding principal
coordinates xu
cartesian
to a set of rectangular
to v has components w,, referred
where
the
is
vector
same
this
ttivh
expression
by
given
x2,x3. On the other hand,
=
these two
on
we
have,
v,equating
tensor.
stress
Hence,
writing
8,-,-vy,
t,7 is the
to the same side,
expressions and transposing
-
<fy)v,
(T//
surfaces.
cr3 act.
on them
95
Stresses
Principal
in showing that, indeed, if cr, s* <r2 **

<r3, then en
is the largest shear for all possible
The
Let x-, y-,
acting
Sec.4.5
surfaces
stresses at a point. The components

of the stress
section can be obtained
by the tensor transformation law, Eq.
(3.5-3). Otto Mohr has shown the interesting

and the shearing stress t
on any section
acting
t as coordinates as shown
in Fig. 4.4, they will
is the
STRESS STATES
be the principal
on any
represented by
a-axis.
Chap.4
and Principal Axes
Similarly,
three
These
with i
equations,
(i = l,2,3).
=,1, 2, 3, are to be solved
orthonormal
principal
negative,
or mixed
negative
definite,
of these
results,
axes. Whether
depends on
or uncertain,
we shall
the
derive them
positive,
is positive
inXiXj
of the
because
of
solutions
nonvanishing
vanishes,
Equation (4.5-2) is a cubic

For each
value
expanding
in
equation
stress, a
of the principal
Eq. (4.5-2),
we
importance
cr;
its roots
normal
unit
v(,
v2,
v3 if
(4.5-2)
are the
principal
vector v can
stresses.
be determined.
have
Tl3
T12
Ta
T21
cr
T-B
Normal
^ stress
all
definite,
i.e.,
\342\226\240
= 0.
o-5\342\200\236|
a-8,/1
x!rQk
all
below.
anew
srfZffiTfrh.
1
form
However,
respectively.
Tn
tShear
stress
stresses are
principal
the quadratic
whether
The system of Eqs. (4.5-1)has a set

and only if the determinant of the coefficients
On
for vu v2, and v3.
+
Since v is a unit vector, we must find; a set of nontrivial solutions for which vf
as a matrix
Since
an
=
t,7
1.
problem.
eigenvalue
+
Thus,
vl
Eqs. (4.5-1) pose!
vf
of
is real valued and symmetric, we need only to recall a result in the theory
set
a
and
stresses
of
principal
matrices to assert that there exist three real-valued
tr3, en)
through
(4.5-1)
= 0,
T31
-cr3
7,cr2
T32
T33
+ 73 =
/2cr
CT|
(4.5-3)
0,
where
Fipre 4.4
Mohr's
circles.
4.5 PRINCIPAL STRESSES

In
state of stress, the stress vector acting on a surface

with normal v
direction of v. At a given point in a body, the
between
the
angle
the normal v varies with the orientation
of the surface. We shall
that we can always
find a surface so oriented that the stress vector is
exactly
to it. In fact, we shall show that there are at least three
mutually orthogonal
h =
k =
a general
depends on the
stress vector and
show
normal
h =
Tn
+ T^
T22
+ t33,
Ta
T33
(4.5-4)
T3[
Til
T12
T21
Tn
+
Tb
T32
TM
Til
Tl2
Tl3
T21
T22
Ta
T31
;T32
Tb
tu
(4.5-5)
(4.5-6)
96
be
On the other
written as
hand, if a,,
and Principal Axes
the roots
of Eq. (4.5-3),which
can be seen
must hold:
Since the
that
the
*,)(<>\342\200\242
o-2)((r
<r3)
relations between the
following
0,
Shearing
Stresses
and the coefficients
/, =
or,
k =
o-,o-2
h =
or,o-203.
+ 020-3 +
(4.5-10)
are independent
of any coordinates
independent of the orientation of the coordinates
as Eq.
(4.5-3).
Therefore,
(4.5-9)
physical
state
of stress at a
of reference.Hence,Eq. (4.5-7)
Eq. (4.5-7)is exactly

and the coefficients
/,, I2, h are
with respect to the rotation of

coordinates./,,^,I3 are called the invariants
' *
stress tensor with respect to rotation of coordinated
We shall show now that, for a symmetric
stress tensor, the three principal
stresses
are all real and the three principal
are mutually orthogonal. These
planes
can be established when the stress tensor is symmetric,
important
properties
i.e.,
1>
proof is
= 0,
v,Vi
i.e., the
0,
0,
= 0.
(T;y
0-,8;;)Vy
(t\342\200\236
cr2By)v;
(t\342\200\236
0-38f/)Vj
2
the first equation by v, and the

the resulting equations, we obtain
Multiplying
subtracting
(cr2
on account
of the
TijVjV:
the last
equality
second by
obtained
being
by
tjiVjVi
vh summing
over i,
(4.5-13)
implies
+ fp,
a2 =
where
a,
(5,
03 are
real numbers and
i stands
= a
the dummy
+ b\\ * 0.
each
other.
v,
(4.5-15)
If
o-,
= oy#
as the
axes.
principal
coincide
reference axes x,, x2, x3 are chosen to
becomes
stress
of
components
matrix
00
0\\
with
If the
the
0-3,
vf and
vectors
number of pairs
an infinite
fixed, but we can determine
'
3
=
of orthogonal axes may
=
set
then
any
a-i,
If
o-j
orthogonal to v,. rr,
of
be taken
the principal
axes,
/<r,
(ti/)
(4.5-16)
ff2
0-3/
indices/ and
if!,
for the
normal v (with
outer
=
T,
t;iv;). The component
tractionT
(with components
v;), there actsa
components
Let
is the normal stress acting on the surface element.
of T in the direction of v
in the
vector
a
of
the
Since
component
stress be denoted by o-(n).
normal
this
we
the scalar product of the two vectors,
is
vector
by
unit
a
given
of
direction
We
have
that on
seen
element
V-l.
surface
vof
= T/Vf
0\"(\342\200\236)
v
then,
On the
root
and
In
since
t,
o-(\342\200\236)
components
(see Fig.
other hand,
4.5),
the normal v
number
an
j.
0-3
imaginary
STRESSES
with a
unit
obtain
(4.5-14)
that Eq. (4.5-3) has a complex

Now, if we assume tentatively
root,
since the coefficients in that equation are real valued, a complex conjugate
must also exist, and the set of roots may be written as
ct,
and
that
TijVjVi,
interchanging
b\\
will be
v,
2
4.6 SHEARING
symmetry condition (4.5-11), which

=
b\\
(4.5-12)
= 0
ffl)v,v,
ibj)
orthogonal to
are mutually
vectors
principal
(4.5-11)
ibj.
a,-
= 0,
n
=
\342\200\224
VfVj
u,
vî \342\200\224
0,
u,
:Vii>i
jViVi
+ ib){ai
(\302\253;
as follows. Let v, v, v be unit vector m the direction of the principal

=
with
axes,
vh v, (z
1, 2, 3) that are the solutions of Eq. (4.5-1)
components v\342\200\236
to
the
roots, cr,, o-2, 03, respectively; then
corresponding
The
Vj
- rr2 = 2ip = 0. SoB = 0.But this contradicts

It follows from Eq. (4.5-13)that or,
of the
the assumption
that the roots are complex. Thus,
the original
assumption
are all real.
roots
cr3
the
a2,
and
cr,,
existence of complex roots is untenable,
and similar
imply that
equations
When cr, # o-2 # 0-3, Eq. (4.5-13)
3 '
ni2 3 -
then
Ty
aj + ibj,
= a\\ + a\\ + a\\ +
invarient
of the
other and can be
Therefore,
of reference. But
(4.5-3)
Eq.
point,
is
Vj
(4.5-8)
ow,,
the
characterize
stresses
principal
+ cr3,
+ a2
to each
l, are conjugate
v, and
as
(4.5-7)
roots
that
show
this case, Eqs. (4.5-12)
vm
they
the same
can then
97
Sec. 4.6
written
(a
it
o-2,<r3 are
Chap.4
Stresses
Principal
we see
is given
the vector
where t
that
by the
of
(4.6-1)
into two orthogonal

to the surface
stress
tangent
shearing
having
the shearing stress on a surface
T can
the
denotes
the magnitude
T(/V(V/.
be decomposed
equation
- 4>-
(4.6-2)
Principal Stresses
98
and
Principal
Axes
Chap.
Sec. 4.7
99
Tensor
Stress-Deviation
$- = 0:
2v2v2(cr,
-arzf
+ 2v3vf(cr3 -
2v2v2(cr2
cr3)2
+ 2Xv, = 0,
(2)
a-,)2
+ 2Xv3 = 0,
(3)
dv2
\342\200\224
= 0:
2v3v|(cr2
tr3)2
flv3
= 0:
One of
the
+ vi
vi
v2
= 1.
(4)
obviously
v, = 0.
+ X = 0,
vl(o-2
of Eq. (1) is
solutions
On
vx
setting
0, Eqs.
(2)
and (3)
become
Figure 4.5
Notations.
vKoj
Let
axes be chosen
stresses. Then
V
T,
o-j
|rf|2
and,
from
Eq. (4.6-2) and
into
(v,)2
M4 =
+ o-3v2]2.
(4.6-5)
(v,)2[(v2)2 +
(v3)2],
(v02(v2)2(a,
cr2)2
+ WWfa
4a
example,
if
vi =
=
v2
1/V2 and
(v2)2(v3)2(o-2
^,
fo
X=
<r3)2
\342\200\224.
we
(4.6-7),
Eqj
the extremum of t2:
find
\\
<flY
,01
Or
Tmaj
Tm;n
_ J2 _ (T3
solutions of Eqs. (1), (2), (3), and (4) can be obtained

or minima
= 0. We have then the relative maxima
v3
of
0 and
<r2
\342\200\224
(r3
a,
by setting, in
\342\200\224
\302\273!cr2
\342\200\224
a3
'
'
'
(4 6_?)
o-x)2.
=
v3
0,
then t
of the three is the absolute maximum of t.

absolute
The direction of the normal to the plane on which the
the solution is, we have
is given by the appropriate v's. Whichever
The
0-3)2
largest
=
* = \302\273/
\302\2615(0-1 o-2).
which
implies
inclination
45\302\260
the xr,
maximum
shear occurs
('*/).
Vf
*raxes.
=
Show that t\342\200\236\342\200\236
and that the plane on which t\342\200\236\302\253
acts makes an angle
2((r\342\200\236\342\200\236
o-\342\200\236,,\342\200\236)
of 45\302\260
with the direction of the largest and the smallest
principal stresses.
The problem is to find the maximum or minimum

of t. Now, t2 is given
find the extremum of t2 as a function
of v,, v2l v3 under the
by Eq. (4.6-7). We must
restriction that v\\ + v\\ + v\\ = 1. Using the method
of the Lagrangian
we seek
multiplier,
to minimize the function
Solution.
/= vji^(a,
cr2)2
+'vtv3(cr2
cr3)2 + v2v2(a3
By the usual
and
or
_ (^2
(4.6-6)
PROBLEMS
/!
sets
Other
turn, v, =
0 +
see that
t2 =
For
(v,)2]
v2rv3
into/,
'Tcjtt
(4.6-4)
that
noting
(v,)2[l
(T2vl
back
+ 0-3V3,
(j2vj
+ X = 0.
this
Substituting
[0-1 vf
o-(\342\200\236)
substituting
v, = 0,
(4.6-3)
Eq. (4.6-1),
(r3)2
v, = v3. On setting v2 = v3, Eq. (4) becomes

are consistent only/if
=
the
first set of solutions is
=
HenceJ
1/Vl
1, or v2
v\\ + v\\
\342\200\236 1
+ (0-3v3f,
These equations
T3 = 0-3V3,
<r2v2,
+ (0-2v2f
(o-.v,)2
we
let <rh o-2, o-3 be the
T2
vi,
o-i vf
o-(\342\200\236)
On
coordinate axes, and
as the
the principal
principal
(r3)2
method, we compute the partial

solve for v,, v,, v\342\200\236
X. This leads to the
a,)2 +
derivatives
following
X(v2 + v2. + v33
3fldvh 3//3X, equate them
1).
4.7 STRESS-DEVIATION
The tensor
rj =
is called
to zero,
TENSOR
the
mean
the stress-deviation
f-
2v,^(ff,
(r2)2
+ 2v,p2(cr3
o-,)2
+ 2Xv, = 0,
(1)
where h
(4.7-1)
o-o8,7
in which
8,v
is the
Kronecker delta and o-0is
stress:
equations:
Co
= 0:
tensor,
Tf/
is
the
l(o-, +
first invariant
cr2
+ 0-3) =
i(Tn +
of Sec.4.5.The
Tn
+ T33) = Ui,
separation
of t,v into a
(4-7-2)
hydrostatic
Principal Stresses
100
part
of
the deviation
and
0-08,7
t'u
is very
in
important
Axes
Principal
the plastic
describing
Chap.
behavior
metals.
of the
The first invariant
To
the
determine
The
followed.
to
is easy
in
the
verify
4.5
may
o'fitfl
(4.7-4)
h = 0.
/2tr'
equations
to the
h-
(4.7-6)
+
I2a0
to verify the
easy
verifies
reference.A
alternative
following
720o
(4.7-7)
a3,,
on account of Eq.
expressions
60?
(02
Eq. (4.7-7).
direct identification
yields,
(4.7-
cr2
(03
+ ct3)
- 3al
Oo)(o-i
cr0)
of Eq. (4.7-10) into Eq. (4.7of

arbitrary orientation of frame
of
those
with
the coefficients in Eq. (4.7-5)
substitution
similar
Now we revert
as in
From Eq.
- /,,
= 3<rS
3ct2\342\200\236
~
ffo)
Oo)(cr3
0Wi) + 2o0(oi+
Eq. (4.7-6).
definite.
positive
have
Do)
of
an
to
Eq. (4.5-5),
h =
la
T23
T22
T22
T32 T33
I2, h
invariants
3(To2-/2!
2a3, = I} +
~
Oo)(ff2
(4.7-5)
J2, /3
relating
verifies
Eq. (4.7-4)
following
12)
+
-((TiCTi + o2or3
- -It
be
4.5:
Sec.
h =
also
of Sec.
procedure
we
substitution,
-(ffi
(4.7-3)
in the form
72
It is
= 0.
which
cr'3 -
defined
11),by
defined is indeed
J2 so
that
(4.7-8),
direct
h =
equation
|t&
may
T33
stress deviations, the
principal
determinantal
be expanded
+Tk
t'u
of Eq.
lines
101
Stress-Deviation Tensor
Sec. 4.7
always vanishes:
tensor
stress-deviation
I{ =
It
and
T33
IT33
T31
T3i|
I _
J
Tn
tj3
Til
(in
T12
112 j
J _
T21
Ta
(4.7-13)
\\
in
determinants yields the first line of Eq. (4.7-8).The primes
Expansion of the
because these quantities are equal to t12, T23, t31,
t{2, Ta, T31, can be omitted
if we add the null quantity
j(t{i
of
line
third
Eq. (4.7-8)is obtained
respectively.The
of
the results. To obtain the second line
to the first line and simplify
\"s'n
+ T33)2
Eq. (4.7-8), we
(4.7-3):
note first
Til
Tz.
that
=
(T|,
~
ff0)
(T22
Oo)
= Ti,
- T22.
Hence,
Jl
=
=
=
-t!iT22
-
- Tilis
Tnf +
(tB
l[(T\342\200\236
+ (ri)2
I[(t!,)2
T^Ti,
T33)2
(Ti)2]
(t,,)2 + (tb)2
+
(T33
+ (ti2)2
'
(Tn
+ (T12)2
T\342\200\236)2]
+ (T23)2
+
(t31)2
+ {taf
(t31)2
Toverify
all four
equations, we note first
(4.7-8)
(4-7-9)
jtHthat
since J2, i3
= Cm -
Do,
=
J\302\273
tr2
-(crjoj
J3
rr2
(To,
+ ego* +
= o-Jcôi
(r3
orJcrQ,
= o-3 -
Co,
(4.7-10)
(4.7-11)
(4.7-12)
negative sip
Eq. (4.7-11) because of our choice of sips in Eq. (4.7will become evident
if we observe, from the last two
The
reason
this
choice
for
5).
Note
the
in
T33)2
(T31
T\342\200\236)2
2(TJ? +
Tg +
T^2)
2(Ti,T22
+ T22T33 + T33tS,).
the sum
+ t^ + t33)2 to the right-hand side reduces
Adding the null quantity (tJi
second
the
with
line of Eq. (4.7-8)
third
to 3(t{? + Th + T33). The equality of the
restatement
a
but
is
line is then evident. The last equation, Eq. (4.7-9), nothing
is verified.
of the third line of Eq. (4.7-8). Thus, every equation
Example of Application:
in
a Pressurized
Testing
of Material
Chamber
beam [Fig. 4.6(a)] in the laboratory by a lateral

simply supported steel
P and the deflection S under the
load P at the center, the relationship between
The spot at which the P-8
load will be a curve such as that shown-in Fig. 4.6(b).
line
a
through the origin is the
curve deviates by a specified amount from straight
should
an
engineering structure, it
is desiped to support
yield point. If the beam
deflection
the
this
because
point
beyond
the yield point,
not be loaded beyond
occurs.
set\"
increases rapidly and irreversibly, and \"permanent
If
o-J
J2,73 are all
invariants,
a particular
choice of frame
it is sufficient to verify
Eqs. (4.7-6) and (4.7-7) with
of reference.
We observe that the principal axes of the stress tensor and the stresscoincide. We choose xh x2, x3 in the direction of the principal
deviation
tensor
stress deviations, we have
axes. Then if cr{, oi, oi, are the principal
and
(Ta
(f31)2
Hence,
J2 =
Ta)2 +
we test a
Principal Stresses
102
and
Axes
Principal
Chap.
Sec. 4.8
Lame's Stress Ellipsoid
103
and
V
Ti
T2
ffiVi,
T3
o-2n2,
(4.8-1)
0-3V3.
z
Since
(a)
v is a unit
vector, we
----^'^
On
Figure 4.6 Testing of a

in a pressurized
chamber,
beam, (b) The
(b)
are of great
these
components of T, satisfy
the
which is
load-deflection
If we are going to build a beam to be used

Now, let us ask these questions:
as an instrument in the Mariana trench in the Pacific Ocean, 10,911m. under
the
the load-deflection
curve be? Would
the hydrostatic
sea, what would
pressure of
the
ocean depth change the load-deflectioncurve
of the beam?
Questions like
for
steel beam
(a) The
curve.
Deflection,
(vO2 + (v2)2 +
(4.8-1)
Eq.
solving
have
v,-
and
(v3)2
substituting
1.
into Eq.
equation
(4.8-2), we
see
that the
equation
<E\302\243
+
SI,
(M = 1
L'
(o-O2
H2
(era)2
of an
ellipsoid with reference

with axes labeled Ti, Ti, T3.This ellipsoid
coordinates
from a common center. (SeeFig.
of vectors f issuing
the
(4.8-2)
(4.8-3)
to a system
isxthe locus
of
of the
rectangular
end points
4.7.)
interest to
seismologists,
geologists,
has performed such a test in the
ocean depths, a simulated
test was done by Percy Williams Bridgman (1882-1961)
at Harvard.
He built a test chamber
in which high pressures that approach
those
engineers,
and
scientists.
material
in the ocean depths

steel beam is virtually
The yielding
words, yielding
that
is independent
t// defined
Yielding of most
LAME'S STRESS
there
The test results

by the hydrostatic
P-8
of
curve
pressure.
in
materials
(4.7-1), for which the hydrostatic

is related not to ti7, but to t//.
Eq.
part
ELLIPSOID
element with a unit outer normal vector

v
traction vector T with components
given by
any surface
acts a
that the
indicate
of steel, then, is unaffected by the hydrostatic

In other
pressure.
to stressor strain, but only to that part of the stress tensor
of hydrostatic pressure. This leads to the considerationof the
tensor
is zero.
<\342\200\236
On
achieved.
unaffected
is related
stress-deviation
4.8
was
nobody
Although
v (with
componentsv,),
T, = tjiVj.
Let
x3,
the principal
and let
the
axes of the
principal
stress
stresses
tensor be chosen
be written
as <7i,
as the
coordinate
o-2, or3. Then,
axes xu
x2,
as (he
Figure 4.7 Stress ellipsoid
locus of the end of the vector T as
v
vanes.
Principal Stresses
104
and
Axes
Principal
Chap.
Chap.
Problems
PROBLEMS
4.2
= 500 kPa,
= 0,
= 1,000 kPa, t\342\200\236.
tj: = -200 kPa,
Let t\342\200\236
-1,000 kPa, t\342\200\236
Tx,
whose
normal vector
on
a
surface
=
traction
of
the
0. What is the magnitude
acting
t\342\200\236
is
v = 0.10i + 0.30j + VOOk?
=
are the
What
Answer.
of the stressvector
the x-, y-, and z-directions)
What is the
stress acting on the surface?
three components (in
What is the
acting on the surface?
resultant shear stress acting on the
(T,)
surface?
= 509 kPa, normal
= (250,-440, -60),traction
stress
= -164 kPa,
shear = 481kPa.
4.3
In
of
the
4.4
the solution to
of the
surface
the
of a sphere of radius
a (Fig.
P4.4.) The
fluid at a constant velocity U in the direction

sphere,the three components of the stress vector
\"
'
2V''a'
~aPo
aPe'
OVo
acting on the
What is the
resultant
force
Fs =
force acting on
F,
\302\247tdS,
the sphereis
F=
yfydS,
jfjS.
p.b2
'
p,)
p\342\200\236b2
p,a\\-
'
b2\\a2
0.
for which the

of a point in the tube. Find the radius
maximum
absolute
principal
the
of
stress occurs and the value
maximum
principal
in the wall?
of
value
a\342\200\236
the
is
average
stress in the tube wall. What
of the linearized theory of
under the hypotheses
This solution was due to Lame
in the wall should
distribution
stress
the
of
The nonuniformity
elasticity (Chapter 12).
at the inner wall is significant.
be noted. The stress concentration
where r is the
sphere?
The total surface
Solution.
the sphere.
at a large distance from
is the pressure
p\342\200\236
where
r(t2-fl2)
b2''-fl2
r2{b2-a2)
<fb2(p0
ff\302\260\302\260
*=~aP
p,a2
p,)
aV{p\342\200\236
are
\"
A sphere in viscous
problem).
an outer
tube with an inner radius a and
circular cylindrical
Fig.
external
(See
an
p\342\200\236.
and
pressure
p,
is subjected to an internal pressure
are
the
cylinder
stressesin
viscous
moving
x-axis. On
the problem
P4.3
(Stokes's
elastic
thick-walled
radius
George Stokes gave

in a (Newtonian)
1850,
P4.3)
Figure
fluid
normal
(2)
radial
location
By symmetry,
JxdS
the only
Hence,
F, =
charge
of
U
13
-dS
f~ |i
Andrew
an electron
jydS
with a
drops,the
used
tracks
(3)
force is
resultant
= W -3 |i-U
6irp.aU.
(4)
Figure P4.4 Thick-walled cylinder
and external
subjected to internal
pressures.
the
who won the Nobel Prize in 1923, measured
A chamber
was sparsely filled with tiny,
chamber.
were
in the chamber
Two parallel condenser plates
cloud
oil drops.
spherical
charged, creating an electric field. Uncharged
drops with an electron attached also moved in
measured. Millikan
= 0.
jzdS
Millikan,
approximately
a light on the
of the
component
nonvanishing
Note. Robert
of the charged
Stokes's
formula,
direction of gravity. Any

the direction of the electric field. By shining
and their velocities
drops were photographed
force acting
Eq. (4), to compute the resultant
drops
fell
in the
4.5
on each particle due to fluid friction. This force was balanced by the electric force acting
it
showed that the electron
on the electron. Millikan
charge came in a definite unit\342\200\224that
a basic
was quantized\342\200\224andthen measured what that unit was. In this way, he obtained
physical
constant.
to win the
was the second American
Nobel prizes were first given in 1901. Millikan
from a
Prize in physics.
Stake's formula, however, is not entirely
Nobel
satisfactory
have been suggested in the literature.
theoretical point of view. Many
improvements
The
such as a gun barrel.
chamber,
that you are designing a high-pressure
stress
circumferential
the maximum
the explosive is so high that
pressure generated by
stress at the inner
To reduce the tensile
tensile stress a\342\200\236.
allowable
the
exceeds
a\342\200\236
is put on hot,
shell
outer
an outer shell on the barrel. The
shrink-fit
wall, you may
load
a compressive
to
barrel
the
of
gun
it subjects the outside
and then, as it cools,
inside of the gun bore.
the
at
stress
<r\342\200\236
tensile
the
that tends to reduce
of pressure
p\342\200\236
stress. Present a multi-layered
the allowable
> a\342\200\236,
i.e., the stress exceeds
<j\342\200\236\342\200\236
results
Suppose
< tr\342\200\236
stress
by using the
principal
that will make the maximum
gun barrel design
Suppose
given
4.6
in Prob. 4.4.
A human
blood
vessel is a
remarkable
organ.
It
has
considerable
residual stress when
Principal Stresses
106
and
Principal
Axes
Chap.
107
Problems
Chap. 4
there is no load acting on it. If a segment is cut in vivo, its length will shorten by 30
to 40%. If the segment is then cut radially, it will open into a sector. The open sector
to the zero-stress state of the blood vessel because any further
is a good approximation
measurable
change of strain in the vessel
cutting of the specimen yields no further
zero-stress
wall. The meaning of the open-sector shaped
state has been investigated,
stresses doing in our blood vessels?\", Annals
(see Y.C. Fung, \"What are the residual
of Biomedical Engineering 19:237-249,1991.)It is shown that because of the existence
of the circumferential
of residual
strain in the vessel wall is
strains, the distribution
the vessel wall at the normal
throughout
living condition. In the full
quite uniform
zero stress to physiological
the stress-strain
condition,
relationship
of the bloodvessel is nonlinear. But, if one considers only small changes of stress and
strain from the normal living condition, then the incremental-stress-strain
relationship
can be linearized. Now, if we assume further that the elastic constants
of the linearized
are constant throughout the vesselwall, then under the
stress-strainrelationship
restriction
to small changes from the normal condition, the Lame solution given in Prob. 4.4
a normal, healthy person
suddenly becomes hypertensive, he or
applies. Now suppose
range of strain from
Figure
[<-2o-|
4.8
in
4.7
sidesof
airplanes
for
alloy
of
tensile
tension, Fig. P4.8. This problem

stress in the wall at the ends of
where
axis and 26 is
to the
to the incremental stresses.
response
Stress
are stress raisers. Suppose that you were given the

make design
the
passengers to look out. To help you
job of designing
in an infinite plate
decisions, consideran idealized problem of placing an elliptical hole
under a tensile stress5, with the minor axis of the ellipse parallel
aluminium
Windows on the
the windows
she incurs an abnormally higher blood pressure by an increment of A/7,. Plot the
incremental stressesin the blood vessel wall. Are they uniform? Where is the largest
incremental
stress? In Chapter
13, we shall see that the bloodvessel will remodel itself
the
Describe
concentration.
tensile loading with the

subjected to a static uniform
on the ends. (SeeFig. P4.7.)
acting
It is known that if this plate is made of a linear elastic material, the
1+ / 1 -3-4
cos
20
rl
\\
2a is the major
the
minor
r
o-\302\273
|1 +
21
+
Trt=~2(1_?)(1
cos
S^Z
\342\226\240
Note.
phenomenon
You
see that
3rTin29'
the
stress in
principal
stress
maximum
Figure
4.9
the plate.
is increased around
the hole. This is
conditions
horizontal
edges
and
the circular
hole are stressfree.
On the
P4.8
*-
\342\200\224e -\302\253
\342\200\224e -\302\253\342\200\224
\342\200\224s0
\342\200\224>-
-*\342\200\224
\342\200\224I\342\200\224>-
_<_!
\342\200\224\302\273
Elliptical
hole in plate; stress-relieving drilling.
C. (See Fig. P4.9) Analyzing

at time ( = 0 at an epicenter
An earthquake is initiated
seismicwaves around the world following an earthquake is not simple, but a formulation
and
is not difficult.
Leaving the equations of motion
of the mathematical problem
the
hole,
are
=
a\342\200\236
0,
Trt
= 0
when r = a.
the maximum 3p when 0 = ir/2.

The
maximum
shear equals 3^/2 and occurs at r =
(c)
inclined at 45\302\260
from the z-axis.
(b) a, reaches
(d) The maximum
principal
stress is 3p.
a, 6 = ir/2,
P4.8.)
1\342\200\224r-
of stress concentration.
Answer, (a) The

boundary
maximum
2c
26-| p
Check
(d) Obtain the
the ellipse. (See Fig,
-4\342\200\224|
20
the stress boundary conditions to see whether

they are satisfied.
Find
the
location
of the point where the normal
stress a, is the maximum.
(b)
shearing stress in the entire
(c) Find the maximum
plate.
(a)
axis of
\342\200\224s
rl
\\
that the
states
'*
-\302\253\342\200\224
-, ~ 1 + 3t
r
the result
What do you learn from this result?

may be simulated as an elongated elliptical
A crack in the wall of the airplane
to the direction of tension?
is perpendicular
crack
if
the
it
is
hole. Why
very dangerous
that can be derived by drilling holes at the ends of the crack.
benefit
the
Explain
of the crack?
Would the holeshelp stop the spreading
is
solution
has been solved, and
the major axis of the hole is
Hl+4\\
for a plate with a circular hole

normal stress o-x = const. = p
conditions
boundary
Circular hole in a thin
P4.7
plate.
acting in a plane
Figure P4.9
Earthquake.
Principal Stresses
108
and
Principal
Axes
Chap.
109
Chap.4
Problems
all the boundary conditions involved: at the

continuity till after Chapter 10, formulate
of the core, and
of the earth, at the boundary of the mantle, at the boundary
surface
caused by shear fracture
at the epicenter,
at the epicenter. Earthquakes are usually
residual strains and an associated strain energy.
releasing
4.10
and you must test

responsible for an important project,
tests is to
One of the most important
of the materials
the strength
you are using.
in uniaxial tension. Desip a testing
machine
determine the strength of the materials
in detail
to do this. Desip the shape and construction of the test specimen. Explain
of your design. Fig. P.4.10 shows a test specimen. Is it good?In this
the rationale
in the specimen must be considered, and the way the
discussion, the stressdistribution
to the specimen is important.
force is transmitted
this equipment for a biologist who is interested in
Suppose you are designing
the strength of soft tissues such as muscles, tendons, skin, and blood vessels. To make
What would you do
of Fig. P.4.10 is then impractical.
in the shape
a test specimen
be called a \"lubricated\"
latter components (in a case that might
as
written
be
hammer
may
condition under the
where 8(r) is the
unit-impulse
in such a way that the
when t -\302\2730
1, e
F(x,
Dirac
a positive number.
being
Perhaps
in compression
strong
and
usually
F(x,j08(0
which is zero
integral
when t is finite,
-e to +e is
t from
of 8(f)
A
F(x, y) is unknown.
for
then the boundary
hammer),
simplifying
but tends to \302\273

exactly
assumption
equal to
could be
there
between
are uneven contacts

one is serious about
the hammer and the tabletop,

possibilities, one
must
specify
Package
drop.
local
them
thes^
slippage, etc. If
their consequences. /
precisely and then investigate
of
is a large expanse
of the preceding problem
4.13 Supposethat the semi-infinite body
will
water
The
an
P4.13).
airplane (Fig.
dropped from
water and the load is a package
conditions are|known in this case?
surely splash. What boundary
failure,
and bone are
function,
fc
Hammer.
= const.
y)
Note.
rocks,
r, = 0,
t = 0,
instead?
4.11 Concrete,
Figure P4.12
r/////////////M////////////////r
you are an engineer
Suppose
function in
some considerations quite

test their strength in compression,
compressive mode. To
Problem 4.10 must be taken into account. Design
different from those used in answering
of these materials to be
specimens
tested in
compression.
4.12 For the impact of a hammer on a semi-infinite

conditions
apply?
Solution:
Initial
condition.
hammer strikes, the boundary

(a) On the flat surface,
The
(b) For
of
the
conditions
caused
displacement
by
(c) On
zero everywhere. When
the
(i =
1,2,3).
(i,; = 1,2,3).
= 0
have,
\302\253P \302\253f,
normal
by
to
(7) and
normal
v is the normal
=
t). Then v,:v2:v3
to the table
is much larger
palm
body
tree support its own

that the
Assume
weight.
treetop
weighs
diagram.
= Ty.
x=
interface, which may be described by the equation

- 1.
However, we do not know the function
of stress
determined
be
which
can
only
by solving the whole problem
rigorously
y,
f(x,
t),
and the table together.
distribution in the hammer
In lieu of an exact solution, one may propose an approximate
problem. For example,
of the stress vector
we may assume that when the hammer strikes the table, the component
z = f(x, y,
(See Fig. P4.14.)

at the top
area
100 kg, the cross-sectional
(a)
and the tree is 10 m tall.
2
of
a
mass
grams/cm3,
has
density
trunk
tree
is 100 cm1, the
is the stressin the tree trunk at a distance
cylinder, what
If the tree trunk is a uniform
alone? Solve this problem by means of
tree
of
the
the
weight
x from the top due to
=
0.
%, + X,
the equation of equilibrium
the
due to the weight of the tree can be reduced by increasing
stress
The
(b)
circular
of
a
trunk
such
toward the base. Consider
area of the trunk
cross-sectional
the average stress by means of a freecross section with variable diameter. Compute
1.14 A
the traction and the displacement

the hammer,
Hence, if we denote the table and the hammer
on the common
interface,
the surface under
The normal
equals
the hammer:
(o-,7)
must be.consistent.
(H), respectively, we must
boundary
be the components
at infinity in the semiinfinite
body, let \302\253,
the deformation of the body, and let alV be the stresses; then
(4=0,
the interface
what
Figure P4.13
deformation
under
f, =
P4.12),
are:
conditions
but not
elastic body (Fig.
to'tlie
Bfldx:
BflBy:
than the tangential components.
Hence,
if we ignore
the
= L
tree
Figure P4.14 A palm
supporting its own weight.
110
and Principal Axes
Stresses
Principal
Chap. 4
(c) Solve part (b) by means of the differential equations of equilibrium.

What
additional consideration is needed?
(d) How should the diameter of the tree trunk vary with x if we want the
longitudinal stress due to the weight of the tree to be uniform
throughout?
(e) In Prob. 1.19 (Chap. 1) we considered the wind load
acting on a palm tree
and determined a diameter
D as a function
of x that will make the
stress a0
bending
computed from Eq. (1.11-31) uniform
in the tree. Now, consider both the
wind
load
and the weight.
Let the strength of the tree trunk material
be o-, in tension, and o-2 in
compression. When the maximum
principal stress equals o-, the material breaks.
When
the compressive
stress exceeds a2 the material is crushed. If
the tree is \"designed\"
to
have a uniform
maximum
tensile stress (independent of
x), what should D(x) be? If
the \"design\"
is for uniform
maximum compressive stress, what
D(x) should be?
4.15 What is the physical
meaning of the sum t\342\200\236\342\200\236?
Answer.
It is the sum of the normal
stresses in three
directions.
If we
orthogonal
consider a cube of water in static condition, so that all its
sides are subjected to a pressure
and
there
is no shear stressacting on the surface, then
p,
=
t\342\200\236
-3p, otp = -tJ3.
If a uniform tension of
equal
intensity acts on each side of a cube,then tJ3
represents
the tension.
If the three stresses
t\342\200\236,
t;i are not
then
t\342\200\236,,
equal,
t\342\200\236/3
represents
stress.
4.16 The
stressat
a point in a body has the

following
Cartesian coordinates xu x2, x3:
rectangular
/
=
((X,)
values
of the invariants
set of
with respect to a
1/
I, = 1,12 = -2, 73 = 0. (cr\342\200\236

=
cr2, er3)
(0, 2, -1).
% be a stress tensor. Evaluate the products
and
(a)
eljkijk
4.18 A plate is
stretched in
z-direction. Thereis a
will fail. Determine
4.19 Consider a
rod that
the critical
combinations
has a cross-sectional
(a) Assume that
the material
the rod
maximum
of
(b)
eilte,\342\200\236Tkl.
plate
cr,
and o-, at which
the plate
fails.
area of 1 cm2.
has the following
strength characteristics, beyond

shear stress, 400 kPa; maximum tensile
stress, 1.0
maximum compressive stress, 10.0 MPa. Let a
MPa;
tension
P act on the rod. At what
value of P will the rod break? What is the
expected angle of inclination of the broken
which
breaks:
section?
(b) Answer
maximum
shear,
10.0 MPa.
4.20 A
the same questions as in

part (a) if the strength characteristics are
500 kPa; maximum
tension, 0.9 MPa; and maximum
compression,
rod is stretched by an axial

load, bent by a bending moment,
by a torque, so that the stresses in a little element
at a point on the surface
of the cylinder are
circular
and
or,
cylindrical
twisted
0,
=
t\342\200\236
Tr\342\200\236
0,
or.
= 1
kn/m2,
at that
point?
there
j-\342\200\236
principal
planes
point.
= -5 MPa acts on a
Answer,
with a normal
vector Vi = - v2 = V5/2,
cr,
plane
to the negative x,-axis.
The principal axis associated
0, which is inclined at 45\302\260
with
the principal stress o-2 = -10 MPa is the x,-axis,and that associated with cr3 = -15 MPa
is a vector inclined
at 45\302\260
to the positive
*,-axis.
v3
4.22 A
driver
of
car that weighs 1,600 kg made a sudden panic stop by
moving
slamming
on the brakes;
this promptly locked the wheels. Assume a maximum
coefficient
of
friction
between the tire and the ground of j, and assume that each of the car wheels
is attached to
the hub by four bolts.

(a) Compute the shear force that must act in each bolt. The bolt has a diameter
of 1 cm, and its axis is 6 cm away from the axis of the wheel, which is 36 cm above
the
ground.
(b) The
allowable
shear stress
stresses in the bolts within the

stress free).
of
allowable
the bolt material is 150 Mn/m2.
limit? (Assume that
Are the shear
the bolts are initially
safe?
the
To answer this question, compute

tension and shear; then
combined
stress in the
the allowable
shear
the maximum shear

compare
it with
stress.
the ^-direction, compressed

in the ^-direction, and free in the
flaw in a plane that is
parallel to the z-axis and inclined at 45\302\260
If the shear stress
acting on the flaw exceeds a critical stress tw, the
to the x-axis.
stresses
is hydrostatic pressure
due to the earth's weight
and there is a shear
stress due to strain in the earth's crust. At a point in the earth, the hydrostatic
pressure
is 10 MPa, and the shear stress,evaluated
with respect to a chosen frame of reference
= 5 MPa, in = t31 = 0. Find the
stresses and
at that
x2, x2, is Tu
bolts under
stresses.
Answer.
4.17 Let
In the earth,
bolts still
the principal
/,, l2,13 and
are the principal
What
4.21
111
(c) The garage mechanic who put on the wheels for the car used a large wrench
and tightened the nuts most vigorously,
so that a tensile stress of 140 Mn/m2 was
on the bolts. This tensile stress was the initial stress in the bolts.Now when
imposed
the brakes are applied and a shear stress as computed in part (b) is induced, are the
0.
0
Problems
normal
0-1
0-1
|-1
Find the
components
the mean
Chap.
t\342\200\236
2kn/m2,
o-,
= 0.
Answer,
due to car weight
(a)
= 18.71 Mn/m2.
Shear stress
1,470 n. (b) shear stress due to braking
= 12.47 Mn/m2.
= 31.18 Mn/m2.
Shear in most severe configuration
It
150 Mn/m2; hence, the bolts are safe, (c) By Mohr's circle
the allowable
= 76.63 Mn/m2 and
or by Eqs. (4.2-12), Tm\342\200\236
am = 146.63Mn/m2. The bolts are
to tensile
clearly safe with respect to shear. But better check the handbook with regard
stress to see whether
is allowable.
cr\342\200\236,\342\200\236
is less than
construction,
4.23 The foundation
of a deep-sea
drilling platform is subjected to a hydrostatic pressure
stress q in the vertical
direction due to the weight
of the platform,
p, an additional
and a shear stress t due to an earthquake.
Determine the three principal stresses and
the maximum
shear.
113
Sec. 5.1
Deformation
'T-rn
mm11
(b)
(o)
A
a
w
and forces applied to liquids
Forces applied to solids cause deformation,
an
cause flow. Often, the major
analysis is to find the
objective of
the deformation
this
in
our
It
is
deformation or flow.
chapter to analyze
objective
in those
to the state of stress
in such a way as to be relevant
bodies
solid
of
(d)
(c)
Bending,
(a) Stretching, (b)
Patterns of deformation,
5.1
Figure
shear.
(c) Twisting, (d) Simple
bodies.
all
5.1
are different.
they
DEFORMATION
it shortens. If we
If we compress a cylinder,
rubber band, it stretches.
If we twist a shaft, it twists. See Fig. 5.1. Tensile stress causes
bends.
Shear stress causes shear strain. This is common sense.To express
strain.
phenomena
quantitatively, it is necessary to define measures of strain.
a string of an initial length L0. If it is stretched to a length L, as
Consider
in Fig. 5.1(a), it is natural to describe the change
by dimensionless ratios
bend a rod,
tensile
these
shown
it
as LJLa,
such
eliminates
and
and
Lo)/L0,
the absolute length
(L
La)IL.The use of dimensionless

It is commonly
to the stress in
consideration.
from
lengths L0 or L, are related

verified in the laboratory. The ratio
the
ratios, and not

expectation can
ratio
(L
be
is denoted
the
by
symbol
The
X.
LILa
felt
ratios
that these
string. This
is called the stretch
\342\200\224
La
for this
reasons
of
The selection
of
a curve
i We shall
have
reasons
be used, although
numerically,
X = 2, e =
La = 1, we have
and
(to be discussed
i2 ~
later)
r2
t2
E
21/
I
If
= 2 and
L\342\200\236
1,
then e = 0.01,e =
112
we
have
e =
e= 0.01,
0.01,
and
also to
and
e' =
or2
introduce the
1, and
e'
\342\200\242
the
tensile
formula
the
It
in
uniaxial
stress a
relating
the
stretching,
basically by the stressthe

of
material). For example,
equation
The experimental results can
the stretch ratio
plotted
a to e can
different
engineering
against
then
be determined.
measures
of
materials
strain
constant called Young's modulus,

is called Hooke's law.
(5.1-3)
stresses. Equation
is a Hookean material
Steel
material.
be a Hookean
that
is called
a yield
or
just presented
subjected to an
as
strain e. An
infinitesimal
all
infinitesimal
coincide.
strain
a relation like
E is a
be presented
The caseof
(5.1-3)
o- = Ee
where
elongations,
at the
is dictated
constitutive
elongates.
simple because
was found that, for most
(5-l-2)
L\342\200\236
1.00,
more complex
by moments acting
into an arc. The \"fibers\"
beam
measures
t2
|. But if L = 1.01 and

0.01. Hence, in infinitesimal
z =
they are
to describe
later.
of strain
measures
proper
strain relationship (i.e.,

it
if we pull on a string,
La
can
used
be elucidated
will
strain is
strain measures. Either of them
different.
For example, if L = 2,
can be
elongations,however,
bend a rectangular
on
the beam \"will deflect
in
5.1(b),
Fig.
ends, as shown
These
longitudinal
will be elongated.
and those on the bottom
top will be shortened,
beam.
the
on
moment
acting
are related to the bending
strains
as shown in Fig. 5.1(c).
a circular cylindrical shaft,
To illustrate shear, consider
distorted in a manner
are
shaft
the elements in the
When the shaft is twisted,
as a measure of strain.
taken
be
a
the angle
may
shown in Fig. 5.1(d). In this case,
the
a as the shear strain;
to take tan a or 5 tan
however,
It is more customary,
empirical
are
In finite
equal.
if we
example,
For
deformations.
the
ratios
measures
strain
The preceding
If we pull a
are approximately
strain measures
these
of
stress in
tension.
within a certain range of

to
obeying it is said
bound
a is less than a certain
is valid
A material
if
Analysis of
114
Corresponding to Eq. (5.1-3),the

infinitesimal shear strain is
subjected to an
where G is another constant
for a Hookean
relationship
t = G
tan
Deformation
Chap.
(5.1-4)
Let a body
the shear
115
Strain
The
from fli, a2, a3 to xx, x2, x3. In continuum

(mapping)
is
is continuous. Thus, a neighborhood
deformation
that
we
assume
mechanics,
that the transformation is one
into a neighborhood. We also assume
transformed
and have
in Eq. (5.1-5) are single
continuous,
valued,
to one;
i.e., the functions
This is a
material
modulus or modulus
of rigidity. The
(5.1-4) is again bounded by a yield stress, this time in shear.
and in shear are different
The yield stresses in tension, in compression,
in general.
and
are
the
of
the
constitutive
(5.1-3)
(5.1-4)
simplest
Equations
equations.
cases will be discussedin Chapters
The more general
7, 8, and 9.
of most things in nature
and in engineering
Deformations
are much more
need a general method of
complexthan those just discussed. We therefore
treatment. First,
however, let us consider the mathematical
description of deformation.
range of validity
called
Sec. 5.2
the
transformation
inverse
unique
of Eq.
a space
occupy
S. Referred
to a
rectangular Cartesian frame
of
in the body has a set of coordinates.

When
the body is
takes up a new position, which is described by a new set
For example, a particle P, located
of coordinates.
at a place with
originally
coordinates (oi, a2, a3), is moved to the place Q with
coordinates
(xh x2, x3) when the
vector of
body moves and deforms. Then the vector PQ iscalledthe displacement
the particle. (SeeFig. 5.2.) The components of the displacement
vector are, clearly,
reference,
every particle
deformed,
every
oi =
for
point in the
every
\302\253!,
x2
a2,
x3
(5.1-6)
x3)
body.
The displacement
u is
vector
defined
then
= Xi
u-,
vector is associated
If a displacement
by its
components
(5-1-7)
a,.
with
every particle
in
the
original
may write
position, we
u:(ah a2,
particle
Xi
aj(xi, x2,
that
If
a3)
x,(au a2, a3)
is associatedwith
displacement
the
- a,.
(5.1-8)
particle in the deformed position,
we write
Ui(xh xi,
x3) =
xt
(5-1-9)
a,(xh x2,x3).
PROBLEM
a3.
continuous, and differentiable,

that the transformation
(5.1-5)be-single_valued,
functions
the
be
satisfied
a2,
a3)?
x,(alt
what conditions must
by
then the
Note: If the transformation is single valued, continuous, and differentiable,
and the Jacobian
and differentiable,
functions
a2, a3) must be single valued, continuous,
jc,(a\342\200\236
in the space occupied by the body. The last statement is nontrivial.
|tai/fla;| must not vanish
In
?3.*5
order
(See Sec. 2.5.)
5.2 THE STRAIN

The
idea that the
Robert Hooke
explained
Figure 5.2
the displacement
x,(au
a2,
a3).
(1635-1703)
in
1676
(5.1-5)
is related to the strain was

in the form of an anagram,
first
announced
by
ceiiinosssttuv.
He
in 1678 as
Ut tensiosic vis,
or \"The
The
power of any
of this
meaning
body is
springy
A rigid-body motion induces

are
not directly
considerthe
transformed
related to
stretching
neighboring
to the
in
the same
statement is clear to
anyone
proportion with the extension.\"

who ever handled a spring or
band.
a rubber
pulled
three
Xi
a body
Displacement vector.
is known for every particle in the body, we can construct

the deformed
a deformation can be described
body from the original.
Hence,
by
a displacement field. Let the variable (a,, a2, a3) refer to any
in the original
particle
of the body, and let (xu x2, x3) be the coordinatesof that
configuration
particle
when the body is deformed. Then the deformation of the body is known if
xu x2,
x3 are known functions of au az, a3:
If
it
stress in
the
no stress.
stress. To
and distortion
points
points Q,
P, P',
Q',
P\"
Thus, the displacementsthemselves

with stress, we must
body. For this purpose, let us consider
relate deformation
of the
in the body.
Q\" in the
deformed
(See
Fig.
configuration,
5.3.)
If they
are
the change
in area
116
of Deformation
Analysis
Chap.
Sec.5.3
.he
Hm
The differ
?3,*S
in Terms of
Components
Strain
s,\302\273rES
.he
i\302\273
s\342\204\242r,l
chaw*
ta
of .he
for dummy
symbol,
117
Displacements
*\"
\"i'M'
\302\273tta<-\302\243\302\273\302\253
rota,
(5M)
*-\302\253-(*.sH**
or as
(i>,)
*-*-(\302\253.-\302\273.^**
the strain
define
We
tensors
\302\2602.*2
\342\200\236
l(.
\"1. *1
Figure 5.3
and angles of
the
triangle
determined
is completely
we know
if
the change
in
deformation.
neighboring point
of PP' in
the
F(fli
original
line
+ dah a2 +
dx2,
and
x3 + dx3),
connecting
da2, a3 + da3). The
configuration is given
dsl =
When P
the point P(ah
element
da] +
square
of the
a2,
a3) to a
length ds0
by
so
that
T/ie
Green'sstain
strains and by
In
tensor.
da].
(5.2-1)
are deformed to the points Q(xu x2, *3)and Q'(xt

respectively, the square of the length ds of the new
+ dx,, x2
element
QQ'
tensor
tfrawt
tensor.
and
dsl
is2
rfsi
E,7 was
The strain
2El7
da,-
2%
dx,-
with
in
terminology
(5.2-11)
&;.
Green
introducedJ>y
(5.2-10)
das,
tensor e,7 was intoduced

and
and Hamel for finite strains
Almansi
analogy
is2
and St.-Venant and is called

by
Cauchy
for infinitesimal
strain
as Almansi's
often referred to as
is known
hydrodynamics,
Ei; is
as Eulerian.
a, and x,,
are tensors in the coordinate systems
and
to
(5.2-10)
Eqs.
rule when it is applied
follows from the quotient
respectively,
i.e.,
are obviously symmetric;
The tensors Etj and e,7
Lagrangian
+
da\\
(5-2-9)
length
is undetermined
sides. But the \"location\" of the triangle
by the change of
the sides. Similarly,
between any two arbitrary
if the change in length
of
points
the body is known,
the new configuration of the body will be completely defined,
except for the location of the body in space. The description of the change in
distance between any two points of the body is the key to the analysis of
an infinitesimal
a
s ^^Sl
1/
l|e
of a body.
Deformation
of the
Consider
(5.2-8)
a*\302\253!S_s.|
Ei'-=2l\302\260\302\260^^
That
Eij
e,7
and
e,7
thus
defined
(5.2-11).
is
E,j
(5.2-12)
e\342\200\236.
\302\243;,-, e\342\200\236
By
Eqs.
(5.1-5) and (5.1-6), we
dXi
Hence,
on
introducing
the
dsl =
ds2 =
dx\\
+ dxj.
(5.2-2)
have
dx,
\342\200\224
da,
da\342\200\236
flfly
Kronecker
5/;da,
8,7
+ dxj
dx,
da,
delta, we
=
dx, =
da,
\342\200\224
dx,.
(5.2-3)
dXj
may
5.3 STRAINCOMPONENTS
If we
da, dam.
dam
OF DISPLACEMENTS
IN TERMS
(5.2-4)
rir- r)r
\342\200\224
\342\200\224-
da,
components
write
\342\200\224
\342\200\224-dx,
dxm
8,7
OX, 0Xm
8,7
\342\200\224
\342\200\224
and (5.2-11) is that

of
(5.2-10)
An immediate consequence Eqs.
in which the length of
= 0 and vice versa. But a deformation
=
0 implies \302\243,7 e,7
Hence, the necessary
motion.
remains unchanged is a rigid-body
is that
every line element
a
be
a body
rigid-body motion
condition that a deformation of
and sufficient
the body.
or e,7 be zero throughout
tensor \302\243,7
of the strain
all
ds2
ds2 =
- d*,20
(5.2-5)
introduce
the displacement
vector u
with
components
= 1,2,
= x\302\253a\342\200\236
(a
\302\253\302\253
-
3),
(5.3-1)
118
of Deformation
Analysis
Chap.
then
In
dxa
dua
daa
\342\200\224
= \342\200\224
=
+ o\342\200\236\342\200\224
oal
da:
da-,
dxt
the strain
and
Sec. 5.4
tensors reduce to
the
notation,
unabridged
dua
\342\200\224i
du
_
e\" ~
(5.3-2)
dXi
a?
lldll
_\"
6xy
3v
simple form
dv
Wy
7x,
lldu
dw\\
,,
l/flv
3jv
,
\342\200\236
(13-7>
e\"=2fc+ire~
\"\"'w
i% =
Strain Components
of Infinitesimal
Interpretation
Geometric
dw\\
(5.3-3)
1
flK;
3h,3ua 9ua
\342\200\224
\342\200\224+ \342\200\224
In the
3fl;
3fl;
3fly
3fl;-.
case of infinitesimal
strain
Eulerian
of the
and
the distinction
displacement,
since then
tensor disappears,
the Lagrangian
between
whether the
is immaterial
and
derivatives
position of a point before or after
at the
displacements are calculated
it
deformation.
*>
_1
-s+8\302\273l
(5.34)
In
a\302\253a
a\302\253,-a\302\253,-a\302\253a
~~2
ftc.
.a*<
dXj
Notation
Warning:
SHI
8*-4
books and
most
uu
notations
unabridged
\302\2532,
\"a),
(x, y,
we have the
z for
xu x2, x3; a, b,
c for au
az, a3;
and u,
v,
,-. =
,w
da
to
3a:
'tof
2l ^j
/3Wf
/3vf
+Ui
\\dx
(5.3-5)
1 to
3v
36
3a
1 du i dv
= \342\200\224
p\342\200\242\"
'
2{dy
Note
dx
/f\302\253to
[da db
/3a du
\\dx
dy
3v3i>
SivSw'
da db
da
dv dv
'
3xdyT
the shear
mathematical
db
books
dx.
2eiy
3v
ty
Sx
3v
dw
_
u
strains, denoted by
3w
te
a/_~??-^lf
ay'
to
dw
dz
dx
-yxy, %2, ^zx,
respectively. We shall
arid
together do not form a tensor,
difference
this
of
But
beware
is lost.
eyi, ezx,
convenience
are
not use this
e\342\200\236
%y, etc.,
twice
as large as
the
notation, because the

a great deal of
when you read other
and papers!
5.4 GEOMETRICINTERPRETATION
dx dyl\\
dm
dUi
\342\200\224
\342\200\224
du
\342\200\236\342\200\224+ \342\200\224.
3tv dw*
u, v,
dx,
components exy,
components
w are considered
functions
of a, b, c, the position of
in the
points
in
unstrained
when the Lagrangian strain tensor is
body
configuration,
evaluated;
whereas
of x, y, z, the position
they are considered functions
of points in the
strained configuration, when the Eulerian strain tensor is evaluated.
If the components of
u, are such that their first derivatives are
displacement
so small that the squares and products of the partial derivatives of us are
negligible,
then e,j reduces to Cauchy's infinitesimal strain tensor,
that
3v
dz
In other words,
\\dx
_
\"
+WJ'
2 3xj
= \342\200\224>
1x,
dx
w for
e\"
*\"
are defined as
components
3k
dXj,
terms
typical
strain
papers, the
ex
In
Strain
for Shear
(5.3-6)
STRAIN
OF INFINITESIMAL
COMPONENTS
Let x, y,
z be a
set of rectangular
Cartesian
ds2 -
ds\\
0).
The
2exx(dxf.
Hence,
ds
Consider a line element

of the square of the
change
coordinates.
= dz =
to the x-axis (dy
of length dx parallel
of this element due to deformation is
length
- ds0 = 2exx(dxf
ds +
ds0'
121
120
of Deformation
Analysis
Chap.
Rotation
Infinitesimal
Sec. 5.5
which
differs from ds
But ds = dx in this case, and ds\342\200\236
second order if we assume that the displacementsu,
e,7 are infinitesimal. Hence,
ds
only
small quantity
of the
and the strain components
by a
v, w,
that
it is seen
of a vector
element
(5.4-1)
parallel
To seethe
in the body
with
in
meaning
edges
flu.
3v
Lay
ax.
the extension, or change

of length per unit length,
x-sns. An application
of this discussion to a volume
Fig. 5.4, Case 1.
of the component exy, let us consider a small rectangle
from Fig. 5.4, Cases 2, 3, and 4, that
dx, dy. It is evident
5.5
tan (change of angle
= -
(5.4-2)
xOy).
i.e., 2el7,
doubled,
components etj (i t4/)
suggestive
The name is particularly
detrusions.
shear.
the case of simple
the
In engineering usage,
the shearing strains or
which is called
Fig. 5.4,
to the
.44
angle. Thus,
&o
e\342\200\236
represents
is illustrated
right
_1
ds
and
the ,\342\200\236gl\302\2530,,
\342\200\242**\342\200\224*.\342\200\242*\"\342\200\242\302\273\302\273
to\302\273i*
strain
are called
3 of
in Case
ROTATION
INFINITESIMAL
an
Consider
field u,(xu
displacement
infinitesimal
us, form
x2,*3).From
the
tensor
Cartesian
\\?
ft)i/
which is
2\\3x,-
Hence,the
dx
!:Jf>0,
v=0
Case1:J^<0,
always
vertical=
u,-,-
toa,
a dual
build
has
0)33
components\342\200\224o)K,
call
cot
field
displacement
Case3:f>0,f=f=0
\302\260Case2:f>0,f>0
Cose4:f<0,|>0
5.4
Deformation gradients and interpretation
components.
dual
condition
for a neighborhood
that
el7ta>t
from
hand,
5(101,-
tensor
rotation
given at the
temor
strain
of a particle
Eq.
%),
(5.5-4)
e,7t(ot.
the rotation vector and
modification of the proof

of the symmetric
vanishing
On the other
it follows
(antisymmetric)
\302\253,-.
the
2.3).
of
a vector mk. We shall

tensor of the
end of Sec.5.2will
is a
EVl or e,7
to be
moved
like
convince
necessary and
a rigid body.
is \302\253,-.
and a rotation. The

consists of a translation
A rigid-body motion
field for
displacement
an
in
that
infinitesimal
We shall show
P
What is the rotation?
a
neighborhood of
rotation
of
vanishes at a point P, the
tensor
strain
of
the
which
a point P' in the neighborhood
show
this, consider
The relative
is given by the vector w;. To
of P and P be x-, and jc, + dxh respectively.
P. Let the coordinates
to P is
of P with respect
sufficient
strain
(5.5-3)
A slight
us that
Figure
be called the
(o,7, respectively,
and
and
we can
kt/;\302\253>i/,
(Sec.
symbol
w,7
<j>,7 may
0)23,
tensor,
vector
e^- is the permutation
Thus,
(5.5-2)
only three independent

an antisymmetric
are zero. From such
Eq. (2.3-19),
the e-8 identity,
(5.5-3) and
is a),;.Hence,
(5.5-2),
which,
by Eq.
dy
SloPe=|
dxit
= -w/i.
% =
where
Slope to
tensor
mn,
(1)31-\342\200\224because
v=0
(5.5-1)
^.
i.e.,
antisymmetric;
u,7
Case
ife
dx-
of
infinitesimal
displacement
aXj
translation
122
of
Analysis
This can be
dll\\ ,
-lldUi
\342\200\224
+ \342\200\224
dx, +
'
is the
in parentheses
quantity
lldu,
-M
dXil
2\\3xi
first
assumption. The second quantity
Components
E,
duh
ri
dx,l
2\\dXj
may be identified
in parenthesis
when En
strain tensor,
infinitesimal
is zero by
which
with
Eq. (5.5-1).
To
is small
get
line elements
compared
the
physical
ds0and
ds0
-Uijdxj
=
relative
(w
x dx),-
(5-5-6)
(5.5-1)]
produced
After
these line
deformation,
ds0,
STRAIN
original
da-,
= 0,
da3 =
0;
da2
= dsa,
da3 =
0.
(with
us
two
consider
state:
components
g_^\\
r^
<&;)
and
ds
we
deformed elements,
obtain
is exactly
an
ds ds
axis
cos6 =
dxk
da,
da,da/
dso
,
dsa.
da2
given in
definition
\342\200\224'\342\200\224da,
3a,da,
3fli
to the
dxk
dxk dxk-
But according
FINITE
angle
in the
the scalar product of the
through P in the direction of w.

It should be noted that we have restricted ourselves
to infinitesimal
angular
measures
for finite displacementsare related
displacements. Angular
to u,7 in a
more complicated
way.
5.6
Ea, let
component
elements becomeds
(with components dx,). Forming
(by definition).
is the vector product

of w and dx. This
by an infinitesimal rotation |co| about
displacement
what would have been
[by Eq.
significance of the
that are at a right
da{ = 0,
ds0:
tojidx;
= -*,#>* dx,
(5.6-6)
E\342\200\236
to 1.
.dai =
ds0:
dm
,
dx,. '
Hence,
Thus, the
123
Finite Strain
Sec. 5.6
This reduces to
as
written
dm =
The
Chap. 5
Deformation
Eq. (5.2-8),we
have,
since
8l2
= 0,
COMPONENTS
2'doi dai
When the
strain
are not small, it
components
for the
interpretations
components of the
Consider a set of rectangular
is also
easy
to give
simple geometric
tensors.
strain
with respect to which the

strain components are defined
as in Sec. 5.2. Let a line element
before deformation
be da, with components
dax = ds0,da2 = 0, da3 = 0. Let the extension
Ex of this
element be defined
Cartesian
Hence,
dsds cos9
coordinates
and
But, from Eqs. (5.6-1)
ds = VI
by
Ei
ds
ds0
\342\200\224:
Hence,
(5.6-1)
dsB
+ 2EZ
cos e
ds =
From Eq.
(5.2-10), we
(1 + Ei)
- dsl
Combining Eqs. (5.6-2)and
(5.6-3),
da-, das =
2Eij
of En
2En{dalf
(5.6-3)
- 1 = 2En
(5.6-*)
These
2EU
1.
(5.6-5)
VI +
2En
dsa.
the
angle
(16\"9)
wrmwrm
between
the line
between the two

= ir/2 - 0. From Eq.
is
an
orthogonal,
line
of angle
of En and
elements ds and
ds after
deformation.
which in the original

elements,
obtain
we therefore
state
are
(5.6-9),
{16-10)
VTT2lfvTT^-
the angles 6 and aa. The

exhibit the relationship of En to
because of the involvement
case
simple as in the infinitesimal
equations
is not as
interpretation
VI +
ds =
ds0,
sinai2 =
in terms of E{. Conversely,
Ex =
6 is
we obtain
(1 + Erf
meaning
The angle
The change
have
ds2
gives the
(5.6-2)
ds0.
we have
Eq. (5.6-8) yields
or
which
(5.6-5),
(5.6-8)
= 2EU dsa dsa.
in these
\302\24322
equations.
124
Analysis
A completely
components.
extension
the
Defining
per unit deformed
ex
ds
we find
for
be made
can
analogous interpretation
of Deformation
(d) If the
strain
Eulerian
the
Sec.5.8
Chap.
strain
as
length
- dsp
Strain
Infinitesimal
tensor
assumes the
if the
Furthermore,
original state
which,
2e\342\200\236.
(5.6-12)
between
two elements
angle
become orthogonal is denoted
by
deformation,
(e) We can
the
in
and
e'tj
have
the following
p12> we
l\\
In case of
(5-6-13)
___|5__.
infinitesimal strains, Eqs.

e, =
(5.6-10)and
reduce
(5.6-13)
PRINCIPAL STRAINS:
al2 = 2Ea,
\302\243, En,
e\342\200\236,
/e,
0\\
e2
\\0
ej
axes,
then the
to the
= suh-
p,2
2en.
\\e,kelk,
h = \\elkekmemi.
familiar
circle may
(f) Mohr's
is also applicable
ellipsoid
be
tensor
deviation
e[s
e^
\\
eaa Bj,-. Tensors
e,v
invariants:
independent strain
h =
results
5.7
a strain
define
have
sinPi2 =
principal
\302\253\302\243i-n
a right
from
deviation
after
1 - VI -
with the
coincide
form
canonical
that
e, =
x2,jc3
axes xu
coordinate
125
in Polar Coordinates
Components
Ji =
eI/8(;
h =
|44,
J%
used for the
= 0,
(5.7-3)
= ie\\ke'kme'mi.
graphical
analysis
of strain.
Lame's
to strain.
(5-.6-14)
MOHR'S CIRCLE
5.8
INFINITESIMAL
STRAIN
COMPONENTS
IN
POLAR
-\342\200\224-\342\226\240-.,
COORDINATES
much ado, we can extend the results of Sees. 4.1 through
4.8 to the strain,
becausethese properties are derived from the simplefact that the tensor concerned
Without
is
All we
symmetric.
determinantal
to do
have
exist
(a) There
three
is to
principal
strains
the word
eu e2, e3
stress
that
with
are the
strain.
- e
8y|
= 0.
cubic equation are all real numbers.

with each principal
strain,
say, eu there is a principal
with direction cosines v\\l), v^\\ v^ that are the solutions
of the equations
(b)
Thus:
roots of
the
equation
\\e,j
The roots
exchange
(5.7-1)
of this
Associated
e,
0,
(e\342\200\236 B\342\200\236>f>
The three
sets
components
of three
(i=l,2,3).
axis,
(5.7-2)
4\", vi% (v\\2\\ v?>, vf),

v23), if1) are
(vf>,
(v\\'\\
unit vectors. If the roots eu e2, e3 of Eq. (5.7-1) are distinct
axes are orthogonal to one another.
If two
e2 # e3), then the three principal
(ei \302\245=
of the
many solutions,
principal strains are the same, then Eq. (5.7-2) has infinitely
out of which an infinite number of pairs of orthogonal
vectors
can be selected and
roots
are
If
all
three
the
then
as
the
axes.
same,
regarded
any set of three
principal
be
as
vectors
unit
regarded
mutually
may
principal.
orthogonal
axis is called a principal plane.
(c) A plane perpendicular to a principal
of solutions
coordinates
curvilinear
is often desirable to introduce
indicated in Sec. 3.6, it
frame
can be referred to a local rectangular
for reference. The strain components
For
example,
coordinates.
the curvilinear
in the direction of
of reference oriented
err, em, ezz,
may be designated
strain
the
components
coordinates r, B, z,
in polar
tensor
the
ezx
by
are related to exx, eyy, eIZ, esy, eyz,
ero,fin, e2o, and they
cases of stresses.(SeeSec.
law, as in the
in the
transformation
into components
vectors are resolved
if displacement
However,
relationship involves
coordinates, the strain-displacement
directionsof the curvilinear
by the
and therefore is influenced
components
derivatives of the displacement
relations
may appear
system. The strain-displacement
curvature of the coordinate
coordinates.
in rectangular
formulas
from the corresponding
is that of general
coordinates
quite different
curvilinear
for handling
A truly general method
treatises. An introduction
is referred to more advanced
Prentice
tensor analysis. The reader
Mechanics, (Y. C. Fung, 1965,
of Solid
Cartesian
to
is given in the author's Foundations
book
the
in
present
Limiting ourselves
N.J.).
manner.
Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
coordinates in an ad hoc
of curvilinear
set
each
treat
must
we
tensors,
polar
the case of cylindrical
ad hoc approaches in
We shall illustrate two
enumeration. The
detailed
and
by
of coordinates
coordinates: by transformation
the latter in Sec. 5.9.
in this section,
discussed
will be
former
As we
3.6.)
126
of Deformation
Analysis
Chap.
sec.,8
infinitesinna.
*
In the
r, 6, z
and
first
approach,
we start from the
the
rectangular
coordinates x,
relations between
the polar
coordinates
TO* .re xe*
ix =
\\y
= r
dr
dx
sin 6,
\342\200\224
= -
It follows
may
that
d6
3x
be transformed into
3
Now,
u by
in
polar
(5.8-1)
= sin 6,
(5.8-2)
+ y2,
3r
cos6
r2
3y
r1
with
to x
and
y in
to r
respect
3
36 3 _
~ cos 6
3
dr
3x 36
dr
30 d
in
z.
dy
dx
coordinates,
un u0, uz, as shown
z =
y
\342\200\224
= -
with respect
and
3y dd
the Cartesian equations
erM
6 3
(5-8-4)
of the
of the
+ ôs20-^sin20,
e\342\200\236stf0
-(e
0 +
ezo= _e2Isin0
displacement
+ ^(cos20-sitf0),
-e\342\200\236)cos0sin0
=
cos
\302\243zre\342\200\236
\342\200\242
36
+ e>,sitf0 + eiysin20,
err=e,lCos*0
6 by
3
cos
\342\200\236
we denote the components

Fig. 5.5. The components
transformation
The tensor
d6
dr
have
law holds, and we
(5.8-3)
sin 6 \342\200\224
+
(5.8-7)
6 3
sin
dr
.
(5.8-8)
sin 0,
ezy
+ e2ycos0,
vector
same vector resolved

we have
Finally,
e\302\253
a\302\253z
3Hj
e\"
ey),
3x'
dz
3y
l/a\302\253y
= -F^
+
6\"
Displacement vector in
polar coordinates.
Figure
directions of rectangular
that these displacements
seen
coordinates
related
are
ux
uy
by
ur cos 0
sin 6
= ur
are
u\342\200\236
uy, uz. From the figure,
the
equations
it
is
a substitution
Now,
3
/
= I cos 0
e\342\200\236
sin 6,
H\302\253
u0
cos 0,
components
= cos20
in polar coordinates
Bor
are designated
er0
erz \\
em
e0.
as
eyy
n
(5.8-6)
e'!
\\ezr
ez0
eZi
sin0
d\\.
\342\200\224
cos
(\302\253r
_~
sin20
-~ + cos20 -
\\r
dr
Sm2flfd\"r
~2\\17
Uo
, a.
sm 0)
r 30/
+ cos
+ \342\200\224
rdBI
0 sm
\302\253A COS20/3\302\273O
_
*\302\253\302\243
2
W
r36~ r)+
(5.8-9) yields
into Eq.
(5.8-3)
- cos 0 sin
\342\200\224
- + -13u0\\
\\r
dr
(5.8-9)
8z
of Eqs. (5.8-4)and
, Jur
3\302\253r
,
,\342\200\236
\342\200\224
+ sitffl
(5.8-5)
uz = uz.
The strain
2\\3x
5.5
a^
fc+ay)'
eiy\"2\\ay
in the
\302\253j*
iucu
witnz.
are:
36
dy dr
3y~~
y
->
sin 6
derivatives
'_3r
dx
= x2
r2
\342\200\236
= cos 6,
derivative
any
6 = tan\"1
r cos 6,
ceding
\342\204\242SZ\302\243ZXL,
0-direction,andz
f
a local frame of rectangular
\342\204\242wPd
to
\342\204\242
\302\253*
y,z:
127
in Po.ar Coord.nates
Components
Strain
ih
3ur
ldu0 \342\200\224
+
0 \342\200\224
r
rdd
\\dr
\342\200\224
+
0 \342\200\224
rdd
\\dr
dllr
Up
r30
(5.8-10)
128
Analysis
these and
Substituting
into Eq.
results
similar
of Deformation
(5.8-8) and
reducing,
Chap.
Sec.5.9
Direct
Derivation
of the
Strain-Displacement
Relations
in
Polar
Coordinates
we obtain
dur
e\342\200\236
flr'
1 3UB
Ur
~
e\302\273o
r 36
SrO
l/l
dur
2\\r 36
ezr ~
e*o ~
ri
flr
(5.8-11)
lw'
a?
l/l
flu\342\200\236
\"
dllA
l/flu,
2\\
'
3\302\253z fluD\\
2v!e
~te}'
flu2
e2Z
~~flz\"
Thus, we
see that
In the
language
The reader should

strain, so that
given as
7r2,
OF THE
IN POLAR
The results
again that we have adopted the tensor notations

strain components er0, erz, e,0 are one-half of those
72e in most books.
the shear
yr0,
DERIVATION
RELATIONS
is tedious but
be warned
for the
5.9 DIRECT
of coordinates
structuresof Eqs. (5.8-11)

and (5.8-9)
are different.
of tensor analysis, the difference is caused
by the differences in
metric tensors of the two coordinate systems.
the fundamental
ordinarily
the method of transformation
that the
Note
straightforward.
STRAIN-DISPLACEMENT
COORDINATES
preceding section can be derived directly from the geometric

infinitesimal strain components.
Recall that the normal strain
mean the ratio of change
of length per unit length, whereas the
components
shearing
strain
mean one-half of the change of a right angle. For infinitesimal
components
these changes can be seen directly
from drawings such as those
displacements,
of the
of the
definition
in Fig.
shown
Consider
5.6.
first
the displacement
in
the r-direction,
ur.
We see from
Fig. 5.6(a)
that
+ (diirldr)dr
\302\253r
dr
From
ur
flu,
flr
the same figure, we see also that a radial displacement of a

causes an elongation of that element
in the 9and, hence, a strain
The element ab, which was originally of length r dd, is displaced to a'b'
circumferential
element
direction.
E.
coordinates. (From E.
polar
in cylindrical
Displacement
Sechler.) A
Mrs.
Magaret
Courtesy
and two
Sechler, Elasticity in Engineering,
element of material
of an infinitesimal
diagram
free-body
(a) Radial
left corner,
lower
the
at
are shown
coordinates
field in the radial
systems of
of the radial displacement
due to variation
strain
of circumferential
strain due to variation
Circumferential
direction,
(b)
dujdr and (l/r)3\302\253,/38
direction,
(c)
in the circumferential
shear strain e,,.
displacement
and Bujdz cause
(d) SuJdr
cause shear strain e\342\200\236.
strain
e!0.
shear
and 3u,/3z cause
(e) (llr)SujB6
Figure 5.6
129
130
Analysis of
and becomes of
displacement
(r
length
The tangential strain
dd.
ur)
(r +
- rdd
dd
ur)
rdd
On the other
in Fig.
equal to
as shown
hand,
strain
tangential
5.10 OTHERSTRAIN
radial
this
(5.9-2)
the tangential
5.6(b),
dB -Ue
displacementu,
gives
ldUn
(5.9-3)
rid
MEASURES
suitable
not think that the strain tensors we have defined are the only ones
we
base
when
ones
natural
most
They are the
for the description of deformation.
between
distances
the
of
of
the
the
square
change
of deformation on
our
analysis
of distances is a convenient
starting
point
The
square
any two particles (Sec.5.2).
the hypothof
the
that
states
which
square
theorem,
because we have Pythagoras's
this
is equal to the sum of the squares of the legs. Using
enuse of a right triangle
+
and
two
x-,
x-,
between
points
theorem, we state that the square of the distance
is
of
frame
reference,
Cartesian
to a rectangular
dxi, with coordinates referred
ds1 =
in the
axial
Ijr
1 fop
r dd'
direction
In
(5.9-4)
is
case of rectangular
The shearing
we based our
tensors.
strain
Deformation doesnot,
may
point,
insist on
or on
using
on this
analysis
Sec. 5.2,
the
(5.9-5)
equal to one-half
Fig. 5.6(c). A direct
in
that
\"
change of angle
examination
of the figure
of the
du
du
dx
dy
dz
3v
av
av
dx
dy
dX
shows
- ill
^?Lr
dd
tr
+i
flu\302\260u\302\273
\" ~
(5.9-6)
dx
in
the
^-direction,
tangential displacement in the radial
direction, and the last term appears since part of the
change in slope of the line
a'C
comes from the rotation of the element
as a solid body about the axis
Indeed, these derivatives,

We may separate the
components,
ez0 and eIr can
be derived
with
reference
We have
\\dujdd)id
6z0\342\200\224
rdd
antisymmetric
dz
13\302\253z
tot
dz
dB
starting
displacementfield:
\\
(5.9-7)
dz
tor
3\302\2532
dr
dz
~dr
picture
preceding section.
(5.9-8)
the
than
a_w
\302\245
~~3z
gradients,\" are quite convenient.

of a symmetric part and
sum
lldu
av
lldu
dw\\
2\\3v
3*
2\\dz
dxl
3v
l/to
Bw\\
dy
dy
2\\3z
dyl
dz
\\2\\dx
lldu
an
3v
l[3w
dz
2\\dy
lldu
3v
2\\dy
dx
av
2\\aj
dx,
lldu
dw
i/av
2\\dz
dx
2\\az
direct
the
-dw
to
du
lldw_
(dujdr)dr
These equations are, of

course, the same as Eq. (5.8-11). Indeed,
geometric method
of derivation provides a much clearer mental
of the
For example,
as our
ljflv
2\\dx
(du0ldz)dz
dX
(du,ldxj) into a
0
(8ur/dz)dz
algebraic method
of df)
part:
and
=
e\342\200\236
this way.
definition
(5.10-1)
\"deformation
called
matrix
through
0.
(e).
was a natural
LC'a'V
The first term comes from the

change in the radial displacement
the second term comes from the
change in the
strain
of the
du
The remaining
be described
ds (instead
derivatives
first
dW
to Figs. 5.6(d)and
result
of distance
change
set of nine
equation; the
have to
however,
the
using
+ dx],
+ dxl
dx\\
coordinates.
er0 is
strain
LCab, as illustrated
of
we
dz
in the
131
Measures
Strain
strain is
tangential
strain
u,
duz
as
Other
5.10
Sec.
We must
rdd
The normal
to
~~r'
+ {dllpldd)
U\342\200\236
eff
The total
due
Chap.
is, therefore,
m =
rise to a
Deformation
(5.10-2)
dw
133
132
Then it
the
of Deformation
Analysis
is evident
of the
matrix
Other
part of the
the symmetric
measures
strain
When the
as defined
strain,
infinitesimal
well-known
tensors.
strain
that
deformation
in
Sec.
Chap.
gradient
matrix is
5.3.
are Cauchy's strain tensors and Finger's

Eqs. (5.1-5) and (5.1-6), Cauchy's
is given by
mapping
Chap. 5
Problems
as a pure
a simple shear may be regarded
= \\(k - k~'). Equivalently,
at \\it
with Ox, Oy if s
inclined
+ s and the major axis of the strain ellipsoid
shear with k = V(s2 + 1)
- I tan-' s = tan\"1 (/r1) with Ox.
in J. C. Jaeger,
these two cases can be found
of the strain ellipses for
(Drawings
&
32.)
London: Methuen Co., 1956, p.
Fracture and Flow.
Elasticity,
strain tensors are
r =
''
dxk dxk
Cm \342\200\224 '
flo,- da,-
dak
dtlk
dXi
dXj'
(5.10-3)
displacement
under
the
field
transformation
= x, + h, =
x]
whereas
dXj
dXj
Bak 8ak
where
da,
dQj
dxk
dxk
(5.10-4)
Now,
to
(a)
the
increase
in which the
displacement
Cartesian
case of homogeneous deformation,
of coordinates from
frame
of reference.
(1) Pure shear:x'
(2)Simple
shear:
consider
(x, y, z) to {x1, y', z'), both
(See Fig.
= kx,y'
P5.2.)
=
k~'y,z'
x' = x + 2sy, y' =
the
following
of which refer
linear
to the same
x' =
y'
foe,
two transformations
The
similarity
Pure shear
[k > I)
Simple
(s >0)
simple
shear.
as the coordinates of a material

particle before a deformay regard (x, y, z)
mation'is imposed on it and (*', y', z') as the coordinates after deformation. Show that
to axes inclined at tan\"1 (fc-1)
as a simple shear referred
be
a
shear
may
regarded
(2)
equations
and can be
(3)
Eq. (4),
+ Asxy
x2
Let us simplify
The coefficient
the coefficient
they are similar.
of curves in
the *y-plane.
By
ellipse
(5)
\302\243
t
into another ellipse
+ (1
(6)
=1.
4f)y2
By Eq.
a rotation of coordinates.
Eq. (6) by
t| through an angle 8,
But in fact,
ellipsoids.
an
is transformed
the same circle
(4)
= 1,
JW +
if a-,
(2.4-2),
to \302\243,
y is rotated
we have
| cos0 t| sin
9,
into Eq. (6) and simplifying,
8 +
4s cos8 sin
-
shffl)
ij
sin 8
i\\
4s2)sin2
+ 2 cos 8 sin 8(1

8
- 2 cot
= 1
- 2cos20+
(8)
+ 4s2)] = 1.
= -\\ tan\"1 (1/s). With
+ (1 + 4 cot2
=
cos2 20/cos2 0
20 sin 20
cos 6 sin 8
8] + t~t\\[-2
4r)cos2
-cot 29, or
0] + Tf[sin2
of if in Eq. (8) becomes

cos2 0
(7)
cos 8.
we obtain
8 + (1
(1 +
if s =
vanishes
of \302\243r|
We
pure
= r
z' = z.
y,
transformations
+ 4s(cos2 8
and
z\"
= r.
in the figures.
appear
-4s sin 8 cos 8 +
shear
y'
to consider
Since z' = z, it is sufficient
= 1 is transformed into
+
x'2
circle
y'2
a
Eq. (3),
On substituting
Pure
z' = z.
quite different
the strain
considering
shown
by
is best
The
Figure P5.2
+ y'2
shear:
?[cos2
shear
x11
in Fig. P5.2.
= ylk,
x' = x + 2sy,
whereas by
a!kxt]
by the following
defined
for a square, as shown
represented graphically
Pure shear:
x =
= z.
= z.
y, z'
are
shear
simple
fl\342\200\236iJtuf x,
of the
field w, is a linear function
of a surface
What is the equation
deformation.
coordinates x, is called a homogeneous
= r2
[Use
after a homogeneous deformation?
that will become a sphere x2 + y2 + z2
= 0, in which x, y, z are rectangular
Cartesian
an equation of the type fix, y, z)
transformations
pressure.
A state of deformation
coordinates.]
(b) As a special
and
pure shear
Simple
changes
a sphere
transformation,
this
(1)
+ a:kxk,
uf
to an ellipsoid
+
i.e., its volume does not change. Under normal

5.1 A blood vessel is incompressible,
cylinder. Suppose a person
a blood vessel can be considered as a circular
conditions,
of the
and the inner radius
some
for
reason,
increased
has his or her bloodpressure
is unchanged. Compute
blood
vessel increases from a to a + Aa, while the axial length
the blood vessel due
and radial strains
throughout
in the circumferential
the
5.2
Under
and alk are constants.
corresponds
PROBLEMS
blood
u!0'
[\302\253P>x,
of C,7 or
the absence of strain is indicated, not by the vanishing
For these tensors,
=
=
S,v.
8,7, B,v
B,v, but by d,strain measures any further, except to note that
We shall not discuss these
in advanced theories of continua.
some
for
convenient
specialpurposes
they may be
in
x, +
are
tensors
strain
Finger's
in which the
x, is moved to x':
as a deformation
a homogeneous deformation
a point
of the coordinates, so that
function
h, is a linear
Solution: We define
20)sin2 0.
tan2
0.
this value
of 0,
Analysis of
134
the coefficient of if in Eq. (8)
Similarly,
can be
Deformation
reduced to cot2
Chap.
Chap. 5
135
Problems
Eq. (8)
8. Therefore,
becomes
tan29f
If
we write
strain
k =
9 if
cot2
Eq. (9) is reduced

are equal; one is rotated from
ellipsoids
of pure shear and simple shear.
To find the relation between k and s, we
(9)
Locus_of
0 on BC
these two
exactly to Eq. (5). Therefore,
the other by an angle 8. This verifies the
8, then
tan
= 1.
equivalence
cot
28 =
cos 29
cos2
sin 18
=
-\342\200\224r
note that
8 -sin2
2.54 cm diam.
steel rod
1.
\342\200\236 \342\200\236.
cot 8 - tan 0.'
\342\200\224
. \342\200\236 =
\342\200\236
sin 9 cos 8
2L
4545
Locus_of
B on BC
kg
(o)
Therefore, since s
= -cot28
-.5 =
5.3 A
steel pipe of
0.010 cm
the strain
5.4 For
and k
^-4
60 cm,
length
8, we have
tan
k =
and
j + V(s2 +
1).
(10)
diameter 6 cm, and wall thickness 0.12 cm is stretched

Determine
diameter, and twisted through 1\302\260.
0.001 cm in
expanded
in the pipe.
components
axially,
the truss shown in Fig. P5.4, determine

loads in the rods.
stresses in the rods.
(c)
(a) The
(b) The
(c)Assume
the
of determining\"
Figure P5.4 A simple truss and a method
The locus of the
displacement at the joint B. (a) A simple truss, (b)
of the point B on the arm BC, namely, BB'B*; and that on
movement
the arm AB, namely, BB'B*. (c) The area of the shaded region is
in a bar when it is stretched.
proportional to the strain energy stored
e = alE for the rods, and assume

relationship
207GPa (3 X 107 psi). Determine the longitudinal
a one-dimensional stress-strain
that Young's modulus

strain
for steel is E
e in the rods.
(d) Determine
the displacement
vector at
the point of loading,
Answer: (b) <rAB = 503 MPa (72,000 lb/in2), o-oc = -88.2

= 2.4 x 10-3,\342\202\254flc
= -4.25 x lCr1
(c) eM
(d) 0.640cm
B.
MPa
(-12,800
To compute
lb/in2)
(0.252 in)
the displacement BB*,
BB* =
Solution: The loads in the rods are determined by static equilibrium, as in Chapter
1. We obtain a tension of 6428 kg (V2 x 10*lbs) in AB and a compression
of 4545 kg
(-10,000 lb) in BC. The stresses are obtained
by dividing the loads by the cross-sectional
area
of the members.
A further division
= -0.425 x 10\"3.
eBC
by Young's modulus
gives the strains
eAD
the displacement
consequence of shortening
the rod
BC,
the
we note that
point
we see from
JBB'1+ (B'P
Fig. P5.4(b) that
+ PB*J
PB'f = jBBn+
(B'P
+ PQ +
QB\"f
= 2.405
=
at B,
jBBn + B'B*1=
BB'1 + (B'P +
x HT3and
To determine
= eL
Displacement
the steel rods are pin ended. As a

B moves to the left, but the rod B can
C, so that the locus of the possible location of B lies on an arc of a circle with
swing around
C as center and BC as radius.
For very small A BC (as compared
with BC), this locus is a
line segment perpendicular
to BC. Similarly,
the bar AB extends A AB in length, and the
locus of B on AB lies on an arc perpendicular to AB. The intersection
of these arcs, B*, is
the final location of the displaced
joint B.
+ (BQ +
JBB'2
BB'+ QB'f.
Now,
~BB' =
B~Q
Similarly,
gF
B~Q
|e,c|-121
cm
= 5.26 x 10~2 cm
= 0.293 cm
= eABAB cos 45\302\260
= ~BB' cos 45\302\260
= 0.293 cm.
Hence, we
obtain
~BB*
= 0.640 cm by substitution.
137
Analysis of
136
Deformation
Chap.
Note: Alternative Method of Finding Displacement at B. The work done by the load
is equal to the strain energy stored in the rods.When a rod is subject to a gradually increasing
= TLIEA,where L is the length
tension from zero to T, its length changes
by amount eh
strain
area.
The
its
cross-sectional
energy stored in the rod is equal to
of the rod and A is
onto the bracket,
a
load
W is gradually applied
when
Now,
[See Fig. P5.4(c).]
j(T2LIAE).
of the load,
the work done by it is equal to |W8 where 8 is the displacement in the direction
of the displacement. The factor
\\ is necessary because, the
the
vertical
i.e.,
component
the force-deflection
relationship is linear, so that the area
structure
being linearly elastic,
x deflection. Hence, on
work
the
done, is 5 of load
under the curve, which represents
the work
equating
done with
we obtain
the strain energy stored,
Problems
Chap.
in volume of an element of unit volume subjected

an expression for the change
the change
= e\342\200\236
+ en + e\342\200\236
represents
invariant
J,
the
that
to small strains e,7. Show
when the strains are small.
of volume per unit volume
5.6 Derive
Cartesian coordinates
can find a set of rectangular
According to Sec. 5.7, we
not
summed), where e,,
the
form
ek%t
(k
assumes
with respectto which the strain tensor
a body undergoing strain and choose a unit
consider
us
Let
strains.
e2, e-i are the principal
of
Each edge, originally
axes of strain.
along the principal
cube whose edges are oriented
therefore,
volume
is,
new
The
deformation.
1 + e, after
length 1, becomes
+ = 1 + e, + e, + e3 + higher order terms.
(1 + e,)(l + e,)(l e3)
we seethat the change of volume per unit volume
on ignoring the higher order terms,
Solution:
Hence,
On
numerical
substituting
5.5 A
values into this equation,
the joint B is (B2 + A BCJn
of
displacement
8 = 0.635cm. The
total
= 0-640cm.
under the sun (Fig. P5.5). Assume that the body of

of the tip A if
cylinder, and estimate the horizontal displacement
the rocket
the following
assumptions
hold:
= 0.555 x lO'VC.
coefficient of expansion is a = 10-5/\302\260F
on
the
side facing the sun is
the
of
rocket
the
on
The
maximum
body
temperature
(b)
on the shady side.
hotter than the minimum
20\302\260F
temperature
is uniform along the length (longitudinal
distribution
axis) of the
(c) The temperature
x-axis.
the
but
varies
along
linearly
rocket,
section of the rocketremains
a
of
plane in thermal
As a
(a) The
thermal
linear
(d)
(c),
consequence
to the
reference
that /,
Eq. (5.7-3)
axes. Hence,
principal
of reference. Thus,
frame
heating
by thermal deflection caused by nonuniform
the rocket is a circular
tower is affected
rocket-launching
of
e3.
We know from
obtain
we
e, +
is e, +
2 EABC'
EAAn
are
strains
/, =
= e,78,,. is invariant. It is equal

/, = e, + e2 + e, with reference
means
e,fi,j
small.
(b) What is
how the principal
(c) Describe briefly
in principle.
determined
be
can
axes)
Answer:
is unloaded
the thermal
a
(d) Consider
determine the
'(e)
If
strain
tensor
eH
referred
Thermal strain
strain
and then
from two sides
difference
to obtain
integrate
= aT
the
= 20x
deflection.
10~5.
= 26.3cm.
Tip deflection
X.
= \\etfiu
and |i are constants, prove

axes of strain.
principal
5.8 In a study
to the same
*,,
How do you
directions?
2|ie\342\200\236,
that the principal
axes of stress
Lord Rayleigh investigated

earthquakes,
in the form
elasticity
of
equations of
axes.
coordinate
x2,
of the principal
directions
principal
strains and the corresponding
relation
and strain tensors are related by the
or,7
where
(i.e., the
*,,
principal
the stress
plane
and is free to deform.
to a system of coordinates
directions
+ e3with
to any Cartesian
when the
per unit volume
volume
of
referred
5.7 Given a stress field cr,7, with components
stresses?
of principal
the definition
is
What
(a)
axes?
of principal
the definition
expansion.
(e) The rocket

Hint: Compute
the change
to e, + e,
u = Ae'b> exp[ik(x
v = Be''\" exp[;/c(.i-
a solution
coincide with
of
the
the
linearized
ct)],
a)],
w = 0.
and
while y represents the depth into the earth,
solution
then
the
of
Rayleigh's
earth,
the
of
particles
u, v, w are the displacements
with a speed c and an amplitude that
in the A--direction
wave
a
propagating
represents
to be generated
surface. The wave is assumed
from the ground
decreases exponentially
on the ground
vector
stress
the
acting
is
i.e.,
surface
free;
the earth. The ground
inside
conditions,
the
and
boundary
of motion
the equations
surface is zero. After checking
the solution
obtained
c
and
and
constants A, B, b,
Rayleigh found the
cos k {x ~ cnt),
u = A(e'\302\260m5k> 0.5773e-|1-39M-')
If
32
360
ft
90\302\260
F
15 ft
diom.
B
(b)
Figure P5.5 Thermal deflection

of the rocket,(b) The
dimensions
of
a launching
temperature
tower, (a) The

distribution.
the plane xz represents
the ground,
v = A(-0.8475e-|uu,5'f
w = 0.
+ 1.4679e-OJ\"\"'0 sin
k{x-
c\342\200\236t),
138
of Deformation
Analysis
Chap.
Problems
Chap. 5
is the so-called Rayleigh wave speed, which is equal to 0.9194 times

c\342\200\236
satisfies the conditions of a
wave speed if Poisson's ratio is;. This solution
wave propagating
in a semiinfinite elastic solid with a free surface y = 0. The particles
from the free surface
move in the ry-plane,
with amplitude decreasing as the distance
The constant
the
shear
(see Fig. P5.8). The Rayleigh

waves that can be seen on a seismograph
increases
wave
represents one of
the
most
prominent
when there is an earthquake.
(a) Sketch the waveform.

= 0 at several values
(b) Sketch the path of motion of particles on the free surface y
values of y > 0.
of x. Do the samefor several particles at different
is retrograde.
of the particles
(c) Show that the motion
the places where the maximum
principal strain occurs at any given instant
(d) Determine
and the value
Figure
<tf-d\302\243
of this strain.
4+K
BaJ
dfl! 3a2
Ba, da, ,
,,
\342\200\236
dx]-2-+-1dxidx2
Figure
P5.8
Rayleigh
surface
wave.
Partial Solution:
exponential
will occur at y
derivatives
= 0,
only the strain components
function e~\", with b > 0, shows
e\342\200\236
ax
= -Ak(l
0.5773)
e\342\200\236
[(-0.8475 +
But
are not
e\342\200\236,
e\342\200\236,
e\342\200\236
that the
this plane and at
t = 0, we
by Eq. (5.2-10) this is 2 Enda]
sin kx,
- 1.4679x
0.5773
0.3933]
sin kx,
+ (-0.8475 +
x 0.3933)
x, =
coskx
1.4679)]
Hence,
maximum
principal
dx\\
6,i -\"
6;
Hence,
Enda%
l
~~6'
'iVi^l
are zero.
but this
time shear to
the
only a very
right
small
so that
amount,
s, + O.Olfl,,
a, = xt
0.01*2,
x2
x2
= a,.
Then
= 0.
ds1 the
2V3'
all other components of strain

the square plate again,
whereas
(-f
+ 2 (\302\243\342\200\236
+ \302\24321)
da, da2 + 2
-i
uu ~
_J_
~
it
Ea
have
- 1 da\\\\
\\dazl
\\P^-^dx^2-l-dr2.
5.10 Consider
= \342\200\224
=
Ak[{0M15f
e\342\200\236
Ak
~
= 0. On
identically zero. The

v, iv and their
largest values of\302\253,
-^^-
~ 1 -
dx, dx.
dxj
iv
of a
Deformation
Hence,
_ dx, dx, .
., . ,
- Ida]+
\342\200\224
2 \342\200\224
da,rffl2 +
(d) Since
P5.9
square plate.
d4 = 0.01
da, da2 + (0.01)2
da\\
= 0.01 dx,
dx2
(0.01)2
dx\\.
are
strains
Hence,
= \302\2610.14094Ak.
e\342\200\236
= \302\2610.4227
e\342\200\236
Ak,
5.9 Consider a square plate

components.
of
Solution: The deformation

x, =
unit size deformed
can be described
\",
+ \342\200\224s
x,
a2,
Ea =
as shown in Fig. P5.9.
by the following
= a2,
Find
equations:
the
0.0025,
In this case,
1.2a2,
= *3fl3
e,2 = 0.0025,
en
-5
10\"5.
Ev
and e\342\200\236
measures
are
approximately
the same.
from configuration (a) to configuration (b), as

Fig. P5.ll. Determine the strain components E,\342\200\236
Em E,2
uniformly
x3
the strain
strains,
The
that leads from configuration

(a) to configuration
(b)
1.2a,, x3 = a3. That in Case 2 is x, = 1.2a, + 0.5a2, *, =
= a3. In Case 3, we have x, = 1.01a,+
x2 = 1.01a2, x, = a3. From these,
0.02a2,
are obtained
from Eq. (5.3-5). Case 3 qualifies
for \"infinitesimal\"
components
Answer:
= *'->
\"l
10'5,
2flU C[jj \302\243?22>

^12-
in Case 1 is x,
=
Ol
X,
TffXl,
the
5.11 A square plate is deformed

shown in the three casesin
x, = a3,
or
\302\243s 5x
strain
as
transformation
*, .=
1.4a\342\200\236
given by
Eq. (5.3-7).
140
of Deformation
Analysis
Chap.
1.2
(1,1)
values
(1.4,1.2)
5.14
*3
Cosel
)
(a)
141
this problem first
Answer
*2
\302\2602
Problems
Chap. 5
of
Find the
for finite values of \342\202\254\342\200\236

e2, 8, i|r and then for
infinitesimal
e,, e2, 8, i|i.

strain
components
transformed into
the other.
radii are
same.
the
and e\342\200\236
when one of
E\342\200\236
The first
wedge
has
an
the wedges in Fig.
P5.14 is
the other is 90\302\260.

The
apex angle of 30\302\260;
*1
o2
Figure P5.14 Wedge
I.7,1.2)
(1,1!
5.15 Let ABCDbe a unit
Case 2
deformable
(a)
given
1.
body
square in the *y-plane

(Fig. P5.15). ABCD is a part of a large
in the entire body and is
subjected to a small strain that is uniform
by
(1,1)
'\342\200\224(1.03,1.01)
*3
Case 3
(a)
\302\2603
What
0 0.02
Three patterns
P5.ll
is the change in
Answer: AC changes
\302\260\\
1
Figure
2
1
0
\302\2602
length of the
by 0.00423;
3
0
2
x 10\"
lines AC and
AE
changes
In
AE1
by 0.00290.
I.0I
of deformation
of
a square plate.
OABC is distorted to OA'B'C in three ways, as shown in Fig. P5.12.

uz of every point in the
cases,write down the displacement field u\342\200\236
a2) of the point in the original
position. Then
square as a function of the location (o\342\200\236
= 0 and that u\342\200\236
determine the strains Etl, e,r Assume that \302\2533
u2 are independent of
5.12 A unit
changing
angle.
square
of the
each
x, and a3. In Cases (b)
and (c), assume that
are all 1. Also,

infinitesimal.
the simplified
obtain
the
expressions
lengths
OA', OC, and
OC
of
are
the strains eu if \342\202\254\342\200\236
e2, 8, \302\273|)
of
x2,o2
*2'\302\2602
of OA,
of length
Figure P5.15 Change
line segments in a plate of known
strain.
-1 \302\243
x \302\243
5.16 A square membrane,
1, -1
is described by
the displacement
*2.\302\2602
\302\243
1, is
y \302\243
stretched in such a manner that
u = a{x2 + y2),
4
A
.0*
e2
\\
Bp
Figure
unit square
P5.12
*1.\302\260l
5.17
to a distorsion,as
the
of
OABC
to OA'B'C.
to a stretching, as shown in Fig. P5.12(a), then

in Fig.
and finally to a rotation, as shown
shown in Fig. P5.12(b),
three steps in succession, what are the values of the strains
E,,, e,/?
OABC is first
P5.12(c). After
Deformation
What are the strain components at (x, y)? What is the

0). Assume the constants a, b to be infinitesimal.
(b)
(a)
5.13 A
tp~~
x.,a.
-*i.\302\260i
bxy,
w = 0.
\"7s'
J^
v =
B-f
principal
strain at the
origin
(0,
L is the length of the vertical and

truss is shown in Fig. P5.17, where
A pin-jointed
area of all the members is the same, namely
horizontal members. The cross-sectional
A. The material of all the members is the same,with Young's modulus E. The truss
is loaded at the center by a load P. What would be the vertical deflection of the point
under
the load?
subjected
Answer: Solve
deflection
the problem by the strain-energy
is 5.828PLME.
method illustrated
in Prob. 5.4.
The
142
of Deformation
Analysis
Chap.
Chap.
143
Problems
and strain
are the strain components

case
Consider a special
What
\342\231\246 +
of the
of a
Figure P5.17 Calculation

vertical deflection of a joint
invariants
of this displacement
DP
where
fl2
truss.
= 4
+ 4 + *t
it to a hollow sphere whose inner

C, D are constants. Apply
in this sphere?
of the strains
values
the
is b. What are
radius
and
o water the
of situations, such as the flow
a number
may happen in
The
The material is incompressible.
membranes.
forming of metals, and in cell
v are
\302\253,
The
vanishes.
displacements
w in the z-direction
displacement component
we know that
infinitesimal and are functions
of*, y. If, in a certain domain,
5.18 The
following
=
\302\253
(1
v in
the displacement
a, b, c are constants, compute

Hint: Use the facts shown in Prob. 5.6.
(Fig.
problem
P5.19),
it was
found
a is the angle
b = 1 cm. Compute
where
shear
Figure
P5.21
1.23).
Here
is another classical
is shown
drawing
Borelli's observations
is a and
outer
from Borelli's 300year old book (see Prob.

on the arrangement of muscle fibers on
the y-direction.
of steel with an elliptic cross section

be described by the equations
can
the
that
displacement
of the torsion of a cylindrical bar
u =
maximum
5.21
radius
- y){a + bx + ex1),
where
5.19 In the
field?
shear
strain
oay,
azx,w=
\342\200\224.r\342\200\224v.axy
a + b
cm and
of the bar. Let a -2
per unit length
= 0, y = &)\342\200\242
A
the
at
(i
acts
that
point
the strain
J^\342\204\242
tension and maximum
at A? On what plane do the maximum
of twist in radians
act?
Partial Answer:
= J.
\302\253\342\200\236
a, ey!
= 0, max
shear
strain =
8
a, max
-^
normal
strain
x.
\302\2615
Figure P5.21 A classic drawing

Borelli.
Muscle fibers contract or lengthen, change the shape and

of fibers has a great influence on the
strain of the organ. Geometric arrangement
shown in the \"simple
like a parallelogram
is
a
muscle
If
muscle.
the
shaped
of
function
inclined
the
to
borders,
fibers
parallel
5.2), with
shear\" case of Fig. P5.2 (Problem
block into a rectangle would
muscle
the
turns
which
muscle
the
of
then a contraction
On the other hand, if the muscle fibers were
leave the volume and width unchanged.
shear\" case, then on contraction
P5.2's
in
as
shown
\"pure
Fig.
parallel to the y-axis
works to pump
blood, the
the
heart
When
out.
will
bundle
the
of
bulge
width
the
but the
and
contract,
should
ventricle
expand
of the left ventricle and right
chambers
out locally (unlike the biceps flexor
nor
its
not
volume,
bulges
does
change
myocardium
he knew how it could be done.
muscle of the front of the upper arm). Borelli thought
the
Figure P5.19
section.
5.20
function
fau
By differentiating an arbitrary analytic
the equation
\302\253j,
k3) defined by
displacement field u(u\342\200\236
x\302\273
x3),
An
elliptic
one can
cross
obtain
by
surface
of the heart.
144
Analysis
Take
up
this suggestion and discuss it.
as you can. Modern data on
heart muscle
Add
theoretical
of Deformation
or experimental
fiber structure can be found
Chap.
details as far
D.
in Streeter,
and fiber geometry of the heart,\" In Handbook of Physiology,

morphology
Sec. 2 Cardiovascular
N.,
(Berne, R. M. and Sperelakis,
System, Vol. 1 TheHeart.
the
Society, Bethesda, MD, pp.
Expand
eds.), American Physiological
Jr., \"Gross
61-112.
claws by muscles encased

explain how a crab or lobster can move its powerful
rigid shell. What kind of strains these muscles must have?
observationto
in
We shall consider the velocity field and

we shall study the questionof compatibility
strain-rate
6.1
define
tensor. Then
strain componentsor the
the strain-rate
of the
components.
FIELDS
VELOCITY
concerned
with the velocity
For the study of fluid flow, we are generally
field, i.e.,
We refer the location
with the velocity
of every particle in the body of the fluid.
of each fluid particle to a frame of reference O-xyz;then the field of flow is described
the velocity at every point {x,
defines
by the velocity vector field v(x, y, z), which
field is expressed by the functions
y, z). In terms of components, the velocity
u(x, y, z),
v(x,
w{x, y, z),
y, z),
index notations are used, by v{xx, x2, x3).

functions
For a continuousflow, we consider the continuousand differentiable
in
which
we
must
the
are
There
however,
occasions,
study
x-i,
relationship
Vj(xu
Xt).
between velocities at neighboring
points. Let the particles P and F be located
at these
The difference in velocities
at x,- and xt + dxh respectively.
instantaneously
two points is
or,
if
(6.1-1)
dv^^dxh
aXj
where
the partial
derivatives
^
dXj
are evaluated at the particle
dvildx,
^
l\\bX;
^_lte_^.
dX,l
P.
Now,
(6.1-2)
2\\dX;
dXjj
145
and Compatibility
Velocity Fields
146
Let us
tensor VVl and
the rate-of-deformation
define
Chap. 6
Conditions
the spin
tensor SI,,as
Sec.6.2
The
Condition
Compatibility
cannot be integrated
147
the condition
unless
3/
This condition, a
is satisfied.
bg
condition
is also called
of integrability,
an equation
of compatibility.
Then
Vn
(6.1-5)
SI,,
bx,
It is
evident
is symmetric
V\342\200\236
that
Vtl
Hence,
the
(1,7 tensor
to ft,7;
vector SI dual
where ew; is the

O is called the
has
that
and SI,,is
independent
as
presented
i.e.,
exx=f(x,y),
(6.1-6)
-0,,,
V\342\200\236,
Sl\342\200\236
three
only
antisymmetric;
Now considera plane state of strain, such as may exist in the solid propellant
grain of a rocket. Suppose that an engineer made a laboratory model and obtained,
by various instruments such as strain gauges, photoelastic equipment, laser
with Moire pattern analysis,
data that may be
etc., a set of strain
holographycombined
elements, and there
exists
en
= g{x,y),
ea = ez,= 0.
ezz =
e\342\200\236
h{x,y),
(6.2-4)
arises whether the data are self-consistent.

Could the consistency be
if they are consistent, can we compute
the displacementsu(x, y)
and v(x, y) from these data?
If the strain is small,
the last question can be formulated
as a mathematical
The
question
checked?And
is,
fti = eM/%
i.e.,
tensor
permutation
vector.
voriicity
defined
il = curlv,
in
Sec.
(6.1-7)
2.3, Eq.
(2.3-16). The vector
question of integrating
differential
the
(6.1-7) and (6.1-1) are similar to Eqs. (5.5-3) and (5.5-5). Their
the analysis of the velocity
are also similar.
Therefore,
interpretations
deformation field. Indeed,
an
infinitesimal
of
the
field is very much like
analysis
the
result is an infinitesimal
of
time
interval
an
infinitesimal
if we multiply
dt,
v, by
equations
Equations
geometric
displacement
u, = v, dt.
field can be immediately

with the word velocity
6.2
we learned
Hence, whatever
extended
replacing
correspondingly
about the infinitesimal

to the rate of change
bv
\342\226\240qBgfc,y),
of strain,
the word displacement.

Now,
respect
Suppose
we were
u(x, y), such as
given
a set of
two
partial
differential
equations
for one
if
we differentiate
the
to x twice, and the
dx
3y,
x\\
first
third
equation
with
,2
partial
differential
equations are
b3u
given,
the
question
of
dx
Substituting
Eqs. (6.2-6) into
by2
Eq.
|-\302\253fry)
to y
the second with

each, we obtain
twice,
v once
(6-2-6)
fl3v
(6-2-2)
d2h
\342\200\236
7\342\200\224\342\200\242
bx by
+ Zrr;=2
bx2 by
(6.2-7),
we
(6.2-7)
have
b2h
dbr = 2-\342\200\224\342\226\240
fl\302\245 b2g
ri
df
equations
|\302\273/fr>).
and
a\342\200\2362'
aja\342\200\236
--j' bx2
by1'
b^by\"
are unequal.
when
to x
(6.2-1)
by
cannot be solved: We have too many equations that

that these equations
can be clarified if we compute the
are mutually inconsistent. The inconsistency
two
the
d2uldx by from
second derivative
equations: The first yields 3, the second
integrability arises. The differential
with respect
respect
unknown
We know
Therefore,
(-2^)
\302\243-2fcfc,).
dxdf
^ =*+
2x. They
THE COMPATIBILITY CONDITION
function
(6.2-5)
(=\302\253*,)
strain
The experimental data must satisfy

and there must have been errors.
v(6.2-8)
bxby
this equation.
If not,
the data
are not
consistent
'
14S
the
Expressing
results
preceding
and Compatibility
Fields
Velocity
in
of strain
terms
Chap. 6
Conditions
components, we
Sec. 6.3
have
are
fl2e*x
3\\y
r- 1
_ _ 3\\
r- = /
Bx2
3/
>
(O.Z-y)
K
'
of Strain
Compatibility
Of the 81 equations
either identities or
to i,
compatibility for a plane state of strain.

field of a fluid. The
A
applies to a two-dimensional velocity
tensor may be measured,
for example,
by the
components of the rate-of-strain
if the fluid is birefringent.
Or a set of strain rates
method of optical birefringence,
To check the consistency,we must have
theoretically.
may have been obtained
32exr
3 (
3eyl
By Bz
3x\\
3x
3h\342\200\236
_Bl
Bz
are
however,
mechanics,
Thus, compatibility
6.3
COMPATIBILITY
of the
the components
\342\200\236\342\200\236,m
this
and
(See Sec. 6.1.) In fluid

condition
of integrability.
tensor.
rate-of-strain
integrability
OF STRAINCOMPONENTS
in the previous section to

Extending the question discussed
do we integrate the differential equations
1 -JBu,
to determine \302\253,?
Inasmuch
as there are six equations
a single-valued
of Eq. (6.3-1) will have
By
of compatibility.
of Eq.
differentiation
where the
indices k
differentiations
with
respect
/ following
and
to
xk
and x,.
eu.ij
how
(6.3-1)
dx,.
have
+
!(\"/,/\302\253
\";,!\302\253),
a comma
indicate
(6.3-2)
successive
Interchanging subscripts, we
=
dimensions,
for three unknown

functions\302\253,-, the system
solution only if the functions % satisfy the
(6.3-1), we
%*/
three
Bii;
\342\200\224
2[BXi
2(Uk,lij
7\\Uj,lik
\302\243;*,;<T\\Ui.kjt
From
This
these,
is the
we
verify
at once
that
Cf/.w
+ eki,ij
partial
get
specified
equation of compatibility
+ Ul.jik),
eikiil
either
of St.
with respect
in unabridged
e,7
fle^
de_v
3z
p fle,,2
'
Bx
3%,.
3\\y
32eZ!
'ByBz'
Bz2
By2
3e.
'
3y I'
(6.3-4)
32e\342\200\236
B2eZ!
Bz2
Bx2
and
Fig.
By glueing
strains.
then along AD
with a
gap
and
5.4).
the deformed elements

DE,
we might
them or
between
with
end at
together,
the points
an overlapping
of
first along AB
C and E separated,
material
and
somewhere.
to exist (up to a rigid-body motion), the

For a single-valued continuous solution
This cannot be
meet perfectly in the strained configuration.
ends C and E must
certain
conditions.
field
the specified strain
obeys
unless
+ Mjt.i//).
ejliik
3z
Bx2
3a-
'
Bx
By1
By
to those
similar
+ Ul.klih
equations,
Beyz
3eXi,
B\\ _
guaranteed
of
can be derived from Riemann's

condition
For finite strains, a compatibility
Riemann
a
theorem by the fact that the deformed body remains in Euclidean space.
to
tensor
the
metric
for
(related
has given the necessary and sufficientxonditions
end
of
at
See
Ref.
chapter.
a Euclidean
space.
strains) to represent
Are they sufficient?
conditions.
(6.3-3) or (6.3-4)are necessary
Equations
with
the six differential
conditions,
together
That is, would the six compatibility
set
of functions
of
a
existence
the
ux{x,
given by Eq. (6.3-1), guarantee
equations
in a continuum?
continuous
and
valued
are
that
single
y, z), Ui{x, y, z), u3(x, y, z)
we note first that since strain components only determine
To answer this question,
motion
in a body, and since any rigid-body
the relative positions of points
determined
be
can
the
solution
u,only
up to
that
to zero strain, we expect
corresponds
if e:j were specified arbitrarily, we could
motion.
Next,
an arbitrary rigid-body
6.1 to exist. Here, a rectangular
in
portion
expect casessimilar to those shown Fig.
and DE (C and E are the
the
AD,
which
BC,
of
AB,
is
legs
material
of
given,
elements (each element
small
rectangular
same point) are composed of successive
deformed
is
element
Each
according to the
illustrated in
BC
fyl.ik
essential. The rest
written
3z
3(
Bhx:
. B2ea
IN THREE
6 are
symmetry
3e\342\200\236
3ev
By
dz\\
flz
eH
the
By
3y\\
By
Bx
,
DIMENSIONS
conditions
'
to as the
mean the same thing.
is referred
equation
Bx
3\\z
\342\200\236
3%
Bx
Vr,
to k, I. The 6
respect
of
equation
similar
discussion
where
of
149
Dimensions
Three
notation, are
dxdy
3%
in
(6.3-3), only
on account
repetitions,
which is the
32y*r
by Eq.
represented
of eUiU with
and
Components
= 0.
Venant for infinitesimal
A
strains.
(6.3-3)
this
Following
from an arbitrary
C along two
kind
of
point A in
arbitrarily
starting
one may construct a line integral
at point
to find the displacement (u,, u2, \302\2533)
results are the same.
paths and demand that the
reasoning,
the body
different
150
and Compatibility
Fields
Velocity
Conditions
Chap. 6
Chap.
151
Problems
are derived from a potential function

A flow field whose velocity
components
in this problem,
we have several
the
In
a
called
is
given
examples
potential flow.
$(;e, y, z)
cases in which $ is expressed in terms of the polar coordinates r, 6. If we notice that the
of the scalar function <f>(x, y) (see Chapter 2),
v) is exactly the gradient
velocity vector (\302\253,
that the velocity components in the polar coordinates are
we see from vector analysis
Note:
3$(r, 9)
in the radial
133>(r,
'
3r
B)
(1)
BB
and tangential directions, respectively.

(See Fig. P6.1.)
as follows. Since
can be derived formally
Theserelations
6.1
Illustration
for
the requirement
of
= tan\"1 ->
(2)
x = r cos B,
= r sin
(3)
5x
compatibility.
8.
3y = \342\200\242
\342\200\236
\342\200\224
sm B,
a
8,
Br
Br
3v
Bx
.
\342\200\224
= -rsm
\342\200\224
= r cos
fl,
6,
36
BB
we
'
\342\200\224
= cos
The figure on the left

consists of a sequence of rectanplar
elements making up a continuous region in the
unstrained
state. If strains were specified
for each of the little rectangles, and they
deformed according to the specifications,
then on putting
the deformed little rectangles
the conditions illustrated
in the middle or right-hand
together,
figure might occur. A
sufficient
to prevent these situations
discussed in the text, is necessary
from
condition,
Figure
I2 = Jt2 + /,
have
happening.
Cesaro (1906) has
that the
shown
uniqueness of a
for the
conditions
sufficient
solution
are exactly Eqs. (6.3-4) if the region enclosed by the arbitrary
paths is
if the region is multiply
additional
connected,
simply connected. However,
conditions of sufficiency
are required. (See Fung, Foundations
of Solid Mechanics,
for details.)
Cliffs, N.J., Prentice Hall, 1965,pp. 101-108,
Englewood
But it is seen from
of a
motion
fluid with velocity components
body
while
the component
3$ Bx
3$
Br
Bx Br
By Br. _ _
13$
3$
r BB
Bx
3$
3$
Bx
By
\302\253
and
v derived from
Hence, Eq. (1)
By
sm 8 +
u cos B + v sin 8.
3*
\342\200\224
cos B
-it sin
(4)
+ v cos B.
(5)
By
Fig. P6.1 that
u, =
PROBLEMS
6.1 Considerthe
potential $
3$
follows
cos 8
-u sin 8
\302\253\342\200\236
sin 8,
cos 9.
(6)
from Eqs. (4) and (5).
= \342\200\224v =.\342\200\224>
w is identically zero. Sketch the velocity
field for the following
potentials:
(a)*
\342\200\224log(r+
/)
\342\200\224logr,
(i2
= xz +
f)
Figure P6.1 Velocity components

in polar coordinates.
(b) * = x
9
(v\\
= tan\"1-
6.2 The motion

function
t|i
fluid in two dimensions may
of an incompressible
as follows:
3|
Bx'
H>
= 0.
be derived from
a stream
152
the lines i|i
Sketch
results
and Compatibility
Fields
Velocity
= const,for
the following functions,
Conditions
and compare
Chap. 6
them with
the
the preceding problem:
of
(a) i|i
v(x,
= c6
(d)
i>
(a)
= At\" sin nB
(avldx
then fi12
Derive
Prob.
6.1 and stream
in every case.
the rate-of-strain tensor.
for
flow,
Bit
dili
By'
Bx
is
-(-
^.
(2)
we have
1 di|>
1 flfy\\
llB^
t. .
= d\342\200\2247
\342\226\240
+ - \342\200\224
+ - \342\200\224^
vorticity 1
r Br
lW
r1 BO2!
casesin
6.2 are
Prob.
can be verified
irrotational
For part (b), the components of the rate-of-strain

of coordinates
shown in
by the transformation
derived
as shown in Sec. 5.9, p.

to Eq. (6.1-3).
derivation,
128.By
e>y
are
constants.
All other
strain
k'xy,
Icxy,
components
are zero.
= -k.
(c): It is, if k'
6.7 A rectangular
plate of width a and height b rests on a rigid base, Fig. P6.7. The plate
law. Its density is p. The plate is subjected to
material is isotropic and obeys Hooke's
load in the vertical
direction,
distributed
a uniformly
pressure on top and gravitational
Answer to
fl, given by Eq.
vort,c,ty =
y2),
listed
vanishes
two-dimensional
In polar coordinates,
e\342\200\236
k(r
functions
the displacements are described by u(x, y),

is identically zero, x, y, z being a set of
iv,
the strain components

e\342\200\236,
ev, en in terms of u, v.
for the strain system e\342\200\236,
the equation of compatibility
ev, e\342\200\236.
strain system compatible?
following
where k, k'
vorticity
expressions
listed in
(6.1-7), has the components given in Eq.

there is only one component of vorticity
(ll2 =
that is not identically zero. If u = 3<j>/3;i- and v =
Bu/8y)l2,
then
fl,, s 0.
Bfyldy,
all potential flow is irrotational. If
In a
That all the
the
plane-strain field,
the z-axis,
coordinates.
along
the potentials
by
Solution: The vorticity
Hence,
Cartesian
Express
(a) Show that the
(6.1-4).
y), whereas that
(c) Is
6.3 For the flows described

in Prob. 6.2,
(b)
two-dimensional,
(b) Derive
sine
rectangular
(\302\260H=}<
(c) i|>
,.. ,
6.6 In
153
Problems
Chap.
rti
(i)
tensor in polar coordinates can be

Sec. 5.8, p. 126,or by direct
we
obtain,
of
method to obtain an exact solution? Are there restrictions to the statement
are
problems
boundary conditions in step (a)? Can we~sa)rthat some boundary-value
well posed,whereas others are not well posed?What should be the criterion for wellgeneral
by direct substitution.
a slight change of notations,
stress distribution
boundary conditions, (b) Derive a possible
(a) State a set of possible
and those boundary
conditions
in which the
the equation of equilibrium
that satisfies
stressis specified, (c) Compute the strains and check whether the conditions of
in the plate. Are the
(d) Determine the displacements
compatibility are satisfied,
in
and single valued? (e) Are all the boundary conditions specified
continuous
displacements
If they are, can you claim that the stress distribution
you have just obtained
(a) satisfied?
then
an exact solution of the problem? If all the boundary conditions are not satisfied,
a
solution.
Two
can
be
done.
can
did
obtain
not
First,
things
you
modify
you
obviously
the boundary conditions in such a way that you can now claim to have found a solution
of a different
problem? Next, returning to the original problem, and step (b), can you
that has a chance to be an exact solution? Is there a
find a different stress distribution
according
posedness? For
(c), use
Hooke's
law, Eq.
(7.4-7),
p. 158.
\342\200\224
- \342\200\224\342\226\240
+ -\342\200\224>
v\342\200\236
vm =
Br
r
r 30
*
With these
6.4 Suppose
equations,
2lr BB+
the problem is easily solved.
we were given
the following
u
Is there
any
the
question
displacement
of
displacement
= ox1
v =
6.5 Suppose
Bi
bxy
by2 + ex
field defined in a
unit circle,
+ c,
Figure P6.7 A
weight and
+ mz,
plate
loaded
by
pressure.
= mz1.
compatibility?
field in a
unit circle
is the following.
u = ar log 8,
v =
iv
at2
= 0.
+ c sin fl,
FURTHER
Is it compatible?
Eeingen,A.
C,
Nonlinear
Theory
READING
of Continuous Media.
New York, McGraw-Hill,
1962,
pp. 44-46.
Truesdell, C, and Toupin, R., The Classical Field Theories. In

Vol ffl/1. Springer-Verlag,
Berlin, 1960, Art. 34, footnotes.
Handbuch
der Physik,
Sec. 7.2
7.2
CONSTITUTIVE
fluid is a
nonviscous
...
FLUID
NONVISCOUS
THE
155
Fluid
Nonviscous
The
for
fluid
which the
stress tensor
is isotropic,
i.e., of the
form
EQUATIONS
oi; = -p5,7,
where
Kronecker delta and p is

in a nonviscous
of stress
is the
8f/
the components
fluid
=0
exhibit
their similarities and differences. They can
the material
is isotropic. Since
passed over too lightly

The properties of somereal
is usually
to it.
be simplified
greatly
if
and
ofisotropy is very important
8
devote
shall
we
Chapter
by beginners,
9.
materials
are discussed in Chapter
the concept
The pressure p in an ideal gas

the equation of state
\\
j
by
\\
an
is the
equation
describing
an almost infinite
variety
of materials. What
variety
is
is the fact that three simple,

idealized
stress-strain relationships give a good
the
description of the mechanical
properties of many materials around us, namely,
nonviscous fluid, the Newtonian viscous fluid, and the perfectly elastic solid. We
shall describe these idealized
in this chapter, but we hasten to add that
relations
the properties
of real materials differ more or less from the properties described
are great, we speak of real gases,
the differences
by these idealized laws. When
which will be
non-Newtonian
viscous
etc.,
fluids, viscoelastic solids, plasticity,
in Chapter
9.
An equation that describes

is called a constitutive
a property of a material
mechanical
the
of
that
describes
material.
A
stress-strain
equation
relationship
main
of
a
Our
material
and
a
therefore
constitutive
is
objective
property
equation.
in this chapter is to discuss the stress-strain relationship.There are other constitutive
heat transfer characteristics,electric
resistance,
equations, such as those
describing
mass transport, etc., but they are not our immediate
concern.
154
the case of an
in
density p and temperature
(7.2-3)
Thus, the
pressure p is left
is determined
solely
by the
an incompressible
example,
any pressure,
Since
a liquid,
it is often
possible
to obtain
(7.2-4)
incompressible
fluid,
for which
the
merely
p =
surprising,
considered
state is
exists
OF MATERIALS
are specified by constitutive

equations. A wide
there are a great many
we are not surprised that
to the
= 0.
/(p,P,r)
equationof
constitutiveequations
is related
of state
An anomaly
The properties of materials

of materials exists. Thus,
-pi
For a real gas or
gas constant.
OF THE PROPERTIES
SPECIFICATION
(7.2-2)
0 .
- = RT,
\\
where R
7.1
form,
matrix
0\\
-p
\\0
are presented. They
most commonly used constitutive
equations
to
are mathematical
abstractions and are given here in the barest outline
(7.2-1)
'
(<r\342\200\236)
three
called pressure. In
as
may be displayed
a scalar
l-p
The
depending on
hydrodynamics
(7.2-5)
const.
as an arbitrary
variable for
equations of motion
fluid in the
cylinder
an
and the
of a
incompressible
fluid. It
boundary conditions. For
hydraulic press can
the force applied to the piston.

with incompressible
is concerned mostly
assume
fluids, we
conditions, whereas variations

from the equations of motion.
shall
in
by boundary
pressure is controlled
calculated
are
gradient)
pressure (the pressure
For example,
problems.
as nonviscous in many
Air and water can be treated
of
in the ocean, the flight
-waves
the
earth,
around
concerning tides
in problems
results
excellent
combustionin an automobile engine,
an airplane, flow in a jet, and
and treating it as a
the
viscosity of the medium
can be obtained by ignoring
in which the viscosity
other hand, there are important problems
nonviscous fluid. On the
such problems are
Among
be
not
neglected.
of the medium, though small, must
whether a flow is turbulent
the drag force acting on an airplane,
of determining
see that
those
or
laminar,
engine.
the
heating
of a reentry
spacecraft, and
the
cooling
of
an automobile
156
7,3
Constitutive
Sec.7.4
Chap. 7
Equations
for an
to the
rate
fluid
by the
specified
is a
If
a,,-
= -pbiS +
9<,mVh.
<r0-
X8,A,
(7.3-2)
contraction
of Eq.
assumed
that
the mean
Vkk, then we must
dilation
the
constitutive
formulation
iscalled
a Stokes
suffices
to define
2^.
-3p
(3X
+ 2|i)Vtfr-
normal stress |crM.
of the
= 0;
is due
+ 2|tV9
-p8\342\200\236
to George G. Stokes,
fluid, for which

its property.
one material
to be
\302\247|iVb8i/.
and
a fluid that
obeys Eq. (7.3-6)
constant u,, the coefficient
term p
variable,
new
this
which relates the
exists
difference
it is
a fundamental
marks
To accommodate
of state
the absolute temperature
determined
Fluids
pressure p,
the
T, i.e.,
P, T)
= 0.
(7.3-9)
are
Eq. (7.3-1)
that are
by terms
represented
equations
by
obeying
Newtonian
called
or Eq. (7.3-3),whose
in the
linear
Fluids
fluids.
otherwise
behave
that
of viscosity
Newtonian. For example, a fluid whose

(See Sec. 9.8for
invariants of Vt! is non-Newtonian.
7.4
A Hookean
is a solid
solid
elastic
that
constants,
of the
is the
stress tensor, ekl
or moduli,
is the
contraction,
we
ek,
states
Cijk,ekh
that the
(7.4-1)
strain tensor, and C,;H is a tensor of elastic

quality
of stress or strain. The tensorial
the quotient rule (Sec. 2.9).

has 34 = 81 elements; but inasmuch
follows
As a tensor of rank 4,
must have
since
law, which
tensor; i.e.,
strain
are independent
which
constants CiiU
the
= e,k, and
in
Eq.
the indices k
(7.4-1)
respect
(7.4-1) as
can always symmetrize

we can always write
Eq.
altering the sum. Thus,
an
5(Q\302\253
cr,7
crj;,
(7.4-2)
= Cm,
with
C,7W
of viscosity,
as
Ci/H
Qik,
for
depends
discussion.)
Hooke's
obeys
proportional to
is linearly
oy
<r,7
further
of deformation,
are said to be nonon the basic
rate
SOLID
ELASTIC
HOOKEAN
effects are
viscosity
components of the
coefficient
Furthermore,
(7.3-6)
(7-3-8)
~PK
and elasticity.
(7.3-5)
A
nonviscousfluid:
for an ideal
example,
we
+ 2(a
of the
(7.3-7)
for a real gas, Eq. (9.1-3)may

gas, Eq. (7.2-3)applies;
have obtained
and sea water, Tait (1888)and Li (1967)
be used. For fresh water
fluid
An
of
end
incompressible
the
at
9.)
Chap.
of state (see refs.
their
equations
the pressure p is a variable
which
for
a
case,
special
by Eq. (7.2-5) is again
specified
and boundary conditions.
of motion
the
For
rate of
set
equation
pressure
(7.3-3)
(7-3-4)
is independent
static
f(p,
equation becomes
cry
This
p, and
density
where
3X
thus,
\\Vk&j
(7.3-3) gives
\302\253rtt
it is
equation
constitutive
that an equation
assumed
stress tensor
-phu
a\342\200\236
If
+ 5(/5/t),
KBttfy
we obtain
and
we obtain the
The presenceof the

between fluid mechanics
often
constitutive
-ph\342\200\2362|iV,7.
o-i/
is the
%u =
= 0,
p,
(7.3-1)
stress tensor, Vu is the rate-of-deformation tensor, %m is a tensor

of viscosity coefficients of the fluid, and p is the static pressure. The term
\342\200\224/?8,y
=
the state of stress possible in a fluid at rest (when
VH
0). The static
represents
and temperature
of the fluid,
to depend on the density
pressure p is assumed
For
Newtonian
we
assume
that
the
of
state.
to
an
fluids,
according
equation
or
on
the
but
not
on
the
stress
elements of the tensor %jU
temperature,
may depend
= 81 elements. Not all
rank
of
has
34
the rate of deformation. The tensor
4,
%,kb
A study of the theoretically
number
of these constants are independent.
possible
of
of independent elements can be made by examining the symmetry
properties
that may exist in the atomic constitution of
the tensors cr,7, Vk, and the symmetry
it here, because we know of no fluid that has been
the fluid.
We shall not pursue
examined
in such detail as to have all the constants in the tensor %jkl determined.
Most fluids appear to be isotropic, for which the structure of %jk, is greatly
readers who are interested
in the general
Those
simplified, as will be seen shortly.
because
structureof %lk, should read Sec. 7.4 and the references referred to therein,
the tensor of elastic
constants
CijU has a similar structure.
of components
If the fluid is isotropic,i.e., if the tensor 2}/jH has the same array
then %jkl can be expressed in
in any system of rectangular
Cartesian
coordinates,
A. and u, (see Sec. 8.4) as
terms of two independent constants
where
op,,
equation
= 0, and we have the
fluid:
incompressible viscous
viscous fluid for which the shear stress is linearly proportional

of deformation. For a Newtonian
fluid, the stress-strain relationship is
A Newtonian
Vkk
is incompressible,then
a fluid
If
FLUID
NEWTONIAN
1B7
Solid
Elastic
Hookean
=
Q,*)e\302\253
Cmelk,
and
to k
/ are
and
dummies
/ without
(7.4-3)
158
Constitutive
Chap. 7
Equations
with the property
Qh =
If such a
(7.4-4),
Ctjti
has
Or,
Gii*-
been done, then
has
symmetrization
a maximum of
36 independent
under
conditions
the
(7.4-2)
and
c% =
azz =
\\(ea
equations
= IGe^,
can be solved for
ayz
e,7.
(7.4-8)
E, v,
(5.1-4).
to remember Eq. (7.4-7).Recall the one-dimensional case,

in Fig. 1.9, p. 00. When
as illustrated
block
Eq. (5.1-3).Apply it to the simple
it
shortens
in
the
z-direction,
by a strain
the block is compressed
It is very easy
2Ge\342\200\236
!<>\342\226\240\"
In the
linear
to
meantime, the
material,
the stress:
e.n
also
is the
to
case
in
which
o-\342\200\236,
crw, as
and linear
(so
that
is
Hence,
Eq.
ov, =
2Ge\342\200\236.
as
Eq.
lateral
induces
crzz
is the
only
(7.4-10)
stress.
nonvanishing
blockis subjected
If the
material is isotropic
then the influence
3.1, p. 00,
are linearly superposable),
must be the same as the influence
in Fig.
and
if the
and effects
of
o-2Z
on em
(7.4-9) becomes
one of the
(7.4-7).
is in a
eyy=--uzz.
-pCW,
e\" =
which is
and
bulging; a tension
illustrated
causes
(7.4-6)
the inverted form is written
But customarily,
For a
sense opposite
out somewhat.
bulge
crH
write
\342\226\240x
This
lateral
induces
compression
Hence, we
shrinking.
block will
to
is proportional
sides of the
lateral
the bulging strain
2Ge,z
2Geyz,
(7-4-9)
\302\253=
of (Txt on eyy, eIZ and ayy on em ezz
+ 2Gext
+ e\342\200\236
+ ezz) +
vv
These
and
eyy.
+ ezz)
+ e\342\200\236
X(e\342\200\236
1 +
v
v
~
vtj
p o-oa 8,7.
\342\200\224\302\243\342\200\224
to the Lame constants X and G (or |i). (See

and G are related
v is called Poisson's ratio,
called
is
modulus,
Young's
Eq. (9.6-9)on p. 000.) E
shear
modulus. In the onein
or
shear,
the
modulus
and G is called
of elasticity
of stress, we
the
is
in
which
component
cr^
nonvanishing
only
dimensional case,
have used the simplified version of these equations in Chapter 5, viz., Eq. (5.1-3)
The constants
(7.4-5)
The constants
X. and
In engineering
(x are called the Lame constants.
literature,
the second Lameconstant
u, is practically always
written
as G and identified
as the
shear modulus.
It will be useful to write
out Eq. (7.4-5) in extenso.
With x, y, z as rectangular
Cartesian
we have Hooke's law for an isotropic elastic solid:
coordinates,
=
eti
constants.
\\ea&j + 2|ie;y,
+ e\342\200\236
+ ezz)
cr\302\253 X(e\342\200\236
notation,
index
in
159
Solid
Elastic
Hookean
(7.4-4)
That the total number of elastic

constants
cannot be more than 36 can be
seen if we recall that because cr,7 = oy,- and e,7 = eih there are only six independent
elements in the stress tensor cr,7 and six in the strain e,7. Hence, if each element of
of el7, or vice versa, there will be six equations
o-l7 is linearly related to all elements
with
6 constants each and, hence,
36 constants in total.
For most elastic solids, the number of independent
elastic
constants is far
smaller
than 36. The reduction
is caused by the existence of material
symmetry.
on this subject in the classical books on the theory
(See the excellent discussions
of elasticity by Love, and by Green and Adkins, listed at the end of this chapter.)
The greatest reduction in the number of elastic constants is obtained
when
the material is isotropic,
are identical in all
i.e., when the elastic properties
directions. More
is defined by the
precisely, isotropy for a material
requirement that
the array of numbers C,jk,has exactly
the same numerical
no matter how
values,
the coordinate system
is oriented.
Because of the importance
of the concept of
we shall discuss it in greater detail in Chapter
8. It will be shown that for
isotropy,
elastic constants characterize the
material, exactly two independent
any
isotropic
material.
Hooke's law for an isotropic
elastic solid reads
trv
Sec.7.4
of Eq.
equations
For the shear
\302\260a
\302\243
stress
CTxt
(7.4-7), and
and
v
~E
am
similarly
shear strain,
for other
each component
equations in
produces
its
own effect.
ea
eyy
ezz
--
--
lr
1 + V
v(oyy
+ tr.,2)],
\302\253,-
1 + v
v(fTa
+ (Txr)],
v((Ta +
1 +
621
(T\342\200\236)],
Other Formsof Hooke'sLaw
cr\342\200\236-2Gc^,
(7.4-7)
For
an isotropic elastic
material,
law may be stated
Hooke's
(roa
in
the form
= 3Keaa,
(7.4-11)
(7.4-12)
^'IG^'
crtf
2G4
160
Constitutive
where K
constants and
G are
and
and
o-,7
the stress
are
e,7
and
deviation
strain
deviation, respectively;i.e.,
We have
strain were
invariants.
seen before that
|e\342\200\236\302\2538f/.
strain,
= 0%z =
Vyy
aaa =
-3p, and Eq.

with V and AV denoting
that
of
special case
the
~P,
^xy
(7.4-11)may
compression,
hydrostatic
0>z
G(E-2G)
\342\200\224
v
= \"
K.
an isothermal
in
volume,
respectively,
A
-f\342\200\242
v~ =
1 +
Xfl
3- lv
(K
2V\"
2v)
2v
X
X
__
2(X
+ G)
(3K
G(3X + 2G) _
E =
X + G
=
2G(1 + v)
^ = x +
G
X
+ G
2
3
G=
\"
=
X(l
X(l
v)(l
the
when
ell=a,,(Tstates that
(7.4-15)
2(3K + G)
-3AT
= 3/C(l
v) _
'Data can be found in the American

Book Company (1957), pp. 2-56-2-60.
of the
body
T0 to T, then a
strain e,7
restrained
is so
in the body. a,7 and

measured at zero stress and zero
For
that
e,7
if
state at T0.Conversely,
= 0 when the
temperature
(7.5-2)
of material
p,7 are symmetric tensors
at
strain, respectively, temperature
Eq. (7.5-2) is combined
with
Hooke's
constants
Tu.
law, we obtain the
Duhamel-
law for thermoelasticity:

=
an
isotropic
that
follows
T\342\200\236),
also be
p,7
p,y must
material, the second-order tensor
must be of the form p8,7 (see Sec. 8.2).Hence,
for
(7.5-3)
isotropic. It
an isotropic
Hookean solid,
-
+ 2Ge\342\200\236
Xeu8\342\200\236
a\342\200\236
'
6K
to the
stress
is induced
9K-E'
3K -
(7.5-1)
To)
relative
al7= -P,7(r-r0)
When
(7.4-16)
Here,
X)
details
X)
and
G are
can be found
Lame constants
in
Fung,
measured
Foundations
P(T
(7.5-4)
r\342\200\236)5(/.
at constant
of Solid
temperature.
Mechanics, Chapter
(Further
12, esp.
p. 355.)
7.6
_
GE
3(3G -
\302\243)
3(1
E
-
2v)
UK
EI3,
2v),
2G(1 + v)
3(1
2v)
+ 2G
9K(K
v)(l-2v)
^g
3K -2G
2G
'
will have a
body
from
changes
3KE
2(1 + v)
+v)
the
the configuration
2v)
3ff(l-2v)
_
~
X)
3v
E
2(1
as
Cmekl
-.\342\200\236<%
A.)
\"'
1/2, then G
expansion and affects the zero-stress state of a solid or

has no stress at a temperature T0,and the stress remains at zero
is changed to T, then the linear law
temperature
experiment.
'
9K-
If a body
liquid.
Ev
(1 +
_3K(3K-E)
~
G. When
thermal
induces
Neumtmn
3Kv
OF TEMPERATURE
EFFECT
0,
1\342\200\236
\342\200\224
3G-
2v
= 0.
Heat
K is
coefficient
2Gv
1-
eaa
=
tr\342\200\236
appropriately called the bulk modulus of the material.

The strain deviation
a deformation without
e,7 describes
any change in volume.
The stress deviation is simply proportional to the strain deviation. The relationships
the elastic constants are*
between
\\
0, and
1/4,
(7.3-1)
in the case of infinitesimal
be written,
and change
volume
f
Thus, the
v is
under
ffir
have
the Poisson's ratio
161
Behavior
are determined
or strain-rate relations
the stress-strain
In the preceding sections,
of a fluid, however, varies with temperature
at a given temperature. The viscosity
of a solid. In other words, the coefficients %jk, in Eq.
as does the elastic modulus
of temperature
and are determined
and CijU in Eq. (7.4-1) are functions
a point and that, if the

are
per unit volume: Both
the change in volume of the material
is
volume
in
i.e., when
we
When
Complex Mechanical
(7.4-14)
mean stress at
change
Thus, Eq. (7.4-11)states

to the mean stress. In
proportional
more
(7.4-13)
7.5
cy
\\uaa is the
is the
eua
infinitesimal,
\302\2607/l\302\260\"\302\253\302\2608<y>
eij
with
o'u
Materials
Sec. 7.6
Chap. 7
Equations
v\"
Institute of Physics
Handbook,
New
York: McGraw-Hill
MATERIALS
As
WITH
we have
MORE COMPLEX MECHANICAL
said before,
the
nonviscous
fluids,
BEHAVIOR
the
Newtonian
fluids,
and the
Hookean elastic solids are abstractions. No real material is known to behave exactly
and strain,
in limited ranges of temperature,
stress,
as any one of them,
although
well.
laws
these
one
of
follow
some materials
quite
may
paints
Real materials may have more complex behavior.For fluids, household
as are wet clay and mud. Most colloidal solutions
are non-Newtonian,
and varnish
162
are
Constitutive
also.
non-Newtonian
Hookean
Hooke's
in
useful
the
most structural
range of stresses and strains;
For solids,
Chap. 7
Equations
materials
are, fortunately,
but beyond certain limits,

longer applies. For example, virtually every known solid material
in one way or another, under
(fractured)
sufficiently
large stresses
to break is to disobey Hooke'slaw.
7.9
can be broken
or strains; but
the vast
mechanics is centered
around
been remarkably
useful.
We shall
discussmore complex
behavior
of liquids and solids in Chapter
9, but we shall
leave the mathematical treatment of the
elastic or
non-Newtonian,
nonlinearly
inelastic
solids to specialized treatises.
Nevertheless,
these idealized
the
results have
were given a fluid
experiment would you do to

7.2
determine whether
and asked to
the coefficient of viscosity, the

applicability
and cons of the two instruments in comparison.
calculating
7.3
7.5
instruments,
and
of the
concrete.Propose
dough
and
are two
spaghetti
Feel them with your

constitutive equations.
hands
Take a string and a pair of scissors. If the string is slack, and the scissorsare
dull, you
is not easily cut. Now, stretch the
may find that the string
string taut, and then apply
the scissors.The cutting is then very easy. Why?
7.7
A group of physiologists climbed Mt. Everest, the highest

peak of the world. They
wanted to collect samples of Himalayan
air at high altitude to
back to their
bring
for detailed analysis.
laboratories
How can you do that? Please invent
a way. One
was to bring a number of glass pipettes, and use an electric current to seal
suggestion
the ends.Could that be a practical way?
Getting the
constitutive
for the
equations and equations
of
state of fresh
and sea
water is very
of oceanography. How can you obtain

samples
water at great depth and over a wide area of the sea for
testing in the laboratory?
of the earliest
to do it was P. G. Tait. See references to Tait
and Li
important
understanding
the end of Chapter 9. Desip a modern

Discuss
underwater
(1888)
of sea
One
(1967) at
way to do it yourself.
of the data with regard to wave motion, marine
life,
warfare.
acoustics, antisubmarine
the
geological
All
depend
importance
terms,
on forces,
dune
flow, rock beds
glaciers
somewhere. Now, with the knowledge of

that will enable you to predict
problem
and
equations
of
the constitutive equations of the earth's mantle and

on this? What
How can we get a handle
know
the sun, and stars.
of the planets,
of observations would help
kind
mountains move, continentscollide.

some experiments
Desip
and
the ice, rock, mountains, ocean floors,
bend,
and constitutive equations.
structures,
certainly like to
would
core,
on the
us deducing information
constitutive equations
of the materials of these objects?

We are interested
went to the moon and brought back some rocksamples.
of
a
rocks.
of
these
experiments to get
in the mechanical properties
Design
program
as much information out of the small amount of rocks as possible.
astronaut
An
7.15 A
way
the moon is to use unmanned
to explore
that a
of the lunar
materials
landing
surface.
rockets
is planned to study
the
with remote-controlled
of the
properties
that will yield the desired
mechanical
Design an instrument package
information.
In terms of
Arthritis of the knee, hip, elbow, and finger joints afflicts many people.
what
the
articular
of
happens?
the constitutive equation
cartilage,
to investigate the mechanical
a biomechanics laboratory
7.17 Suppose that youare.planning
from the point of view of determining that muscles'
the
muscles
of
properties
to be investigated. Make a list
Make a list of the desired properties
constitutive
7.16
equations.
the experiments that should be
needed
done. I am pretty sure that all the instruments
do not exist. Here is your opportunity to invent.
experiments
and go ahead to invent. Make sketches,
of key significance
Select someinstruments
the cost, and the pay off.
the
Consider
calculations.
feasibility,
designs,
of
7.6
7.8
In
instruments.Suppose
for rheological investigation.

a mathematical description
of their
sand
a mathematical
formulate
to investigate the constitutive

the continents.
system to do this.
excellent materials
and fingers and propose
measurements.
the shape of the sand dune.
7.12
7.14
Much can be learned of the constitutive equations of materials

by looking into things
in our kitchen. Take a stalk of fresh
celery, or a fresh carrot. Bend them and they
snap crisply. Let the celery and carrot dry out a few days. Then bend them and they
would not break.Why? How would the constitutive
equations of the carrot and celery
reflect these observations?
Sour
equations?
continuum mechanics,
pros
verify
an instrumental
How to study these
equations?
living
there to do some
two ways to
the method
of
To a civil engineer building

a large dam, the viscoelastic
behavior of the concreteis a
assessment
of the possibleconsequences
very serious matter. Make a speculative
of
the \"flow\" of the concrete in a large dam. Design an
the
experiment to
constitutive
equation
7.4
of the design,
of the
What are their constitutive
7.11 I trust that you have visited a
7.13 We
of ways. Propose
materials
of continuum mechanics. What
are nature's display
volcanos
involved?
terrible
it is Newtonian or ideal. What
an accurate answer?
provide
The viscosity of a fluid can be measured in a number

do it, and in each case present a sketch, an explanation
of great
the occasional
describe
in the Gobi desert in Sinkiang and Mongolia
sandstorms. How can sand flow like a fluid? Speculate on a constitutive
that can be taken
for testing.
Design an instrument
equation,and design an experiment
7.10 People
PROBLEMS
7.1 You
explosions
constitutive
on continuum
literature
materials, and
The'
are the
law no
163
Problems
Chap. 7
for all the
desirable
7.18 There are three very different kinds of muscles: the skeletal, the heart, and the smooth
uterus, and other internal
organs. There
of the blood vessels, ureter, bladder,
muscles
from
humans.
and
animals
from
test
of
the
in
differences
are
specimens
availability
between the testing of isolated
There are differences
specimens and in vivo specimens.
down to more specific
So the answer to the preceding
problem has to be narrowed
down is indeed a crucial step which
this narrowing
As an investigator,
categories.
The selection of an appropriate

target of
requires wisdom, experience, and ambition.
to this, make
and personality. Give somethought
research will reflect one's training
write it down, and review it one year
to yourself,
your selection, explain the reasoning
from
7.19 A
today.
similar
problem
biomechanicslaboratory.
in a
for other tissues for investigation
can be formulated
No living tissue is unimportant. People take the health of their
164
Constitutive
for granted until

the muscles.
bodies
disease strikes.Realizing
Chap. 7
Equations
this, plan an investigation
of a tissue
other than
7.20 Every constitutive equation

must be tensorially correct. Basedon this requirement,
consider the question
of generalizing Starling's hypothesis,
which is well known in
to stresses other than pressure.
but is formulated without regard
physiology,
Starling's
is governed by
hypothesis states that the rate of transfer of water acrossa membrane
the following formula:
=
1)1
where
fc(p,
m is the rate of movement
Pi
IT,
+ TT2)
of water (g/sec/nf),
p, and
it, are, respectively,
the
hydrostatic and osmotic pressures on one. side of the membrane, p2 and ir2 are those
on the other side, and k is the permeability
constant, with units of seconds per meter.
In considering
water movement acrossthe endothelium
of the bloodvessel, we realize
that the flowing blood will impose a shear stress on the membrane,
and the endothelial
cells will respond to the shear stresswith internal
stresses. Many recent papers have
effects of the shear stresson blood vessel remodeling, and on
reported the important
the transport
of ions and enzymes acrossthe endothelium.
It may play a role on the
of water also. Hence, propose a generalization of Starling's
law to include
transport
stresses in the media
the proposalexperimentally.
the
on both sides of the membrane,
and describe a
plan
to verify
in
is used frequently as a simplifying
The conceptof isotropy
assumption
and isotropic
continuum mechanics.First, we shall define material
isotropy
tensors. Then we shall determine isotropictensors of ranks 2, 3, and 4 and
equations of isotropic materials.
apply them to the constitutive
8.1
THE
properties do not depend on directions are said to be

tension test on a metal and find that the result
isotropic. For example,
was cut from the ingot and
does not depend on the direction the tension specimen
to the
that
the lateral contraction is the same in every direction perpendicular
we may suspect that the metal is isotropic.
direction of pulling,
To give a precise definition, we make use of the constitutive
equation: A
is isotropic if its constitutive
material
(the stress-strain-history law) is
equation
if
coordinates
unaltered under
(Sec. 2.4). For example,
orthogonal transformations of
=
an orthogonal
we
demand
after
is
that,
the constitutive
Cljkieki,
rr,j
equation
the barred quantities refer to
where
the law read ov; =
whose
Materials
Let ti7 be the stress-deviation tensor. Since m is a scalar, any involvement

of t,;- must be in the form
of scalar invariants,
such as t^t/,, tJV/,, -r',p'u, or c,/ri;, where
V'q is the rate of the deformation deviation tensor, e'n is the strain deviation tensor,
and ctj is a tensorial set of constants. Hence,we might have the
hypothetical
Discussion.
k(Lp
m = /c(Ap
m = k{Lp
Here,
A means
the
difference
of the
Mechanics
Green, A. E., and

(1960),
Love, A.
Press,
esp.
Chap.
J. E.
+ c
Air)
+ c At/iPy.
AtJtJ.
Ait) +
c At^,-.
Since orthogonal
reflectionsof
+ Ac,/r,,.
Air)
two sides of
the
Deformations.
pp. 151-165.
on the
Mathematical
ed. (1927);
Theory
axes, the
definition
consist of translations, rotations, and

form
that the mathematical
requires
no matter how
of material
system
the axes are
of the
translated,
constants must have the

of rectangular
Cartesian
coordinates.
p. 145.
Oxford:
University
Press
1, esp. pp. 11-35.
E. H.,A Treatise
1st ed. (1892),
4th
coordinate
transformations
constitutive equation
unchanged,
or reflected. In particular, the array
rotated,
same values in any right-handed or left-handed
membrane.
READING
Elastic
Large
Qwe*;,
remain
of Coniinua. New York: Wiley (1967),
Adhns,
we make a
transformation,
the new coordinates.
quantities on the
FURTHER
Eringen, A. C,
Air)
mechanical
if
relationships
m = k(Ap
OF MATERIAL ISOTROPY
CONCEPT
of Elasticity.
New York: Dover Publications
University
(1963), Chapter 6,
Cambridge:
8.2
ISOTROPIC
TENSOR
Definitions
An
isotropic
rectangular
tensor in Euclidean
Cartesian
space is a
system are unaltered
by
tensor
whose
orthogonal
in
components
transformations
any
of
coordinates.
165
166
Isotropy
By definition
(Sec. 2.4), an
transformation
orthogonal
from xh
Chap.
x2, x3
to\"xu\"
Sec.8.2
167
Tensor
Isotropic
Isotropic Tensors of
and 2
0,1,
Ranks
Xi, Xj IS
X,
where
p,y
a, are
and
fyx, +
(i =
a,,
constants, under
PA
(8.2-1)
if
A, =
5,7.
the
is the
Jacobian
Eq. (8.2-2),must have the value

be proper,
we must have
det |ftj
For example,
all rotations
determinant
|p,J, which, according

for an orthogonal transformation
\302\2611.
Hence,
for all possible
orthogonal transformations.
the jcraxis, we
would
a reflection
but
pi
1*3
is orthogonal,
handed one.
= ~xu
= xi,
= jc3,
but
improper,
1-1
0\\
1/
=010,
(p\342\200\236)
because
it
|p,-J
\\
(8-2-9)
M/
a right-handed
turns
-1
(8.2-4)
Au
A2
A3 =
-At,
-A3.
= A}
8y
=
=
Connection between IsotropicTensorsand
about
rotation
180\302\260
becomes
a left-
system into
for a
In particular,
= 0. Similarly,
by the same process but with the role of xu x2,
= 0. Thus, the nonexistence of any isotropic tensor of
x3 permuted, we obtain Ai
1 is proved.
rank
For tensors of rank 2, the Kronecker delta 8,7 is an isotropic tensor, because
Hence,A2
equation
have
A, =
in
the x2*3-plane
1. For,
(8.2-10)
(8.2-3)
axes are proper,
of rank
to
to
Eq. (8.2-9)then
= 1.
of coordinate
A,
isotropic tensor
to satisfy the
(8.2-2)
An orthogonal transformation is said to be proper if a right-handed

system
of coordinate
axes is transformed into a right-handed
one. For a transformation
to be proper, the Jacobian must
be positive (see Sec. 2.5). For the
orthogonal
transformation (8.2-1),
are, of course, isotropic. But there is no

then it would have
vector A, were isotropic,
scalars
the
that
restriction
the
All
1,2,3)
(bythedefinitionofatensor)
p,mP/n8,\342\200\236\342\200\236
(since
PtaPim
= h
Isotropic
0 if
8,\342\200\236\342\200\236
[by
m-tn)
Eq. (8.2-2)].
Material
We
shall
prove
that if the relation

ov,
By
transforms
(8.2-5)into
the
CijU
of material
definition
comparing
obtain
is a
tensor of
rule.
rank
Now,
Ciiueu.
4. Hence,
Cijki
(8.2-6)
Eq. (8.2-6)
with
QiueuEq.
transforming Eq.
isotropy requires that

o>;
Hence, by
(8.2-5)
is an
quotient
o>;
But the
Ciikie\342\200\236
isotropic tensor.
rule (Sec. 2.9), C,m
according to the tensor transformation
new coordinates
xh we have
is isotropic, then
Proof:
We propose toshow.that
every isotropic tensor of rank 2 may be reduced to the
form pbih where p is a scalar.
it must be diagonal.
For the proof, we note first that if a tensor 5,7is isotropic,
as specified by Eq. (8.2-10), we
about the Xi-axis,
the 180\302\260
rotation
For, imposing
that B,2 = Ba. Hence,Bn

But isotropy requires
and diagonal.
is
Hence, 5,7 symmetric
Next, let e,7jt be the permutation tensor, and
Thus,
Ctjki
is an
isotropic tensor.
\342\200\224
Cjjti-
= 0.
Similarly, B,7 = 0 if
consider
(V
7.
the transformation
(8.2-7)
Xj
(8.2-7), we obtain
(8;/ +
rf8e3,7)X;,
(8;; +
d%\342\202\2542l!)
d%
0\\
-dQ
0,
/
Qjki
~Bj2-
\342\200\2428l2
PlmPli\302\260mn
(8.2-8)
(p;/)
(8.2-11)
168
Isotropy
about the jc3-axis with an infinitesimal

which represents a rotation
of tensors furnishes the relation
d6.* The definition
%i
+ <ffle3;\342\200\236)Bm\342\200\236
+ d0e3/m)(8;\342\200\236
(8\342\200\236\342\200\236
dBfehÂ.
8,\342\200\236,8;\342\200\236Bm\342\200\236
But
we
5l7
1, /' =
1; then
6312-D21
But
what
Hence, Bu =
but arbitrary
It is
(8.2-13)
components jjt)
= 0.
evident that
an
entirely
Take i
that for an isotropic

see Ref. on p. 180.Note
This proof is due to Jeffreys,
order. Thus, a cyclic
axes may be labeled in an arbitrary
the coordinate
of a
affect the values of the components
of the indices 1, 2,3 cannot
permutation
an
that
is isotropic with respect to rotation

= 0. If the tensor is isotropic
B31
implies
arbitrary
components.
the indices
of
permutation
Use of these arguments
may
of the
coordinate axes.Hence,B12
also with respect to reflection, then

1, 2, 3 will not affect the values of the
shorten
the
proof.
0.
cos 8 - 1, sin 8 \342\200\224
the rotation matrix of Eq. (2.4-5), and note that when 0 is very small,
of the
the
furnishes
here
dB
with
interpretation
2.4
geometric
Identifying the angle 8 of Sec.
*See
transformation
of Eq.
(8.2-11).
hence,
+ ieûw
for small
of the
the quantity
d%,
higher order.)
+
+ fesjnUink
Thus,
tAkpUfo
fe\302\2532i* &\"\302\253*
(burnt
and
put
k =
0(dB2).
in the braces must

for all i, j, k,
vanish.
= 0.
(8.3-2)
+ hfiskVm
2. Then,
since
are
&, \302\2435
\302\243,,
iesB\"n3
\302\243am\302\273h2
I
Now
ifiapUij,}
= 1. Then
-
-&K311-
Q.E.D.
transformations.
= 0
+ <*8{i;,wtm#
p8,7.
coordinate
Cartesian
system to
one rectangular
any rotation from
coordinate
about
rotations
infinitesimal
can be performed by repeated
another
are the only conditions
examined
imposed by
axes. Hence, the conditions just
= p8,7 for
transformations.
Thus,
B/;
to
proper orthogonal
isotropy with respect
all proper
orthogonal transformations.
in the Airplane,
Eq.
For the second-rank
isotropic tensor p8,7,a reflection
the
the value of the tensor. By
argument of arbitrary
not
does
change
(8.2-4),
in any plane would not affect its value.
rotation, we conclude that a reflection
to all orthogonal
is
found
isotropic with respect
Hence, the form we have
tensor
uljk
i&inttmjk
would yield
to the form Bn8,7.
law,
+ d^fiskp)u,\342\200\236\342\200\236p
+ d6|se,\342\200\236)(8tp
+ d6\302\243A&\302\273)(8j.i
Xi-axis
*2-axis
(8.3-1)
fc^x-,.
(8(m
about the
d8
tensor transformation
the
By isotropy, \302\253,7*uljk;
(We can ignore quantities
similar rotation
the origin:
x, = (8,, +
arbitrary
an angle dB about
through
passing
%ik
This agrees with
Now
tensor,
of
rotation
infinitesimal
Then, according to
= 0.
= 0.
= B22 \342\200\224
+ \342\202\25432iBn
Bh
obtain B,7 =
p for Bn, we
Writing
d%,
an
= 0, B22 = B33, and a rotation about the

yield B-a
=
Bu. Hence,the isotropic tensor B,7 is reduced
0, B33
would
B3i
B22.
isotropic
the permutation tensor etjk
3, we can verify that
transformations).
axes
orthogonal
(proper
of coordinate
with respect to rotation
a
in a coordinate plane, because
reflection
to
with
respect
It is not isotropic
=
-1.
= 1 into lw
turns
6,23
such as Eq. (8.2-4)
reflection
of coordinates, the only isotropic
rotations
all
to
We can show that with respect
similarly
of eijk. The proof can be constructed
tensors of rank 3 are scalar multiples
3.
Consider
rank
of
tensor
tensor. Let uijk be an isotropic
to that for the second-rank
with
axis \302\243
(a vector
an
of rank
tensors
we have
+ 6312012 \342\200\224
-\"21 + Bl2
OF RANK
TEMSORS
8.3 ISOTROPIC
169
I Q
is
small
as we have shown. Hence, Bu = B2]

Bij is symmetric,
we have just learned, but no new knowledge is gained.
= 2; then we have
Now take i = 1, /
6312B22
* D
of Rank
IsotropicTensors
Sec. 8.3
For
63,A,
e3(\342\200\236,Bm/
of rotation
+ 0(i62).
+ de(\302\2433,m5mi+ e3/\342\200\236B,\342\200\236)
=
for
isotropic, we must have B,7 B,7.Hence,
must have
= 0.
+
Take i
Chap.
+ d62e3,.me3/\342\200\236Bm\342\200\236
(8.2-12)
e3/\342\200\2368imBm\342\200\236)
B,j is
if
angle
arbitrary,
= 0.
(8.3-3)
their coefficients must
vanish,
we obtain
U212
+ Ut22 = Mni,
\"312
\"132
= 0,
Km
= 0.
(8.3-4)
= 0 if two of i, j, k
uljt
From the last equation, and by symmetry,
first
the
equation of Eq. (8.3-4),uijk
the third is unequal. Then, by
shows that
The second equation
all of i, j, k are equal.
Uijk
If, in
we
Eq. (8.3-3),
put
fc =
1, then
are
equal and
is also
zero
if
_%/tevery
term
vanishes,
yielding no
new
We
fc are all different in Eq. (8.3-2).
consider the case in which i, j,
because
holds
m = j. Then it is clear that Eq. (8.3-2)
note that umjk is zero when
tensors of rank 3
vanish. It follows that the only isotropic
coefficients
all the
of e,7t.
scalar
are
multiples
to rotations, not reflections)
Q.E.D.
(isotropic with respect
information.
Finally,
170
8.4 ISOTROPICTENSORS
OF RANK
of
It is
materials.
seen
readily
8tt8;-i
S//8W,
are isotropic.
it is of the
We propose to
+ 8,;5/fc,
8,7 is
tensor
8,t8/;
that if
show
to the constitutive
interest
unit
is an
\302\253,7H
8w8;a
equations
isotropic, the tensors

eI/;\342\202\254jW
isotropic tensor of rank
(8.4-1)
Sec. 8.4
and
\\l,
v are
|i(8lA8/;
scalars. Furthermore,
Uijkl
2ox3
yields
4, then
information.
if uljk, has
\342\200\224
Ujlkh
\">/W
the symmetry
properties
(8.4-3)
Uijlk,
then
î
^(SftS;, +
Utfiu
(8.4-4)
84-,).
of
the results for isotropy with respect to both rotation
in coordinate planes.
order.
we note that the coordinate axes may be labeled in an arbitrary
First,
cannot
affect
the
values
of
the
the
indices
a
in
1,2,3
Thus, permutation
components
of an isotropic tensor. Hence,
Proof:We
establish
shall
coordinate axes and
reflections
\"mi
take
q = r
-\302\2532112 \302\2531212\"1122
No new
= \"2323 = \"313! = \"l313 =

\"l212
\"l22l
we note
Next,
= \"2332 = \"3113
a rotation
that
of
\"2112
180\302\260
about
\"2211
\"2121
\"3223
=
=
\"3322;
(8.4-5)
for any
These conditionsreduce the
this is true
symmetry,
corresponding
to
the
(8.4-6)
i.
maximum
number of numerically distinct
tensor uijki to four, namely, umu uim, uaa, \302\253isi.
Now, let us impose the transformation
given by Eq. (8.2-11) corresponding
transformation
law requires
infinitesimal
rotation about the^-axis. The tensor
components
to an
index
Since, for
therefore,
appear,
obtainable
by taking
to be three
each of X,
U-pqn
+ ZVqUpin
+ dBfofpUijn
an isotropic
tensor
ZlipUiqn
upqn
+ %r\"M\302\273
+ îsUpqn}
upqri,
the terms
in the
0(<ft2).
braces must
|i>
\342\200\224
V.
= 0.
+ \342\202\2543f>\302\253Mrf
in
turn
equal
tensors
to 1 and the
= v =
obtained by taking X=l,|x
=
in
k
I
and
vanishes
all
other
cases.
Therefore,
j,
0has
of order
others to
components
uijU
to
by taking
Utfti
3*8/* +
Thetensor obtained by taking X =

=
and um = -1 when
i
k,j = I, i \302\245=];
are zero. Hence,
%H
Thegeneral
vanish,
equation,
(8.4-3).
isotropic
follows
under
i =
Ujk.
uijk,
/ = /
(8.4-13)
0, v =
= 1 when
1 has elements \302\253;;w
=
k, i^j. All other components
l,j
Mj*.
4 is therefore
81*5//
tensor of rank
Eq. (8.4-4)
jx
(8.4-12)
|x =
1; X = v = 0, the component
=
=
=
=
= 2 if
and
if
i
1 if i
I, j
k, j
/, i r /',
k, i\302\245=
/; whereas uijU
k = I. Other components
are zero. This is exactly
In the tensor obtained
4,
0.
it is equivalent
(8.4-7)
(8.4-8)
(i, v
(8.4-11)
independent isotropic
\"\342\226\240/\302\253
8l78w.
this
+ &3i9\"pfa + tHrUpqis
vanish.
(8.4-10)
The tensor
if i =
of the
that
Upqa
terms
Eq7(8.4-9) says
Ipsa
There
\"t331-
= \"1223 =
= 0.
\"1222
\"2212
By
e3;>
given by Eq. (8.2-10), changes the sign of any term with an odd
of the index 1. But these terms must not change
sign on account of isotropy.
they are zero. For example,
Hence,
the
(8.4-5)
(1 + V,
\"2112
Eqs.
X + 2(i.
\302\253\342\200\236\342\200\236
transformation
number
because
this
has been considered
2, which
^>
=
\"1212
\"3232j
the ;traxis,
\"1122
(8.4-9)
2,s = 1,because
and (8.4-6).
from one rectangular coordinate system
Since a rotation
to another with the
same origin can be obtained by repeated infinitesimal rotations about coordinate
on upqrs by isotropy.
axes, no additional conditionsare imposed
Now let
'
=
= 0.
=r=
=
by setting
p
q
of indices 1 and
is obtained
information
get
+ Kllll
merely amounts to an interchange

in Eq. (8.4-5). The casep = q = r = 3is trivial
Cases c and d yield conditions contained in
= \"2222 = U3333,
= \"2233 = \"3311 = \"ll33

K1122
= 1,s = 2.We
(8.4-2)
8l78y,),
171
1.
In Case b,
+ 8,-,8,-fc) + vfSttfy
of Rank 4
Tensors
Isotropic
Becausethere are only three possible values (1, 2, 3) for each of the four indices
the
pqrs, at least two of them must be equal. Hence, we may consider separately
cases where (a) all four are equal, (b) three
are equal, (c) two are
and the
equal
and (d) two are equal
other two are unequal,
and the other two are equal.
In Case a, takep = q = r = s =
Then
we see that all terms in Eq.
(8.4-8)
=
= r = s=
vanish
on account of Eq. (8.4-6). Similarly,
no
p
q
form
X8,7B,, +
where X,
4 are of particular
that since the
of rank
Isotropic tensors
Chap.
Isotropy
given by Eq.
the symmetry condition
(8.4-14)
(8.4-2). From
given
in Eq.
Q.E.D.
172
Isotropy
Chap.
Sec. 8.8
eigenvalues
8.5 ISOTROPIC
MATERIALS
elastic solid is isotropic,
tensor
the
Cy
in Eq.
Clik,
(8.1-1),
(8.5-1)
Cijkfiu,
that C(jU
it has been shown generally
must be isotropic
(Sec. 8.2). Furthermore,
=
the
~
because
and
that
is
tensor
Cf;/t
the
stress
C,7H
symmetric
Cjiti because
without loss of
is symmetrizable
and the sum CijUekl
strain tensor is symmetric
according to Eq. (8.4-4),
Hence,
generality.
Cukl
and Eq.
+
H-(8\302\2538;/ 8\302\273fy)
+
AV\302\253
principal
directions,
are the
way s of
simply
a-
of principal
coincidence
The
2\\ke'ij.
directionsis then
because 2\\i is just a numerical
evident
factor.
=
oij
Xett-8// + 2fie\342\200\236.
(8.5-3)
for an isotropic elastic

most general form of the stress-strainrelationship
an isotropic
functions
of the strains. Therefore,
solid
for which the stressesare linear
X
and
constants:
|i.
elastic solid is characterized
by two material
by the relationship
Similarly, an isotropic viscous fluid (Sec. 7.3) is governed
This is the
an
vh
(8-5-2)
(8.5-1) becomes
the
different,
same.
the coincidenceof the principal directions
recognizing
There are other
construction
(Sees.
we recognize in Mohr's circle
of stress and strain. For example,
not
does
x-axis
the
depend
and
axes
the principal
between
4.3, 5.7) that the angle
determined
angle can be
of the circle. The principal
center
the
of
location
the
on
is
by setting
to the origin. Such a translation accomplished
if the center is translated
becomes
relationship
stress-strain
the
condition
= 0, under which
=
o\"\302\253:0, ekk
solutions
by the
given
If an
are
and strains)
stresses
(principal
173
its Microstructure?
Isotropyfrom
a Material's
We Recognize
Can
= -p8l7 +
(8.5-4)
+ 2|iVfr
WtA,
ISOTROPY
METHODSOFCHARACTERIZING
8.7 OTHER
are other
There
an elastic
property of
body
is a function of
relation
by the
which
isotropy. For
to characterize
ways
through
strain
the
example,
may define the
one
function W(e,i,e12,...,
the strain-energy
the stress
defines
which
and
components
e33),
components
8.6
OF PRINCIPAL
COINCIDENCE
AND OF
An
AXES
STRESS
OF
STRAIN
important
attribute
of
of an elastic
the isotropy
of stress and the
body (or a viscous

(or strain
of strain
axes
fluid)
is that
coincide.
Then isotropy
only on the
may
as the fact
the strain. For
be stated
of
invariants
axes
the principal
rate)
principal
the direction cosines of the
This follows from Eq. (8.5-3)or Eq.(8.5-4),because
axes of stress and strain are, respectively, the solutionsof the equations
principal
and 5.7)
4.5
(Sees.
ofyh
(<r\342\200\236
= 0,
= 0,
e8,>,
(e\342\200\236
Eq.
(8.5-3),
= 0,
o%|
= 0.
e8\342\200\236|
lo-;,-
By
|e/(
Eq. (8.6-1) becomes

(XeM8/y +
h
h
(8.6-1)
we may specify
(8.6-2)
W(elh en,.
2|ief/
ofyfy
the invariants
Since
0,
function
the strain
(8.6-3)
the sameattribute
depends
invariants
ke',^,1
iCifiifiki,
. . , e33)
to be a
function
(8.7-2)
W(h, h, h).
\\
strain-energy
using
example,
or h
- hifia,
=
that the
under
retain their form (and value)
to
Eq. (8.7-1).
applies
all
rotations
of coordinates,
or
-
<t%)vj
2|i(e\342\200\236
if
we introduce
a new
= 0
(8.6-4)
Xett
(8.6-5)
the
same form as Eq.
(8.6-2). Thus,
although
the
A MATERIAL'SISOTROPY
RECOGNIZE
ITS MICROSTRUCTURE?
material
is said
when the frame
2(jl
(8.6-4) is of precisely
WE
FROM
variable
Q\"
But Eq.
8.8 CAN
material
to be
isotropic
if its
of reference is rotated.
a test (e.g., a strip
and perform
not
change
stress-strain relationship does
from an isotropic
test
a
cut
specimen
If you
for a compression
for a tensile test, a block
174
Chap.
Isotropy
test, a beam for a bending test, a shaft for a torsion test, a plate for a biaxial
loading test, a plate with holes or notches for a stress concentration or fatipe
for a triaxial loading test), then
the results
test, or a cube or a cylinder
strength
be
and
strains
should
the
same
no
in which
stresses
matter
the
measured
relating
orientation you cut the specimen, provided that the size of the specimen is large
so that the stresses and strains are well defined according to the limit
enough
nonhomogeneous,
concept discussedin Sees. 1.5 and 1.6. If the material is spatially
so that its mechanical
then it is usually
vary from one place to another,
properties
small
in
size
so
advisable
that
the properties
to cut the test specimens
sufficiently
in
each
This
wish
be
uniform
not
be
realizable
in
considered
specimen.
may
may
some cases; for example,
in biology, the skin, the blood vessel wall, and the cell
membrane are layered materials with different mechanical
in different
properties
layers, but in general, we cannot peelthese layers off by surgery without damaging
the tissue.
Now, one can examine the structure of the material with a light or electron
a nuclear magnetic resonance
or an X-ray diffraction
machine,
microscope
device. With increasing power of mapification, one can cross

of stress and strain discussedin
lower limit of size for the definition
Sec. 1.6. The details of the ultrastructure
at scales smaller than the lower limit that
defines
to the mechanics of the
the stress and strain are, however, irrelevant
in learning about the ultrastructure
material.
we are often interested
Nevertheless,
of a material to gain a greater understanding of the material's
mechanical properties.
Sometimesit is even possible to derive the constitutive equation of a material
at
a given range of sizes from the ultrastructure
at a lower level of sizes. To illustrate
this land of approach,
a few examples.
let us consider
equipment, or
Sec.
Can We
8.8
Recognizea Material's
a positron
with
Lattice
a Cubic
e22
Y-^(o-33
fe
The shear
stress 07;
the shear
produces
=
HH_I((ru
2Gen,
0-23
a crystal
Consider
frame
with atoms arranged
in a
cubic lattice, as illustrated

in Fig. 8.1
unit
of measure. Let an orthogonal
let the material
be subjected
to a
side of the cube be one

length
of reference (xh x2,x3) be chosen,
and
of each
stress described
by a
Now,
can we
in the
Suppose
to the
xrdirection
stress, the
due
that it was
strain
(8.8-3)
(g.8-4)
ffj?).
that
e,j. Suppose
2Gea,
assert that
have
G=
response
+ ou)
o-31
it
was found
= 2Ge3t
that
(8.8-5)
the mechanical
three
material
tensor
o-ii
In
strains
property is isotropic?
constants:
The answer is, in general,
E, v, and G.
can
two
have
constitutive
and
to
Sec.
only
8.5,
equation
isotropic
According
were isotropic, then the
stress-strain
if
the
constants.
Indeed,
relationship
independent
constants G, E, and v would have to be related by the equation
where G is a constant.
no. We
Let the
yield the
^-directions
and
\"0-12
Solid
in the xt- and
deformations
the
the allowable
Example 1. Crystalline
with atoms arranged

lattice.
crystal
cubic
similarly,
Mechanical model of a
in a
8.1
Figure
*3
and that,
175
from its Microstructure?
Isotropy
to aH
found
0-13J
(r2l
0-22
023
0-31
0-32
0-33/
crystal
deforms.
the ^-direction
or experimentally that
=Y~-!(o-22
(8.8-1)
In particular, the
and shortens in
theoretically
en
ff|2
+M,
crystal
due to
lengthens
0-22
and
o-33.
(8.8-2)
7.4-16.)
(See
Eq.
Eqs.
(8.8-1)
If
experimental
to (8.8-6)
coincide
results show
with
*\">
2tTT7
that
an isotropic
Eq.
(8.8-6)
constitutive
does hold,
equation
then
in one
claim more in this case, because

coordinate
system. We can, however,
into the crystal frame of Fig.
can be transformed
of
reference
frame
Cartesian
any
in any arbitrary frame of
and rotation, and a stress tensor
8.1 by translation
the form of Eq. (8.8-1) in the crystal frame. Thus,
reference can be transformed into
of a cubic lattice of
we can claim that if Eq. (8.8-6) holds, the material
composed
particular
atoms
is isotropic.
176
Isotropy
Example
2. Lung
Chap.
Tissue
The lung tissue proper is a composite structure

similar
to an open-pored foam
rubber. (SeeFigs. 1.3-1.6 in Chap. 1.) A carefully
validated
model of the microstructure
of the lung proposed by Fung (1988) is shown in
Fig. 8.2. Each terminal
unit of the airway
is called an alveolus. An assembly
of alveoli of the same shape
and size fills the entire space of the lung. The walls of the alveoli are called the
interalveolar
blood
septa,
vessels. The
which are
capillary
thin
blood
enclosing (as in a sandwich)

vessels of the lung fill 80% of the sandwich
membranes
capillary
space
177
Problems
Chap.
of the
interalveolar
A good model of the alveolus is a 14-sidedtetrakaidecaa central 14-hedronwhose

Fourteen 14-hedra
walls
enclosing
septa.
or 14-hedron.
hedron,
perforated form a second-order 14-hedron, which is the basic unit of the

14-hedron
unit ventilate to the
alveolar duct. All alveoli of the basic second-order
basic units joined together, with
a proper number of
central
space. Two or three
interalveolar
septa removed for ventilation, make up the branches of the alveolar
to bronchioles,
which in turn are ventilated
ducts of the lung. Ducts are ventilated
to the nose and mouth. The lung tissue is an
to trachea,
to bronchi,
and, finally,
assemblageof first- and second-order 14-hedra.
For such a structure, stress can be defined with respect to areas with diameters
alveolus.
much larger than the diameter of the individual
(In humans, the alveolar
diameter is about 100-300 p,m; hence, a plane area of 1 cm2 will intersect 1,000and stress can be defined
10,000 alveoli,
quite well in such an area.)
Similarly,
in bodies with volumes on the order of 1 cm3.
strain can be defined
is made of capillary
blood vessels and
In the lung, each interalveolar
septum
connectivetissues whose main structural componentsare collagen and elastin fibers.
To maintain
the structural integrity, the edges of the interalveolar
septa that were
with additional
and
elastin. The
were seen to be reinforced
ventilated
collagen
and
of
these
elastin
fibers
in human
curvature
and
collagen
size,
lung
quantity,
are all
Under stress,
have been measured. (SeeFung, Biomechanics
[1990], pp. 405-416.)
these fibers and connective tissues will deform, leading to the overall stress-andstrain relationship of the lung tissue. Such a relationship is useful for understanding
the stress and strain distribution in the lung under a gravitational load in normal
and under
life, under zero.gravity in space flight, under acceleration in sports,
the distribution
of ventilation
and blood
conditionsof disease, as well as analyzing
flow
in the
lung.
In spite of the
cubic
figure 8.2
mathematical
model
of the
pulmonary
alveolar
duct
to Y. C. Fung, \"A Model of the Lung Structure and Its

according
Validation,\" /. Appl. Physiology
64(5):2132-41,1988.
(a) Basic unit of
alveolar duct, consisting of fourteen
14-sided polyhedra
a
surrounding
central 14-sidedpolyhedron
without walls. Each wall is a membrane
or
interalveolar septum, (b) Two units stacked together, with one
membrane in contact removed,to form a longer duct, (c) Two basic
units forming a shorter duct by removing a few more membranes
in
common, (d) Pulmonary
alveolar ducts of generations
1,2, 3 are made
of three basic units, with each neighboring
pair structured as in part
4 and 5 are units shown in part (b). Ducts of
(c). Ducts of generations
generations 6 and 7 are units shown in part (c). (e) A ductal tree
formed by ducts of various generations.
A number of single 14-sided
units, given a generation number of 8, are needed to fill the entire
The lung tissue is filled by these trees, which converge on
space.
then bronchi, and, finally,
the trachea.
bronchioles,
complex geometric
structure of the
becauseeach 14-hedron
of a cube, and the assembly retains the
corners
from
rather
is clear,
symmetry
1, that
Example
in
lung tissue, the basic

by cutting off the eight
cubic character.
It follows,
is obtained
intrinsic
linear range, the stress-strain

relationship
the
necessarily,
isotropic, depending on whether
and Poisson's ratio obey Eq. (8.8-6)or not.
the small-strain,
be, but is not

Young's modulus,
and normally works
The lung tissue, however, is capable of large deformation,
to the zero-stress condition. At a finite strain, the
in a finite strain range relative
of the lung tissue is nonlinear. Knowledgeof its initial isotropy
constitutive
equation
of the zero-stress
the
in
state, however, goesa long way, because if
neighborhood
the lung tissue is initially isotropicin the linear, small-strain range, then it is initially
range.
isotropic also in the nonlinear finite-strain
of the
lung
could
shear modulus,
PROBLEMS
8.1
Distinguish
the words homogeneous
and
isotropic.
Consider
the
atmosphere
of the
earth:
(a)
If you are
atmosphere
concerned with
homogeneous
or
a high-altitude
isotropic?
sounding
rocket,
would you call the
178
Isotropy
(b) If the problem is concerned with the flow around the immediate neighborhood
the rocket, which is flying at such a speed that no shock wave is
generated, could
air be treated as homogeneous or isotropic?
(c) If shock waves are generated in part (b), what then?
8.2
that the
Show
tensor
theorem proved in
of rank 4 has the
a, p, 7 are
8.3
Show that
8.4
Form someisotropic
the
of
8.13
Are
there
other
isotropic tensors
6. Generalize to isotropic
rank
tensors
of
rank 5?
of even
order
liquids that are not isotropic.
Name
three
five solids that are
not isotropic.
is a special feature of the constitutive

Isotropy
equation. Hence, an experimental testing
of isotropy would require the same equipment
and instruments used in the
determination
of mechanical properties.
whether
Suppose that you were askedto determine
metal
is isotropic.
Design a
testing
program
that will enable you to
provide
a definitive answer.
8.8
you are
program
testing
8.9
concerned with
a biological material, such as the human skin, the desired

would most likely be different
from the one designed for metals.
The
skin is obviously
not isotropic in three dimensions.
But it may very well be
\"transversely\"
isotropic:
isotropic in its plane. Design a new testing program for the skin.
If
it is very important
materials, such as concrete and plastics,
for the
whether a material is isotropic
or not. Suppose
you are establishing
a laboratory for testing structural materials. Present a
plan of experiments, and describe
For
industrial
designer to know
the neededinstruments.
8.10
A single
crystal
long-chain
single
isotropic. Explain
in Sec. 1.5, with
Would the yield point be changed

the ultimate stressat failure be affected?
8.14
but polycrystalline material

may be isotropic.
molecule is anisotropic,
but polymer fluids
and solids may be
this from
the point
of view of our definition of a continuum discussed
a specified minimum defining

characteristics of the structure of the materials.
dimension,
and
from
statistical
From a theoretical point of view, is it possibleto formulate some rules about

based on the structure
of the material? In polycrystalline
metals, the grain
material is usually
and dislocations and twinning should be
boundary
amorphous,
considered. In polymer materials, the molecular
structure
should be considered.
isotropy
8.11 An
isotropic material can be made anisotropical

by mechanical means, e.g., by rolling,
hammering, shot peening, explosive
Use statistical
forming, stretching, wire drawing.
an explanation of the changes. Design an
arguments to provide
experimental
facility
to test the results.
8.12 Cold work on metal alloys by rolling,

or forging, will deform
or crush crystal,
pressing,
create new grain boundaries,
and creating
causing large movements of dislocations
new ones. Subsequent
heat treatment can change the shape of crystals,
grain
boundaries,
crystal structure, and solid solution of inclusions (such as carbon
in steel). Would
these processeschange the stress-strain relationship
below the proportional
limit (in
the linear range)? Would the Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio, and the shear modulus
cold work and
heat
treatment?
that does
not obey Hooke's

What kind
is nonlinear.
law, such
of a
as
test program
the human skin.
The
can we follow
to
isotropy?
by the residual stresses in a test

Isotropy of a material is sometimes confounded
stresses are stresses in a specimen when there is no external
specimen. The residual
load acting in the specimen. They can be put in the specimen
by previous plastic
deformation,
welding, insertion, or other processes. Hammer a nail into a pieceof
wood and you put residual stresses in the wood. Bend a wire into a ring, weld the
ends, and you have a ring with residual stress. Forge a titanium alloy into a fan blade
blade.
of a jet engine and you have residual stress in the titanium
were linear, and the displacements
were
If the stress-strain relationship
the equations
are linear, and the principle
infinitesimal, then
governing
the equilibrium or dynamics
of the continuum
of superposition of solutions
apply. In this case, the
to
a
load is the same as that of the same
residual
stress
with
of
a
given
body
response
without residual stress to the same load. In other words, if the material of the
body
will show isotropy

with
relationship
body is isotropic, measurementsof load-deflection
stress.
or without residual
is nonlinear. Explain
if the stress-strain relationship
/The situation is different
relation is isotropic
still wish to know if the basic stress-strain
case.
We
'\"the/nonlinear
at least in the neighborhood
of the zero-stress state. How
for'the nonlinear
material,
should
we proceed? Make a plan for the nonlinear case.
in tension, other
materials, with some components
is a good way to obtain
and
all
in equilibrium,
together
components
For example, prestressed-steel-rod
reinforced
mechanical properties.
improved
and
are
structural
reinforced
metals
and
plastics
important
concrete,
high-strength-fiber
material
materials. If isotropy or transverse
(at a scale much
isotropy of the composite
of the individual
fibers) is desired, the fibers should be laid
larger than the diameter
8.15 Residual
is usually anisotropic,
by
for testing isotropy

For a material which obeys Hooke's law, an experimental program
would include some experiments
involving normal stresses and other experiments
the relationship between
shear stresses; and in addition, checking whether
involving
and Poisson's ratio is satisfied.
the shear modulus, Young's modulus,
Now, turn our
ascertain
of
179
Problems
attention to a material
stress-strain relationship
+ 78i\342\200\2368/*,
ot8,y8ta + p8\302\2738/\342\200\236
is isotropic.
e,-M8,\342\200\236
tensors
Name
a certain
Would
constants.\"
tensor
be affected?
the
Sec. 8.4 may be restated as \"The most

general isotropic
In.
8.5
8.6
8.7
Chap.
form
%,\302\273
where
Chap.
stressesin
in
down in
some
strength
and
composite
compression,
desirable geometric patterns.
Design
a composite material with high
as objectives.
isotropy
of their bodies.
Cell membranes and stress
use cells as basic structure
stress
the pressure
can
harbor
tensile
residual
against
(actin molecules)
in the cell contents. The matrix material in the interstitial
space
(compressiveresidual stress)
or shear. The overall
between the cells can be stressed in tension, compression,
of the living tissue (at a scale much larger than the individual
mechanical
cells)
properties
of
of the tissue. Discussthe isotropy or anisotropy
structure
depend on the cellular
the tissue in relation to the three-dimensional
geometric
shapes of the cells. Discuss
of the tissue (at a scale much larger than the cells)
the overall mechanical properties
to the intensity of the residual stresses; i.e., in relation to the degreeof
in relation
8.16 Living
creatures
fibers
swelling
8.17Animal
of the
cells.
cells inside
vessels are therefore
the body
pervasive:
rely on blood circulation for access to oxygen.

blood to
The circulation system supplies
The blood
within a few
Isotropy
180
Chap.
MECHANICAL
from every living cell. Considera piece of tissue whose size is

of the blood vessels. The blood pressure and the stresses
much larger than the diameters
stresses in the tissue.The overall
in the blood vessel wall may be regarded as residual
of the
much
a
scale
tissue
of the
larger than the diameters
mechanical
(at
microns
of
REAL
OF
PROPERTIES
distance
SOLIDS
ANP
FLUIDS
properties
on how much the vascular

vessels), will depend
how much the vesselwalls are stressed. The vascular
From this point of view, discuss the relationship
blood
system
i.e.,
is pressurized;
with
system is a continuous hollow

between the mechanical
organ.
of the tissue in relation

Discuss the isotropy
the tissue and the blood pressure.
of the blood vessel system.
to the geometry
difference.
8.18 Any test of isotropy is a test of a null hypothesis that there is no directional
of
statistical
is
What
the
to
statistical
principle
be
principles.
subjected
Hence, it must
be applied to the tests planned in the
can
the
How
of
principle
design
experiments?
propertiesof
preceding
Y. C, Biomechanics: Motion,
(1990),
Flow, Stress,
we consider real
in order to
materials
fit into
the
see how
the idealized
world.
real
Then
We
begin
we consider
solids,
New York: Springer-Verlag
Chapter 11.
Tensors.
Jeffreys, H., Cartesian
Thomas, T. Y., Conceptsfrom
Academic
READING
and Growth.
this chapter,
7 and
constitutive equations of Chaps.
molecular
a
point of view.
from
with gases and liquids
and biological materials.
bodies,
viscoelastic
problems?
FURTHER
Fung,
In
Press
(1961),
pp.
Chapter
Cambridge: University Press(1957),
Tensor Analysis and Differential
Geometry.
7.
New York:
9.1
FLUIDS
65-69.
of the pressure-volume
as gases or liquids on the basis
of carbon
relationship
of the pressure-volume
A typical example
horizontal
relationship.
have
curves
in Fig. 9.1. The lower
shown
temperatures is
dioxideat constant
the liquid
have
we
the
step,
To the left of
certain values of the pressure.
a small change in
steps/^t
to
produce
takes a large increase in pressure
\"state, wherein it
A point on the horizontal step
state.
or
the
gaseous
is
vapor
To the right
of
volume.
a heterogeneous state consisting
represents
actually
as AB in the figure)
(such
the pause in the C02 liquid-vapor
and vapor. At 31.05\302\260C,
a mixture of liquid
this critical value, the isotherm
above
is reduced to zero.At temperatures
isotherm
between
gaseous
division
to low pressure with no marked
better
becomes
state
passes steadily from high
of
the
equation
At a higher temperature
states.
and
are usually classified
Fluids
\\
liquid
and
better
approximated
by
the
\"perfect
of view,
law,
gas\"
Eq. (9.1-1).
to
propose
studies of gases led Avogadro
point
From the molecular
numbers of molecules at
contain
equal
of
volumes
gases
the hypothesis that equal
whose weight
A mole of molecules (a sample
and
pressure.
6.025x
the same temperature
contains
of the molecule)
the molecular weight
equals
of 1 mole
in grams exactly
number
(Na). The volume
This is known as Avogadro's
1023
particles.
at the
of gas
pressure)
normal temperature
is 22,400
cm3,which
and
corresponds
and 760 mm mercury

(i.e., 0\302\260C
33 x
about
to an average distance of
a
to
liquid or
a vapor is condensed
pressure
to the next. When

particle
10~8 cm from
at the normal temperature
one-thousandth of its volume
solid, it shrinks to about
3 x 10~8 cm.
about
to
is reduced
spacing
i.e., the interparticle
and
of the gas
pressure;
reaction
the
as
a
in
gas
the pressure
The kinetic theory interprets
momentum
in
the considerationof changes
on a surface. From
molecules impinging
one
181
182
Mechanical
of Real Fluids
Properties
and
Chap. 9
Solids
Sec.9.2
183
Viscosity
of Van der
Here p is
V is volume, T is
Figure 9.2
Waals
A family
isothermals.
pressure,
temperature. C is the critical point,

Tc is the critical temperature.
Figure
9.1
Isothermal curves
of
volume-pressure
relationship for
C02 near the critical
point, C. At
liquid-gas critical point of C02,
the temperature is 304.2\302\260K,
the
pressure is 72,9 atm, and the
volume
is 94 cm3 mole\"1
the
Volume
in molecular
of a
impacts and rebounds, the kinetic theory derives the equation of state
the pressure (p), volume (V), and absolute
perfect gas relating
temperature
pV = RT.
(9.1-1)
Here,
are supposed to represent the tensile

strength of
where the pressure is negative,
atoms
the
between
forces
attractive
the
of
account
on
short-range
the liquid,
the point H on JHK at
and p. The minima
alV2
the
(e.g.,
represented
parameters
by
of the liquid. In the case of water,
the ideal tensile strength
temperature T) indicate
authors have devised
at
50\302\260C.
atm
-875
and
Many
this is -1,168 atm at 0\302\260C
of
the
tensile
to
measure
liquids. (See D. E. Gray,
methods
strengths
ingenious
McGraw-Hill Book Co.
New
York:
Handbook,
Institute
of Physics
ed., American
theoretical
than
lower
are
values, and the
values
(1957),pp. 2-170.)Experimental
and the
small
bubbles,
cause is usually thought to be vapor-nucleating agents,
in
the
used
container
of the
experiments.
away from the walls
liquid's tearing
of
The question of the tensile strength of a liquid is important in problems
in trees,
water
freezing
to
transport
ship propellers,
damage
cavitation, cavitation
damage to trees,
For 1 mole
of gas,
The constant
k and R are
universal
Not
(9.1-2)
constants,
the same
for
all
substances.
k is Boltzmann's
= 1.38 x 10~16
constant
erg deg\"1, and R is the
= 1.986 cal
x 107 erg deg-1mole\"1
mole\"1.
deg\"1
For the condensed state,
Van der Waals
the
celebrated
proposed
equation
gas constant
= 8.313
other
problems.
9.2 VISCOSITY
The concept
R
and
with
in a
of viscosity
a uniform
fluid
gradient,
velocity
in
which
accurately,
\342\226\240
=
P)
^fy
alV1 represents the attractive

at low gas densities),
except
forces
while
RT,
between
flow
of the
fluid
a rectangular
average
,.t
(9.1-3)
the gas particles
(not
Figure 9.3
|3 represents the molecular volume of

of Van der Waals p-V curves.
They are
particles.
Figure 9.2 shows a family
like the curves of Fig. 9.1, but the horizontal line AB in
Fig. 9.1 has become a
continuous curve AEDFB in Fig. 9.2. The parts of the curves below the
abscissa,
the
of a shear
coordinates x, y,
Cartesianframe of reference, and u is the systemic velocity

which points in the
of the velocitiesof the molecules),
(local
stress acting on a
shear
The
of
a
function
y only.
direction of the x-axis, and is
the relationship
t.
Newton
denoted
is
proposed*
by
surface normal to the y-axis
z represent
p +
was given by Newton in terms

as shown in Fig. 9.3. Here the
viscosity.
*In the \"Hypothesis\"
just before
Prop. LI, Lib. II, of the Prindpia.
Newtonian
concept
of
184
Mechanical
Properties of
T=
Real
Fluids
and Solids
U,
(9.2-1)
Let the
for the shear stress t. The coefficient

u, is a constant called the
coefficient
of viscosity.
The dimensions of a, are [ML~'T~']. In the centimeter-gram-second
of
system
units, in which the unit offeree is the dyne, the unit of u, is called a poise, in honor
of Poiseuille. In the International
the unit of viscosity
is newton second/
units,
meter2(Ns/m2).
1 poise is 0.1 Ns/m2.
coefficients
of viscosity
x 10~4 poise and
of air
and of
water are small\342\200\224approximately
0.01 poise, respectively

at atmospheric
the
of
temperature,
viscosity
glycerine is about
diminishes
fairly rapidly as the temperature increases; in
temperature rises.
the same
A comparison of
AA by the random motion

of the molecules. A molecule
at yx
originating
AA will carry with it a
moving downward through
positive momentum m(dul
where
m is the mass of the molecule,
u is the ordered velocity
dy)yu
in the xdirection, and duldy is the vertical velocity
gradient,
rate.
i.e., the shear strain
The effective
occur
in 1
second through
of such
losses
there
be N
before
related to
colliding
molecule
travels
calculations
by David Enskog
and
that
(9.2-2)shows
(9.2-3)
= IpcL.
mean free
the
another
with
average distance a
and more accurate
/ (the
path
molecule),
show
Chapman*
Sydney
that
u, = 0.499 pel.
(9.2-4)
in such a manner
increases
of a gas decreases, the mean free path
As the density
constant. Then u, is proportional to c, which in
the product p/ almost remains
that
Thus, the
root of the absolute
temperature.
turn is proportional to the square
the
with
not
but
the
with
temperature
of viscosity of a gas changes
coefficient
free
the
mean
path
59\302\260F)
standard conditions (sea level,
air under
pressure. For
is approximately 8.8 x 10~6cm.

s The argument that leads to Eq. (9.2-2)can be used on other transport phewith them not only
When the molecules cross the plane AA, they carry
nomena.
their energy. In
and
ordered motion, but also their mass
of their
the momentum
to
the
of mass corresponds
phenomenon
the transport
\\a gas with a density gradient,
of energy
the transport
In a gas with a temperature gradient,
of diffusion.
of heat. Thus, in the simplest theory,
to the phenomenon of the conduction
corresponds
of heat
momentum,
a
of
component of ordered
the mechanismsof the transport
coefficient
the
it is found that
and as a result,
energy, and of mass are identical;
a. and the specificheat
of
the viscosity
the
to
is
k
product
equal
of heat conduction
D is equal to the
self-diffusion
of
while the coefficient
volume C\342\200\236
at constant
calculations
accurate
more
and
u, divided by the density p. Experiments
viscosity
molecules
give
/c = 1.91|xC\342\200\236,
The
that
unit area
stress t.
molecules per unit volume.
that
one-third of the
Suppose
molecules
are traveling in each of the three coordinate
directions.
If the average
molecular
of the molecules move
speed is c, and if one-third
to
perpendicularly
AA, \\Nc molecules will pass through AA each second.Each
of these molecules
Let
with Eq.
= 1.2^
represent
AA. The sum

AA is equal to the shear
the fluid above
L is
height
carry
with
from
(9.2-1)
Eq.
|x
'
and
dy
(9.2-2)
.,
across
dur
I
^~39cLJy
At
pressure and 20\302\260C.
In liquids, u.
gases, u, increases as the
Figure 9.4 Kinetic interpretation

of the coefficient
of viscosity of
it originates.
density p. Therefore,
is the
1.8
of the
momentum
average
The product Nm
interesting
loss of ordered
momentum correspondingto the position y at which

shear stress is
y be L. Then the
value of the height
it a
\\3
8.7 poises.
Similarly, a molecule moving

at y2 will
upward
through AA and originating
it a negative momentum m(du/dy)y2.
Both of these excursions
with
f1^
of the coefficient
of viscosity from the kinetic
interpretation
of gases was given
theory
with a uniform velocity
by Maxwell. Consider a flow
as shown in Fig. 9.3, and imagine
a surface AA normal to the
gradient
as
y-axis,
in Fig. 9.4. The shear stress exerted
by the gas beneath AA on the gas above has
a retarding
effect. The shear stress is equal to the rate of lossof ordered
momentum
An
Viscosity
will carry
du
dy
The
185
Sec. 9.2
Chap.9
from
atomic
that of the
structures.
*See
The
interpretation
of gases.
viscosity
atoms are
Chapman,
Cambridge,University
of the
viscosity
Solids in
arranged
in
order
of liquids
the crystal form
by the
S. and Cowling, T. G., The Mathematical

3rd ed., 1970.
Press,
(9.2-5)
is different
have long-range ordered
and solids
long-rangeinteraction.
Theory of NonUmform
On the
Gases.
186
Mechanical Propertiesof
other hand, gas atoms

or molecules
and the interaction
on the
depends
interact
Real
Fluids and
when
only
Solids
Chap.
they come \"into contact,\"

force between two atoms
short-range attractive
between the gas and the crystal.
other than those properties
such as X-ray diffraction,
Generally
speaking,
anisoof a liquid, just above the melting
tropy, etc., the structure and properties
point,
are fairly similar to those of its crystal. Metals expand
3 to 5% on melting
only
like ice, contracts), so that the packing of the atoms cannot
(bismuth,
be too
different. It is as if 3 to 5% of the crystal sites became vacant and their free volume
were taken up by neighboring particles in such a way as to destroy the
long-range
order of the structure.
A picture of the cause of viscosity for a
is
simple
liquid
proposed by Cottrell (1964), as shown in Fig. 9.5. Here two atoms which gained
some free volume are shown
as enclosed in a \"cage\"
of other atoms. The
figure
shows how a relative motion of the two atoms will allow
the cage to have a shear
or molecules.The liquid
state
is an interpolation
while the
relative
positions
4 is
the
length
original
of the
Properties
Wiley,
1964.
After
of the
The movement of the
essentially
unchanged.
The surrounding
rod and /is the length under load. Numerous

as indicated in Fig. 9.6.
reveal typical load-elongation relationships,
experiments
a straight line.
is
the
usually
relationship
load-elongation
When e is very small,
that
is caused by many
a
flat
and
an
region
yield
shows
steel
Mild
upper yield point
where
9.5
Cottrell, TheMechanical
deformation
187
of Metals
movement
of Matter, New York: John

Before
Plasticity
Shear due to internal

in a liquid, suggested by
Cottrell as a mechanism for
viscosity in the fluid. After A. H.
Figure
(7f%l
(om
Sec.9.3
rest of the
atoms of the cage remain

distorts the atomic \"cage.\"
resistance to such a distortion,
but
two atoms
liquid offers elastic (shear)

relaxes as similar movements
occur nearby.
On the other hand, the atoms in a crystal are
The
arranged in space lattices.
much greater elastic modulus
and viscosity of a crystal as
with
its
compared
liquid
phase is due to the fact that the atomic sites in a crystal are defined exactly by the
lattices.
this resistance
Mixtures,
solids or glass,
colloidal
solutions,
can have many
suspensions,
9.3 PLASTICITY
If
polycrystalline
solids,
\\
ductile metal is pulled in a testing machine

at room temperature, the
on the test specimen may be
plotted against the elongation
Figure
metals:
amorphous
OF METALS
a rod of a
load applied
other
(c)
(b)
\\
copper;
relaxation
mechanisms that reveal their

viscosity. In many cases, it is not easy to say whether a body behavesas a fluid or
as a solid. Silicone
can be poured slowly
from a cup or bounced
putty
like
quickly
a rubber ball.
the distinction
between fluids and solids is drawn
Conventionally,
at a low-stress
of 1015 poises. A material
with viscosity less than that value
viscosity
is called a fluid, while one whose
is
viscosity
greater is called a solid.
etc.,
Elongation
Elongation
9.6
(a)
Typical
of
curves
load-elongation
mild steel or structural
in simple tension testsof

aluminum
alloys or
steel; (b) of
such as cast iron.

(c) of brittle materials
of the crystals [Fig.

microscopic discontinuoussmall steps of slip along slip planes
a
flat
such
not
have
do
yield region [Fig. 9.6(b)].
9.6(a)]. Most other metals
the strain does not retrace
at any stage in the deformation,
unloading
Upon
line such as the curve
an
elastic
reduced
is
but
unloading
along
the loading curve,
the unloading curve with relatively
retraces
UP in Figs. 9.6(a) and (b). Reloading
when
deformation
plastic
minor deviations and then produces further
test
The.
exceeded.
specimen may \"neck\"
the previous maximum stress is
approximately
in a small region.
reduced
is
area
cross-sectional
at a certain strain, so that its
a maximum
reaches
the
load
continued
under
occurs
elongation,
When
necking
in the neck region (the
stress
actual
the
average
and then drops down, although
M
continues to increase. The maximum
load divided by the true area of the neck)
C
the
At
flows.
the ultimate load, the metal
point in
is the ultimate load. Beyond
the
curves of Fig.
9.6, the
specimen
breaks.
188
Properties
Mechanical
of Real Fluids and
Chap. 9
Solids
carbide, beryllium, concrete, rocks, and

Materials like cast iron, titanium
before reaching the breaking
deformation
most ceramics allow minimal
plastic
curve for a brittle material
load-strain
The
materials.
brittle
and are called
point,
the breaking
is
C
The
point.
in
that
as
point
will appear
Fig. 9.6(c).
is that brittle materials such as rocks
A fact of great importance for geology
to large hydrostatic pressure (large negative
tend
subjected
to become ductile when
in his
(1881-1963)
by Theodore von Karman
mean stress). This was demonstrated
on marbles.
classicalexperiments
shear lead to
to simple compressionor simple
Tests of specimens
subjected
to those of Fig. 9.6.
similar
load-strain diagrams
the
of all steels are nearly
It is well known that, whereas the elastic moduli
on
a
ultimate
great deal, depending
vary
strength
same, the yield stress and the
vacancies,
dislocations,
grain
imperfections,
the crystal structure (including
in chemical
by small changes
etc.), which can be iniuenced
boundaries,twinning,
whereas
and so on. In other words,
heat treatment, cold work,
composition, alloying,
are
the
\"structurally
strengths
insensitive,\"
are
\"structurally
the elastic moduli
a marked yield point, it is an engineering practice
For materials without
sensitive.\"
which is defined as
as the stress at the proportional limit,
a yield strength
to quote
structures
Most
is
reached.
of 0.2%
engineering
where a tensile strain
the
point
is truly quite small.

use materials within the proportional limit\342\200\224hence,the strain
in
is
useful
of
practice.
engineering
elasticity
For this reason, the linearized theory
9.4 MATERIALS
WITH
Rubber, the
NONLINEAR
law. The
Hooke's
uniaxially
most
material
to be
qualified
stress-strain
in a testing
Hookean approximation
ELASTICITY
is shown
machine
called
obtained
curve
only
is applicable
in Fig. 9.7.
in
cannot
elastic,
be described by
when a rubber band

a range
It
is nonlinear.
of strain
much
is
stretched
A linear,
smaller
24 h
16
than
Sec. 9.4
rubber bands
sense that its
incremental
rubber is not
normally
The
in the
range
in which
one
one wishes
finds some
of
9.7 A typical forceextension curve for vulcanized

rubber.
Extension
ratio
to emphasize
their
ability
load is removed.If
features
also.
one
tissues
are
to a unique
looks at their
a living
When
animal
to return
develops
a steady-state
tissue is subjected
stress-strain loop
is not
that
that
Figure
larger
and unloading,
periodic loading
between the
rate. The hysteresis (the difference
very sensitiveto strain
unaffected
is
by the
largely
curves in the stress-strainloop)
loading and unloading
the
i.e.,
is
stress-strain
repeatable,
loop
the periodic loading. The
frequency of
feature
This
may
of
uniqueness.
and unloading legs have a certain degree
loading
On the other hand, the
be described by the term pseudoelasticity (Fung, 1971).
with the past stress seems to be
that links the present stress
function\"
\"memory
is nonlinear; hence, the term quasirelationship
linear, even though the stress-strain
was introduced.
linear
viscoelasticity
(Fung, 1971)
connective tissue in an animal: the
consider
us
typical
let
an example,
As
that connects the
a
The mesentery is thin membrane
mesentery of the rabbit.
it has
naked
good, uniform
the
to
eye,
transparent
Nearly
rabbit's intestines.
because its twoof physiologists
favorite
a
is
and
thickn6ss\"(about6 x 10\"3 cm)
blood vesselsis ideal for observation and experimendimensional
array of small
width was cut
a strip of uniform
property,
. tation. To obtain the gross mechanical
tension
in
tested
and
simple
ends with fine silk,
from the mesentery, tied at both
with
bubbled
7.4,
at room temperature,
pH
while immersed in a saline solution,
to
similar
ions
other
and
Ca
of
concentrations
a gas of 95% 02, 5%C02, with
those in blood plasma.
a repeatable stress-strainloop
and unloading,
a few cycles of loading
After
as shown in Fig. 9.8. Note the difference between
for each strain rate was obtained,
constitutive
equations
and 9.8, showing that the
the shapes of the curves in Figs. 9.7
different.
are very
of rubber and the rabbit's mesentery
we can treat loading
is
loop of the tissue repeatable,
Since the stress-strain
in
it as one elastic material
consider
and
tissue
and unloading
separately for this
in unloading, i.e., as two pseudoelastic
material
elastic
loading and another
to a
\"high\"
9.8, the one marked
is seen
It
\"low.\"
marked
rate 10 times faster
The abscissa
strain.
of
rate
the
on
much
very
did not depend
hysteresis loop
done
from an arbitrary length. This is
the
of
specimen
extension
is
fipre
the
origin
were taken at the zero-stress state,
if the origin of extension
the
For this specimen,
small.
too
be
would
scale
the
and
be far to the left
two typical
was produced at a strain
special
Human and
normally.
function
it
Of the
they
when all the external
configuration
materials.
than the
also exist.
stress, and hysteresis in periodic oscillation
is a nonlinearly viscoelasticmaterial.
viscoelastic
and animals are also nonlinearly
soft tissues of humans
if
generally called elastic
viscoelasticity,
in the
incompressible,
106times
is 104 to
at constant
living
strain
is practically
unique.
rubber
Hence,
Soft rubber
volumetric modulus of elasticity

of
stress-strain
relationship
modulus. Strictly speaking, the
Young's
constant
at
relaxation
Stress
exist.
Features of viscoelasticity
creep
strain,
undergo.
189
Elasticity
Nonlinear
with
Materials
the
this
because
would
hysteresis
loops shown
in
than
Fig.
that
190
Mechanical
m-6
Rabbit
mesentery
L0=0.864,
Lph=2.77cm
Strain
of Real Fluids and
Properties
Chap. 9
Solids
Sec. 9.5
Stress-Strain
Nonlinear
Relationships
of
Rubber
and
Biological
Tissues
191
100
rate:
Upper, high: iO.508 cm/min

cm/min
Lower, low: \302\2610.0508
6. 80
%N
<?
60
0.05
0.15
0.10
0.20
Extension,
Figure 9.8
curves
of
0.25
0.30
cm
36.5P(1-0,0377P)
40
obtained at two
mesentery
The high rate was 10 times that of the low rate.
Only a
slight
change in hysteresis curves was obtained.
From Y.C. Fung,
of Soft Tissues in
\"Elasticity
Simple
American J. of
Elongation.\"
Physiology
213(6): 1532-1544,1957.
strain
length at zero
cm, and the
Hysteresis
rabbit
rates.
was
stress
initial
0.865 cm, the length

in the
physiological
area was 1.92 X 10~2 cm2.
state
^f
(7
dynes/cnr'
20
was
2.77
cross-sectional
In reducing the experimental data to a stress-strain

we use the
relationship,
stress T (obtained
the force by the
by dividing
original cross-sectional
area of the specimen at zero
stress) and the extension ratio X. (the deformed length
divided by the zero-stress
length). The most striking feature of the stress-strain
is revealed when dTldk, the
relationship
slope of the stress-stretchcurve,
is plotted
against T. Figure
9.9 shows such a
plot of the slope of the loading curves shown
in Fig. 9.8
(the upper curve of the hysteresisloop obtained at the
strain
\"high\"
rate of 0.508
we may fit the
cm/min). As a first approximation,
data
experimental
Load
JO
6
P, grams
Lagrangian
to a straight
T + (3 =
(r + p)^-\",
Several other
and
the exponential
type
Further
(for
types of soft tissue, such as

the lung tissue, are found
to follow similar
experiments
experience that,
the
skin,
<
on these
within
strain in a loading curve
a
in
equation is common
tissues over
104-
the
wide
to 106-fold
physiological
ranges of strain
variation
in
strain
(9.4-2)
range does not
differ
ureter,
it appears
rates has
rate,
strain
tissues are
rate
not
affects the
sensitive
to
stress-strain
of a
is a
9.5 NONLINEAR
justifiable description.
STRESS-STRAIN
BIOLOGICAL
RELATIONSHIPS
OF
RUBBER
TISSUES
the stress
the muscles, the

to biological
biological
the
to
AND
X,).
relationships.Thus,
of constitutive
of this
x 10-2cm2,
3.21.
X\342\200\236,
is very difficult to say, because it varies from one

living tissue, however,
to local
it
is
sensitive
and incidental variations) at all
another
(i.e.,
specimen
behavior at large or small rates). But an overall
strain rates (i.e., without
asymptotic
curve
(9.4-1)
where
a and p are constants and
Xj, is an upper limit of the
applicability
equation (about 3.2 in the case of the rabbit's
mesentery).
A simple
integration of Eq. (9.4-1),together
with the condition that
is equal to T* when
X = \\y, yields
speaking,
in which
= 1.93
cm, A\342\200\236
0.865
stress T, dynes/cm2
factor of 2 or 3. Hence,roughly
strain rate. The precise manner
insensitivity
(forX<X,),
400
200
Lagrangian
line,
^=a(r+B)
elastic
Figure 9.9 The tangential
modulus (the slope of the stressstretch ratio curve) of rabbit
is plotted as a function
mesentery
of the tensile stress T based
on the
cross sectional area of the specimen
at the zero-stress
state.
Note that
the elastic modulus is not a
constant as the linear Hooke's law
assumes. For this figure,
La =
= 12.47 (1-7.29 x10\"4 7)
that
tissues.
led to the
the stress at a
by more than a
we examined the uniaxial

stress-strain
In the preceding section,
relationship of a
number of soft tissues. Naturally, for a three-dimensional organ, we need a threedimensional stress-strainlaw. No general constitutive equation has been identified
for living tissues. But ifapseudoelastic strain
energy function exists, then the stresscan be obtained by a differentiation.
The pseudoelastic strain
strain
relationship
function, denoted by p0W, is a function of Green'sstrain
components
energy
derivative
of p0W
with respect to Eu and EH. Taking the partial
island is symmetric
the corresponding
Kirchhoff stress components Stj. W is
with respect to Er, gives
defined for a unit mass of the material, and p0 is the density of the material in the
192
initial
hence,
state;
zero-stress state.
p0Wis the
strain
per unit volume
energy
Solids
Real Fluids and
of the
material
Linear Viscoelastic
Sec. 9.6
Chap.9
at the
c, a,, a2) and
which
in
constants
of material
Thus,
(i, 7
jf
(9.5-1)
1.2,3).
If the material
is incompressible,
Sec. 16.7) for theoretical
details.]
on a pressure that is independent of the deformation of the body.
to the right-hand side of Eq. (9.5-1).
In that case, a pressure term shouldbe added
The value of the pressure can vary from point to point, and it can be determined
[SeeFung
then
only
it
(1965,
can take
of motion,
and boundary conditions are

fluid is determined by boundary
an incompressible
the equations
when
continuity,
Hence,
the
1. Soft
rubber
is incompressible,
and
and C2 are
C,(/,
has
constants,
3) +
C2(/2
been found
(9.5-3)
3)
valuable
in
the
study
of large
deformationsof rubber.
blood vessel wall) are not isotropic.
Most biological tissues (e.g., skin, muscle,
The linear form of strain energy,
Some (e.g.,the lung tissue) are not incompressible.
data
of
not
fit
tissues.
does
biological
Eq. (9.5-3),
experimental
strain energy functions have been
Based on known experimental data, several
If the blood vessel wall is treated as an elastic
for the blood vessel wall.
proposed
shell without
then only the averagecircumferential
and longitudinal
stresses
torsion,
and strains are of interest.
the vessel wall can be treated as two dimensional
Hence,
and the strain
strain
is a function of only two strains: the circumferential
energy
have
strain Ezz. Patel and Vaishnav
used
Em and the longitudinal
(1972)
polynomials
et al. (1971) have used logarithmic
of Em, En for p0W. Hayashi
functions.
Fung
function. A detailed comparison
of the polynomial and
(1973) used an exponential
exponential strain energy

physiologicalrange,
is given
functions
in
et al.
Fung
(1979). In the
the form
P = fc, El
Q is
which
in
gives
LINEAR
the sameas in
(9.5-4)
PoWêxpQ,
where
= a,
E2m
+ a2El
+ a,
(9.5-6)
|exPe
Eq.
+ b2 El
(9.5-5) and bu
h3
(9.5-7)
E08 EZI
b2,and
63 are
additional constants,
accuracy.
a higher
VISCOELASTIC
The features of
BODIES
Ew
E\342\200\236
(9.5-5)
relaxation,
hysteresis,
and creep are
common
to many
materials.
are called the features of viscoelasticity.

of
are often used to discuss the viscoelastic behavior
models
Mechanical
behavior,
material
of
models
three mechanical
materials. In Fig. 9.10 are shown
linear\" model,
the Voigt model, and the \"standard
model,
Maxwell
the
namely,
they
HE
-Gr
[J\342\200\224ty\\AAi\342\200\224>1
S
Fipre
(c)
9.10
standard
(c)
(b)
(a)
Models of linear viscoelasticity.

solid.
(a)
Maxwell,
(b) Voigt,
linear
springs with spring constant

to produce
is supposed
with coefficient
p. and dashpots
to
is supposed
dashpot
instantaneously a deformation proportional
between
to the load at any instant. The relationships
proportional
produce a velocity
of loading are,
u
and the deflection at the point
all of which
the
= P
where
Collectively,
linear form
PoW
where
then 13 =
is seven.
to
PoW(2)
9.6
is incompressible,
(9.5-4)
(9.5-2)
PoW(/\342\200\2364/3).
material
Eq.
all
conditions
If the
in
third-order
the
zero-stress state
the pressure in
and equations of motion.
of p\342\200\236F
can
A material is recognized
by its specific p0W. The determination
For example, Green and Adlcins (1960)
be helped by theoretical
considerations.
in all forms of crystals and determined what kind
studied the symmetry
conditions
have if their p0Ws were polynomials
of terms each crystal
should
of the strain
reached
is
that
if
the
material
conclusion
is
then p0W
One
components.
isotropic,
must be a function
of the strain invariants
/,, I2, h (see Sec.5.7);i.e.,
satisfied.
has been shown to work well. The number

of material
number
is four. The minimum
are constants,
at
polynomial expression
constants
shown that the exponentialform
have
of skin, muscle, ligaments, etc.,
Studies
zero-stress
state, it is found that
the
of
In the neighborhood
equally well.
applies
or a strain energy
law
stress-strain
linear
a
to
fitted
be
data can
the experimental
for the full range of strain from the
Hence,
of a second-order polynomial.
function
function
in vivo values, the strain energy
in
Su
193
Bodies
are composedof
load F
Maxwell
model:
combinations
of linear
of viscosity t\\. A linear spring

to the load. A
194
Real Fluids
and Solids
Chap.
Voigt model:
Voigt
F =
Standard linear
+ T|\302\253, u(Q)
\\m
0,
ER(u +
t\342\200\236\302\253),
TeF(0)
ER%u(0),
k{f)
T)8(f) +
|ll(f),
(9.6-9)
linear solid:
(9.6-3)
and a dot above F or u indicates a differentiation with

to time. The initial
conditions
at f = 0 are indicated.
respect
If we solve
for \302\253(f)
when
Eqs. (9.6-1) through
(9.6-3)
F(t) is a unit-step
function
the creep function, which
1(f), the result is called
the elongation
represents
produced by a sudden application at f = 0 of a constant force of magnitude
unity.
The creep functions
for these equations are,
respectively,
195
Bodies
Viscoelastic
solid:
Standard
%F
Linear
(9.6-2)
model:
F +
where
Sec.9.6
= ER
k(t)
\\e
//re
(9.6-10)
1(f).
are constants,
te, t\342\200\236
Here,
we
have
delta function,
used the
8(f) to
symbol
8(f) = 0
p.
indicate the
as a function
is defined
which
J_\302\243/ff)8(f)df
with
(for
< 0,
unit-impulse
a singularity
and
or Diracat the origin, viz.,
function,
> 0),
(9.6-11)
(e>0),
/(0)
model:
Maxwell
(9.6-4)
C(o=H#),
where /(f) is an arbitrary

and k(t) are illustrated
at
that is continuous
9.11 and 9.12, respectively.
function
in Figs.
f = 0.
The
functions
Voigt model:
c{t) =
-(1 -
(9.6-5)
e-<M%(t),
I1
linear
Standard
model:
c(t)
where the
unit-step
function
Er
(9.6-6)
Time
when
fl
f
when
|0
when
that obeys a load-deflectionrelation

to be a Maxwell
solid, and
(c)
as
1(f) is defined
1(f) =
A
TE
1-1-
t >
f =
f ipre
0,
(9.6-7)
0,
t < 0.
9.11 Creep
like
Maxwell
(9.6-1) through
(9.6-3)
are, respectively,
Maxwell, (b) Voigt, and (c)

is superposed at the time
phase
of
.i)8 (/-/o)
function
for Eqs.
(a)
\302\243
to an elongation
response F(t) = k(t) corresponding
u(t) = 1(f). The relaxation
function
k(t) is the force that must be applied in order to produce
an elongation,
that
at f = 0 from zero to unity and remains
changes
unity thereafter. Relaxation
functions
negative
unloading.
that given by Maxwell's

model
is said
for bodies that obey
analogously
Voigt and
standard linear models. Since a dashpot behaves as a
in a viscous
piston
moving
the preceding models are called
fluid,
models
of viscoelasticity.
the roles of F and u, we obtain
the relaxation
Interchanging
as a
body
of
function
standard linear solid. A
0
form.
0)
Time
Time
(a)
(b)
solid:
k{t)
|ie-w'l(f),
(9.6-8)
Figure 9.12 Relaxation

standard linear solid.
function
of
(a)
Maxwell,
(b) Voigt,
and
(c)
c(f)
196
Mechanical
For the
deflection
other hand,
Maxwell
a sudden
solid,
of Real Fluids and
Properties
of a
application
Chap. 9
Solids
load induces an
Sec.9.7
similar
immediate
On the
which is followed by creep of the dashpot.
by the elastic spring,
the
immediate
reaction
an
a sudden deformation produces
by
spring,
law given in
to the exponential
by stress relaxation according
a relaxation
be
called
dimensionof
the
with
time,
may
tj/jx,
Eq.
of the force.
time: It characterizes the rate of decay
of force will produce no immediate
For a
solid, a sudden application
(9.6-8). The factor
Voigt
in parallel with the spring, will not move

because the dashpot, arranged
as
shown
by Eq. (9.6-5) and Fig. 9.11(b), a deformation
instantaneously. Instead,
the
while
built
be
will
spring takes a greater and greater share of the
up,
gradually
the ratio T|/n,
of the dashpot relaxes exponentially.
Here,
load. The displacement
the rate of relaxation of the deflection.
is again a relaxation time: It characterizes
The
For the standard linear
solid, a similar interpretation is applicable.
of
deflection
the
condition
constant
under
of the load
constant % is the time of relaxation
of deflection
is the time of relaxation
the constant t\342\200\236
[see Eq. (9.6-10)],whereas
-\302\273 the
As
t
load
constant
of
the
\302\253>,
under
condition
dashpot is
[see Eq. (9.6-6)].
of the springs,
that
relation
becomes
the
load-deiection
and
completely relaxed,
in Eq. (9.6-6) and (9.6-10). Therefore, ER
as is characterized
by the constant ER
deflection,
the relaxed elastic modulus.

Maxwell introduced the model represented
by Eq. (9.6-1), with the idea that
of the
Kelvin
showed the inadequacy
Lord
extent.
all fluids
are elastic to some
of
of
the
rate
for
in
Maxwell and Voigt models accounting
energy in
dissipation
called
various materials subjected to cyclic loading. Kelvin's model is commonly
is called
the standard
linear
More general
model.
Kelvin
creep function
The most
general
by the total history

is continuous and differentiable,
versa. The functions
c(t
since
-
Voigt,
Boltzmann formulation.
More
the
doubling
t)
respectively.
The Maxwell,
of loading
element
depends
add
of the
the assumption
loading up to
then in a
of linearity
and
k(t
and Kelvin
the
load doubles
t) are the
creep
models are special
generally, we can
examples
relaxation
the
write
vice
and
elongation
and relaxation functions,

of the
function
the
in
k(t)
is a
which
with each
lines
generalization of Eq.
an optical
spectrum of the relaxation
discretespectrums.
section.
function.
A generalization
?2
we plot
1/,
i/2
the
frequency axis, we
examples
9-13.
Hence,
shown
in
associated
a\342\200\236
amplitude
on a
v\342\200\236
spectrum, Fig.
The
(9.6-15)
a,,e-
(9.6-10).If
characteristic frequency
resembles
that
= E
Eqs.
to a continuous spectrum
obtain
a series of
is called a
a\342\200\236(v\342\200\236)
are
in the next
(9.6-8)-(9.6-10)
is given
\302\2603
K3
Figure 9.13 A discrete spectrum

function.
of a relaxation
vA
Frequency
cause
between
small
the
time
time
t.
interval
If
the
function
dt at time t,
F(t)
the
increment
remains acting on the bar and
at
time t, with a proportionality
the
to
elongation
du(t)
t - t. Hence,we may write
on the time interval
is (dFld^dt. This
= c(t
t)
dr.
(9.6-12)
at the beginning of motion and loading.

Then,
origin of time be taken
is permitted under Boltzmann's hypothesis,
over the entire history, which
we obtain
the
on
summing
\302\253(r)
(9.6-14)
function.
(1844-1906). In the one-dimensionalcase,we may

to a force F(t) and elongationu(t). The elongation
du(t)
form
9.7 QUASI-LINEAR
J'ocO-T)^T.
(9.6-13)
OF BIOLOGICAL
VISCOELASTICITY
TISSUES
mentioned in Sec.
tissues
viscoelastic features of biological soft
stress-strain
the
shows
9.14
9.4.Take the lung tissue as an example. Figure
Each
rates.
strain
cycle was done
different
at
tissue in loading
of the
Let us
clarify
relationship
at
a constant
in strain
Let
linear,
are
adding more and more elements to the

terms to the
more and more exponential
under
formulation
due to Boltzmann
simple bar subjected
contributes an
constant c that
laws
be built by
we may
Equivalently,
or to the relaxation
is caused
increment
These
model.
models may
and effect is
consider
, duh)
gives
u interchanged,
f\302\253
is followed
which
with the roles of F and
argument,
197
of Biological Tissues
Viscoelasticity
Quasi-Linear
hysteresis
the
lung
rate. The period
rate, there was

H, defined
only
of each
is noted in
a minor change
as the ratio
of the
area
in
Over a 360-foldchange
stress-strain relationship. The
the figure.
the
of the
hysteresis loop divided
by the
in the figure. H is seen to be variable,

area under the loading curve, is also noted
A similar experience is encountered
not
large.
with strain rate is
but its variation
and cardiac muscles, the ureter,
skeletal
of
with other biological tissues. Records
the bile duct, the skin,
the
mesentery,
the
pericardium,
teniae coli, arteries, veins,
show similar characteristics. Typically,
cartilage, and other tissues
elastin,
tendons,
(or
at a given strain in a loading
stress
the
strain
in
rate,
in a 1,000-fold change
2.
of
factor
a
than
does not change by more
unloading)
process
198
Mechanical
CYCLE
80
of Real Fluids and
Properties
Solids
Chap. 9
60 05
111
Quasi-Linear
18
SEC, H = 0.2?
rx\342\200\224WW\342\200\224*-F
$i\342\200\224WVv\342\200\224'
2ZOSEC,H = 050
(b)
(a!
\342\231\246
900 SEC, H =
'
of Biological Tissues
Viscoelasticity
TIME. HYSTERESIS
\342\200\242
60 SEC, H = 0.32
A
9.7
6500SEC,
028
H=
035
co ~*
<
<n
40
5 z
(E
Inf
20 -
<
i\302\273W
0.8
I.0
X,
Figure 9.14
lung
A set of
I.I
(STRETCH
T\" \342\200\224,
j
I.2
RATIO
I.4
,
I.6
r-w4~F~
L,/LM).
of the stress-strainrelationship
of the
cyclic biaxial loading are shown in the loading
phase was not recorded on this graph to improve
|\342\200\224
\342\226\240w~\\
-w-|
|\342\200\224
r#-[\"r\342\200\224
records
'\342\200\224wvH \"-^vww\342\200\224'
'\342\200\224vww\342\200\224'
\342\200\224wwv\342\200\224'
tissue subjected to a
(the unloading
clarity.) The viscoelasticity of the lung tissue is revealed by the effect of
This set of curves cover a
strain rate on the stress-strainrelationship.
of strain rates varying
over 250-fold. It is seen that the stressrange
strain relationship
is not greatly affected
by strain rate. The energy
dissipated per cycle divided
by the work of loading per cycle is called
strain rates
hysteresis, and is denoted by H. The values of H at various
of cycles) are shown in the inset. Hysteresis
is due to
(periods
viscoelasticity, and is seen not to vary much with strain rate. For
see D.L. Vawter, Y.C. Fung,
and J.B. West, \"Elasticity
of
details,
Excised Dog Lung Parenchyma,\"
Journal of Applied
Physiology
phase,
th
(e)
Id)
13)
45(2):261-269,1978.
ih)
Figure 9.14 shows two features that cannot be accommodated

by the viscoelasticmodels discussed in Sec. 9.6: the nonlinearity
of the stress-strainrelationship
and the insensitivity of the material
to strain rate. The former
can be corrected by
nonlinear springs. The latter is made clear by reference
to Fig. 9.15.
introducing
The models of Maxwell (a), Voigt (b), and Kelvin (c) are shown, together
with
their hysteresis characteristicsH, (d)
as
functions
of
the frequency
of
(f),
through
the loading and unloading
cycle. Hysteresis decreaseswith increasing
frequency in
the Maxwell
model because as frequency increases, the dashpot
will move less and
less. The trend is reversed in Voigt model because here the
takes up more
dashpot
and more of the load. The Kelvin model has a bell-shaped curve of hysteresis
vs.
the logarithm of the frequency.
Each set of constantsleads to a characteristic peak.
None of the models has the flat hysteresis curve of living tissue.
Fipre 9.15 Several standard viscoelastic models are shown in the top
row, and a mathematical model of the viscoelasticity of biological soft
tissues is shown in the third row. Figures in the secondrow, panels (d),
between the hysteresis (H) and the
(e), and (f) show the relationships
of frequency (In f) of the Maxwell
model (a), Voight model
logarithm
The figure in the bottom row
(b), and Kelvin model (c), respectively.
the general hysteresis-log frequency
of most living
relationship
soft tissues, corresponding
to the model (g) shown in the third row.
Living soft tissues usually have a nearly constant hysteresis over a very
shows
This is modeled in (g) by an assemblage

of
range of frequency.
Kelvin models, each of which contributes a small bell-shaped curve; the
sum of which is flat over a wide range
of frequencies as shown in (h).
broad
Properties of Real
Mechanical
200
bodies whose
of Kelvin
is shown
in Fig.
Chap,9
characteristic
in the bottom
is flat over a wide
201
9.15(g). It is composedof a
i
S(q)
form, we introduce an Elastic

strain E (a tensor defined with
tensor),
fits
data for the
the
qlt
= .
(9.7-6)
0
mathematical
into
< q<
for 5,
characteristic
which is a function of the

zero-stress
respect
state).If the material is in the zero-stress state until the
time t = 0, and then suddenly it is strained to E and maintained constant at that
value, the stress developed will be a function of time as well as of E. The history
of the stress development may be written as
(a
Fluids
range.
frequency
these observations
To put
Stress Tw
Non-Newtonian
9.8
Sec.
times span a broad range. The

curves
of hysteresis of these Kelvin bodies are shown by the ripples
of Fig. 9.15(h). The sum of these ripples is a continuous
curve which
series
long
for soft tissue
suitable
model
and Solids
Fluids
skin, arteries,
forg<<j,,q>q2,
ureter,
and teniae
coli.
to the
which
function.
function of time,
a normalized
Gljm\342\200\236(t),
assume that
component of strain,
of time t, is, for
instant
t>
the reduced relaxation
is called
stress response to
on a specimen
8\302\243,7,
superposed
We then
the
an
in
(9.7-1)
change in a
state of strain E at an
infinitesimal
a
t,
FLUIDS
the behavior of water

describes
law of viscosity
very well, but there are
Read
the
advertisements
of somepaints:
behave
that
other fluids
differently.
the
little
resistance to
flow
on
not
brush], spreads easily [offers
drip [will
to smooth off the surface].\" These desirable
leaves no brush marks [flows
Newton's
many
Gy\342\200\236,\342\200\236(()r\342\200\236\342\200\236/\"'(E),
Gl7\342\200\236,\342\200\236(0)
1,
in
9.8 NON-NEWTONIAN
\"No
flow],
paints are not Newtonian.

as are most polymer
the subject with a fluid
Let us illustrate
lives\342\200\224blood.The viscosity of blood depends on
features
varnishes
10,000
(9.7-2)
G,7,,,,,(f-T)ar\"\"Ê(T)18\302\243,(T).
Most paints,
for household
\"1
that
is most important
the strain
that the
we assume
That is, the
stress
each governed
a nonlinear
1000
that
\342\200\224
T)
k\302\253\302\2734'
_\342\200\236
so
applies,
TM
principle
superposition
at.
^r
(9.7-3)
rate.
Figure
9.16
1\342\200\224Ir-|
Whole blood
e\342\200\224\302\253
blood
Ringer suspension
x\342\200\224x
o\342\200\224
Defibrinated
Finally,
enamels, and
solutions.
are non-Newtonian,
of
cells
100
is the sum of the contributionsof all the past changes,

reduced relaxation
function.
Although TW(E) may be
of strain, the relaxation process is linear.
the theory
Hence,
The
lower
limit
of
the
viscoelasticity
theory.
integral in Eq.
at time t
by the same
function
is called a quasi-linear
is written
as -\302\260\302\260
to mean the beginning
of time.
The reduced relaxation
function
of a one-dimensional
10
(9.7-3)
model
+ Se-'\"].
G\302\253
Kelvin
^[l
is
0.1
(9.7-4)
0.01
0.1
q are
where
S and
series,
we can
G(0 =
S(q)is called
a specific
a relaxation
spectrum,
If we
constants.
get a reduced
with
put
relaxation
1+
an
infinite
function
number
1+
\\^S{q)e-\"\"dq
spectrum, and llq is a frequency.

c, qh and q2, namely,
constants
of Kelvin
models in
in the form
S(q)dq
It has
(9.7-5)
been shown
that
10
1
Sirain
rate,
100
sec\"1
of viscosity with the strain

in the coefficient
Figure 9.16 The variation
rate in human blood, showing data for whole blood, defibrinated
in a Ringer solution
at
blood, and washed red bloodcells resuspended
45 and 90% hematocrit H (red cell concentrations by volume). From S.
and M. I. Gregersen,
Chien, S. Usami, H. M. Taylor, J. L. Lundberg,
J. Appl. Physiol., 21 (1966), p. 81, and M. I. Gregersen, \"Factors
to Problems of the
Blood Viscosity: Relation
Regulating
de Claude Bernard sur le Milieu
Microcirculation,\" Les Concepts
interieur
(Paris:
Masson,
1967).
to
our
shows
202
Real
Fluids and
Solids
Chap.
of viscosity of blood with the strain rate, as measured

of
viscometer by Chien, Usami, Gregersen, et al. The coefficient
100 sec-1. At very low
viscosity increases as the strain rate decreases below about
strain rate the blood has a finite \"yield\" stress; i.e., it is visco-plastic. Other
the variation
with
in
the coefficient
a Couette
are discussed
viscoplastic materials
The world
fluids
that the
the
in
landscape is yet
Viscoplastic
largely
so much
203
Materials
a viscoplastic material
(1922)* with the relations
Then,
in a
state of
0
2ui =
next section.
fluids is
of non-Newtonian
Sec. 9.9
than that
is defined
by
ifF<0,
ifF>0.
Ft
larger
shear
simple
Bingham
'
of Newtonian
Hohenemser and Prager (1932)*
generalized
of stress in the form
unexplored.
states
9.9 VISCOPLASTICMATERIALS
2u.Fy
obeying Newton's law of viscosity must flow under the slightest shear
stress deviation).
Materials such as
(more
precisely, under a nonvanishing
who
and molding clay do not follow such a rule.
sourdough,
paste,
Bingham,
to describe the scienceof flow (Greek,
invented the word \"rheology\"
peas flow),
formulated
a law for a class of materials
known as viscoplastic, to which
sourdough
seems to belong. A viscoplastic
material is often called a Bingham
plastic.
A viscoplastic material
can sustain stresses with a nonvanishing
stress
deviation
when in a state of rest. SeeFig. 9.17. Consider first a body subjected to simple
shear, i.e., a state in which all components of the tensors of stress and strain rate
Bingham's
definition
to
forF<0,
arbitrary
(q9_A\\
V '
Fv':i
forF>0,
\342\226\240>,,
A material
stress
with
where
= coefficient
of viscosity,
Vjj
= strain-rate
tensor (see Sec.6.1),
rj/;-
= stress-deviator
p.
Figure 9.17 Comparison of the

flow rate and stress relationship
of
a viscoplastic
material with that of
Yield
a Newtonian
stress
as t
and
an absolute
value proportional to
0
|t|
- K.
Thus,
it\\r\\<K,
2pi
1-
K =
yield stress,
h =
second
022)2
(9.9-1)
For
simple
shear,
p,
differently
coefficient of viscosity.
This formulation
may be
with the introduction of a yield function F defined as
F=
1-
(0-22
<sr,
5o-\342\200\236,8l7,
stress deviator
o-b)2
(0-33
+ oi2
o-\342\200\236)2]
+ oi,
+ oil.
written
(9.9-2)
(9.9-5)
reduce
to Eqs.
(9.9-3) and
(9.9-2),
tensor of a viscoplastic
According to Eq. (9.9-4),the rate-of-deformation
is incompressible. When the yield function
is a deviator; i.e., the material
the yield function has a positive
is rigid. Flow occurs when
is negative, the material
=
F
forms
the
0
which
stress
for
value. The state of
yield limit at which viscoplastic
flow sets in or ceases, depending on the sense of direction in which the yield limit
material
is crossed.
Further generalizations of Bingham's

equation
may be introduced, or other
instead
slightly
and
respectively.
if|T|>\302\243,
is a
Eqs. (9.9-4)
example,compressibility
where
of the
invariant
l[(on
tensor =
fluid.
rate Va = Va
vanish, except the shear stress o^ = o-2i = t and the shear strain
= e. As
the
as
the
of
shear
stress
t
absolute
value
is
smaller
than
a certain
long
= 0. As
constant K, called the yield stress, the material
remains
so
that
e
rigid,
soon as |t| exceedsK, however, the material flows, with a strain rate e having the
same sign
('*-5\302\273
'-&
of Eq.
(9.9-3) are possible.For

criteria may be proposed
yield
(9.9-5).
E. C, Fluidity and Plasticity, New York, McGraw-Hill,

1922, p. 215.
\342\231\246Bingham,
fHohenemser, K., and Prager, W,, \"Uber die Ansalze der Mechanik isotroper
f. angen Math u. Meek 12: 216-226,1932.
Zeitschrift
Kontinua.'
204
TRANSFORMATION
9.10 SOL-GEL
Real
THIXOTRQPY
AND
or junction
without
flow)
be called a sol.
both of which
of the gel may
interpreted
as
points
a network held together by
bonds that cause
attractive
forces, or secondaryvalence
valence bonds, long-range
or the formation of submichains
of
between
an association
polymer
segments
Each of the junctions is a mechanism for relaxation
crystalline regions.
croscopic
of all these relaxation mechanisms is
under
stress. The statistics of the totality
bonds
forming
by the
viscoelasticity of the
Gels often can
be converted
or
agitation,
temperature,by
by
formed
by primary
material.
into
sols and vice
versa by
of
a change
in a process called peptization.

be induced isothermally
by mechanical
action
chemical
can
If a
reversible gel-sol
The gel
the material is said to be thixotropic, according to Freundlich.
vibration,then
to a gel when
into a sol by mechanical
agitation, and the sol reverts
is transformed
the agitation is discontinued.
inks, iron oxide sols,
substances are paints,
printing
of thixotropic
Examples
materials
black.
carbon
and
pervail in the
of kaolin,
Thixotropic
suspensions
agar,
the best known example.
in an amoeba is perhaps
world. The
transformation
biological
system is thixotropic
in ionic strength. See Scott-Blair,

Elsevier, 1974, for many
York,
G.
may depend on small changes

to Biorheology, New
Introduction
W., An
Vt =
or not
9.5
examples.
interesting
the
aluminum
for the
following
alloys,
VtJ
+ W\"y
is a constant that may be identified as a yield stress,

in which t is the shear stress, t,
Generalize this result to a constitutive equation
and 7 is the shear strain rate (sec-1).
and tensor analyses.
the
from
point of view of dimensional
for blood that is correct
cone
viscometer
(Fig. P9.5). The
of a cone-plate
Put blood between the cone and plate
remains
the
while
plate
revolutions per second,
at an angular
speed of n
rotates
the cone, the angular
between the torque T acting on
the
relationship
Derive
stationary.
constitutive
and the constants
t,. and b in the
radius
R, the cone angle 6,
speed n, the
In practice, it
8
is
the
exaggerated.
angle
derived in Prob. 9.4. In Fig. P9.5,
equation
will occur when 6 is large and why.
has to be small. Discuss what kind of complication
of an aircraft is a
the velocity of sound in the material of construction
air
clear
as
turbulence, gust
such
problems
dynamic
criterion for its safety against
identical in geometry
two
consider
this
For
airplanes
flutter.
and
purpose,
encounter,
the problem to consider only the
in material. Simplify
but different
and construction,
the
material cr; Young's modulus E;
of
the
density
following four typical parameters:
U. Use dimensional
the density of air p; and the velocity of flight of the airplane,
refer to one plane
and
U
Let
o-, E, p,
to construct the similarity
parameters.
analysis
we must
that
for
Show
the
other.
similarity,
to
refer
IP
dynamic
and
and cr', E', p',
have
If
the velocity of sound
that
Show
E.=
U represents
preceding
IE/
The
velocity
the rigidities
the
critical
the limit of the safe flight speed (e.g.,

formula relates U to the velocity of sound, \\/Eh
flight structures. Suppose
A cone-plate
viscometer.
flutter speed), then
(speedof
longitudinal
9.6
Assume
pressure.
in volume when it is subjected to a hydrostatic

that no material will expand
ratio v for any isotropic elastic
of Poisson's
value
maximum
the
that
Show
solid obeying
Hoolce's
for
comparing
simUarity parameter
designer selecting mateyou are an airplane
concrete column
rods of 1-sq-in
law is {.
steel rods. A vertical, hollow reinforced

poured over
3 ft and thickness of 3 in, with 36 steel
of
diameter
has an internal
circle. The column is subspaced in a
area, uniformly
cross-sectional
9.7 Reinforced concreteis
of sound in a solid is an important

of
Figure P9.5
fi
waves in a rod).
9.2
Using a handbook, list
equation
PROBLEMS
9.1
for construction.
magnesium alloys,
magnesium,
materials: pure
structural
materials
titanium carbide, and the rather exotic
titanium,
steels,
stainless
carbon steels,
lucite and phenolic
the plastics
with
Compare
oxide and pure beryllium.
beryllium
along the grain. Are
balsa, and bamboo,
laminates with the woods spruce, mahogany,
of sound in
velocities
the
between
differences
at the rather small
you not surprised
view?
of
the best material from this point
of these materials? What is
many
a
in Prob. 9.1 would be reached if you considered
as
9.3 Show that the same conclusion
wind.
in
original
(The
dangerously
be induced to vibrate
bridge that may
suspension
failed by flutter
spectacularly
Sound,Washington,
Tacoma Narrows Bridge on Puget
in a wind speed of 42 mph.
it was opened to traffic,
on Nov. 7,1940, four months after
37
from
of
the
bridge changed suddenly
of oscillation
On that morning, the frequency
tie rod. The
of a small reinforcing
because of a failure
to 14 cycles/min, probably
occurred half an hour later.
mode, and failure
in the torsional
motion
grew violently
the bridge
oscillation
induced
(flutter),
If there had not been this aerodynamically
100
mi/hr.)
a steady wind of at least
should have been able to withstand
in a Couette flowmeter
(Fig.
measured
blood
of
the
on
viscosity
data
9.4 The experimental
by Casson's
can be expressed approximately
9.16,
in
shown
as
Fig.
P3.22, p. 86),
protoplasm
a colloidal
Whether
Problems
aluminum,
age.
described
205
Chap.
rials
stress
to shear
A colloidal solution
may possess rigidity (subjected
and
without
a
fluid
as
behave
or
it
rigidity
a
and be called
may
gel,
a dispersed component and a dispersion medium,
A gel contains
extend
throughout the system. The elastic property
continuously
of a gel is usually
The dispersed
component
with its
change
Chap. 9
Fluids and Solids
concrete
206
Real
Fluids and
Solids
Chap.
jected to a
the resultant of which is along the axis of the column. The

of steel to that of concrete is 15. Poisson's ratio for concrete
is 0.4, and that for steel is 0.25. Determine
the share of the load that is carried
by
steel at a cross section somedistance
from the ends of the column.
vertical
load,
of Young's modulus
ratio
9.8
Consider a
Eq.
What
material
viscoelastic
characterized
as
Maxwell's
= a
varying force F
u at steady state?
(9.6-1). Let a sinusoidally

would be the deflection
sin
arf
small diameter.
of
(b) A
circular
wound
spirally
sin
and the matrix material are E, and \302\243\342\200\236,

to the cylinder axis, they are
parallel
area
When the
of
is a fraction
the fibers
of
tube is stretched longitudinally,
radius a and outer radius b, embedded with

make an angle 0 with the cylinder axis. Half
of a right-handed
screw, and half are left handed.
tube of inner
cylindrical
fibers. The helical fibers
the fibers are wound in
the manner
and matrix are, again, Efmd

\302\2430,
Compute
respectively.
tension. Assume that the
modulus of the tube in longitudinal
Young's
embedded.
fibers are perfectly
When the cylindrical tubes of parts (a) and (b) are subjected to an internal pressure
Young's
the effective
a) +
are
cross-sectional
total
of the tube.
what is Young's modulus for it?
model and described by

be imposed on the body.
moduli
Co
and the
area
cross-sectional
the total
for the fiber
\302\273
The fibers
\302\243\342\200\236.
Ef
distributed,
uniformly
of
= \342\200\224
[sin (cof
Young's moduli
with
respectively,
Answer:
u
207
References
Chap. 9
a],J
for the fiber
(c)
the fibers and matrix?

p,, how is the load resistedby
to the axis of the cylinder is applied
load perpendicular
shear
a
transverse
When
(d)
the stresses in the fibers and the
how is the shear resisted?Analyze
to the
where
A =
, tan
cylinder,
J*.
matrix.
t](i>
9.9
A liquid flows down a long tube of diameter 1 cm from a reservoir at a

sec. The streamlines are found
to be as shown in Fig. P9.9. The
that the
principal
feature
the stressdistribution
when the cylinder has to resist a bending
A torque T is
(f) Torsion resistance is also important.
in the fibers and matrix then?
the stresses
is
expands in diameter as it leaves the tube. Can a Newtonian

is suggested? [See A. S.
liquid do this? What kind of stress-strain
relationship
Lodge,
Elastic Liquids, New York: Academic
Press (1964), p. 242.]
liquid
(e) Similarly, analyze

moment.
rate of 10cm3/
column
9.15To measure
the tensile strength of water
and other
to the tube.
applied
Briggs (/, Chan.
Lyman
liquids,
What are
19 (1951), p. 970) used a Z-shaped

capillary tube, open at both ends, rotating
Physics
about an axis passing through the center of the Z of the tube and
in the Z-plane
to the plane. The liquid menisciare located in the bent-back short arms
perpendicular
until the liquid in the capillary
of the Z. The speedof rotation is increased gradually
tube that is open at both ends for this experiment, the
\"breaks.\" If one usesa straight
The bent-back short arms
will not be possible.
fluid will fly away and the experiment
the stability of the fluid. Examine this stability
of the Z provide
problem and present
of the experiment.
a theoretical analysis
Figure P9.9 A non-Newtonian

fluid coming out of a spout.
9.10When
a certain paint was stirred with an electric

it was found
that it climbed
mixer,
the shaft of the mixer. What kind of stress-strain
relationship of the paint is revealed
by this experiment? (See A.
ibid., p. 232.)
Lodge,
up
S.
9.11 Takea pieceof
and twist it to failure. Describe the cleavage surface, and

the strength of the chalk.
the chalk by bending, and discuss
the fracture mechanism,
chalk
the criterion about
infer
Again, break
9.12 Take a piece of nylon
and discuss the failure

thread, pull it to failure,
of
mechanism
nylon vs. that of the chalk in Prob. 9.11.
9.13 Take a toy rubber balloon. Blow it
up. Takea pin. Prick the inflated balloon. Chances
are it will explode. Now, without
the balloon, stretch the rubber with both
inflating
hands and ask a friend
to prick it with the pin. Chances are that it will not
explode.
Can you explain that? How would the constitutive
reflect this
equation of the rubber
fact?
9.14
REFERENCES
Cottrell,
A.
Fung, Y, C,
Foundations
Y. C,
\"Elasticity
Fung,
high-strength
Properties
of Solid Mechanics.
of Matter.
New York: Wiley,
Prentice-Hall, 1965.
Cliffs, N.J.,
Englewood
of Soft Tissues in Simple Elongation.\"
1964.
Am.
J. Physiol. 213(6):
1532-1544,1967.
Y. C, \"Stress-Strain-History
Biomechanics: Its Foundations
Relations
Fung,
Anliker, N.J.,
Fung, Y.
C,
Fung, Y. C,
of
Verlag,
Fung,
Prentice-Hall,
\"Biorheology
Fronek,
Its Mathematical
Fung, Y. C,
Many engineering and biological structures are made of composite materials consisting
of stiffer
components embedded in a softer matrix. Consider the following
two models:
(a) A circular cylindrical
tube, in the wall of which are embedded
fibers
The Mechanical
H.,
of Soft Tissues.\"
K., and
1981,2nd ed.,
Tissues
in Simple
Biorheology
Am. J. Physiol.
Mechanical
In
Elongation.\"
Perrone,
and
M.
10:139-155,1973.
of Arteries and
the Choice
237: H620-H631,1979.
Properties of Living
Tissues.
New York: Springer-
1993.
Y. C, \"A Model of the Lung
2132-2141,1988.
Soft
Patitucci, P., \"Pseudoelasticity
Expression.\"
Biomechanics:
of
and Objectives, Ed. by Y. C. Fung, N.

1971.
Structure and
Its Validation.\"
/. Appl. Physiol.
64(5):
208
Fung,
Y. C, Biomechanics: Motion,
Real Fluids and
and Growth.
Flow, Stress,
Solids
Chap.9
NewYork: Springer-Verlag,
1990.
J. E., Large Elastic

Green, A. E., and Adhns,
Mechanics. Oxford:
Oxford University Press,
Deformations
and Nonlinear Continuum
1960.
Behavior of Vascular
K., Handa, H., Mom, K., and Moritake, K., \"Mechanical
Walls.\"/. Soc.Material Science Japan 20:1001-1011,1971.
of State of Water and Sea Water.\"
J. Geophys. Res. 72(10):
Li, Yuan-Hui,
\"Equation
Hayashi,
2665-2678,1967.
and Sobin,S. S.,\"Collagen

and Elastin Fibers in Human
Mouths and Ducts.\" /. Appl. Physiol.
63(3): 1185-1194,1987.
Patel, D. J., and Vaishnav, R. N., \"The Rheology of Large Blood Vessels.\"In
Cardiovascular
Fluid Dynamics, Vol. 2, edited by D. H. Bergel (pp.2-64).
New York: Academic
Matsuda,
M.,
Pulmonary
Fung,
Y. C,
Alveolar
In the
Press, 1972.
Sobin,
S. S.,
Fung, Y. C,
and
Tremer,
H. M.,
\"Collagen
and Elastin Fibers in
(strain
Human
analyzed deformation (strain) and flow

with the force of interaction
(stress)
We are now in a position to
(continuum).
body
of a material
to derive differential
describing the motion
equations
use this information
must
Our formulation
conditions.
under
specific boundary
of the continuum
and
conservation
mass,
the
of
law
of
motion,
principle
of
obey Newton's
is concerned with expressingthese
the laws of thermodynamics. This chapter
a continuum.
laws in a form suitable
for the treatment of
on these
elaboration
One may wonder why there is a need for further
between parts
Walls.\" /. Appl. Physiol.

64(4): 1659-1675,1988.
Tait, P. G., \"Report on Some of the Physical Properties of Fresh Water and Sea Water.\"
Results of Voy. H.M.S.,
Report on Scientific
Challenger, Phys. Chem., 2,1-76,1888.
R.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.
Tanner,
I., Engineering
Rheology.
Pulmonary
have
preceding chapters, we
rate) and their relationship
Alveolar
The answer
laws.
well-known
If we
have
states
that the
a single
particle,
mass of the
the individual
particles.
to consider the
distribution,
velocity
etc. It is the
a circumstance
that
principle
in
the
following
of conservation
example.
of mass merely
constant. However, if we have a large

in a cloud, the situation
droplets
no
For the cloud, it is
longer practical to identify
The most convenient way to describethe cloud is
particle
as the
such
number of particles,
requires some thought.
be illustrated
may
the
field, the
is a
water
density
descriptionof
the
distribution,
classical
our attention
on the fact that
will occupy
the temperature
conservation
in this
laws
in
such
chapter.
conservation laws must

bounded
a volume
by an arbitrary
some
that
we
quantities enter
find
closed surface. In such an approach,
A
a
volume
in
others
transformation
integral.
in a surface integral,
naturally
is
and
vice
versa,
a
often
required.
to
volume
integral,
from a surfaceintegral
our
servesas
which
in Gauss's
theorem,
is
embodied
This transformation
mathematical
starting point.
Our approach is based

to the matter enclosed in
be applicable
these
10.1 GAUSS'STHEOREM
We
shall begin
with
the
derivation
bounded
by a surface S that
normals form a continuous vector
V
of Gauss's
consists
field
of a
(e.g.,
a convex region
theorem. Consider
finite number of parts whose outer
the one shown in Fig. 10.1). Such a
209
210
of Field
Derivation
Equations
Chap. 10
where dV and
applies
to
211
Gauss's Theorem
Sec. 10.1
dS denote
of V and
the elements
integral of dAldx2
volume
the
A similar argument
Thus, we obtain Gauss's
S, respectively.
or 9Aldx3.
theorem,
formula
This
Figure
10.1
Path
of
holds for
a finite
be decomposedinto
Now let us consider
integration
of
illustrating the derivation

Gauss's theorem.
surface
S be
any
region or for
regular
any
regular
regions.
Let the region V with boundary
field AjU....
of Aja
of AjU.... Let every component
definition
isapplicable
in V. Then Eq. (10.1-4)
differentiable
be continuously
of the tensor, and we obtain the general result
region is said
V and on the
the volume
regular. Let a function

S. Let A be continuously
to be
surface
x2, x3) be defined in the volume

differentiable
in V. Let us consider
dx2 dx3.
dx\\
The
is the
integrand
respect
to
xx
along
partial
of A
derivative
a line
segment L, we
dA
dx2 dx: =
VdXi
with respect to
xx. By
integrating
with
obtain
was
Example 1
Let
dxi
\\\\s^
(10.1-1)
Am)dx2dx3
A** are, respectively,

the values of A on the surface
S at the right
and left ends of the line segment L parallel
to the Xi-axis. The surface integral
on
the right-hand side of Eq. (10.1-1)may be written more elegantly.
The factors
+dx2 dx3 and -dx2 dx3 are the projections on the x2x3-$tem of the areas dS*and
dS** at the ends of the line segment L. Let v = (vh v2, v3) be the unit
vector
to the surface S. For the element
shown in Fig. 10.1, we
along the outer normal
see that vf = cos (xu v*) is positive,
whereas
vf = cos (xu v**) is negative. It
is easy to see that in this case, dx2 dx3 = v* dS* at the right end and -dx2 dx3 =
the surface integral in Eq. (10.1-1) can be
vf dS** at the left end. Therefore,
a vector.
V,- represent
A, =
v,-,
J Js
as
{A*
to Eq.
Then, according
n; as the normal vector to
and
where .A* and
written
(10.1-5)
the most useful
theorem
BA
component
in applied mathematics.
theorems
forms
various
in
(1762), Gauss (1813),
by Lagrange
This
given
best
known
in this country as Green's
It
is
and
(1831).
Green (1828), Ostrogradsky
or Gauss's theorem.
theorem
is one of
which
vdxt
to every
\\vÂm...dV=\\sviAikl...dS,
A(xu
integral
region that can
a tensor
the region of
within
convex
number of convex
(10.1-5), we have, on
identifying
surface S,
the
\\vdidv=\\sv'n'dsIf
we write
w; and the
the coordinates xu
direction cosines nh
x2, *3 as
n2, n3 of
v,
v,, v2, v3 as \302\253,
x, y, z; the components
to the surface S as /, m,
the outer normal
n, then
III
In
another
+
v
(to
popular
S)
& dy
dZ =
notation, we denote the
\\L
vector
{lU
+ mV
+ m) dS-
by v and the
(101-7)
scalar product
v,/i/
by vn and define
dx2 dx3
- A** dx2
dx^
dS*
\\\\s (A*vf
A**vt*
dS**).
The asterisks may be omitted because they merely indicate the appropriate values
of A and vi to be taken in a surface integral accordingto conventional
notations.
side of Eq. (10.1-1) reduces
to Js Avx dS. Now, if we write
Thus, the right-hand
the volume integral
on the left-hand side as JV (dAldxi)
dV, then we have
M '
\342\200\224dV=
\"
AVldS,
divv =
(10.1-2)
(10.1-3)
to
dy
\342\200\224\342\200\242
(10.1-8)
dz
Then Eq. (10.1-7)becomes
]vdwvdV
Equations
theorem.
(10.1-6), (10.1-7),
and
(10.1-9)
)srndS.
are the
best known
forms
(10.1-9)
of Gauss's
Sec.
212
of Field
Derivation
10.2
a
Material Description of the Motion of
213
Continuum
Chap. 10
Equations
^.\"3
2
Example
>1=j?,(o\342\200\236o2,o3,rt
is identified
If A
the
in
a potential
with
<|>, then
function
Eq.
is usually
(10.1\342\200\2243)
X2=Xz(ah 02, 03,/)

X3=X3(0,, 02, 03>')
written
vector form
grad<j>aT =
iu|>
(01, C2, 03)
dS.
Configuration at t=r
Example
Let eijk
be the
permutation tensor. Then

Configuration
eijtUkjdV
etik
Uk.jdV
%. J uknjdS
at /=0
-^2,\302\2602
eijkuknjdS;
i.e.,
Figure
*1.\302\2601
curl u dV
u dS.
OFA
OF THE
DESCRIPTION
a2, a3, t)
particle be Xi
the label for
Conservation
of reference
au
that
x2
particle.
be chosen.
t =
0-X\\X2x3
= a3 when-time
a2, x3
As time goes on,
the
Let the
of a material
use (au a2, a3) as
moves. Its location
has
location
We shall
/\342\200\236.
particle
the history
Xi
*,(<?,,
referred to
the
a2,
same
a3, t),
x2
coordinate
=
Xi
x{au
x2(au
a2,
system or,
a2,
in
x3 =
a3, t),
x3(au az,
short,
such
for every particle

an equation is known
of motion of the entire body. Mathematically,
in
the
dx2 dx3
p(x) dxi
the
t)
dt
(10.2-2)
f\302\253l.\302\2532.\"3)
as follows.
p0(a)dax
Let p(x) be the
density
-p(x)dxidx2dx3=
where |3x,-/3flj
matrix
is the
(10.2-4)
da2 da3,
same particles. But
(10.2-1)
(10.2-5)
dax da2 da3,
p(s)det
3fl;|
Jacobian of the transformation, i.e.,
the
of the
determinant
(dxjldaj):
det
dxJdOi
dX\\lda2
dxilda3
dx-Jdax
dx2lda2
dx2lda3.
dxjdai
dx3lda2
dx3lda3
fl
\342\200\224
=
i3a'
Identifying the right-hand
the result must hold for
of Eqs. (10.2-4) and

domain D, we
arbitrary
sides
any
(10.2-5)
see that
(10.2-6)
and realizing
the
integrands
that
must
be equal:
Po(a)
v{au a2, a3,
'(01,12.03!
x stands for {xu x2, x3). Let p0(a)

at location x, where the symbol
of the material
= 0. Then the mass of the material
t
when
be the density at the point (ab a2, a3)
at t = 0 and is Jc. p(x) dxx dx2 dx3
in a volume V is JD p0(a) dax da2 da3
enclosed
of mass is expressed by the formula
at time t. Thus, conservation
body,
Sf2
(n,nn)
be expressed
may
where the integrals extend over
= 1, 2,
(i
3).
a3, t),
of mass
a3, t)
then we know the

defines the
history
Eq. (10.2-1)
or mapping, of a domain D(at, a2, a3) into a domain D'(xh x2, x3),
transformation,
with fas a parameter. An exampleis shown in Fig. 10.2.If the mapping is continuous
and
one to one\342\200\224i.e.,
for every point (au a2, a3), there is one and only one point
and
vice
versa\342\200\224and
neighboring
points in D(ah a2, a3) are mapped into
(xh x2, x3)
then
the
in
functions xâu a2, a3, t) must be single
x2,
x3),
neighboring
points
D'{xu
and continuously
and the Jacobian must not
differentiable,
valued,
continuous,
vanish in the domain D.
The mapping
given by Eq. (10.2-1) is said to be a material descriptionof the
and acceleration
motion
of the body. In a material description, the velocity
of the
at
particle
(a,, a2, a3) are, respectively,
If
(10.2-3)
Bt
MOTION
CONTINUUM
Let a fixed frame
of particles.
3%
av,
MATERIAL
Labeling
and
a,{fli,
10.2
10.2
p(x)
det
-j
(10.2-7)
214
of Field
Derivation
Chap. 10
Equations
The Material
Sec. 10.4
Derivative
of a Volume
215
Integral
to any function F(xh

is
The reasoning that leads to Eq. (10.3-1) applicable
A
the
as
such
temperature.
the
particles,
moving
x2,x^ t) that is attributable to
a dot or the
denoted
is
which
by
material
derivative,
is the
convenient terminology
the material derivative of F is
DIDt.
Thus,
symbol
....
Similarly,
p(x)
det
p0(a)
(10.2-8)
dXj
relate
These equations
that
transformation
the
in different
density
leads from one
Thus, the material

mechanics.
of the body
configurations
method
used
OF THE
In the
material
water
in
of water
is not
f0. This
a river,
we do not
comes.
Instead,
and its
convenient.
always
we are
leads to
time. This
with
evolution
in hydrodynamics. The
It is natural
independent variables.
used
v,(M) =
which
every particle
where
s again
stands for the
On regarding F(xu x2, x3,
v;(x,
f)
A
v;g(M),
and
by
dt)
v, dt, t
reduces
to Eq.
the contribution of the
Accordingly,these
acceleration,
respectively.
(10.3-1).The first
dependence of the
motion
terms
time
t +
dt
t)
vt(xj,
v,dt
dV
which reduces to
10.4 THE
Eq.
v\342\200\236
term
velocity
in
in Eq. (10.3-1) may be interpreted

field on time, the second term as
velocity field.
convective parts of the
the nonhomogeneous
local and
the
dx
Ix
(10.3-2)
by
DERIVATIVE OF A
MATERIAL
integral
Let I(t) be a volume
domain
V(xit
over a sp
spatial
implicit
dx,
F(ah
t)
(10.3-3)
of a\342\200\236
a2, a3,
function
dF,
dF
dx3\\
dt la
dx-
fl*3
.dt
virtue
of Eq.
\342\200\224I
x2, x3, t)
la
have
(10.3-4)
(10.2-2).
function
differentiable
occupied
t, we
INTEGRAL
VOLUME
of a continuously
by a given
A(x, t) defined
set of material
A(%, t) dxi dx2 dx3.
particles:
(10.4-1)
of the time /
The function
I(t) is a function
the
parameter
the domain V(x, t) depend on
because both the integrand A(%, t) and
rate of change of I(t) with
is
the
What
ask:
we
and
varies
also,
t. As t varies, /(f)
of /, is
derivative
called the material
denoted
by DIlDt and
This
Here again,
we write
x for xh
x2, x3.
rate,
to (?
particles.
given set of material
is of primary
importance. The
The phrase \"for a given set of particles\"
the value of J changing. To
body itself \"sees\"
is how fast the material
question
t will have
S of the body at the instant
this rate, note that the boundary
evaluate
V
domain
the
bounds
surface
5\", which
moved at time t + dt to a neighboring
as
defined
The material derivative of I is
defined
transformed into
3F\\ ax,
respect
dXj
of the particle
are called the
dt at the
the higher-order
omitting
flv,(x,
t)
\342\200\224*-^
dt
as arising from the
x{ + v:
coordinates
dv,(x, t) ,
= v, + -\342\200\224^dt
+
which
(10.3-1)
in the formula
xu x2, x3, and every quantity
follows from the fact that a particle located at (xh
dt = v,(x;
t) as an
fJA
variables
is evaluated
at (x, t). The proof
to a point with
x2, x3) at time t is moved
and that, according to Taylor's theorem,
infinitesimal terms
as dt -> 0,
x2, xh t) is
the spatial
+
\302\247fcO
\342\200\224
\342\200\242
A
(10.3-2)
v
dt
(xu x2, x3)
location
v3
to2
tai
dFjai, a2, a3,
instantaneous velocity
in the
description traditionally
and the time t are taken as
because measurementsare more
for hydrodynamics
of
what
in terms
and
made
happens at a certain place,
easily
directly interpreted
rather than following the particles.
is
motion of the continuum
In a spatial description, the instantaneous
vector field Vj(jti\", x2, x3,t), which, of course, is the velocity
described by the velocity
at (xu x2,x3) at time t. We shall show that the
of a particle instantaneously
located
of the particle is given
instantaneous acceleration
by the formula
field
F(xu
coordinates at a given
When we describe the flow of
interested
generally
v2.ri
W/x=const,
by its
location from
to identify the
desire
CONTINUUM
is identified
every particle
description,
of time
instant
MOTIONOFA
\342\200\224
+
+ v,
hr
a2, a3, t) through the

indeed the value of F
then
F(au a2, a3, t) is
by Eq. (10.2-1),
F does mean
derivative
the
material
attached to the particle (at, a2, a3).Hence,
Formally,
F of the particle (au a2, a3).
the rate of change of the property
other hand, if
transformation given
On the
DESCRIPTION
SPATIAL
in
particle
10.3
F = TT
Dt
of a continuum follows the
description
to the
to another.
configuration
for a
(Fig. 10.3).
DI
..
\342\200\224
= lim \342\200\224
Dt
<m dt
f A(x,t+dt)dV-
\\A(x,t)dV
(10.4-2)
of Field Equations
Derivation
216
Chap.
10
Sec. 10.5
The
last integral
Transformingthe
\302\243[
Dtiv
?17
of Continuity
Equation
theorem and
by Gauss's
using
J v dXj
J v ^dV+\\vj-{Av!)dV
dt
AdV=\\
+
JkU+V/^
Figure 10.3
Continuous
the boundary
of a region.
change
h\\Dt
of
time
V.
We note
interval
difference
to the
that
dt. Since
AV
is swept
V =
in
the domains
out
+ AV,
by
V\"
the motion
we can
write
and V. Let A V be the
of the
surface S in
(10.4-2)
Eq.
domain
formula
DI
Dt
lim -.
*-.odt\\
jv
A(x, t
dt)
dV
J w/
A(x,
(10.4-5)
ax,!
will be
the small
as
OF CONTINUITY
10.5 THE EQUATION

\342\200\224
=
used repeatedly in the sections that follow. It should

material
the
to
Eq. (10.4-5),the operation of forming
be noted that according
in
are noncommutative
general.
derivative and that of spatial integration
This important
Attention is drawn
Eq. (10.3-2), we have
t + dt) dV
The
of conservation
law
Sec. 10.4,we
can
The mass
of mass was
now give
contained in
discussed in
some alternative
V at
a domain
Sec.
10.2. With the
results of
forms.
a time
t is
A{x,t)dV
(10.4-3)
I V
limljl
v [A(x,t+dt)-A(x,t)]dV
m
[dt J
continuum at locationx at time t. Conservation

is given by Eq. (10.4-4)
DmIDt
= 0. The derivative
of mass requires that DmIDt
hold for an arbitrary
must
result
the
Since
or Eq. (10.4-5)if A is replaced by p.
forms of the
the
obtain
we
following
must vanish. Hence,
domain V, the integrand
n:
normal
outer
with
5
surface
a
in
of mass enclosed
where
law
For a
differentiable
continuously
function
A(x, t),
the
first
term on the
by
contributes
noting
the
value
p(x,
t) is
the
JV SAIdt
J v jtdV
SA
AdV
\342\200\224
v dt
dV
Js
' '
Av,n,dS.
(10.4-4)
4 +
Js
dS
pv,\302\253,
= 0.
(10.5-2)
a 00,-3,
^-o.
POM,
^p^\302\253.
These are
called
the
equations
of continuity.
The
integral
form,
Eq. (10.5-2),
be assumed.
the differentiability of pv; cannot
Then
identically.
are satisfied
these
of
equations
statics,
In problems
or
(10.2-8).
Eq.
conservation of mass must be expressed by Eq. (10.2-7)
useful
Dt
of the
of conservation
that for an infinitesimal
D_
density
right-hand
dV to DIlDt. The last term may be evaluated

dt, the integrand may be taken to be A(x, t) on
the boundary
surface
S [because of the assumed
continuity of A(x, t)] and that the
integral is equal to the sum of A(x, t) multiplied by the volume swept out by the
S in the time interval
dt. If n,- is the unit vector
particles situated on the boundary
the
of
since
the
outer
normal
on the
S,
then,
displacement of a particle
along
out by particles
volume
an
area
is
the
element
of
v,
dt,
swept
boundary
occupying
dS on the boundary S is dV = n;v,<iS-dt.
On ignoring infinitesimal quantities
of
the second or higher
we see the contribution
of this element to DIlDt
is
order,
AviUidS. The total contribution is obtained
by an integration over S. Therefore,
side
when
is
the
218
10.6THE
of Field
Derivation
Sec. 10.7
Chap. 10
Equations
eration DvJDt. Hence,we
OF MOTION
EQUATIONS
219
of Momentum
Moment
the celebrated
obtain
Eulerian
of motion
equation
of a
continuum:
Newton's laws
of motion
of change
rate
forces applied
in a
of the
state
that
in an
momentum
linear
inertial
of reference,
frame
a body
is equal to
momentum
of all the
of
the
the
material
of the
resultant
to the body.
At an instant
domain V is
of time
I, the
linear
9i =
is subjected to
the resultant force is
X\342\200\236
9, = Js f,
According
in
terms
by
jv
body force per
10.7
X, dV.
boundary surface S of the

T, into Eq. (10.6-2) and transforming
the surface
Gauss's theorem, we have
to the
Newton's
law states
may be expressed
integral
into
a volume
along
to Eq.
equation must
be equal.
a(/v;-
case
of angular momentum to the particular
of the law of balance
An application
tensors
are
leads to the conclusionthat stress tensors
symmetric
of static equilibrium
to the motion of
restriction
now show that no additional
shall
We
Sec.
3.4.)
(see
the
momentum
in dynamics
postulate, which
is introduced
angular
by
a continuum
with
of
momentum
the
of
moment
of
respect
rate
change
states that the material
the
about
forces
of
all the applied
moment
resultant
the
to
is
to an origin
equal
same
origin.
At an
boundary
(10.4-5),
= 9i-
with
\"
dXjVK
hold
A identified
with pv;, we
region
Eq. (3.2-2)]
[See
of space
with
(10.7-1)
\\yeiikxiPvkdV
for an
domain
arbitrary
% =
\\v
eilkXjXk dV
Js
dS.
eijkxJTk
(10.7-2)
have
(ia6-5)
dv=L[^+x)dv-
side of Eq. (10.6-6)is equal
V, the integrands
on
Introducing Cauchy's formula,

result into a volume
transforming the
% =
the
dav\\
dXjj
law
states
\\v
Tk
integral
eiikXjXk dV
o-;it/z,,
into
by Gauss's
+
\\v
the last integral, and
theorem, we
obtain
dV.
{eijkxFlk),,
(10.7-3)
that, for any region V,
jt%
to
Idvi
HU
dvl
'dxp
set of parentheses
vanishes
according to the equation of
is the accel(10.5-3), while that in the second set of parentheses
Evaluating
(10.7-3),
the
material
derivative of %
= %.
according
(10.7-4)
to Eq.
(10.4-5) and
using
Eq.
we obtain
in the first
Eq.
a regular
occupying
momentum
Thus,
\\dt
continuity,
the moment of
S has
(W.6-4)
Ida
The quantity
t, a body
of time
instant
do.\302\253)
Euler's
The left-hand
be
traction
surface
with respect to the origin of coordinates. If the body is subjected to
about
the origin is
resultant
moment
the
volume
unit
Xh
force
a
and
per
Tj
body
dt
sides must
can
OF MOMENTUM
MOMENT
integral
that
dpVi
Since this
traction
z)dv.
jr9i
Hence, according
(10.6-2)
l[%
(10.6-7)
volume
unit
v, is the unit vector

domain
V. On substituting
* =
two
T/ and a
to Cauchy's formula,
Eq. (3.3-2),the surface
of the stress field a9, so that T, = o),v/, where
the outer normal

for
dS
(10.6-1)
jypv,dV.
tractions
surface
in Sec. 3.4 is a special case that

discussed
The equation of equilibrium
obtained by setting all velocity components v, equal to zero.
particles contained
If the body
+ X,
p-
eijkXj-
at
(pvt)
\342\200\224
(eiikxfivkvi)
aX[
e,ikXjXk
eiik(xp,k),,.
(10.7-5)
\"
Derivation
220
The second term
in
Eq.
can be written
(10.7-5)
Field Equations
of
Chap.
10
as
of
etjkPm
because
term
and
is antisymmetric
eijk
in
can be
(10.7-5)
Eq.
= 0
G =
enkX,
By
the
as %.o>
with respect to
/, k.
eijkxfxik>l.
The last
Eq. (10.7-5)
Hence,
Hence,
(PW) ~Xk-
Eq. (10.6-6),the
to
reduced
is
Eq. (10.7-6)
10.8
THE BALANCE OF
= 0.
eijkaik
(10.7-6)
in the
sum
square brackets
vanishes.
= 0;
balance of moment
The
expression
law
for a
the
kinetic
be governed
must
continuum
by the
further
of energy
is
law of conservation
law of thermodynamics. Its

as soon as all formsof energy
and work
first
the
continuum can be derived

a continuum for which
consider
energy K,
the
energy
gravitational
= K
Energy
energy contained
in
= Q+
there
are three
G, and the
internal
a regular
K=
+ G +
domain
E.
V
at a
(10.8-1)
-pv,v,-
dV,
Jp<Kx)
dV,
(10.8-6)
W.
Q +
E)
W,
(10.8-8)
F; in
at which work
V and the
surface
is done
the body
on the body by
T; in
tractions
Fit, dV
force per unit
volume
S is the power
f
FiV,dV+
f,n,
dS
jq
cr^mdi
(10.8-2)
(10.8-3)
(10.8-7)
<2=-Js/wdS=-jKgdV.
work
rates
TV
time t is
by
of rates, we have
E. We
where v,- are the components of the velocity vector of a particle occupying
an element
The gravitational
of volume dV and p is the density of the material.
energy depends
on the distribution
of mass and may be written as
=
the
forms of energy:
energy
of heat Q and
input is, therefore,
The rate
kinetic
terms
by absorption
changed
states
of thermodynamics
The first law
W per unit time.

of change of Q and
the boundary.
where
through
must be imparted
into the body
/i2) hi) is
input
h (with components /ih
a heat flux vector
flow,
heat
outer normal
unit
To describe the
in the body, with
be a surface element
dS
Let
the direction
in
defined as follows.
across the surface dS
heat is transmitted
which
we insist
at
rate
the
Then
medium is moving,
\302\253,-.
as hfli dS, If the
be
of heat
to
rate
representable
The
assumed
is
of v;
of the same particles.
dS be composed
the surface element
that
have
The
in
W are
Q and
Now, the heat
of conservation
are listed. Let us
this
(10.8-5)
dV,
p\302\243
~t{K + G +
mechanical
If
^--Expressing
identically.
in a problem, then the energy

energy alone is of interest
If a thermal process
is merely the first integral of the equation of motion.
equation
becomes
an independent equation to be
is significant,
then the equation of energy
satisfied.
of energy.
mass.
unit
energy per
a system can be
of
the
energy
that
W done on the system:
the internal
(10.7-7)
the law of
the gravitational
A energy
ENERGY
of a
The motion
CT,M
tensor is symmetric,
if the stress
o*y. Thus,
of momentum
is satisfied
opposite to
dV,
pgz
form
where E is
Wit
i.e.,or,-*
in a direction
E =
T, (PV*) + 7at
aXi
plane
in the
of motion
equation
aX)
becomes
\342\200\2421
field, we have
(pv*v,)
e,ikXj
is symmetric
VjVk
written
gravitational
\342\200\224
\342\200\224(pw)
aXi
etikXj
a uniform
of Energy
The Balance
Sec 108
221
Fjt,dV+
(<r,n,)jdV.
(W-8-9)
v
222
of
law
Eq. (10.8-7), and

obtain
the following
we
derivatives,
thermodynamics,
material
Dv2
^PT^
of Field
Derivation
Dt
v2
v2Dp
, nDp
+ p\342\200\224+ E~
Dt
+ p
div v
Ep
result
equation
and
motion:
can be simpliied
Equations
of Motion
DE _
the
(10.8-10)'
DA
Dp
\342\200\224 \342\200\224+ A
+ Ap div
- _
nonmechanical transfer of energy

Fourier's law,
obeys
piVi
+ (rwW,
h,=
+ ff,7Vf,;.
J is the
where
of continuity
Here, X, is the
is the gravitational
total
v = 0,
body force
force and is,
= X,
\302\260%
per unit
temperature,
then the
between X,
and
(B) The
F,
by deleting
definition,
by
of heat
conduction, which
(10.8-18)
-J\\\342\200\224.
aX,
X
equation
energy
T3
is the
conductivity, and T is the
becomes
BT\\
(10.8-11)
<rw.
The difference
mass.
consists
of heat,
equivalent
mechanical
DE
|\302\243
usual
of heat
equation
the terms involving
a continuum
conduction in
A, v,-, and
V,j and
at rest
X,-F,=
-pQ-
(10.8-12)
OX,
where
(10.8-20)
_~ 3A_
Dcj)
for the
vanishing rate of deformation.
3A/flf
0 for a gravitational
a field, and
with
field
(10.8-11)
Eqs.
V'dx-
Dv,
dh,
P^=-^+PV'^
2p-D7
of time, we
that is independent
and (10.8-12),
DE
Dv2
pcEdt = JLLE).
dxk dx,j
3A_
dt
Dt
Then
Eq. (10.8-19)
10.9 THE EQUATIONS
...Dv,
Dv2
and
o*v,v
^(v,-,; +
v/V)
+ l(vy
vtf)]
<r,V,
+ 0,
(10.8-15)
where
V,j
strain-rate tensor. The
contraction
of the
can
Hence,Eq. (10.8-13)
equation:
last
product of a
l(vy +
term
symmetric
be simplified,
in Eq.
OF MOTION
POLAR
AND CONTINUITY IN
\"
the stress and strain components, respectively,

In Sees. 3.6 and 5.8, we considered
can
of motion and continuity
equations
The corresponding
in polar coordinates.
by
tensor
analysis,
of
general
manner: by the method
be derived in the same
from
derivation
hoc
ad
direct
or
by
from the Cartesian coordinates,
transformation
of the last two approaches follow.
Illustrations
first principles.
Cartesian coordinates x, y,
between
for transformation
The basic equations
z are given in Sec. 5.8. If we substitute Eq. (3.6-5)
t and polar coordinates r, 6,
the equation of equilibrium,
into
~ = 0,
vy)
(10.8-16)
(10.8-15) vanishes
because
it is
the
an antisymmetric one.
and we obtain the final form of the energy
tensor
cr,j
'
COORDINATES
,,\342\200\236\342\200\236,\342\200\236
(10'8-13)
(1o.8_21)
K
have, for
But
is the
the specificheat
becomes
Since
and
c is
is obtained
setting
E = JcT,
such
223
(10.8-17)
+ a.y..
all the
(A) If
if we make use of the equations
greatly
p div
dA
Specialization
absolute
in Polar Coordinates
Continuity
and
Dt
=
This
The
DE
\342\200\236
+ -pdivv
2 Dt
2
+ TTT
Eq. (10.4-5) to compute

after some calculation:
using
Sec.10.9
Chap. 10
Equations
(10.9-1)
dXj
i.e.,
with
+.~I
dx
dy
\342\200\224
3z
'
224
of Field
Derivation
etc., and
(5.8-3) to
use Eq.
\342\200\224
.)
l^\302\243
Since
0 =
30
this equation must hold
for
we obtain
derivatives,
r 30
dr
\\
the
transform
!2i\302\243)sine
= 0.
of 6, we must
have,
at
6 = 0 and
flcr^
at
2ovo
is arbitrary,
with
\\
dz
-^f
r 39
is subjected to
continuum
of motion,
equation
sin 0)
v0
-s
= cos
dvr
v03vr
v\\
dr
30
id\\'r
,
\342\200\224
+
+ vr
6\342\200\224
\\3f
. [dvt
- sm
+ vr
0\342\200\224
\\dt
dv\\
+ v.
\342\200\224
dz)
nn q_7x
(U).y-i)
3v0\\
vrv\342\200\236 \342\200\224
3v8
v\342\200\236
3v0
\342\200\242
\342\200\224\342\200\224
+ v2
+ \342\200\224
dz
(10.9-3)
Comparing
the
Eq. (10.9-7) with
third
equation
= a,
ax
cos 0
aD
(10.9-8)
sin 0,
equation
we obtain the components of acceleration:

\342\200\224
the
sm 9)
v0
be valid for all
must
3, we obtain the
l(vr
225
dz
so Eq.
3,
3z
cos
\342\200\224(vr
Coordinates
of equilibrium,
If
(10.9-3)
_
3\302\243jo
Eq. (10.9-1)
dz
3r
30
^-direction
values of 0. Similarly,
Ow
\302\243Ejo 3_\302\243rfi
from
r 36
3r
of the
QV
0)lsm 0
in Polar
Continuity
and
cos0 \342\200\224
3
fl\\,
\342\226\240
\342\200\236
\342\200\224\342\200\224
\342\200\224
cos
\342\200\242
\342\200\236
Vo cos
sm 9
3^,19ovo
the choice
/
(vr
of Motion
Equations
I
,
(10.9_2) '
K
dzl
ir/2, respectively,
But
+ vz
dr
values
The
cos 0
3z /
+
+ !\302\243\302\243
+ 2\302\243\302\243
all
Sec. 10.9
Chap. 10
Equations
^dr
= 0.
an acceleration
and a body force,
r 39
r 30
dr
dt
i'o3ve
3v0
\342\200\224
+
3v0
- \342\200\224
-). v
Eq. (10.6-7),is
dvr
v\\
v\342\200\2363vr
dr
dt
the
then
3vr
3vr
(10.9-4)
'
K
3z
(10.9-9)
3v0
vrv0
+ v * \342\200\224,
+ \342\200\224
dz
Similarly,
(uuo
*\342\231\246*-,\302\243-p*
The body force per
may be resolved into
volume
unit
a2 =
the
relate
that
Hence, by
d;
dx
3/
ax,
+ (vr
of motion
The full equations
v0
dvz .
+
v/-i\302\261
sm 0)
= i!Z!!
ofl \302\260
p
30
+ !Zi
+^
;\342\200\242
3cr22
pflz
\\
sine
dr
S\\,
\342\200\224
30/
(vr cos 0
(10.9-10)
v0
.
s
sin 0)
OV
TOO
3^
r.
3z
dr
13cr20
r 30
\342\200\224
+
dr
dz
3cr2r
ov,
3r
Fo,
(10.9-11)
from the
straightforward, but not very instructive
balance
the
of
examination
on
an
based
A second
point of view.
physical
the
into
Figure
further
equations.
insight
element
supply
may
of forces acting on an
the stress pattern
with
element
isolated
an
for
shows the free-body diagram
Thesederivations
cos 0
3z
velocity v\342\200\236
vy, vz are
coordinates by the same Eqs. (5.8-4)
u is replaced by a and v, respectively.
into Eq. (10.9-6), we obtain
(5.8-4)
sin 0)
\342\200\242
J
v0
\342\200\242
v.\342\200\224
rS6
1 3ffrt
are again
derivation
cos 0
3v2
v0 3v2 .
^r^
+
'Sr
are
(10.9-6)
related to
ay, az and of
the displacements, provided that

of Eqs. (5.8-3) and
substitution
(vr cos 9
dz
dy
az and v\342\200\236
v0, v2 in polar
ar, a\342\200\236,
\342\200\224
dt
8vx
dvx
dvx
3v, ,
= \342\200\224
+ vz \342\200\224\342\200\242
+ v, \342\200\224+ vx \342\200\224
of acceleration
components
must
in
SO-n-
ax
The components
a,-
is
coordinates
91
F0, Fz
components F\342\200\236
respectively. The acceleration DvJDt

along the;-, 0-, and z-directions,
of acceleration in the x-direction
The component
be considered carefully.
rectangular
3v2 .
î
+
10.4
226
of Field
Derivation
Chap. 10
Equations
Sec. 10.9
The
Equations
Iff*)
+ ~-T^0)
+ -r-dz
k\342\200\236
of Motion and
Barr
9+
^*
dr dz
(Tx,
rdti
227
Coordinates
in Polar
Continuity
dr dz
+ (r +
dr) d0
an
dr.
(10.9-12)
38
Expanding,
dropping
higher-order
infinitesimal
quantities,
and dividing
through
(10.9-11). The other equations can be

the
obtained in a similar manner. Note that in the equation for radial equilibrium,
term -<rjr is a radial pressure in the nature of hoop stress; the term ajr is the
contribution due to the larger area of the outer surface at r + dr than that at radius
r. The term ajr in the equation for axial equilibrium is present for the samereason.
has two origins: One is for the same
The term 2ajr in the tangential
equation
reason as before, viz., that the outer surface is larger; the other arises from the
that
the radial surfaces at 6 and 0 + d0 are not parallel,
but make an
fact
by r,
angle
we obtain the
first
equation
of Eq.
d0.
can be made of the individual terms in the

-vllr in ar is of the nature of centripetal
expressions
acceleration. The term v0vrlr in as arises from the rotation of the radial velocity
of acceleration.
vector vn thus contributing a tangential
component
A similar treatment can be used to transform the equation of continuity,
Eq.
But here it is perhaps
most instructive
to study
(10.5-3), into polar coordinates.
in an element, as shown
in Fig. 10.5. With
the area
the balance of mass flow
for properly, we obtain
through which the mass flow takes place accounted
A
similar
for
2lL
\302\260te
1a / ,
(prVr)
3<r.
interpretation
graphical
The term
acceleration.
3z
rdrw
'
ISP'.
5p\",
r 90
dz
at
Figure 10.5
in cylindrical
JP
H
0.
(10.9-13)
3trT.
Figure
10.4
Stress
in cylindrical polar
field
coordinates.
Area
{r+dr)dBdz
indicated. The equation of motion

direction is equal to the sum of all
par dr
dz
V\"
am,
r dQ
+ (r
flow
17 JT
dr dz
sin
dr)d%
forces acting
Fr
+ ^d9 dz
\342\200\224
a-00
that the
indicates
the
dr dz
\"
ff,rr
d0
in
r d6
i9
acceleration in
the
the
radial direction.
radial
Thus,
+ (r + dr)d8
&
dr dz
sin -
Conservation
polar
of mass
coordinates.
Derivation of
228
Field
Chap. 10
Equations
Problems
10
Chap.
229
PROBLEMS
10.1 State
the definitions of (a) a
line
(b) a surface
integral,
where X(t),
and (c) a volume
integral,
are
10.3
State the mathematical

(10.4-5) are
valid.
Evaluate the
line
under which Eqs. (10.1-4),

(10.1-5),
(10.4-4),
conditions
where
and
C is a triangle
with vertices
+ .rdy,
(1,0),
(1,1),
(See Fig.
(0,0).
the center of the sphere, and a{t),
the boundary conditions for the air and
Derive
the radius,
P10.7.)
water moving
about the balloon.
the surface of the balloon is true at

Solution:
The equation F(i) = 0 representing
all times. Therefore, its derivative with respectto t must vanish. Sincex,y,z are coordinates
of the particles, and F{t) is associated with the balloon at all times, the time derivative is
the material derivative, i.e., DFIDt, which is zero.
= 0, we conclude that F = const,for a given
Conversely, from the equation DFIDt
In particular, if the set of particles is defined by the equation F = 0, it
set of particles.
the balloon at t = 0, it defines the balloon
remains the same set. If F = 0 defines
at
integral
J fdx
of time.
(See Fig.
Show that DFIDt = 0.
integral.
10.2
and v(t), which define
\\i.(t),
functions
P10.3.)
Answer: 1/3.
any
I.
if we consider the fluid (air and water) around
more significant
contact with the balloon remain in contact with it (the
no-slip condition of a viscous fluid in contact with a solid body). Hence, the
conditions of the flow field are F = 0 and DFIDt = 0.
The equation becomes

the balloon.
so-called
boundary
(0,0)
10.4
Evaluate
10.5 Derive
<P
Green's
smooth simple
be
functions
partial
(r
(1,0)
ds, where C is
y2)
P10.3
Figure
the
x1 +
circle
Path
of
Fluid particles
once in
integration.
f = 4.
theorem: Let D be a domain of the Ay-plane,

and let C be a piecewise
curve in D whose interior is also in D. Let P(x,y) and Q(x, y)
that are defined and continuous in D and that have continuous first
closed
Then
derivatives in D.
fc'*+fl*=JL(?-f)**.
where
10.6
R is the
closed region
Interpret Green's
theorem
Figure P10.7
by C.
to derive the following
bounded
vectorially
theorems:
10.8
V uTds
(a)
curl,
The
in the wind is described by the equation
of a flag fluttering
surface
udxdy,
y, z, t)
F(x,
where
u, v are
vector fields,
C), ds is the arc length,

a special case of Stokes's
A
rubber
\"down analytically the constraints

In other
imposed by the flag on the airstream.
words, given the shape of the boundary surface F = 0, derive the boundary condition
consider the air a nonviscous
for the flow. For this problem,
fluid.
would it make if the air were taken to be a viscous fluid?
What difference
iwydxdy,
v\342\200\236ds
J J
uT is the tangential component of u (tangent
to the
curve
and v\342\200\236
is the normal component of v on C. Equation (a) is
theorem. Equation (b) is the two-dimensional form of Gauss's
theorem.
10.7
Solution:
surface
spherical
Let a particle on
is quickly blown
be located at
balloon
the
balloon
x = x{t),
Let the surface
of the balloon
F(t) = (x
\\f
up in an angry
y(t),
sea
u-)2
+ (z
by
F =
As in
Prob.
a ditched pilot.
BF
V
z =
z{t),
vf
where u
=
\302\243
0,
the
10.7,
condition
boundary
of the
airstream
on the flag
0 is
Bl
be described by the equation

+ (y
= 0.
Write
(b)j>
balloon.
Expanding
the
(\302\253\342\200\236
uy, u:) is
velocity
u,
BF
BF
BF
\342\200\224
= \342\200\236
+ \302\253\302\273
V u. \342\200\224
0
3x
Bz
'By
'
vector.
For the
with components
bf
aF
aF
Bx'
By' Bz
surface
F (x, y,
z, t) = 0, the
(1)
vector
Derivation of
230
is normal
to the surface.
Eq. (1)
Hence,
Field
Chap. 10
Equations
be written
may
\342\200\224
+ u-n
= 0.
(2)
v'
dt
This means that the
normal
must be equal to -dFlBt on the flag surface.

condition
requires, in addition, that F = 0. (See the
velocity
For a viscous fluid, the no-slip

discussion in Sec. 11.2,p. 233.)
10.9 Two
components
of the
field
velocity
of a
are known in
fluid
the
region
-2
2:
x,y,zs
=
\302\253
(1
The fluid
is incompressible.
f)(a +
bx
What is the
w = 0.
+ ex2),
velocity
v in the
component
direction
We
of the
Let the
temperature
field of
the fluid
T =
Find the material
= y = z =
origin x
10.11For
The
Most
described
in
Prob.
follows
10.9 be
proper
T0e'k'sin
ax cos 0v.
many
rate of change of the temperature

0. Find the same for a particle at x
an isotropic Newtonian viscous

terms of the velocity components.
10.12
acquired
problems.
y-axis?
10.10
have
a particle
of
- z =
located at
the laws of conservation

of mass, momentum,
constitutive equations and
and
conditions,
boundary
mathematically. In this chapter,

problems on the flow of fluids.
problems
physical
of some
formulation
the
enough basic equations to deal with a broad range of

objects on a scale that we can see are continua.
Their motion
energy. With the
we can describe
we illustrate the
1.
Quid, derive an equation of motion
expressed in
is s(xh x2, x2, t) per unit mass of the medium.

of a moving
continuum
The mass density of the medium is p(x,, *,, x3, t). The velocity field is v{xu Xj, jc3, r).
Consider the total amount of entropy
in a certain volume of the medium at a certain
11.1
THE
NAVIER-STOKES
EQUATIONS
entropy
time. Expressthe rate of change of the total

volume in the form of a volume integral.
entropy
of the material
enclosed in
this
Let us derive
the basic
equations governing the flow of a Newtonian viscousfluid.

Cartesian
y, z be rectangular
coordinates.
Let the velocity
components
be denoted by vu v2, v3 or u,
along the x-, y-, z-axis directions
v, w,
respectively.Let/7 denote pressure; o> or am o^, etc.,be the stress components;
and p, be the coefficient
of viscosity. Here, and
all Latin indices range
hereinafter,
over 1, 2, 3. Then,
the stress-strain-rate
relationship is given by Eq. (7.3-3):
Let
X\\,
crv
Xi, Xj or x,
-phtl
+ 2M
\\VAf
-p8,? +
+ J&
p.8,
oX/c
+ *S \342\200\242
m.M)
\\dXj
dxj
i.e.,
du
\342\200\236
<r\342\200\236=
-p
Cvy
n
+ 2u.-
~Py +
+-
dw
dv
\\dx
\342\200\224
dz
dy
dv
dv
\342\200\236
dwS
Jdu
\342\200\224
+ A. \342\200\224
+ \342\200\224
+ \342\200\224
2|X
p
dy
ff\342\200\236=-F +
, Idll
+ \\-
dx
dw
\342\200\236
2,-+K(-
jdu
dv\\
[dw
du
\\dx
dz,
\\dx
Jdu
dz
dy
-dv
dw\\
+
-J,
jdv
\342\200\236,
, ^
(11.1-la)
dw
231
'
232
Field
these into the equation of motion,
Substituting
Stokes
Conditionsin
and Boundary
Equations
Mechanics
Fluid
(10.6-7),
Eq.
Chap.
we obtain the
Sec.11.2
11
5a
Dt
St + \302\261
(jM
= pZ..
p '
+1-
dxj
ax,-1
ax,-
[M
TdxJ
dXk
+ A ( *},
dxk TdxJ
body force per unit mass.

componentsmust satisfy the equation of continuity,
derived from the conservation of mass:
where
Xt
stands
*\302\243+\302\253
dt
dxk
are to
These equations
of energy,
If
by the
be supplemented
(10.5-3),
(11.1-3)
equations of
thermal
state, balance
is incompressible,then
the fluid
and no thermodynamic
continuity
0.
Eq.
and heat flow.
ourselves
(1L1_2)
for the
The velocity
to an
(H-1-4)
const.,
introduced explicitly.
need be
considerations
we see
incompressible homogeneousfluid,
Limiting
233
physicalinterpretations.
that the equation of
11.2 BOUNDARY
and the Navier-Stokes
3x
is simplified
equation
Dv,
in extenso,
d2v,
dp
Dt
is the
+ M,
I dp
\342\200\236
Dt
paz
viscosity
a2
V2 =
+ v\\-u,
(11.1-7)
pdy
Dw
kinematic
dp
-\342\200\224
pdx
KyAf.
Dt
v = |x/p
(11_6)
these are
Du
\342\200\224
=
_,
and
a2
a2
+
\342\200\224.
+ \342\200\224.
dx1
f?
dy2
dz2
(U.l-8)
and (11.1-7) comprisefour equations

is the Laplacian operator. Equations
(11.1-5)
viscous flow.
for the four variables u, v, w, and p occurring in an incompressible
central
is
the
The solution of the Navier-Stokes equation
problem in fluid
of
a
tremendous
embraces
range
physical phenomena
mechanics. This
equation
A SOLID-FLUID
INTERFACE
that must be satisfied

at a solid-fluid interface is
the solid if it is impermeable to the fluid. Most
containersof fluids are of this nature. Mathematically,
this requires that the relative
must vanish.
velocity
component of the fluid normal to the solid surface
of velocity of the fluid relative
The specification of the tangential
component
to the solid requires
much greater care. It is customary to assume
that the no-slip
condition prevails at an interface between a viscous fluid and a solid boundary. In
the velocities of the fluid and the solid
other words, on the solid-fluid
boundary,
are exactly equal. This conviction was realized only after a long historical
theoretical and experimental
results.
development by comparing
the no-slip condition requires that
If the solid boundary is stationary,
the
from zero at the surface to the free-stream
value some
velocity change continuously
distance away. This boundary condition is in drastic contrast to that which is
for which we can specify
shall
only that no fluid
required of a nonviscous fluid,
be
but
the
fluid
must
to
slide
the
solid
over
the
solid
surface;
permitted
penetrate
This is a penalty for the
so that their tangential velocities can be different.
11.1 illustrates the difference. In
absence of viscosity.
idealization of complete
Figure
Fig. 11.1(a), the flow of a nonviscous fluid over a stationary solid object is shown.
a tangential
At the interface, the fluid
slips over the solid with
velocity. In Fig.
that
a
viscous
the
must
on the interface.
shown
for
vanish
it
is
fluid,
velocity
11.1(b),
for all real fluid,
no matter how
Since the no-slip condition must be imposed
in Fig. 11.1(b) must prevail
for all real fluids.
the viscosity, the illustration
small
One of the
to
pDrp*-te+,li^
out
CONDITIONSAT
dz
dy
that
where
at a Solid-Fluid Interface
becomes
dxk
Written
Conditions
to science and engineering. The equation

and has many
is nonlinear
applications
and is, in general, very difficult to solve.
of a problem,
the formulation
we must specify
To complete
the boundary
conditions. In Sec. 11.2,we consider the no-slip condition on a solid-fluid
interface.
at a \"free,\"
or fluid-fluid, interface is considered,
In Sec. 11.3, the condition
where
surface tension plays an important role. Then a dimensional
is presented
analysis
to illustrate
the significance of the Reynolds number. We shall
then consider the
as an example of a simplified
laminar
flow in a channel or a tube
solution
when
the nonlinear
terms can be ignored. As a warning that turbulences may intervene,
of Reynolds in Sec. 11.5.
we discuss the classical
experiments
In some instances, the viscosity of a fluid may be ignored completely, and
fluids.\" In association with this
we deal with the idealized world of \"perfect
conditions must be changed:
The order of the differential
idealization, the boundary
would be too low to permit the satisfaction of all the boundary conditions
equation
of a viscous fluid. We relinquish the no-slip condition
at the solid-fluid interface
and ignore any shear gradient requirement at a free surface.
As a consequence,
-sometimes the resulting simpler mathematical problems lead to difficulties in
Navier-
equations,
Boundary
the
boundary
fluid must
conditions
not penetrate
234
Field
Equations
and Boundary
Conditionsin
Fluid
Mechanics
Chap.
11
11.3
Sec.
Interface Between
mental evidence.
of the
condition
mean
certainly
not
will
nanometer range.
(a)
(b)
11.1 The difference

and real fluids over a solid
in boundary conditions for flows of ideal
Figure
It is
represented
known from
body,
measurements
wind-tunnel
11.1(a) for the airfoil

solid boundary, the
by Fig.
(a) Ideal fluid;
shown; i.e.,
flow can be
(b) Real fluid.
that the
flow
field
is well
the immediate
except
obtained as though
for
air had no
viscosity. Yet we know that air has viscosity, even though
very small. Therefore,
the no-slip condition
must prevail. How can we resolve this conflict?
The answer to this question
and the resolution of the conflict are a triumph
of modern
fluid mechanics.
The modern view is that the illustration
shown in Fig.
in
the
is
an
indication
what
immediate
of
11.1(b)
happens
neighborhood of a solid
We should consider that figure as an enlargement of what happens
in
boundary.
a very small
of a flow next to an interface.
This region is the boundary
region
nonviscous.
The dramatic
layer. Beyond the boundary
layer, the flow is practically
of
the
importance
boundary
layer will be seen at the sharp trailing edge of the
airfoil.
It dictates the condition that the flow must leave the sharp trailing
edge
in the velocity field. If we insist on idealized
smoothly, with no discontinuity
could differ on the top and bottom sides
nonviscous
flow, the tangential
velocity
of the trailing edge. In the theory of nonviscous
fluids, such a discontinuity can be
eliminated
either by permitting the flow to round the sharp corner
with an infinite
or by introducing an exact amount of circulation so that the traihng
velocity
gradient
edge becomesa stagnation
point. The latter conditionwas proposed
by the German
mathematician
Kutta (1902) and the Russian mathematician
Joukowski
(1907) and
is known as Kutta-Joukowski hypothesis, which is the basis for our modern theory
of flight. Thus, we see that the fluid viscosity, no matter
how small, has a profound
neighborhood
of the
on flow.
influence
But how can we believe the
established?The molecular
theory
the molecular hypotheses,
Navier
u. duldn for flow over a solid wall,
along
the normal
viscosity.
calculated
that
u/fi
molecule\342\200\224probably
condition?
On
what
basis
is this condition
of gases does not provide a firm answer. From

=
deduced (1823) the boundary
condition
p\302\253
where u is the velocity,
duldn is the derivative
the wall, p is a constant,

and u, is the coefficient
of
length that is zero if there is no slip. Maxwell (1879)
is a moderate multiple
of the mean free path
L of the gas
about
2L. This result is in agreement with modern experi-
away
The ratio
no-slip
u/p
from
is a
235
free path
of the
of the air on the surface

m, we can say that the no-slip
for micromachines with dimensions
on the order of
apply to nanomachines, whose
dimension
is in the
temperature is about
be questioned
may
m; and
10\"6
Sincethe
at room
earth
Two Fluids
molecules
5 x 10~8
on the flow of liquids and gases at

Experiments
atmospheric
pressure over
cm-sizedbodies support
the no-slip condition
Coulomb
conclusively.
(1800) found
that the resistance
of an oscillating metallic
disk in water was
altered
when
scarcely
the disk was smeared with grease or when the surface was covered
with powdered
sandstone, so the nature of the surface had little influence on the resistance.
PoiseuiMe
(1841) and Hagen (1839)obtained
precise data on water flow in capillary
tubes with diameter
on the order of 10-20urn. Stokes showed that the theoretical
result
based on the no-slip condition
with Poiseuille's experimental results.
agreed
Other
such as Whetham (1890) and Couette
experimenters,
(1890), came to the
same conclusion.
Fage and Townsend (1932)used an ultramicroscope
to examine
the
of water
flow
containing
there is
Irraddition,
small
and confirmed the
particles
agreement between
theory
no-slip condition.
and experiment on Stokes'sand

as well as on Taylor's
numbers,
of motion at small
Reynolds
and observations on the stability of flow between
rotating
cylinders.
All these experiences, taken
together,
support the conclusionthat for a liquid, the
is too small to be observed
slip, if it takes place on a solid boundary,
or to make
difference in the results of theoretical
any sensible
deductions.
theories
Oseen's
calculations
11.3 SURFACE
AT AN
An
TENSIONAND
interface
specific
chemical
THE
BETWEEN
INTERFACE
between
CONDITIONS
FLUIDS
may be regarded as a membrane

and mechanical properties. For
fluids
two
composition
of a soap bubble in
a layer of fluid
BOUNDARY
TWO
example,
which
has a
the surface
The surfaces of
layer of surfactants.
pulmonary alveoli
that reduce the surface tension between the
tissue and the lung gas. A cholesterol vesicle
lung
have a single layer
of lipid
may
molecules on its surface or a lipid bilayer. Cell membranes
are lipid Mayers. Even
at the free surface
of water in air, the water molecules at the interface
are not in
the same state as those in the bulk, and the interface can be
as a layer
regarded
of different
material.
Hence, if one studies the flow of two fluids separated
by an
conditions
interface, the boundary
of the fluids
at the interface must take the
of the interface
into consideration.
properties
A membrane is a very thin plate. The stresses in a
plate have been discussed
in Example
4 of Sec. 1.11,see Fig. 1.6. If the membrane is
very thin, we are
interested
more on the resultant
force per unit
in the membrane than in the.
length
distribution of stress in its thickness. In thin membrane, the
product of the average
stress in the membrane and the thickness is called a stress
or a surface
resultant,
tension, which has the units of [force/length].
have
air
has a
with
surfactants
Field Equations and
236
Consider
bounded
by
a soap bubble in
two
air-liquid
Conditions
Boundary
the air,
interfaces
as shown
which
have
Sec. 11.3
in Fluid Mechanics
in
Fig.
Chap.
If
a layer of liquid
tension. Assume that the
11.2.
surface
Between
Interface
237
Two Fluids
11
It is
the
we note
soap bubble
is spherical, then
Rx
i?2.
If
the
bubble
is not
spherical,
that the sum
\342\200\224\342\200\224
=
is invariant
As a
zero
governed
Figure 11.2
A soap
particular
surface tension
is isotropic.
Denote
the
surface
tensions
of the two
the
11.3
membrane
element
(11.3-1)
soapbubble.
the radius of curvature for the soap film.

acting on the other
Similarly, the tensions
the soap film has
dx
Since
sides of the rectangle contribute a resultant -y
dylR2.
force
due to surface
the
total
resultant
and
two air-liquid interfaces (inside
outside),
tension acting on the curve C is normal to the soap film and is equal to 2-y dx dylRi
+ 2ydx dylR2. This force is balanced by the pressure difference multiplied
by the
area dx dy. On equating these forces, we obtain, for the soap film, the celebrated
a year
obtained
equation named after Laplace (1805), although it was actually
the surface.
Hence,
But d9
the normal
earlier by
Thomas
where
dxlRh
force is y
Young
i?i is
dx dylRi.
(1804):
24+i
Vo
tension
indicates
becomes
that the
pressure
if the
very
large
if Ru R2 -\302\273
0, the pressure
radii
difference
required
R{ and R2
become
to balance
very
small.
difference tends toward

infinity.
is nonstationary,
If the fluids
are moving and the interface
then the no-slip
relative
to the interface if the fluid is real
Condition
must apply in each fluid
(viscous).If oneof the fluids is ideal (nonviscous),then there is no no-slipcondition
are ideal, then there is no restriction
for that fluid. If both fluids
on slip.
In the most general case for an interface with a specific surface
viscosity,
and bending rigidity, the equations of motion
surface compressibility, elasticity,
of the interface are those
and continuity
of thin membranes or
(or equilibrium)
thin
shells in solid mechanics.The boundary
conditions
of the fluids
in contact
with the interface
are the nonpenetration and no-slip conditions.
in such chemical engineering problems as
Surface
tension is very important
as the fracture of metals
in
such
mechanical
and
engineering
problems
foaming,
as
the
in
and
and
such
of
the
rocks,
biological problems
opening
collapse
lung.
in general. For example, the alveolar
Surface tension is variable
surface in our
is modulated by the presence of
tension
is moist, and the surface
lungs
of these polar molecules on the
\"surfactants,\"
lipids such as lecithin. The arrangement
of the molecules, the rate at which the
interface depends on the concentration
so that the surface tension-area
surface is strained,
and the history of strain,
a
when
the
surface is subjected to a periodic
has
huge hysteresisloop
relationship
strain. Fipre 11.4gives the experimental results obtained by J. A. Clements by
of a surface balance
of the Wilhelmy type. Shown
are the surface
means
between air on the one hand and pure water, blood plasma,
tension-area
relationships
1% Tween 20 detergent, and a saline extract of a normal
lung on the other. The
are
to
of
water
and
show the cylic nature
exaggeratedschematically
detergent
loops
of the strain history.
of permeability
When there is an interface, there is a question
of the fluid
will govern the boundary condition with
moving
through it. The permeability
A certain amount of mass transfer,
to the normal component of velocity.
respect
laminar
or turbulent mixing,
etc., may occur at the interface.
Equilibrium of
forces acting on an
of the
surface
For a constant
one must
Figure
formed
case, let us consider soap films
by boundary curves
difference. Then the surface is the so-called minimal
surface,
bubble.
blow and create an internal pressure

interfacesby 7. To create the
difference
and
the
force due to the pressure
the
external
than
pressure p0,
Pi greater
closed rectangular
in the soap film. Let C bea small,
tension
the
must be balanced
by
curve of sides dx and dy drawn on the surface of the bubble (Fig. 11.2).The
the pressure
in the figure. To compute
shown
tensions
acting on the sides of C are
views: one in
two cross-sectional
the tensions, let us consider
required to balance
The
the xz-plane (z being normal to the soap film), and another in the yz-plane.
end.
Since
act
at
each
forces
the
tensile
where
former is shown in Fig. 11.3,
7 dy
have a resultant 7 dy d% normal to
to the surface, they
these forces are tangent
bubble
Hence, the
pressure
by the equation
Equation
resultant of the
(11.3-2)
with respect to the rotation of coordinates

on any surface.
chosen for the x- and y-axes are immaterial.
directions
under
mean curvature
(11.3-1)
-y,
and Boundary
Field Equations
238
Fluid
Mechanics
11
Chap.
Problems
11
Chap.
239
du'
Lung
extract
Conditionsin
Plasma
dwL
dv'
,...\342\200\236.
Water
the complete set of field equations

for
Eqs. (11.4-3) and (11.4-4) constitute
an incompressible fluid, it is clear that only one physical parameter, the Reynolds
number RN, enters into the field equations
of the flow.
Since
Consider
identical
the
and
and the
in
Figure 11.4 The variation
surface tension with strain for
several fluids. From J. A.
Surface
11.4
The Physiologist,
11-28.
tension,dynes/cm
SIMILARITY
DYNAMIC
50
30
10
Clements, \"Surface
Relation to Pulmonary
AND REYNOLDS
in
Phenomena
Function,\"
5(1) (1962),
NUMBER
we
form. For simplicity,
in dimensionless
Navier-Stokes equation
a
characteristic
Choose
fluid.
velocity
shall consider a homogeneousincompressible
I. For example,if we investigate the flow of air around
V and a characteristic length
and I to be the wing chord
an airplane
wing, we may take V to be the airplane speed
flow speed
V may be taken as the mean
a
in
the
flow
If
we
tube,
investigate
length.
and L the tube diameter. For a falling sphere, we may take the speed of falling to
be V, the diameter of the sphere to be L, and so on. Having chosen these
we introduce the dimensionlessvariables
characteristic quantities,
Let
us put the
z =
\342\200\224i
p-
(11.1-7) for an
flu
Eq.
dx'
w',w'
(11.1-5),
9x'
then
(3V
-(-
.
+
Therefore,
bodies having the
different
but
same Reynolds
size),
The
are
the
number
about
flows
force:
pF2,
shearstress:
is
ratio
shear stress
be put
(same shape
differential
identical
V
large
number
(11.4-2)
fluid can
--\302\245.+
governed by
inertial force
The
wide
pV2
\\iVIL
pVL =
Reynolds
a predominant shear effect.

of Reynolds numbers that
range
in the
number.
(11.4-5)
\\i
number signals a preponderant inertial
Reynolds
signals
occurs
effect.
A small
in practical
Reynolds
problems is
following examples.
into the form
-flV +, *\"']
-J
djr\\
PROBLEMS
(11.4-3)
u' into v',

from Eq. (11.4-3) by changing
equations obtainable
into u' and x' into y', y' into z', z' into x'. The equation of continuity,
can also be put in dimensionless form:
two additional
v' into
fin' , flu' =
w>flz
3v'
+
+ \342\200\236
\342\200\236^
df
and
,3b'
incompressible
similar
inertial
illustrated
Equation
similar
in a moving
fluid under
considered a prototype
are identical (in the dimensionlessvariables).

if the Reynolds numbers for the two bodies
geometrically
Vt
VL
VLp
two
are
bodies
may be
conditions
equations and boundary
(in
bodies
at the
geometrically similar
numbers
are completely similar
same Reynolds
in the sense that thefunctions
u'(x',
z',
z',
y', z', f), v'(x', y',
f), w'(x', y',
t'), p'(x', y', z', f) are the same for the
various flows. This kind of similarity of flows is called dynamic similarity.
Reynolds
of steady flows. For unsteady
number governs dynamic
flows the
similarity
requirement
for the simulation of the differential
and boundary
equation and the initial
conditions may require the simulation of other dimensionless
parameters.
the ratio of the inertial
The Reynolds number
force to the shear
expresses
force due to convective acceleration arises
stress. In a flow, the inertial
from terms
such as pu2, whereas the shear stress arises from terms such as u, du/Sy. The orders
of magnitude
of these terms are, respectively,
identical
immersed
(11.4-1)
and the parameter

RN
be
bodies
similar
conditions. One body
The
conditions
boundary
pv'
=
Reynolds number
a model.
dimensionless form).
The
other,
because
will be
and boundary
two flows will

same,
two geometrically
initial
11.1Smokestacks
force
depends
are known to sway
=
(each mi/hr
m). Compute
on the
Reynolds
0.44704m/sec)
the Reynolds
in the wind if they are not rigid enough. The wind

of the flow. Let the wind speed be 30 mi/hr
number
and the smokestack

number
of the
flow.
diameter be 20
ft
= 0.3048
(each ft
Field Equations and
240
Chap. 11
in Fluid Mechanics
Conditions
Boundary
5.46 x 106.
is |j, = 1.808
The coefficient of viscosity of air at 20\302\260C
the kinematic viscosity
v is 0.150 Stoke (cmz/sec).
Answer:
11.2Compute
for a submarine
the Reynolds number
(g/cm sec),
10\"\"1 poise
of diameter
periscope
16 in
and
satisfies
conditions
1.308 x
g/cm sec and v
10~2
= 1.308x
10~2
cnf/sec.
equations, the
boundaries y = \302\261h:
= 0,
Answer:
7.6 x
dhi
dp
(11.5-4)
by
(11.5-5)
0.132 cnr/sec.
blood vessel of diameter

plasma to flow in a capillary
a speed of 2 mm/sec, what is the Reynolds number?
10 micra (i.e., 10~3
show that p is a function of x

with
respect to x and use Eq. (11.5-1),we
Eq. (11.5-3)
0. Hence,dpldx must be a constant, say, -a. Equation
(11.5-3)
(11.5-4)
Equations
and (11.5-5)
only.
differentiate
at body
temperature, |i
is
about
~ =
1.4 centipoises (1.4 x 10~2g/cm
dtydx2
then becomes
\342\200\224.
number
Reynolds
for a large
wing with a chord
airplane
m/s) at an
at 600 mi/hr (268.224
(3.048 m), flying
altitude of 7,500ft
length of 10 ft
which has a
solution
(2,286 m), (0\302\260C).

u =
6.2 x 107.
Answer:
to
IN A
problem
in
easily
as shown
in
terms disappear,
in a
problem
simple
particularly
incompressiblefluid
planes,
easy to solve.If,
are not
the nonlinear
which
sometimes.
CHANNEL
HORIZONTAL
Navier-Stokesequations
ay
By
horizontal
channel
yield
and B
can be determined
(11.5-7)
by the
boundary conditions(11.5-2)
the final solution,
OR TUBE
one can
however,
then
find
be obtained
is the steady flow
2h between two parallel
the solution can
of this nature
of width
(11.5-8)
uîfr-f).
a special
the
Thus,
A
velocity profile is a
corresponding
tube of radius
11.5.
Fig.
A +
u.
The two constantsA

FLOW
parabola.
problem
a. (SeeFig.
u =
11.6.)
is the
flow
through
We search
u(y, z),
a horizontal
circular
for a solution
0,
w =
0.
\342\200\242mimumuuuiwuaiwimwm.
Figure 11.5
'wimi/wiwwmmiiw/iM/Miww/.
We search
(11.5-6)
df
sec).
11.5 Compute the
If we
obtain
10~2.
For blood plasma
of an
Eq. (11.1-3), exactly,
(11.5-3)
blood
Answer: 1.4 x
LAMINAR
no-
(11.5-2)
of continuity,
10\"4
v =
For air at 0\302\260C,
11.5
= 0.
u(-h)
1 knot
of continuity, and the
number?
Reynolds
cm) at
equation
241
mile per hour, or 1.852 km/hr.
11.3 Supposethat in a cloud chamber experiment designed to determine the charge of an

the water droplet diameter
is 5 micra (i.e.,
electron (RobertMillikan's
experiment),
5 x 10~4 cm). The droplet moves in air at 0oC at a speed of 2 mm/sec. What is the
11.4For
or Tube
Channel
Eq. (11.5-1) satisfies the equation

Eq. (11.1-7) becomes
106.
u. =
on the
u(h)
Obviously,
For water at 10\"C,
in a Horizontal
the Navier-Stokes
that
slip
whereas
Answer: 2.4 x
Flow
Laminar
at 15
knots.
= 1 nautical
Sec.11.5
parallel
Laminar
flow in a
/\"
channel.
for a flow
u = m(v),
v = 0,
w = 0
(11.5-1)
Figure
11.6
Laminar
flow
in a circular cylindrical
tube.
cylindrical
Field Equations and
242
In analogy
with
the Navier-Stokesequation
(11.5-6),
Eq.
dhi
convenient to transform
coordinates
polar
from
x, r, 6,
with
that
assume
=
32\302\253/aoz
(11.5-9)
the Cartesian coordinatesx, y, z to the

r2 =
+ z2.
Sec.
Then
5.8.)
(See
d2\302\253 13/
the flow
is symmetric,
immediately to
B=
constants
u is a
so that
(11.5-9)
solution
is the
function
Fig.
mean velocity,
number\342\200\224where u\342\200\236
is the
and v is the kinematic
diameter,
from laminar
(see
um dlv\342\200\224the
Reynolds
entire length
the
broke up at a given point

the
11.7). Reynolds identified
to
viscosity. Reynolds found that the transition

turbulent
flow occurred at Reynolds numbers
btween
2,000 and
on the smoothness of the entry conditions.
When extreme care
is taken,
the transition can be delayed

to Reynolds numbers as high as 40,000. On
the other hand, a value of 2,000 appears to be about the lowest value obtainable
on a rough entrance.
of r
only; then
--r-
+ Alogr
B are determined
centerline, r = 0:
by the
+ B.
conditions of no
= 0
\302\253
at
r =
T\"=0
dr
at
r = 0.
a.
(11.5-12)
slip at
r = a
and
(11.5-13)
(0
Figure 11.7
turbulence
experiment: (a) laminar flow; (b)

to turbulent flow. After Osborne
Reynolds, \"An Experimental
Investigation of the Circumstances which
Determine whether the Motion of Water Shall Be Direct or Sinuous,
and of the Law of Resistance in Parallel Channels, Phil. Trans., Roy.
Sac, 174 (1883), 935-982.
Reynolds's
and (c), transition from
famous parabolic velocity

solution was worked out
profile
of the
(11.5-15)
Hagen-Poiseuille flow;
the
by Stokes.
of the
Hagen-Poiseuille flow has been subjected to

It is not valid near the entrance to a tube.
It is satisfactory
at a sufficiently large distance
from the entrance, but is
again
invalid
if the tube is too large or if the velocity
is too high. The
at the
difficulty
entry region is due to the transitional nature of the flow in that region, so that our
that v = 0 and w = 0 is not valid.
The difficulty with too
assumption
a
large
experimental
-J2$$%)cD$fT
(11.5-14)
is
The classical solution
(a)
yield
^(c?~>2)-
innumerable
d is the
the cross section
throughout
parameter
(11-5-11)
u =
theoretical
cylindrical
Eq.
= -~
A and
on the
symmetry
This
diffused
through
0, and the equation
be integrated
The final
and
governing
1 fl2u
du\\
^y
The
remained distinct
speed of water was slow, the filament
tube. When the speed was increased,
the filament
^=T
243
Problems
13,000,depending
32k
can
becomes
Chap. 11
of the
becomes
Let us
11
Chap.
dzu
^
It is
in Fluid Mechanics
Conditions
Boundary
observations.
land: The flow becomes turbulent!

number, however, is of a different
Osborne Reynolds
demonstrated
the transition from laminar
to turbulent flow
in a classicalexperiment
in which he examined an outflow
through a small tube
from
a large water tank. At the end of the
tube, he used a stopcock to vary the
of the tube with the tank was
speed of water through the tube. The junction
nicely
and a filament of colored ink was introduced at the mouth. When the
rounded,
Turbulence
mechanics. It is
is one
friction, resistance to
because it
of the
technically
flow,
laminar
in fluid
important and most difficult
problems
not
because
turbulence
affects
skin
important
only
heat generation and transfer, diffusion,
etc., but also
most
One might say that the normal mode of fluid flow is

turbulent. The water in the ocean, the air above the earth, and the state of motion
in the sun are turbulent.
The theory of turbulence will greet you wherever
you
turn when you study
fluid mechanics in greater depth,
is widespread.
Reynolds
PROBLEM
11,6 From the basic solution given

the tube is
by
Eq. (11.5-15), show
that the rate of mass flow
through
ira'p
(11.5-16)
Field Equations and
244
Sec. 11.6
245
Layer
Boundary
velocity is
the mean
that
Chap. 11
in Fluid Mechanics
Conditions
Boundary
(11.5-17)
that the skin friction
and
is
coefficient
shear stress
H
where
BOUNDARY
11\302\243
If
mean
pressure
dynamic
16
-|i(a\302\253/3r)\342\200\236,
1 2
5P\302\253\302\273i?\302\253
(11.5-18)
Fipre 11.8
= 2aujv.
RN
\302\253
in the
we let RN -\302\273
dimensionless Navier-Stokes equation
homogeneous incompressiblefluid,
for a
(11.4-3)
namely,
of
We notice
unity.
0(1), and
and x1 is finite,
out unless the
drop
second derivatives
become
simplified
in a high-speed
the Navier-Stokes
boundary layer is very thin,

equation into a much more tractable
flow
the
the solid
that
= 0(5).Then,
0(l)-0(5)
Prandtl
dimensional
of the
nature
the
flow over a
flat plate.
fixed
the surface and

the z'-axis is assumed
direction of flow along

component
w along
a\302\253'
*
dv'
+
,
m'
\"a?
,dv'
(See
11.8.)
We
dp'
-i
dp'
,av'
l/av
ids5
l/aV
8V\\
/H
,
(1L6\"2)
W'
av\\
By the
of continuity,
equation
Eq. (11.4-4),we
^=-^=0(1).
dx'
we take
the free-stream velocity

u' is equal to 1 in
dimensionlessvelocity
as the
the
(outside the
boundary
layer).
have
(11.6-5)
'
Hence,
V
flv
ofly
the vertical
velocity is at
-dy' ~JoO(l)dy
most
on the
Since
v'
differentiation
order
0(5)
while
of magnitude
of that
= 0(5).
order of 5, which
1.
(11.6-6)
is numerically
small:
(11.6-7)
0(1) according to Eq. (11.6-5), we see that a

to y' in the boundary layer increases the
respect
Then
1/8.
by
quantity
dv'Idy'
of a quantity
with
M,^
characteristic velocity, then the
free stream
(11.6-4)
By'
%-mZ-m.
If
0(1),
7 0(1).
8<
the y'-axis normal to it. The velocity

to vanish. Then Eq. (11.6-1)becomes
,a\302\253'
VV\"
Fig.
dx'
\302\243-<*\302\273.
Thus,
consider a twotake the x'-axis in the
to t'
du'
let us
equation,
boundary-layer
~ =
0(1),
(1904)
boundary-layer
0(5)
we have
equation.
To see
of
surface
= 0(1), 0(1)-0(1)= 0(1),0(1)+

since the variation ofu' with respect
+ 0(1)
0(1)
very large. In
are finite, the effect

a general flow field in which the velocity and its derivatives
would
tends toward infinity.
of viscosity
disappear when the Reynolds number
a rapid transition takes placefor the velocity to vary
Near a solid wall, however,
from that of the free stream to that of the solid, because of the no-slip
condition.
the
last
is
term
cannot
be
If this transition
even
thin,
layer very
though
dropped,
is very large.
number
the Reynolds
We shall define the boundary layer as the region of a fluid in which the effect
of viscosity is felt, even though the Reynolds number is very large. In the boundary
the flow is such that the shear-stress
term\342\200\224the
last term in Eq. (11.6-1)\342\200\224is
layer,
as the convective force term.
of the same order of magnitude
Based on the
observationthat
layer
thickness
would
boundary
= 0 to 1 at v' = 8, where
8
y'
and
dimensionless
is
numerically
(which
boundary-layer
in Eq.
of magnitude of the terms occurring
the order
small). We can now estimate
= 0(1) to mean that u' is at most on the order
u'
write
We
as
follows.
(11 6-2)
from 0 on
varies
\302\253'
The velocity
denotes the
LAYER
the last term
flow.
(11.6-8)
Field
246
and Boundary Conditions
Equations
Now, by definition, the shear stress

inertial
force term in the boundary
Eq. (11.6-2)are all

in
But the
layer.
those on the
hence,
0(1);
is of the
term
in
Mechanics
Fluid
same order
terms on
left-hand
Sec. 11.7
Laminar
Answer: At
boundary-layer
Layer Over a
Boundary
20\302\260C,
8.
thickness =
= 0(4.018
xlO-4).
247
Plate
With
a chord
length of 3.048m,
the
0.12cm.
particular,
11.7 LAMIWAR
0(1) =
dx''
(11.6-9)
l /aV
\302\260(1)
Since
first term
the
in
+ OL
0(1)
dy'2)
RN
is much smaller
the bracket
Prandtl's
the
than
second term, we have
theory, let us consider

in which the vertical
boundary-layer
as in Fig.
dx is
other terms
with the
(11.6-10)
Ol^
estimate
Eqs.
Substituting
(11.6-4),
involving v' are
all terms
thickness:
boundary-layer
8 =
(11.6-11)
we see that
term dp'ldy' must also be
(11.6-8), and (11.6-10) into
0(8); hence,
the
Eq.
remaining
(11.6-12)
O(8)~0.
dy
the pressure is approximately

By retaining only terms of order 1, the
constant
words,
M'
du'
+
\302\245
Navier-Stokes
M'
U*
dp'
i
i
i
i
i
Eq. (11.6-12). Equation (11.6-13) is Prandtl's

to the boundary conditions
subjected
\342\200\236'=
v'=
the boundary
layer.
equations are reduced to
fory'
\302\253'=1
for/
dV
,\342\200\236
r
(1LW3)
boundary-layer
(30.48
m/s).
thickness
of
,\\\\\"''
/'
*j
\"*\"7
u*y'
boundary
Figure 11.9 Laminar
layer over a flat plate, showing the
growth in thickness of the boundary
L^
layer.
t?
\\S
\\
>/
we return to
the
and drop
quantities
physical
= 0,
= 8.
air flowing over a plate 10 ft (3,048
Equation
(11.7-2) is satisfied
primes.
The equation
of
(11.7-2)
if u,
identically
are derived
from a stream
function
i|i(x,y):
it is
\302\253=-\302\243\342\200\242
dy
Then Eq.
fdx
(11.7-3)
\"77
(1L7-4)
(11.7-1) becomes
(11.6-14)
-~
,2
dx
boundary
stream outside
m) long
the
is
v =
equation;
PROBLEM
the boundary-layer
f+f=0.
dx
dy
The
at 100 ft/sec
.H\"
continuity
t
i
through
-M+R-NV
VV
and
11.7Estimate
>J
Here
\302\245
(11.6-3),
0(8). Thus,
other
\"
0'
_ .,.
.,\342\200\236
(11.7-1)
dy*
dy
of the
boundary-layer equation.
d2u
du
du
u-+v-=v-1dx
Thus, we obtain an
in the
becomes
(11.6-13)
Hence,
=
scale
11.9,
plate,
compared
negligible,
Eq.
\302\260n-jM*
RN
fluid
an incompressible
is magnified to
outside
the boundary layer
is assumed
make the picture clearer. The velocity
constant, u. Weshall seek a steady-state solutionfor which duldt = 0. An additional
assumption will be made, to be justified a posteriori, that the pressure gradient dpi
flowing over a flat
3V'
RN \\dx'2
LAYER OVER A FLAT PLATE
BOUNDARY
To apply
Then
In
Flat
be also 0(1);
side must
right-hand
as the
side of
of magnitude
the
11
Chap.
dy2
conditions are (a) no

the
boundary
u
= v
a\342\200\236
\342\204\242\342\200\236
dy
dy dxdy
slip on
the plate and (b) continuity
at the
free
layer; i.e.,
= 0
=
or\342\200\224
\342\200\224
=
fory =
0,
(11.7-5)
249
248
Field
u =
Blasius,\"
Following
which
a,
shows that
if
the
we seek a
we choose
= a/p. A
=
u if we choose -y
relations
similar
fS. Hence,
(3
y)
<|i(x,
(11.7-9) into
the transformation
(H-7-7)
7*.
(11.7-7)
has the same form
substitution into Eq.

= a/p, or |3 = Va.
(11.7-6)
shows
With
this
into
Eq.
as Eq.
that
choice,
are solutions
5=
(11.7-4)
=
(117_81
form
(H-7-9)
^^-
yields the
(11.7-4)
Eq.
of the
(11.7-4)
-b^lSy
we have
J_ = A.
jl,
there
that
suggest
of Eq.
11
(11.7-6)
of Eq.
+ =-/\302\251VHE,
Substitution
8.
Consider
* =
pj,
substitution
function
the
JL =
These
Chap.
;<>So-e-\302\253,\302\256^>*'\"
solution.
\"similarity\"
constants. A
for
equation
Mechanics
NonviscousFluid
ot-j-=u
and -y are
(5,
Fluid
fory =
x = ax,
in
Conditionsin
and Boundary
Equations
Sec. 11.8
ordinary
differential
equation
= 0,
2f\"+//\"
to a
solvednumerically
high degree of accuracy
/(0) =
which
say that
outside the
<*>means
u = 0 and
boundary
that ylL
5.The velocity
with respect
differentiation
where the primes indicate
0,
the plate
layer. From Eq.
is large,
compared
yielded by the
evidence,*
experimental
distribution,
and
equation
the boundary
distribution in a laminar
Blasius's solution of velocity
with
and comparison
incidence
at zero
Figure 11,10
layer on a flat plate
boundary
has been
conditions
= l,
fH
(11.7-9),it
with the
to (j.This
under
= 0,
f(0)
v = 0 at
(11.7-10)
Nikuradse's measurements.
(11.7-11)
reaches a critical
number is on
free-stream velocity,
-\302\273
seen that for fixed xlL, j
thickness
Vv/Lu, or
-\302\273
u, the
is
as seen
in
Fig.
11.10, except
the
of the
critical
exact value
transitional
depends
Reynolds
on the
surface
etc.
Mach number,
a
layer and
boundary
between a laminar
In
etc.
There is a tremendous difference
heat generation,
to heat transfer, skin friction,
one with respect
turbulent
importance
is of supreme
transition
of laminar-turbulent
our space age, the question
by
the heat
generated
the
atmosphere,
As a satellite reenters
for reentry vehicles.
layer
boundary
a turbulent
is tremendous\342\200\224but
in the boundary layer
survival
skin friction
one. For most reentry vehicles,
laminar
a
than
much more heat
if the flow became
generates
is
laminar;
cone
over the nose
is possible if the boundary layer
be burned out.
could
cone
turbulent, the nose
boundary-layer
solutionof Eqs. (11.7-10)and
Generally, the value

of 3,000, but the
order
value.
roughness,
(11.7-11),
near
very
agrees closely with

breaks
the boundary-layer
approximation
the leading edge of the plate, where
the flow becomes turbulent.
down, and far downstream, where
solution given by Eq. (11.7-9), (11.7-10), and
the
to
The flow corresponding
from the leading
distance downstream
is a laminar flow. At a sufficient
(11.7-11)
The transition
fails.
solution
Blasius
and the
edge, the flow becomes turbulent
thickness,
the
on
layer
boundary
occurs when a Reynolds number based
curvature,
\302\2538
R = \342\200\224,
v
Math. u. Phys.,
mit kleiner Reibung,\" Zeitschriflf.
Blasius, \"Grenzschichten in Flussigkeiten
56 (1908), 1.
Zender langsangestromten platte. Monograph,
Laminare Reihmgsschichten an
'J. Nikuradse,
translated
by
Theory,
See H. Schlichting, Boundary Layer
trale i Wiss. Berichtswesen, Berlin, 1942.
124.
p.
Book
(1960),
Company
J. Kestin, New York: McGraw-Hill
\"H.
11.8
NONVISCOUS
FLUID
A great simplification
Then the stress tensor
the
is obtained
if
is
i.e.,
isotropic,
to
coefficient
of viscosity
vanishes exactly.
(11.8-1)
~p5,v,
Field Equations
250
and the equation
and
of motion
Conditions
Boundary
Mechanics
Chap.
11
Sec. 11.9
density of the
and Xu Z2, X3
T
dx
A vector field
satisfying
general theory
of potentials,
dw
dv
+ T- =
T
dz
dy
defined
function
stream
pressure; vh v2, v3 are the velocity

are the body force components
components;
per unit mass.
then its density
If, in addition, the fluid is homogeneousand incompressible,
is a constant, and the equation of continuity,
Eq. (11.1-3), is reduced to the form
3k
for the
p is the
fluid;
flow of an incompressible
that for a two-dimensional
equation
is the
251
Circulation
PROBLEM
11.8Show
Here, p
and
Vorticity
to
be simplified
can
Fluid
in
\342\200\2363\302\253,\302\260
or
\302\260-
rdx-,
(11.8-3)
v
'
Eq. (11.8-3) is said to be solenoidal. According to the

a solenoidal field can be derived
from another vector
field. This can be illustrated in the simple caseof a two-dimensional

which w = 0 and u, v are independent of z and for which the equation
flow
is
j(
11.9 VORTICITY AND

The concepts
The circulation
VN,
fluid, the governing
ay
sy
- \342\200\224.
+ \342\200\224
(11.8^)
CIRCULATION
of circulation
and vorticity
7(^6) in any
closed
circuit
I{%)
field for
of continuity
viscous
is
Eq. (11.8\342\200\2245)
W% = vV^
+ %V%
by
are of great importance

in fluid mechanics.
% is defined by the line integral
=
vdl
(11.9-1)
j:iVidxh
J<e
is the scalar product of

any closed curve in the fluid and the integrand
which
is
vector
and
the
v
vector
dl,
tangent to the curve ^ and of
velocity
circulation
is
a
the
function of both the velocity
dl
length
(Fig. 11.11). Clearly,
curve 1.
field and the chosen
^ is
where
the
\342\200\242
3v
-a\302\253
+ -.=
it is
Then
according
obvious that
to the rules
Eq. (11.8-4)will
be
if we
take an
\342\200\236
0.
i|i(;t, y) and
function
arbitrary
identically. Such a
satisfied
(11.8-4)
function
t|i
derive u,
is called
a stream
function.
Substituting
the
governing
Eq. (11.8-5) into the
equation of motion,
Eq.
(11.8-2),
we obtain
Figure 11.11
(for the two-dimensional flow),
equations
ii4
dp
dx
_d\302\261d^_x
3%
dy
dx
dxdy
dy2
(11.8-6)
line
By means of Stokes'stheorem,
can be transformed into
integral
13/7
dtdx
If
the
dy
body force is zero, an elimination of p
3t
in
dx dxdy
dx2
i?yV%
which
a2
\342\200\236.
dx2
/(eg) =
p3y
yields
i?xV%
32
= o,
(11.8-7)
|s
where S is any
surface
in the
to the
and curl
surface,
if %
partial
encloses a
a surface
x v)ndS
(V
simply
connected
region,
the
integral
J s (curl
v)iVidS,
(11.9-2)
by the curve %, vt is the unit normal

the vorticity of the velocity
curl v is called
bounded
fluid
eijkvjik.
The
field.
the circuit % is & fluid line,
of circulation with time, when
The law of change
as time changes, is given
by the same set of fluid particles
i.e., a curve 1 formed
If the fluid is nonviscous and the body force is
by the theorem of Lord Kelvin;
conservative,
then
df
,DI
and the subscripts indicate
Circulation:
Notations.
differentiation.
Dt
dp
J\302\253
p
(11.9-3)'
v
2Kr
Field Equations
252
If, in addition
to the
prove
the foregoing
D dxJDt
is the
rate
(U.M)
note
that since
the order of differentiation
at which
^ is a fluid
and
line composed
integration
may
be
Irrotational
Sec. 11.10
motion of the fluid is caused= by

time. Since the
0,
and I
never changes with
line
the fluid is at rest
fluid
any
since at the beginning
and
by
airfoil,
the
the volume occupied
that
the motion of
Note, however,
at all times.
the boundary of the
that I vanishes
<g
enclosing
it follows
line
A fluid
fluid.
the
of
11.12.
exclusive
the airfoil is
forward, as shown in Fig.
the airfoil moves
when
the
that
so
is
zero,
%
elongated
about
airfoil becomes
the circulation
theorem,
that the vorticity actually
According to the Helmholtz
but one cannot conclude
wake
% vanishes,
inside
airfoil and in the
the
vorticity
total
<6.In the region occupied by
inside
theorem
applies
everywhere
the Helmholtz
vanishes
does exist. However,
about
vorticity
vanishing of circulation
the
behind the airfoil,
and
its wake,
the airfoil
the airfoil and
outside
outside
irrotational
to the region
that the flow is
fluid line showsclearly
possible
every
and its wake.
\302\243!.\342\226\240*-1>
But
11
density
= 0.
theorems, we
always of the same particles,

interchanged in the following:
Chap.
function
p is a unique
vanishes
last
the
and
integral
barotropic,
We then have
curve.
a
closed
is
1
and
valued
f
To
in Fluid Mechanics
the
conditions,
preceding
is called
fluid
pressure, then the

would be single
because the integral
the Helmholtz theorem that
of the
Conditions
Boundary
and
Flow
dxf
-1.(f
is increasing
<\302\273\342\226\240\302\253>
*-!?)\342\226\240
as a consequence of the
of the velocities parallel
it is equal to the difference

hence,
of the fluid;
DvJDt from the
i.e., dv,-. Substituting
the
element,
the ends of
obtain
we
and replacing D dxJDt by dvh
Eq. (11.8-2),
to xt
^y
motion
at
airfoil
/>
of
Direction
curve enclosing
the airfoil, f
motion*
^-=5)
kcxiS-:;:*'\"^
equation of motion,
that
K
fluid particles
Curve formed by
the original curve
constitute
\"[[(-!*+
Dt
h[\\
xU+
pdx,
an
\302\273,*,\"
airfoil
line enclosing
Fluid
and its wake.
11.10
v2 is single valued
side, the last vanishes because
terms on the right-hand
Hence,
is
conservative.
force
X,
the
if
vanishes
body
in the flow field; the second
as a special
follows
immediately
theorem
Kelvin's theorem is proved. Helmholtz's
side vanishes if the fluid is barotropic.
casebecausethe integral on the right-hand
lies its importance. For
theorem
conclusion of Helmholtz's
In the clear-cut
J = const. Hence, if
have
we
then
to a barotropic fluid,
if we limit our attention
for all times. If this
vanish
must
it
of time,
at one instant
vanishes
the circulation
the
to
Eq. (11.9-2),
a
then,
according
in
field,
is so for any arbitrary fluid lines
will
which
to a great simplification,
in the whole field. This leads
vanishes
vorticity
flow. To appreciate the
irrotational
the
be discussed in Sec. 11.10, namely,
of the
one need observe only that a vast majority
importanceof this simplification,
flows.
irrotational
on fluid mechanics deals with
classical literature
constant
not have to remain
circulation around a fluid line does
the
that
Note
this category
Into
to
addition
in
pressure.
on other variables
if the density
p depends
the temperature enters as a parameter
which
fall most geophysical problems in
not
flows, p is a function of location,
both p and p. Also, in stratified
affecting
alone.
necessarily a function of p
and Helmholtz
term fluid line in the theorems of Kelvin
the
of
The significance
in the air. The
airfoil
thin
a
of
moving
the problem
may be seen by considering
the circulation J about
Hence,
are satisfied.
theorem
Helmholtz
the
of
conditions
Of the
Figure 11.12
FLOW
IRROTATIONAL
to
A flow is said
if the
be irrotational
V x
v =
curl
or
emv!ik
For a two-dimensional
the
If
fluid is
introduced,
then
flow,
irrotational
incompressible
a substitution
of Eq.
i.e.,
if
(11.10-1)
v = 0,
= 0.
we must have
a stream
and
everywhere,
vanishes
vorticity
function defined
(11.8-5) into
Eq.
by
(11.10-2)
Eq.
(11.8-5)
is
yields the
equation
fi
'
u v
+ î
dy
on
applied
mathematics.
(11.10-3)
Field Equations
254
We can
and
show that
by a Laplace equation
of irrotationality, the
even in
the three-dimensional
three
following
equations can be satisfied

function 9(x,
u =
If,
into Eq.
in addition,
the
(11.1-5)yields
dz
dx
if the
z) according
Chap.
fluid is
case, because by
must hold:
^_^
identically
y,
Mechanics
Fluid
in
incompressible
fly
(111(M)
}
K
v, w
are derived
is incompressible,
If
Eulerian
nonviscous, the
fluid is
the
1 3d
flv,-
flv,-
The density is uniquely

for. Thus,
accounted
have, for
an
ideal
to the
related
if the
p dxi
T=
if the
flow
is isentropic
potential
The incompressible
solution can be found
equation
of motion
nonlinear
convective
the
pressure
/11in
(U.lO-6) '
K
gradient, and the problem is solved. The

central
the
difficulty
of fluid
flows of an incompressible
mechanics, does not
fluid.
This is why the potential theory is so simple
and so important.
To realize the usefulness of the potential theory, we quote the Helmholtz
theorem (seeSec.ll.9):If the motion of any portion of a fluid mass is irrotational
at any one instant of time, it will continue to be irrotational
at all times, provided
that
the body forces are conservative
and that the fluid is barotropic (i.e., its density
is a function of pressure
These conditions are met in many problems. If a
alone).
solid body is immersed in a fluid and suddenly
set in motion, the motion generated
in a nonviscous fluid is irrotational.*
Hence, a whole classof technologically
important
problems
is irrotational.
have
the
7 is the ratio of
of the gas
specificheats
Small Disturbances
Let us
fluid
as an
example,the
of
in the absence body force.
consider,
of small
propagation
Let us
write
disturbancesin
a barotropic
\\
Ct =
Cll.11-5)
\\
the second-order terms

term.
Correspondingly, the
be neglected in comparison
may
of p and p are
derivatives
the
and
the
and
pressure p
in the density
p
disturbances
the body force X, and
on neglecting
infinitesimal
quantities. Then,
also first-order
and (11.11-2)
order,
Eqs. (11.11-1)
the second or
The velocity
of flow
will be
assumed to
with
small
quantities
are linearized
FLUIDS
(11.11-4)
const.,
\342\200\224jp1\"1
at constant pressure,
Cp, and
= CPICV. Both cases are barotropic.
i.e., 7
constant volume, C\342\200\236;
as a
the temperature explicitly
to introduce
is
it
necessary
other
cases,
In
and T
of
state
p,
p,
the
relating
equation
variable. Then we must introduce also
and T.
of state relating Cp, C\342\200\236
and the caloric equation
where
all
11.11 COMPRESSIBLENONVISCOUS
we
(11.11-3)
const.,
= const,
a potential equation.
this equation is also called
is
the
flow
governed by
potential
Laplace equation. If a
that satisfies all the boundary
then the Eulerian
conditions,
which causes
acceleration,
hinder
the solution of potential
(isothermal),
(11.10-5)
function,
yields
be constant
we
(adiabatic and reversible),
p1
Since $ is a
temperature T is explicitly
if the
is known to
gas,
equation
fl'-$
d1\302\256 d29
\342\200\236
\342\200\224\342\200\224r
\342\200\224= 0.
+
+
dz2
dx2
dyz
(11.11-2)
*/\342\200\242
whereas
of Eq.
pressure only
temperature
,\342\200\236
in c,
(11.10-5)
K
'
then a substitution
~
\342\200\224
+ vi7i=
77
flt
dXj
is
of motion
equation
- = const.,
d\302\256
\342\200\224
\342\200\224>v = \342\200\224. w =
dz
dx
dy
Laplace
governed
255
Fluids
CompressibleNonviscous
Sec. 11.11
the definition
= 0,
velocities u,
11
to the rule
fl*
3$
fluid
the
equations
3v_^
dz
a potential
from
flow of an
an irrotational
*\302\273-\302\273.,,,
dx
fly
These
Conditions
Boundary
of
be so small
that
first-order
the
higher
to
Basic Equations
If
a fluid is
compressible, the equation of continuity,
^ + ^/
fli
'See H.
Lamb,
Hydrodynamics,
New
Eq.
= 0.
dx,
York: Dover Publications,
(10.5-3),
is
(11.11-1)
_!!\302\243=
flf
P flX;
_l'4Pi\302\243
pdp
Eq. (11.11-6) with respect

terms,
again
neglecting the second-order
xh
Differentiating
6th ed. (1945), pp. 10,11.
î=
werjbtain
dXi
to t and
and
J-<!1.
(1111-7)
dX;
Eq. (11.11-7)with
eliminating
the sum p
respect
to
A2V//3f
dxh
257
Field Equations
256
and
Chap. 11
in Fluid Mechanics
Conditions
Boundary
32p
fl2p
(11.11-8)
7T-;
i.e.,
c2 dt1
wave
dx2
dz2'
dy2
for the propagation of small
equation
It is the
disturbances.
basic
and because the change in pressure

is
procedure,
By the same linearization
= c2 dp, we see that the same wave
in
to
the
density,
dp
change
proportional
governs the pressure disturbance:
equation
1 b2p
, ,
d2p
from Eqs.
Further,
(11.11-9)
'
x
c2dt2
dxkdxk
xkdxk
(11.11-7) and
or (11.11-9), we
(11.11-8)
deduce that
~
C2
Hence,
wave
in
dt2
theory, p, p,
the linearized
v2, and v3 are governed
vu
by the
same
equation.
Propagation
of Sound
Let
these equations
us
apply
located at the
a spherical
origin
to
the
and radiating
a2
dx2
Hence, Eq.
of a source
problem
symmetrically
siren. Becauseof the

Tj
radial
s2
+ Tl
dy2
in
a2
+ 71
dz2
of
disturbance
all directions.
We
(sound)
visualize
may
we have
symmetry,
a2
= T1
+
dr2
2d
(11.11-11)'
-Tr dr
(11.11-8)becomes
1 fl2p
92p
\342\226\240L2TL2=TLi
dr2
dt2
c2
is
~
\342\226\240
)
dxkdxk
It can be verified
by direct substitution that
functions / and g:
sum
of
two
the
arbitrary
=
Po
\\f{r
a wave
p0
is a
function,
we have,
from Eq.
(11.11-4),
c=
(11.11-14)
P.P
of sound
about the propagation
there was a long story
made
by
was
sound
of
In the history
of the velocity
investigation
=
in a
theoretical
c
first
Vp/p
The
obtained
and
in air.
assumed
Eq. (11.11-3)
who
from Newton's formula
Newton (1642-1727),
calculated
value
the
that
found
was
It
of
in 1687.
sound by a factor
publication
value of the speed of
the
experimental
until Laplace (1749-1827)
falls short of
was not explained
This discrepancy
a sound wave is so fast
approximatelyone-sixth.
and expansion in
rate of compression
thus,
conduction;
out that the
interchange of heat by
pointed
if we
for any appreciable
time
no
is
becomes
plausible
that there
This argument
adiabatic.
the
considered
For a step wave,
the process must be
in the preceding paragraph.
be
discussed
must
wave
front sweeps by
think of the step
wave
take place as the
that
Heat
and
time.
in
p
and
p
changes
sudden
region of space
in an infinitesimal
at the wave front
the gasflows isentropically
Hence,
accomplished
is negligible.
time interval
of such step
transfer in such a small
sound wave is a superposition
As a general
and Eq.
discontinuity.
the
across
Therefore, Eq. (11.11-4)applies
is isentropic.
flow
entire
the
was
right.
waves,
have verified that Laplace
with
results. Experiments
et seq., are associated
(11.11-14)
(11.11-8),
wave
equations
the
then,
isentropy,
Generally,
conditions that guarantee
must be
To apply these equations,
isentropic flows.
small thermal diffusivity,
and
shock waves
of
strong
absence
the
such as
observed.
of mechanics,
2 3p
11.11-12)'
-T-
r dr
a general
solution of this
equation
lct) + g(r
ct),
(11.11-13)
of the field), the/term represents

constant (the undisturbed
density
term
a wave converging
and
the
the
from
out
g
represents
origin,
radiating
the clearest way to see this is to consider a special case
toward the origin. Perhaps
in which
the function f(r - ct) is a step function:
f(r
ct) = el(r ct), where e
Here,
unit-step
density.
and
pressure
SUPERSONIC
AMD
11.12 SUBSONIC
Basic Equations
P
Flow
- ct < 0 and
which is zero when r
of
a small jump across a line
is small and l(r
is, therefore,
disturbance
The
0.
disturbance
ct>
=
the
0,
is 1 when r
r - ct - 0. At time t
= ct.
by the equation
described
is moved to r
discontinuity
discontinuity
of
time
t, the line
At
case follows
The general
is located at the origin.
of the disturbance.
of propagation
the
is
c
speed
the
velocity of sound.
Thus,
In acoustics, c is called
between
of superposition.
relationship
the
the
on
principle
by
= {dpldp)m
depends
is
of sound c
condition
the
and
The velocity
ideal
gas
concerned with an
If we are
isentropic,
of acoustics.
equation
Subsonic
Supersonic
- ct) is the
-rl
This is the
Sec. 11.12
and
in
Laboratory
FLOW
Frame
of Reference
is referred
The basic wave equation (11.11-8) The

to the fluid at infinity.
rest relative
are generated.
disturbances
and how the
same equation
with time; the
or
changing
appear
only in
the boundary
conditions
to
a frame
of
reference
that is at
on where
no restriction
equation imposes
be
moving
disturbances may
The sources of
would
sources
the
of
holds. The nature
and initial
conditions.
258
Field
Conditions
and Boundary
Equations
A flying aircraft is a source
of disturbances
Fluid
in
in still
Mechanics
Chap.
air. The disturbances
11
come
as sound waves governed by the wave equation. As we all know, the nature
of the disturbances changes
as the aircraft's flight speed
drastically
changes from
subsonic to supersonic.
In the latter case, we hear the sonic boom.
It is convenient
to study the nature of flow about an aircraft in a wind tunnel.
We shall therefore write
down the wave-propagation
in
equation for disturbances
the air flowing
in a tunnel as they appear
to us standing on the ground.
to us
Consider
U at
infinity.
a body of fluid coming

If the disturbances are
to be
components
and the
from, say, the left, with a uniform

indicated
by a prime, we assume the
U +
pressure and
v =
\302\253',
v',
U =
w',
The whole
investigation
disturbances
are
infinitesimal
Hence,on
This is the
po + p',
would be simplified
quantities of the
velocity
the velocity
(11.12-2)
assume
order;
v/
components
(11.11-8),
same equation.
v; =
$,,,
flow
and
the velocity potential
these assumptions, the basic equations (11.11-1) and

(11.11-4) may be
as before. In fact, repeating the relevant
steps in Sec. 11.11 with our
we obtain the equation of continuity
assumptions,
Under
This equation
called the
now
Mach
on
depends
derive Eqs.
p' and
pressure
irrotational, then
32<D
+
TI
dx2
with
by the
respect
a2$
a2*
to time t
equation
\342\200\236\342\200\236\342\200\236
TT + TTdz2
(11.12-7)
v
'
dy2
dimensionless
one
only
simpler cases.Consider
derivatives
$ is governed
is denoted
and
number
Then all
rest.
c2 dx*
(11.12-3)
in some
(11.12-6)
tfd2\302\256
TTT
p'<\302\253po.
'
this equation.
satisfies
also
the
flow is
the
basic equation
around a model at
us examine the
vanish,
(11.12-6)
K
Flow
the
that
If
have
dz2l
dy2
the
which
for
i.e.,
p'<p0l
we can show that
Eq.
satisfy
potential $,
Eqs. (11.12-4),we
+ %+*\302\247.
M
dxz
(11.12-1)
p'.
we could
if
first
u',v',w'<U,
po +
(11.12-6)
(11.11-10)
(11.11-9),
velocity
dw'ldz with
dv'ldy
for compressible flow in aerodynamics.

we apply the method used in Sec. 11 to
equation
from
steady
basic
to Eq.
If,
Let
du'ldx
eliminating
'
259
Flow
Supersonic
.%^+U&=
dxdt
3f2
Steady
const.
and
Subsonic
velocity
density
Sec. 11.12
parameter,
Vic,
which
is
by
linearized
new
IdU
du'
dv'
dp'
\342\200\224
dw'\\
.\342\200\236..dp'
+ Po \342\200\224
+ \342\200\224
+ \342\200\224
+ \342\200\224
+ v(V
+
u')\342\200\224
dt
dx
K\\flx
'dx
dy
dz)
which
is linearized
,dp' = \342\200\236
w'\342\200\224
0,
dz
The nature
less than
of the
solution
call a
1. We
flow
to
flp'
dt
dv'
dw'\\
dzl
[du'
\342\200\224
+ \342\200\224
+ \342\200\224
+
p\342\200\236
\\dx
the equations of motion
dy
are linearized
dp' =
*Hr
dx
\342\200\236,_
\342\200\236
\342\200\236
v
(11.12-4
;
(1~MV
whereas, for a
to
supersonic
flow,
32<fi
dx
dt
po
dx
po
^+U^=-l\"t'
8W'
dt
Po
,r^_
dx
dx
Differentiating
the three
respectively,adding,
and again neglecting the
dldu'
dt\\dx
dv'
dw'\\
dy
dz
equations
(11.12-5)
rrdldu'
dx\\dx
a1-12\"5)
dy
_^\302\245_
po
(11.12-9)
dy
a2$
fl2$.
=0
^xti?
Steady
Flow
over
(1L12-9)
(M<1)'
we have
a2$
is a partial
of the
Equation(11.12-10)
the difference between these
is one
Example:
if M
a2$
(M>1)-
differential
hyperbolic
equation
type. Let
of the
us consider
elliptic
(1U2-10)
type.
an example
showing
equations.
a Wavy
Plate
dz
with respect
second-order terms,
dv'
^-^-^-tf\"0
Equation
M is greater or
> 1. We write, for
whether
\\
32$
\342\200\236
\302\260-
(11.12-8)
on
Eqi\\(11.12-7) depends
if M < 1, supersonic
subsonic
to
a subsonic flow,
-f-
Similarly,
,3p'
v,JL +
dy
M = -\342\226\240
dw'\\
dz
to x, y,
sinusoidal
wavy profile be placed in a steady
plate with a small
U at infinity. (See
to the velocity
flow, with the mean chord of the plate parallel
the equation
described
are
of
the
by
plate
11.13and 11.14.) The waves
Let a
and
z,
we obtain
very
thin
Figs.
c2ld2p'
ay
32p'\\
p0\\3y2
df
dz1
/'
z =
%x
asin\342\200\224-
(11.12-11)
Field Equations
260
and
Conditions
Boundary
flow
Supersonic
Chap. 11
in Fluid Mechanics
Subsonic
on the plate.
flow
-7\"-^\342\200\224/r^-^T-^\342\200\224^7-^\342\200\224'
<r~-~
11.13
steady
supersonic
Figure 11.14 A wavy

flow.
steady subsonic
plate in a
wavy
flow.
plate in a
we
(11.12-11),
w> =
Qijf
u\342\200\224
cos
a is assumed
small compared with
to be
the
wave length
a \302\253L.
(11.12-12)
The fluid, since it is assumed to be perfect, can glide over the plate,
cannot penetrate it. Therefore,
the velocity vector of the flow must be tangent
the plate. Now the velocity
vector
has the components
+ u',
v', w'
For small
z, all
z)
11.15):
Ttz\\
= a sin
\342\200\242
of the
function
(11.12-16)
w'(x, y,
(dw'\\
. . ..
z),
(11.12-17)
z^\342\200\224]
w'
the first
are higher-order terms.

condition to
Consistently
the boundary
simplify
(11.12-14)
cos
IF-
\342\200\224
The boundary
solution to
elliptic
z =
(11.12-18)
0).
at infinity
Condition
the
(when
i~i
Lj
problem,
on
be specified.
must
infinity
and hyperbolic
conditions
boundary
Eq. (11.12-18)is not sufficient to determine the

which is governed by either Eq. (11.12-9) or Eq.
whether the flow is subsonic or supersonic. In addition,
given in
condition
our
the conditions at
when z
w'(x, y, 0)
the terms following
(11.12-10),depending
dx
these terms, we can
to
the x-, y-, and z-directions, respectively.

On the other hand, the normal
vector
to the surface described
by Eq. (11.12-11) has the following
components
(see Fig.
1.
but
(11.12-13)
Sz
fix
-y-
and differentiability
continuity
in
3z
this is
L:
neglecting
261
can write
w'(x, y,
The amplitude
Flow
Supersonic
Eq.
counting on the
Again,
Figure
From
--\"T^
\342\226\2407^~7~~-
Subsonic and
Sec. 11.12
equations
with
be specified,
that may
There is a
respect
and we
to the
great
between
difference
appropriate types
must consider them
of
in some
detail.
Subsonic case.
of the
For
the elliptic equation (11.12-9), the influence
and
it
is
reasonable
to
assume
in all directions,
out
that, for any
spread
zero at distances infinitely
far away from
finite body, the disturbancestenditoward
the body. A rigorous
argument may be based on the total energy that may be
in a certain fashion, and
the fluid velocity is distributed
fluid.
If
to
the
imparted
zero at a certain rate as the distance
from the body
toward
if it does not tend
to
increases toward infinity, an infinitely large energy would have to be imparted
is impossible.
further
the fluid in order to create the motion, which
details,
(For
we impose
differential
see texts on partial
equations or aerodynamics.)Accordingly,
on our problem:
conditions
the following
(a) The flow is two-dimensional and parallel to the xz-plane, and there is no
disturbances
is
Fipre
*-x
If the
velocity
vector,
to the
surface
of the
11.15
Surface normal and
the velocity boundary
condition.
with components given by Eq. (11.12-13), is to be tangent

plate, it must be normal to the normal vector given by Eq.
can be stated as the
(11.12-14). Hence, the condition of nonpenetration
and
orthogonalityof the vectors of Eqs. (11.12-13)
i.e., by the condition that
(11.12-14),
their
scalar product
vanishes:
on the
dependence
(b) All
v
Omitting higher-order terms,
Jdx
we obtain
w' =
boundary
dx
w'
-\302\273
0;
\302\261\302\260\302\260.
zero as z -\302\273
In particular,
i.e.,
$ ->
const,
as z -\302\273
\302\261\302\273. (11.12\342\200\22419)
condition
Jz
U-
tend toward
u', v',
by
the
y-coordinate.
disturbances
(11.12-15)
Supersonic
case.
that the
disturbances
argument of decreasing
Turning
can
now
amplitude
to the
hyperbolic equation (11.12-10),we find

dimension.
The
away along waves of limited
the
condition
does not apply.
Instead,
boundary
be carried
262
Field
must be replaced
by
disturbances and
that
This
Conditionsin
radiating condition:
disturbances radiate
the
the
source. For
a single
that
Fluid
the
from
the
radiation condition is
of the
description
with
concerned
and Boundary
Equations
of the
example,
Mechanics
11
Chap.
plate is the only source of

not toward it.
source,
to apply when we are
two solutions on the right-
easy
hand side of Eq. (11.11-13),the term/(r

ct)lr represents a wave radiating from
under
the origin; hence, for a source at the origin, it is the only term admissible
becomes
somewhat confounded, however,
the radiation condition. The condition
the matter can be clarified
when
to two-dimensional steady flow. Perhaps
applied
flow
about
of
some
stationary models in a
by examining
photographs supersonic
in Fig. 11.16. Here, the flows are from left to
wind tunnel, such as those
shown
are contours of density of the
right. We see that the lines of disturbances, which
to the right. This direction
fluid as revealed by the Schlieren photographs, incline
of inclination
of the strong (shock)and weak (Mach) waves is determined
by the
radiation condition.
of the
Solution
Wavy
Now we can return

in
the
subsonic
Wall
to our
Problem
problem.
case, Eq.
(11.12-9)
Eq. (11.12-20)into
-(1
Af*
M2)fc
TTX
\342\200\224
\342\226\240
(11.12-9),
Eq.
cos
by direct substitution
a
by function of the form
verified
easily
be satisfied
= Ae>* cos
On substituting
It is
can
(11.12-20)
we obtain
+ Atf**
that,
cos
j-
= 0,
or
(11.12-21)
|i=\302\261HVi>FIf
the
grow
plus sign
is used
exponentially
is used, Eq.
in Eq.
without
(11.12-19)can
limit
be
$ in Eq. (11.12-20) will

(11.12-21), the function
On the other hand, if the minus sign
as z -> <\302\273.
satisfied. Hence, we may try
Ae -vWi=io, cos
$ =
(11.12-22)
Li
The
vertical velocity w'

w- =
computed from
\342\204\242
setting
z =
Eq. (11.12-18),
we
obtain
1 y/iZTtf
Ae
-w\302\253vi^ft
dz
On
$ is
in
Eq.
(11.12-23)
and applying
\342\204\242
cos
(H.12-23)
the boundary condition,
Figure 11.16 (a) How past a flat plate with a beveled, sharp leading
being aligned with the free stream of Mach
edge, the top surface
number 8. On the top side of the plate, a laminar
boundary
layer is
revealed by the lighter line. A shockwave is induced by the
are seen on
layer. Similar features
displacement effect of the boundary
the lower side. Schlieren system. Flow left to right. Courtesy of Toshi
Kubota,
California Institute of Technology;
(b) Scale mode of the
Nimous spacecraft in a 50-in hypersonic
tunnel, at Mach number 8 and
Reynolds number of 0.42 x 106/ft. Schlieren system. Flow left to right.
Gas Dynamics Facility,
ARO, Inc.
Courtesy of Von Karman
Field Equations
264
all the
Now
the solution
for the
and
boundary conditionsfor
case is
subsonic
$ =
Ua
case are
subsonic
the
Chap. 11
in Fluid Mechanics
Conditions
Boundary
satisfied.
Sec. 11.13
From Eq.
Hence,
solution,
e-w^:
H.
CoS
In
decrease
disturbances
the
that
we can
deduce the
exponentially
increasing z. From this
the
field,
pressure field, and the density field.
velocity
with
obtain, when
Eq. (11.12-32)
z = 0,
- VM2-
flu'
1 dp'
dx
(11.12-26)
dx'
Hence, on
integrating
* =
have
-pUu1
(11.12-27)
-pf/^- ox
for such a flow are plotted in Fig. 11.14.

now
to the supersonic case, Eq. (11.12-10), we
Turning
satisfied
the
function
by
The
streamlines
$ = /(*
g are arbitrary
where/and
VM2
1 z)
+ VM2
g(x
functions, because if
i =
x-
y/M2
- l
that it can
be
(11.12-10) is satisfied.
The
z),
undiminished
intensity.
wind-tunnel
boundary
condition,
= \342\200\224r\342\200\224
=
cos \342\200\224
1.hi
-7-cos
L
L
L
4\302\243/
(11.12-29)
l z,
waves, along
1z)
the
are inclined
basis of the
o,
dg
VM2
1z
= const.,
(11.12-30)
are propagated
with
direction, as revealed by the
the Mach lines for the function
hand,
in the wrong direction. Hence,the function g must
which
These lines
the disturbances
radiation
the correct
condition.
<S>=f(x-VMr^lz).
Therefore,
we
and
returning
/ = \"
to Eq.
(11.12-29),we
Eq. (11.12-18), we
(11.12-33)
have
Ua
Z(%~
yjjjs\342\200\224isin
^P^l
z),
(11.12-34)
solves the problem. A plot of the streamlines is shown in Fig. 11.13.

the two cases is dramatic.
The contrast between
Whereas
in the subsoniccase
as
the
is
diminished
disturbance
distance
from
the
pressure
plate increases, in
not.
This
of
case
it
is
the
reason
a sonic boom hits
is,
course,
supersonic
why
with all its fury from a supersonic aircraft,
but not from a subsonic one.
11.13 APPLICATIONS
lines
are inclined in
photographs. On the other
VM2 be rejectedon
g(x +
with the
(11.12-28)
we set
}dg
i.e.,
\302\243const.,
are the Mach
3z2
the
us
hence,
(11.12-32
. which
the
see
then
and Eq.
_
df
VHF^l-j--
\342\200\236
2 =0
[/-=--A
we
obtain
(11.12-25)
since
particular,
(11.12-31),we
3$
,
= w1 = \342\200\224
Comparing
We see
265
to Biology
Applications
may
try
(11.12-31)
TO BIOLOGY
relevant to living creatures as to machines and physical

objects.
and lung, the urine, and the sap in the xylem of trees are
and the no-slip boundary
Newtonian
fluids to which the Navier-Stokes equation
conditions apply. Blood is a non-Newtonian fluid. If the shear strain rate is
i.e., its
sufficiently
high (e.g., > 100 s\"1), the viscosity of blood is almost constant,
If the shear strain
rate is low, however, the viscosity
behavior is almost Newtonian.
of blood increases. Saliva,
and other body
mucus,
synovial fluid in the knee joint,
of the flow of these must take their nonfluids are also non-Newtonian.
Analysis
Newtonian behavior into consideration.
Blood can be treated as a homogeneous fluid only when one is considering
diameter
is much larger than
the diameter of the red
flow in a blood vessel whose
blood vessel, such as in the capillaries, whose diameter
blood
cells. Flow in a small
is about the same as that of the red cells, must treat the cells as individual bodies.
The blood is, then, a biphasic fluid. Other body fluids that contain proteins and
as biphasic or multiphasic
if the
other suspensions
may have to be treated
small.
of the vessels in which they flow are sufficiently
dimensions
their
Animals and plants live in gas, water, and earth. Understanding
inside of animals and plants.
fluid mechanics. Body fluids circulate
movements requires
fluid mechanics.
their movement also requires
In either case,the
Understanding
Fluid
mechanics
The gas in the
boundary
is as
airway
conditions
are,
in
general,
nonstationary.
Field Equations
266
and
Conditions
Boundary
Fluid
in
Mechanics
Chap.
11
The
The examples considered in this chapter have applications to biology.
relevant
to
the
blood
flow
is
tube
channel
or
of
in
a
the flow
problem.
analysis
vessel varies with
are elastic. The diameter of a blood
The blood vessels,however,
of the
elastic deformation
In biology, solid mechanics
interesting
phenomena.
.
closely knit together.
of fluid mechanics
some insight into the broad subject
references listed at the end of the chapter.
the pressure. The interaction

wall can produce somevery
and fluid mechanics are often
The reader may
gain
and biomechanicsfrom
the
Chap. 11
Bw
267
Problems
v 3w
Bw
\342\200\224
+
+ u\342\200\224
Bt
Br
r
36
3w
lflp=
iv\342\200\224
Bz
p Bz
\342\226\240\342\200\242
-,
+ F.
vV2w
where
the flow and the
between
rBr
Br
The equation of continuity
r2 392
Bz2'
is
.13,.
.r
Br
1 Bv
Bw
r 38
Bz
PROBLEMS
11.9
Derive
the Navier-Stokes
an incompressible
for
equation
fluid
in cylindrical polar
11.10
coordinates.
represents acceleration.
In polar coordinates, the components
are a\342\200\236
on p.
a,, az, which are given in Eq. (10.9-9)
of the stress tensor. In polar coordinates,
225. The right-hand
side is the vector divergence
these components are given by Eq. (10.9-11). It remains
to write down the stresses in terms
and axial directions, respectively.
of the velocities u, v, w along the radial, circumferential,
On p. 128, we have em e\342\200\236,
between
\302\253\342\200\236
uz. The relationship
etc., expressed in terms of \302\253,,
the strain rates e\342\200\236,
w, v, w are the same. Hence,
em, etc., to the velocities
Solution:
The
the
side of
left-hand
from Eq. (7.3-6), and
Therefore,
o-\342\200\236
-p
for
we have
3m
\342\200\236
+ 2|i \342\200\224.
or
lit
\342\200\236
2|ie80
or.. =
-p +
2|ie\342\200\236
-p
+ 2|i I-
-p
13v\\
+ -\342\200\224li
38;
Br
^7-
-3v'
Bw
.
Idu
\342\200\236
= u, \342\200\224
+ \342\200\224
a.r - 2ae=r
r
r
A substitution
into Eq. (10.9-11) yields
Bu
Bu
v Bu
\342\200\224
+it\342\200\224
+
Bt
dr
r 39
dv
Bv
v Bv
\342\200\224
+ u\342\200\224
+
Bt
Br
r 36
Bu
v2
dz
Bv
uv
+ w
dp
Br
11 3d
=
+ \342\200\224
w\342\200\224
r
Bz
p
r 39
would
an
airplane
be able to fly?
problem
of tides induced
on the
What
the
about
differences
earth under
birds
and
in the
the influence
pp. 358-362.)
Hydrodynamics,
are generated
/_,
vlVhi
\\
-u
r2
2 3v\\
-\342\200\224
+ F,
r2 30/
L,
Bu
v\\
\\
r 36
r/
+ v Vt +
0,
= ae'tz sin kx sin
at,
and
w =
-ae'k' cos kx
sin at.
in a cumulus cloud in a summer thunderstorm. What are the

Analyze the motion
If temperature is an important
how
variables relevant to this problem?
consideration,
into the basic equations?
would it be incorporated
Gravity must not be neglected.
Make a dimensional
Present the basic equations.
analysis to determine fundamental
parameters.
run up a sloping beach and create all the panorama
on the seashore:
and foam. Analyze the phenomenon
surf,
mathematically.
riptides, waves, ripples,
and
Give an appropriate choice of variables. Write down the differential
equations
Make simplifying
if you think they are appropriate,
conditions.
assumptions
boundary
but state your/assumptions
clearly.
11.18 Water
the Navier-Stokes equations,
problem
(See Fig.
to
analogous
of blood flow
dimensionless
Br
\\dz
form
in water in a long channel of rectangular cross section. What

with which the wavelength and frequency
can be determined?
on
the
surface
of
water
in
a'
are
11.15Ripples
generated
deep pond. Does the wave speed
Even though the full solution is rather complicated,
depend on the wavelength?
whether or not the waves are dispersive
on
(i.e., whether the speeddepends
all the basic equations are written down. Take the free
wavelength)can be detected when
and try a twosurface of the pond to be the xy-plane, let the z-axis point downward,
dimensional solution with velocity components
11.17
.
llBw
\342\200\236
= 2u.e\342\200\236
=
mathematically the
rate.
strain
in a
11.16 Considera ground-effect

machine, which uses one or more reaction jets and hovers
of the flow and write the equations
above
the ground. Sketch the streamlines
and
when it is hovering.
boundary conditions that govern the machine
Bz
law'
a0l
Formulate the mathematical

of the moon. (See Lamb,
v=
+ 2|i \342\200\224.
.
/ ao*)
\342\200\236
=
+ - \342\200\224
a,, = 2p,e\342\200\236
p, \\r\342\200\224\342\200\224
r
\\
with the
is nonviscous, would fish be able to swim? What are

for fish in water and birds in the air?
water
arguments
11.13
Formulate
varies
of motion of blood
are the equations
2\\s.e\342\200\236
-p
-p +
11.12 If
viscosity
heart.
11.11 li air is truly nonviscous,

insects? Why?
11.14 Waves
rae'et\302\260-
an incompressible fluid,
am =
in a living
13v
6w~r
e\"~dr'
the Navier-Stokes equations.
equation
_ u
Bu
Navier-Stokes
fluid whose
Blood is a non-Newtonian
9.15 and Prob. 9.4.) Derive the equation
; + F,
waves
which are fast-moving

narrow streams of water that
11.19 On the beachj there are riptides,
to the shoreline and are dangerous
move toward the ocean in a direction perpendicular
Field Equations
268
and
in Fluid Mechanics
Conditions
Boundary
Chap.
11
For a two-dimensional sloping

beach and a
anomaly:
wave, we obtain a three-dimensional solution. Is there any
the mathematician's point of view, not the
basic objection to this situation (from
another
of such a phenomenon in nature?
name
Can
example
you
swimmer's)?
Chap.
Further
11
269
Reading
to swimmers. Now this is an
11.20When
wind blows over (perpendicular
These vortices induce
the wake.
to) long cylindrical

pipes, vortices are shed in
in the pipe. A trans-Arabic
vibrations
oil line (the
severe vibrations due to wind.

was reported to have suffered
Vortex
large rockets, and the like are subjected to these disturbances.
in other words, the shedding
is
shedding over a long cylinder is three dimensional;
nonuniform along the length of the cylinder, even if the wind and the cylinder
are
the aerodynamic
both uniform.
Formulate
problem for a fixed, rigid cylinder. Furnish
conditions.
Make a dimensional analysis
all the differential equations and boundary
involved.
to determine all the dimensionless parameters
part)
aboveground
Smokestacks,
to take account
11.21 Generalize Prob.11.20
of
the vortex shedding over a flexible,
vibrating
cylinder.
11.22 Using
derived in
the equations
P3.22,
Let
Answer:
p.
the Navier-Stokes
cylindrical
pipe
radius
0.04
Prob.
11.9,
find
the velocity field
in a
READING
= a
and
&2)\"'[(wia2
= 10,6 at r
(o26!)r
equation, find the velocity

cross section.
S. (ed.), Modern
University
Lamb,
Press
of a flow
Explain
Liepmann, H.
Prandtl,
Schlichttng,
W., and
L., The
H.,
poise,
in a long
cm, density
1,
= 0.04
poise,
=
of viscosity p,
= 0.07cm/sec.
velocity v
= 2
= 750. In
In (a), R\342\200\236
the Reynolds number
RN
VLI\\i.
Compute
= 3.5 x 10\"3. The
boundary layer thickness 8 is on the orderof (R^)'\"1.
Note:
(b),
Development
1st ed.,
RN
One end is connected to a water faucet.

11.25 I have a garden hose curved on the ground.
When the valve is opened, the pressureis high, a water jet comesout with good
and the hose whips like a snake. Why?
force,
Now consider an analagous problem for a pipeline suspended in air above
ground. One span L is supported between two pillars. The pipe is a thin-walled circular
shell, in which flows a fluid. The pipe is straight if there is no load. It is
cylindrical
of the flowing
loaded by its own weight, the weight of the fluid, and the pressure
the pipe and the pillars, what fluid mechanical problems should be
a mathematical theory for an important problem
that you
considered? Formulate
conditions.
Outline
identified. Write down the differential equations and the boundary
a method of solution.
fluid. To design
A. Roshko,
Essentials
(1984).
Springer-Verlag
and Growth,
New York:Springer-Verlag
in Fluid Dynamics (2 vol.),
1879,6thed.,1932,
New York:
London:
Oxford
Dover Publications
Elements of Gasdynamics,
New York: Wiley (1957).
of Fluid Dynamics, London: Blackie (1953).

4th ed.,
New York:
Boundary Layer
Theory,
Fluid
a Concise Introduction to the
River
which it is applicable.
p,
Stress,
(1938).
Hydrodynamics,
Horace,
in each of the following

the concept of a boundary layer is important
briefly how and why boundary-layer
theory is used in those
Assume a viscosity
coefficient
(a) Blood flow in the aorta.
r = 3 mm, density p = 1, and velocity v = 50cm/sec.
(b) Blood flow in small blood vessels. Assume a coefficient
=
and mean
radius a = 10~3
Flow,
Cambridge University
(1945).
u,)/r].
distribution
Motion,
New York:
Cambridge:
(1990).
Goldstein,
= b. Then
fl262(w2
to Fluid Mechanics,
Circulation,
Biomechanics:
3530 W. Huron
Couette
Introduction
Y. C, Biodynamics:
Fung, Y. C,
of rectangular
whether
problems.
problemsto
Fung,
86).
= co,a at r
v = (a2 -
11.24Discuss
Batchelor, G. K.,An
Press(1967).
Yih, Chia-Shun,
flowmeter(Fig.
11.23Using
FURTHER
water
two-dimensional
Mechanics,
Dr., Ann Arbor, MI 48103 (1990).
McGraw-Hill
Theory,
(1960).
West River Press,
Sec. 12.1
BasicEquations
of Elasticity for
The conservation
of mass
The conservation
^q. (10.6-7),
of momentum
is expressed by
is expressed
law for a
Basic equations,
some remarks
waves, torsion
biomechanics.
of shafts,
elastic
about
bending
oil
A.
and
the Eulerian
G are
+
Xe\302\253&7
Eq. (10.5-3),
equation of motion
.02.1-5)
homogeneous, isotropic material
of beams, and
where
by
of continuity,
+ *-
P*
\\
Hooke's
the equation
271
Isotropic Bodies
Homogeneous,
is
2Ge,h
(12.1-6)
Lame constants.
describe
a theory of elasticity.
(12.1-1) through (12.1-6) together
with the
compare these equations
corresponding equations for a viscous fluid,
as given in Sec. 11.1, we see that their theoretical structures are
similar,
except
that here we have
a nonlinear
relation [Eq.
strain-and-displacement-gradient
(12.1-1)],in contrast to the linear rate-of-deformation-and-velocity-gradient
relation
for
the fluid. Hence, the theory of
is more deeply
[Eq. (6.1-3)],
elasticity
nonlinear than the theory of viscous fluids.
/
The nonlinear problem is so wrought with mathematical
that
complexities
only a few exact solutions are known. For this reason, it is common to simplify
the theory by introducing
a severe restriction, namely,
that the displacements and
velocities are infinitesimal.
In this way, Eqs.
can be
(12.1-1)through
(12.1-3)
linearized. One tries to learn as much as possible
about the linearized
theory and
then proceed to discover what features are introduced
by the nonlinearities.
Equations
If we
12.1 BASICEQUATIONS
OF ELASTICITY
FOR HOMOGENEOUS,
ISOTROPIC
BODIES
the preceding chapter, we discussedthe equations
governing the flow of fluids.
In this chapter, we shall consider the motion of solids that obey the Hooke's law.
A Hookean
state. All strains and particle
zero-stress
body has a unique
displacements
are measured from this state, in which their values are counted
as zero.
The basic equations
can be gleaned from the preceding chapters.
Let u{xu
= 1, 2, 3, describe the displacement of a particle
located
at xh x2, x3
x2, x3, t), i
at time t from its position in the zero-stress
state. Various strain measures
can be
defined for the displacement
field. The Green strain
tensor
is expressed in terms
of ufau x2,x3, t) according to Eq. (5.3-3):
In
e,i
1 dUj
-r
dx-t
dUi
dXj
dllk
duk
dXi
dXj.
We linearize
that
the nonlinear
the equations
terms
in
ourselves to
by restricting
(12.1-1)
Eqs.
v, so
of\302\253,-,
values
through (12.1-3) may
be neglected.
(12.1-1)
Here, and hereinafter, all Latin indices range over 1,2,3.

is given by the material
of the displacement,
derivative
(111-7)
*=2te+d*
The particle
velocity
v,v,-
du,
dv,
= _.
\342\200\236
(i^g)
\302\245,
du,
dt
The particle acceleration a,-
is given by the
dUi
(12.1-2)
'dXj
material
derivative of the velocity, Eq.
(10.3-7),
3V;
dt
270
small
Thus,
Equations (12.1-4)through
unknowns p, \302\253,-,
v,-, a,,
Eq. (12.1-6) into Eq.
Navier's equation,
e\342\200\236,
cr,7; i,
(12.1-8)
(12.1-5)and
using
are 22
together
= 1, 2, 3. We
may
Eq. (12.1-7)
to
for
equations
eliminate
obtain
a,,
by
the
the 22
substituting
well-known
dV,
(12.1-3)
'dXj
GV%
+ (X +
G)|-
X,
r~,
(12.M)
SomeSimple
272
e is the
where
divergence of the
vector u;
displacement
dui
But
diii
e = -\302\261=-\302\261
+ -^
oXi
0X2
dXj
V2 is the
Laplace operator.
If we
write x, y,
r\\1
introduce Poisson's ratio
If we
v, as
By
in Eq.
jci,
x2, x3,
we have
32
V2 = \342\200\2242
+ -j
dx
(12.1-10)
dx$
of
(12.1-11)
-;\342\200\242
flz
(7.4-8),we
Sec. 12.2
can write
(12.1-9)as
273
Waves
Elastic
Plane
cL as the time t increased.The constant

cL is called the phase
/ is the wavelength, as can be seen from
The constant
motion.
velocity
of u as a function of x, at any instant of time. The particle
the sinusoidalpattern
from
Eq. (12.2-1) is in the same direction as that of the wave
velocity
computed
the direction of the x-axis). Such
a motion is said to
in
propagation (namely,
waves. Since at any instant
of time the wave crests
a train of longitudinal
constitute
the motion represented by this equation is called a train of
lie in parallel
planes,
right
i.e.,
3\302\2533
+ ->.
z instead
a2
Chap. 12
in Elasticity
Problems
a velocity
of the wave
with
plane
waves.
Next, let
Navier's equation
us consider
the motion
v =
u = 0,
2n
w =
ct),
Asm~-(x\302\261
0,
(12.2-3)
a train of plane waves of wavelength / propagatingin the direction

x-axis with a phase velocity c. When Eqs. (12.2-3) are substituted into Eq.
(12.1-9), it is seen that c must assume the value
which
represents
of the
basic field equation

of the linearized theory
of elasticity.
Navier's equation (12.1-9)must be solved for appropriate boundary
is the
This
one of two kinds:

Specified displacements.The components
(1)
Ic
are usually
conditions,which
cr=
of displacement
z<,-are
prescribed
on the boundary.
(2) Specified
assignedon the
In most problems
of the
surface
convert
the
surface
tractions.
The components of
traction
surface
T, are
boundary.
the
are such
conditions
boundary
that
over
one part
are specified, whereas

over another
part the
tractions
are specified. In the latter case, Hooke'slaw may be used to
the boundary condition into prescribed values
of a certain combination of
the
boundary
first
derivatives
The particle velocity

(in the y-direction) computed from
Eq. (12.2-3) is
perpendicularto the direction of wave
propagation
(the ^--direction). Hence, the
is said
generated
of elasticity,
displacements
(12.2-4)
/\342\200\224
V P
to
be
longitudinal
on the elastic constants
depends on
Poisson's
and
ratio only and
The
wave.
wave speed and
characteristic
depend
a transverse
cL and
transverse
the density
is given
speeds
wave speed,
of
the
material.
of u,.
If
PLANE
ELASTIC
WAVES
in
To
the linearized equations, let us consider a simple harmonic

wave
train in an elastic medium. Let us assume
that the displacementcomponents
and that the body
Hi, Ui, u3 (or, in unabridged
notation, \302\253,
v, w) are infinitesimal
force X, vanishes. Then it is easy to verify that a solution of Navier's
equation
(12.1-9) is
illustrate
the
respectively.They
The ratio cTlcL
by
{i22-5)
ct=c^W^)
12.2
wave
cT are called
v =
0.25, then cL = \\/3cT.

the following
Similar to Eq. (12.2-3),
equations represent a transverse wave
which the particles move in the direction of the z-axis:
the use of
where A, I, and
cL are
= A
sin
2ir
v =
\342\200\224
\302\261
cLt),
(x
constants, provided that
the
\"
CL~i
The pattern of motion
constant. Hence, if
Vd
+ v)(i
constant
0,
(12.2-1)
cL
is chosen
to be
(m-2)
2v)p-
when x \302\261
by Eq. (12.2-1) is unchanged
ctf remains
expressed
the negative sign were taken,
the pattern would move to the
u = 0,
v =
0,
iv
= A
sin
2ir
\342\200\224
(x \302\261
cTt).
(12.2-6)
in Eq. (12.2-3)
The plane parallel to which the particles move [such as thery-plane
or the xz-plane in Eq. (12.2-6)] is called the plane of polarization.
elastic continuum. In a finite
Plane waves may exist only in an unbounded
a plane wave will be reflected when it hits a boundary. If there is another
body,
retracted waves occur in the second medium.
elastic medium beyond the boundary,
to those in acousticsand optics;
of reflection and refraction are similar
The features
an incident longitudinal
in elasticity,
wave will be
the main difference is that,
reflected and refracted in a combination of longitudinal and transverse waves, and
of both types
an incident transverse wave will also be reflected in a combination
of these waves
of waves. The details can be worked out by the proper combination
so that the boundary conditions are satisfied.
Some Simple
274
Problemsin
Chap. 12
Elasticity
Sec. 12.4
stress
12.3 SIMPLIFICATIONS
of a Circular Cylindrical
Torsion
in the shaft.
distribution
of the
to the equation
simplifications
linearized
theory of elasticity
may
cross sections,
from
come
and
geometry.
and
to solve this problem depends

The degree of difficulty
shaft
is a circular cylinder,
the solution is
cross section, or if the shaft has variable
shells.
is obtained if the number of independent

or
Clearly, a simplification
t will be
is reduced. Thus, if nothing changes with time, the variable
of the differential
of materials makes the coefficients
suppressed.
Homogeneity
then
it is
difficult.
of the torsion of a cylindrical

shaft of
simple problem
shows the notations and the coordinate
circular cross section.
(See Fig. 12.1, which
axes to be used.) Before tackling the problem analytically, let us look at the physical
conditions. Under the torque, the shaft twists. Let the cross section at z = 0 be
is homogeneous along the z-axis, the
Since the shaft, as well as the loading,
fixed.
twist must be uniform
Hence, the deformationmust be expressible
alongthefz-axis.
in terms of twist per unit length a, which is a constant independent of z. The
the rotation of a section at z = 1 relative
to that at z = 0.
a represents
quantity
us consider the
Let
isotropy.
(1) Homogeneity
forces.
(2) The absence of inertial
(3) A high degree of symmetry in
(4) Plane stress and plane strain.
(5) Thin-walled structures\342\200\224plates
275
the geometry of the shaft. If the

simple. If it is a cylinder of a noncircular
on
Important
Shaft
dependent
variables
Isotropy reduces the
constant.
equations
degree of symmetry
High
of the
problem.Reduction
the number
reduces
Example 1. A
general field
of independent
State of
Plane
of independent
number
the number
reduces
equations
and
constants.
material
of geometric
in a
parameters
to two dimensionsor one dimension
dependent
variables.
Stress
as a state that exists

state depending on x, v only may be visualized
membranestressed in its own plane. Figure 4.1 on p. 89 shows an example
state is defined
of such a case. Analytically,
a plane-stress
by the condition that
the stress components azz, am azy vanish everywhere,
i.e.,
A
plane-stress
in a thin
oa =
the
whereas
Example
2. A
stress components
Plane State
If the
o-\342\200\236
av
am c>,
= 0,
are independent
a\342\200\236
(12.3-1)
of the
coordinate z.
of Strain
z-component of the
u, v are functions
displacement
of x,
displacements
only,
w vanishes everywhere, and if the

and not of z, the body
is said to be
in
state, depending on x, y only. Such a state may be visualized as one

a planein a long cylindrical
body loaded uniformly along the axis. With
a plane-strain
that
exists
strain state,
we
12.4 TORSIONOFA
must
have
CIRCULAR
circular when a
\302\243
=
flz
3z
* =
the
considering
shaft is
now
0.
'
(12.3-2)
K
CYLINDRICAL SHAFT
an application of the linearized elasticity

a torque from one
of torsion. To transmit
illustrate
problem
employed. The
problem
is to
is obvious
applied.
that a
circular
But what
cross
about the
section of the
axial
shaft
displacements
section? Consider
is applied.
of twist.
We shall
it
torque is
a plane cross section such

as that at z = 0 beforethe
the
T
is
the
When
applied,
torque
boundary conditions are
torque
axial
must
be
But the
hence
any
axisymmetric.
displacement
axisymmetric,
of the z-axis, hence
the axial
conditions
are also preserved by reversal
boundary
must be zero, and the plane section remains
plane.
displacement
this discussion,we see that the distortion of a circular
shaft
Summarizing
of the cross sections
rotation
at a uniform rate
under a torque must be a relative
of such a
* =
of symmetry,
reason
By
remains
theory
place to
solve the Navier's equations
to be,
by
another,
to obtain
Therefore,
in
polar
the displacement
of a particle
located
at (x, y,
z) would
appear
coordinates,
the
ur
0,
\302\2530uzr,
uz =
0,
(12.4-1)
or,
Simple Problems
Some
276
in
Cartesian
rectangular
ux
as is shown
in
Chap. 12
Elasticity
Torsion of a
12.4
flff^
-azy,
uy
uz =
uzx,
0,
(12.4-2)
are obviously satisfied
which
The boundary
no tension
/
/
free and
the
the
that
0-^ = 0
/
This
the
is satisfied
by Eq.
The stress
vector
vector
normal
stress components
problem
ends are acted
Setting i
12.2
We
shall
given, there is no
check the
From
show that
now
Eq.
to check the
need
equation
conditions.
compatibility
We must,
the three
have
(12.4-2),
exr
ldux
Buy] = 1.
\342\200\224
= -\342\200\224
-laz
+
lidux
e* =
*
The stress-strain relation
fc
2K
dxj
2\\dy
8uz\\
HI
Now,
0,
0,
e\342\200\236
0,
coincides with
Consequently, the
the
yields
modulus
equations of
(12.1-5). We
= 0,
(12.4-8)
= 0,
ctsv2
.1
boundary
0.
(12.4-9)
conditions
t\302\243 *-\302\273)-?\"\342\226\240
dy
cfyZ
The
+ crwVj, + ayzvz
v,
<X\302\253V20,
surface.
the direction cosinesof the normal vector to the lateral
v
vector
normal
the
that
12,2
from
evident
it
is
Fig.
surface,
v
are
of
the
vector.
Hence,
components
radius
- az)
'
\"I\"*'
OyXvx
(12.4-3)
v denotes
(12.4-7)
v,a\342\200\236.
+ <Vj,
corresponding
on the
circumference C are
xaa + y<Jv
0,
xo,x +
0,
(Tyy
= CT;
(12.4-10)
0,
are again satisfied by Eq. (12.4-4).

stresses acting on the
It remains to check the condition that the
to Fig. 12.3and
a
to
=
Referring
torque.
L are equipollent
-L and z
which
(12.4-4)
ends
z =
using
Eq.
Gax,
of the
equilibrium
ycfyy
stress components. We have
=
cr^
-Gay,
shear
the
T,, where
l|9Uy
ffxt
where G is the
vz are
vx, v\342\200\236
on the lateral
by
(12.4-6)
equations,
cy* + azyVy
where
is
By Cauchy's formula,
VxxVx
however,
conditions.
we have the strain components
of equilibrium and the boundary
= L).
is given
surface
lateral
surface.
lateral
are
displacements
torque. Since there
(12.4-4).
Notations.
correct. Since the
is indeed
this
-L and z
z =
(on
^y
Figure
on by a
(12.4-4).
that the lateral
ends, we have
acting on the
to the
= 1,2, 3, we
in Eq.
given
of the facts
consists
f, =
\\/
\342\200\224
U.
flz
of our
on the
or compression
dy
by
conditions
are stress
surfaces
flo-22
a<rz).
dx
277
Shaft
Cylindrical
Circular
coordinates,
12.2.
in Fig.
Sec.
shaft
are
material.
obtained
by omitting
a;
and
Z;
in Eq.
obtain
Hf-H
Figure
shaft.
12.3
Stresses in a twisted
Some Simple
278
(12.4-4), we see that
the
of the
resultant
Problemsin
stresses acting
Chap. 12
Elasticity
on the
end cross sections
a beam, how-to use the material

how
efficiently by a proper geometric design,
how to maximize the stiffness and stability
of the
to minimize the beam's weight,
for
are
= -Got
dxdy
Jcr\302\253
o>, dx
cr2Z
dy
dx dy
Hence,the
= Got
J j
= -Ga
dx dy
I \\y
x dx
dx
(12.4-11)
= 0.
as desired. The
force vanishes
resultant
resultant
about
moment
the
z-axis is, however,

-
J J
On
Eq. (12.4-4), we
from
substituting
y<ra)dx
(xo\342\200\236
moment
dy.
(12.4-12)
have
= Ga
(x2 + y1)
dx
to minimize vibrations, how to calculate

the loads
and
wind loads on a building,
loads,
(static
moving
on an airplane, etc.), how to analyze aeroelastic or hydroelastic
aerodynamic load
in case a beam is used in a fluid flow (such as with an airplane wing,
interactions
or the structure of a ship), and more.
Beamsare classified according to the condition of support at their ends. An
end is called simply supported when it is free to rotate, but is restrained from lateral
translation. An end is said to be free when it is free to rotate and deflect. An end
and rotation are both prevented.
is said to be clamped when translation
the pure bending of a prismatic
beam of a
In Sec. 1.11, we considered
Hookean material. We deduced
certain
results, but we did
isotropic
homogeneous,
conditions.
We shall now show that all these
not check all the field and boundary
conditions are satisfied.
as shown in Fig. 1.14 on p.
the pure bending of a prismatic
Consider
beam,
beam, how to
that act on the
= 0,
y dy
\\_\302\260Z\342\200\224
dy = 0,
26. Let the
dy
utilize
be chosen
d&^r'dr
In Sec.
supports
beam
be subjected to two equal and opposite couples M acting

in a
of the cross sectionsof the beam. Let the x, y, z-axes of reference
beam
plane of symmetry
Gajo
279
Beams
Sec. 12.5
as in Sec. 7.7, with the origin located at the centroid of a cross section.
in the beam
7.7, we were led to the conclusion that the stress distribution
2irGafl4
Thus, we
see that
the
resultant
moment is indeed a
_
T =
The
checking
is now
torque
of magnitude
ira4Got
(12.4-13)
~y~
cB, =
R'
T:
and the
complete. All the equations of equilibrium
The solution contained in
Eqs. (12.4-1) through
boundary conditionsare satisfied.

(12.4-4) is exact.
where c is
of
of inertia
R'
distance
the
o-xr
from the
cross
the
section,
<jn
is
ffzi
0,
(12.5-1)
= \342\200\224.
o-\342\200\236
o-\342\200\236-,
to the
Young's
is the
o-\342\200\236
(12.5-2)
surface
neutral
and
bending moment, E
M is the
section,
M _
El~
<r\342\200\236
vxy
of the
fiber\"
\"outer
modulus,
/ is the
areal
outer fiber stress. The
cross
moment
strains
are,
therefore,
PROBLEM
=
12,1Consider
the torsion of a shaft of square cross section. Write down all

conditions.
Show that the solution contained in Eqs. (12.4-1)
through
longer
satisfy
all the boundary
the
fi\302\253
boundary
(12.4-4)
no
conditions.
p,
= -vr-
= fin,
ev
eyz
= ea
= 0.
(12.5-3)
the equations of equilibrium, Eqs. (12.4-5),are satisfied.

that
The boundary
of
compatibility, Eqs. (6.3-4), are also satisfied.
equations
conditions on the lateral surface of the beam are T, = 0. Since any normal to the
From
we see
these,
The
lateral
12.5 BEAMS
vanishes;
When a
member
is used to transmit
moment and transverse
bending
called a beam. Beamsare used constantly
in engineering and, therefore,
are important
The floor we stand on is
on beams. An
objects for study.
resting
is
a
beam.
airplane
wing
Bridges are made of beams, and so on. An engineer
should
know the stress and deformation in a
beam, how to choosethe materials
shear,
structural
it is
surface
i.e.,
is perpendicular
= 0 on the lateral
vx
to the
axis x,
longitudinal
surface.
Thus, the
following
the direction cosine vx

boundary
conditions
are satisfied: .
I/
Tx
= 0
ovvj;
+ <rvv,
<JfxVx
+ VyyVy + 0>V2,
<rnvx
+ ayzV: + rr\342\200\236v2.
<i\342\200\236vz,
= 0 =
Ty
v
= 0 =
Tz
(12.5-4)
280
SomeSimple
in Elasticity
Problems
Chap. 12
Sec. 12.6
The boundary
at the ends of the beam are that the stress

conditions
system
to
a
and without a resultant force. The
moment,
correspond
pure bending
stress
as discussed in Sec. 1.11.Hence,
system
given by Eq. (12.5-1) doesthat,
the solution
is exact if the boundary stresses on the ends of the beam are distributed
in the manner specifiedby Eq. (12.5-1), because then all the differential
precisely
conditions are satisfied.
equations and boundary
Oneof the restrictions imposed in the derivation
given in Sec. 1.11, namely,
that the cross section of the beam has a plane of symmetry,
can be removed. Let
us consider,
with
a
an
beam
cross
then,
prismatic
section, such as the one
arbitrary
shown in Fig. 12.4. Assume the same stress and strain distribution as in
Eqs.
the boundary conditions,
(12.5-1), (12.5-2), and (12.5-3). Suppose
Eqs. (12.5-4),
are alsosatisfied.
The resultant
axial force is zero again when the origin is taken
at the centroid of the cross section. The resultant moment about
the z-axis by the
traction acting on the end section is given by the surface integral
over the cross-
281
Biomechanics
Hence,
must
M, =
-EP
(12.5-8)
-\302\243-*\342\200\242
has a plane of symmetry

in which the bending
as that plane of symmetry;
then Py2 = 0. It
the xy-plane
=
In
that My
follows
0, which shows that our solution in Sec. 1.11is satisfactory.
the general case, we now choose the coordinateaxes in such a way that the product
of inertia vanishes. Then
beam cross section
In case the
moment acts,
we choose
Pyz
and the
moment vector
The product
of
Q,
My
Q,
(12.5-9)
is parallel to the z-axis with a magnitude

equal
vanishes
inertia
if the y- and z-axes are the principal
to
Mz.
axes of
in the
inertia. Hence, in order that a moment acting in a plane produce bending

same plane, it is necessary that the plane be a principal
i.e., one containing
plane,
cross
section.
the
a principal axis of inertia
given
of every
Combining
requirements
the
see
that
coordinateaxes
must
be
chosen
and
we
z
y,
(12.5-9),
by Eqs.
(1.11-27)
axes of the areal moments
as centroidal
axes in the direction of the principal
of
sectionA:
inertia.
Our
by
Figure
12.4
Eq. (12.5-1) is exact
a principal
An unsymmetric cross
plane
M2 =
j^v,M
nikoff's
\302\247[^=f.
is the same as before, except that we have added the

subscript z to show that
the bending moment and the areal moment of inertia of the cross section are both
taken about the z-axis.The resultant
moment
about the y-axis, however,
is a new
element to consider. It is given by an integration of the traction oadA acting on
an element
of area dA situated at a distance z from the y-axis. Hence,
On
substituting
Eq.
(12.5-1)
into
My
The integral
is the
negative of the
Pyz
|
this
uaz
equation,
-jjzdA
(12.5-5)
we obtain
E
(12.5-6)
j]AyzdA.
of inertia
product
dA.
-jjA
yz
of the
dy dz.
cross-sectional
area:
(12.5-7)
12.6
if y
The stress
complete. We have
is measured from
system satisfies
and the
compatibility,
sections remain plane
More refined
It
My
axis.
equationsof
section.
is now
verification
Mathematical
theories
boundary
is verified
the equations
conditions.
in this
of bending can
Theory of
stress system given

direction of
of equilibrium, the
intuitive assumption that
that the
found
the neutral
Our
axis in the
case.
be found
in many
books, e.g.,
Sokol-
Elasticity.
BIOMECHANICS
Continuum mechanicscan be applied to biology. Most biological materials can be

at suitable scales of observation.
We have discussed the
as continua
considered
in Chap. 9. Most biologicalfluids
of a few biologicaltissues
constitutive
equations
The bone seems to be an
and solids have nonlinear constitutive
equations.
strain
and
small
in
the
which
functions
range
obeys Hooke'slaw. But the
exception,
are
of
bones
structure
and
internal
very
complex.
shape
fluid mechanics
are
and solid mechanics
In important biological problems,
blood
flows in blood vesselswhich
have
usually coupled together. For example,
used in
blood with a muscle. Hencethe equations
elastic walls. The heart
pumps
in biomechanics.
Chaps. 11 and 12 are usually coupled together
is
unmatched by nonliving materials.
feature
which
a
have
tissues
unique
Living
the zero-stress
This is the feature of tissue remodeling under stress. By remodeling,
state of the material changes, the constitutive
changes, the mechanics
equation
is devoted to considerthis new aspect of continuum
chapter
changes.The following
mechanics.
SomeSimple
282
in Elasticity
Problems
Chap
PROBLEMS
283
Problems
Chap.
12
12.5
Consider
a gong used in an orchestra.
Formulate the
mathematical
problem
of
gong
vibration.
12.2 An
elementary
Sec. 12.4. Let
theory
z be the
of
a circular cylindrical
axis of
frame of
rectanplar Cartesian
in the x-, y-, and z-directions
the
shaft.
reference
x,
shaft subjected
Let the ends be
y, z is used.The
to torsion.. is
z = 0
displacement
are u, v, and w, respectively. The
where
does not say anything

w, which in general will not
be
displacement
12.3
12.6
theory
The elementary
theory
Formulate a mathematical
move,
components
daily
12.7
12.8
of equilibriun (Navier's
find the equation satisfied
Using the equation
equation),
by
is known as the warping function.
the function \302\247(x,
y). This function
The following
situation reminds a composite-material
designer to pay attention to the
of a structure in operational
of the stability
condition. Consider a cantilever
question
The beam is made of two strong rods embedded
beam with a rectanplar crosssection.
to the line joining
in a matrix. It is loaded by a force P parallel
the two rods in the
cross section, as shown in Fig. P12.3. In practical application under a load,there is
a probability
that the beam will be twisted to failure.
Twist will occur when the load
P exceeds a critical value. Formulate a theory that will determine the critical value
of the load P that will cause a torsional
instability.
According to your theory, how
should such a composite beam be designed?
of the clouds floating

so that
the
great
in the sky.
variety
How do
they
of things you see
An airplane flies in the air at a forward speed V relative to the ground. How does
the wing maintain this flight? To answer this question, write down the field equations
conditions
at the interface
between
the
for the air and the wing, and the boundary
to furnish a
air and the wing. Present a full set of equations that would be sufficient
theory in
principle.
as a train approaches
are typical of waves in many
of the wheels of the train (if we
dynamics problems. We can easily hear the impact
can be seen. Then, as the train comes
put our ears to the rail) long before the train
of the rails under the wheels. Formulate
the problem
by, we can see the deflection
:The elastic
waves
in the rails
mathematically so that
<x<j>(*i y).
description
Include enough parameters

can be described and deduced.
about?
; mathematical
of displacement in the axial

component
direction
if the shaft is non-circular.
Let this unknown
vanish
iv
in
azx
a is the rate of twist angle per unit length of the shaft.
about the third
elementary
rives
gives
-cay,
given
z =
and
both
of these features
can be exhibited.
12.9 Feel the pulse on your wrist. It is a composite elastic wave in your artery. The most
is undoubtedly the elastic response of the artery to the pressure
component
important
wave in the blood.To a lesser extent, there must be other waves that are propagated
furtiher upstream
or downstream.
along the arterial wall and caused by disturbances
Our arteries are elastic. Formulate a mathematical theory of pulse propagation. Leonthe problem
formulated
and presented an analysis
hard Euler (1707-1783)
as early
as
1775.
the following method for measuring

12.10 Galileo (1564-1642)
the frequency of
proposed
of a gong. Attach a small, sharp, pointed knife to a slender rod. Pull the
; vibration
of the gong will causethe rod
rod over the gong at a constant speed. The vibration
the metal surface
of the gong, and measure the spacing
to chatter. Examine
of the
from which the frequency
marks,
may be calculated.
whether this method will work. How would you compute the frequency?
Explain
from the point of view of the theory of
Formulate
the problem
mathematically
a good musical gong to assure that the material is a linear elasticsolid
elasticity. Assume
that
obeys
Hooke's law.
of chatter in machine tools is not unlike

that in Galileo's gong
12.11 The phenomenon
: experiment.
of a high-speed
lathe. Formulate the problem
of
Consider the problem
chatter, which ruins a good machine's operation. Proposeways to alleviate the
problem.
12.12
Figure
narrow
P12.3
beam
of very
width may twist under load.

The twist could be a critical
for a beam reinforced with
problem
high-strength
12.4
rods.
of uniform density and material, stretched tightly between two posts

a violin string or a piano wire). The string is struck at a point. Vibration ensues.
Formulate the problem mathematically. Give both the differential equations and the
boundary conditions.
Consider a string
(e.g.,
A beam vibrates. Write down the differential

beam and a method of determining
a vibrating
and boundary
conditions
for
equation
the frequency of vibration of the beam.
12.13A
axis at an angular
circular cylindrical shaft spins about its longitudinal
speed m
at both ends. Lateral vibrations
are always
radians/sec. The shaft is simply supported
when the shaft spins. However, if the rate of spin reaches a critical value,
possible
the lateral deformation becomes excessive, and so-called whirling sets in. Describe
with which the critical
the phenomenon
mathematically. Formulate the equations
whirling speed can be determined.
12.14The
would
shaft ojUn airplane

you propose
measure the
power
to
propeller
measure
delivered
is subjected to both a
the stresses in
the
shaft
to the propeller in flight?
tension and
in flight?
a torque.
How
would
How
you
284
Some Simple Problems

FURTHER
Fung, Y. C,
Fung,
Y. C,
in
Biomechanics:
Motion,
Flow,
Stress,
and Growth,
N.J.:
Prentice-Hall
New York-
Sokolnikoff,I. S.,Mathematical
Theory of
Theory
of
Elasticity,
Elasticity,
1st ed. 1892 ' 4th

2nd ed.,
(19ik\\
v i
^\"\"sw-Verlag
' StinWr
(1990).
Love, A. E. H., The Mathematical

York: Dover Publications
(1944).
rjha
READING
of Solid Mechanics, Englewood Cliffs,
Foundations
Elasticity
New York-
ed ' 19?7'New
m
' McGraw
mi
m
(1956).
Ttmoshenko,S., and
1934,
2nd ed. 1951.
N. Goodier,
Theory
of Elasticity, New York: McGraw-Hill
*
' ntl eQ>
issues of
biological examplesto bring out some fundamental
the zero-stress state, the changes in the zero-stressstate
and the constitutive equation due to remodeling
of a material, the effect of
and
the
on
and
strain
stress
feedback dynamics
of growth and
remodeling,
have
these
also.
systems
features
physical
resorption. Nonliving
We use
continuum
mechanics:
13.1 INTRODUCTION
of changes in materials.
From the
chapter, we discuss the mechanics
there are three aspects of a solid body in which change
of mechanics,
and the
state, the constitutive
equation,
plays a fundamental role: the zero-stress
overall geometry of the body. Our discussion will focus on these aspects.
In
this
last
point of view
The literature
on
of flow and deformationis called rheology.
The mechanics
with
flow
and
a
or
in
material
a
concerned
is
only
change
given
Theology usually
in
which
and
is
The
science
in
materials
a
set
materials.
of
growth
change
given
In continuum mechanics rheology and biology are united.
central concernis biology.
To illustrate
the material-change aspects of continuum
mechanics,
examples can
be picked from biology, because they are ubiquitous. In the discussionthat follows,
we often use the blood vessel as an example.
13.2
How
to
Discover
the Zero-Stress
State of Materials
in a
Solid
Body
there is no external load acting
the preceding chapters, it is assumed that when
We know, however, that this
on a body; the stress in the body is zero everywhere.
does not have to be the case; for example, we can sit, but tense up our muscles
In
the stress in a body

of forces in our muscles and bones. Generally,
external force is called residual stress. The effect of residual
stress
the
relaxation
of
residual
stress
in
the
earth
can
and strain can be dramatic,
e.g.,
strain in a nuclear reactor might
and an unwanted thermal
cause an earthquake,
and
when
cause
create
there
a lot
is no
a meltdown.
28S
286
and Active
Stress, Strain,
The simplest
way
to discover
up. Cutting is introducing

unloaded body without
cutting/then
there is
Takea blood
Remodeling of Structures
Chap.
13
residual stress in a solid body is to cut the

body
on which the traction is zero. Cutting
an
stress will cause no strain.
If strain changes
by
surfaces
new
residual
residual stress.
as an example. If we cut an aorta twice by cross sections

to
the
perpendicular
longitudinal axis of the vessel, we obtain a ring. If we cut the
it will open up into a sector (see Fig. 13.1). By using equations of
ring
radially,
vessel
resultants and stress moments

are zero
in the vessel wall must be locally in
and can show that
no additional
If we cut the open sector further
equilibrium.
strain results, then we say that the sector is in the zero-stress state. For the rat
artery Fung and Liu (1989) reported that this is the case.
static
equilibrium,
in the open
we know
sector.Whatever
that
the stress
stress
remains
Sec.
How to
13.2
in a
Solid
Body
287
that
characterize
we
subtended
angle
State of Materials
the open sectors represent the zero-stress

state of a blood
each sector with an opening angle, which
is defined as the
by two radii drawn from the mid-point of the inner wall to the
wall of the open sector (seeFig. 13.2). A more complete picture
Thus assured
vessel,
the Zero-Stress
Discover
tips of the
inner
in the first column of

zero-stress state of a normal
young rat aorta is shown
aorta was cut successivelyinto
13.1 (Fung and Liu, 1989). The entire
Fig.
many
long. Each segment was then cut radially.
segments approximately one diameter
the opening angle varied along the rat aorta: It was about 160\302\260
It was found that
in the thoracic region, 5\302\260
in the ascending aorta, 90\" in the arch, 60\302\260
at the diaphragm
the iliac bifurcation
toward
level, and 80\302\260
point.
of the
of the opening
Figure 13.2 Definition
angle. Sector represents a
circumferential cross section of a bloodvessel at zero-stress state.
subtended
between two lines originating from the midpoint
to
Angle
the tips of the inner wall is the opening
angle.
the common iliac artery down a leg of the rat, we found that the
in the iliac artery, dropped down
in the popliteal
angle was around 100\302\260
to about 100\302\260
and then rose again
in the tibial artery. In the
to 50\302\260,
region
artery
of the rat, the microarterial
vessel of 50 mm diameter had
medial plantar
artery
Following
opening
angle on the
There are similar,
an opening
1 cm
of the cross sections of a rat aorta at zeroFigure 13,1 Photographs

stress state. The first column shows the zero-stress
state
of the aorta of
state due to vessel
normal rat. The rest shows the change of zero-stress
after a sudden onset of hypertension.
The photos are
remodeling
to days after surgery, and from
from left to right according
arranged
to location on the aorta, expressedas distance
top to bottom according
from the heart in percentage of the total length of the aorta from the
aortic valve to iliac bifurcation.
The location of the metal clip used to
induce hypertension
is shown in the sketch at left. The arcs of the
blood
vessel wall do not appear smooth becauseof some tissue
attached to the wall. In reading these photographs, one should mentally
delete these tethered
tissues. From Fung and Liu (1989).
of
100\302\260
(Liu
and Fung,
not identical, spatial
1989).
of opening angles
1991a). Also, there are significant
and Liu, 1991), systemic and
opening angles in the pulmonary arteries (Fung
and
trachea
of rats.
veins (Xie et al, 1991),
(Han and Fung,
pulmonary
1991b)
Thus, we conclude that the zero-stress state of blood vessels and the trachea is
as sectors whose opening angles
vary with their location on the vessel or
shaped
trachea and with animal species. In other words, the zero-stress state in a body
may vary from place to place.It then follows that the residual stress also varies
in
OUTSIDECUT
order
the aortas
although
of the pig and
variations
and Fung,
dog (Han
spatially.
In industrial
body in the
engineering, residual
process.
manufacturing
is a common
cause
deformation
or creep in
stress. Forcedfitting
of residual
stresses
Welding or
stress in
airplanes,
are usually introduced into a solid

of metal parts under strain
riveting
bridges,
and machining
metal-forming
is also a common cause. Straining
the
and
machinery.
process
Plastic
causes residual
steel rods is the way prean outer cylindrical shell to

reinforced concrete beams are made.Heating
a higher temperature,
fitting it to an inner shell, and then coolingthe combination
is the way gun barrels
are made. The purpose
is to
down to room temperature
stressed
288
Stress, Strain,
and
Active
Remodeling
of
Structures
Sec.
Chap.
stress in the inner

wall and a tensile
induce a compressive residual
stress in th
outer wall, so that when the gun is fired, the stress concentration
at the inner wall
of the barrel can be reduced. Shot peening to introduce
a compressive
residual
stress on the outer surface of a metallic
body is a way to increase
the fatigue life
of the body. Techniques
beam to
using an ion or molecular
impregnate matter into
the surface of a metallic
or ceramic body can similarly
introduce
a compressive
residual stress into a thin layer of the surface of the body to promote
a longer
service life. Most articles of industrial engineering have residual stress in them
and change are natural.
In living tissues, growth
Every cellular or extracellular
or resorption changes the zero-stress
state of the tissue and
growth
introduces
residual stress. -In biological
studies, it is easier to measure
changes in the zeroin the tissue; hence, observed
stress
state than to measure cellular
activities
changes
in residual strain are often used as a quantitative tool to study such activities.
Out of the great variety of examples in nature and industry, we shall use a
few biological cases to illustrate
the long-term effect of the stress in a
body on the
materials of the body. What in the short term is described by the stress-strain
in the long term, features
associated
with aging,
becomes,
relationship
remodeling
wear, tear, growth, and resorption. Biologistsuse the term homeostasis to describe
the condition
of normal life. They describe the state of a living organism
at normal
In a homeostatic
conditions
living
by a set of homeostaticset points.
condition,
there
in the body of the living
is a certain range of stress
When the
organism.
the cells in the body
the range of stress
environment
changes,
changes,
respond
and the tissue is remodeled.In effect, the zero-stress
themselves,
by modifying
state of the body changes. In time, the mechanical properties of the tissue are also
remodeled.We are familiar with these features in our own bodies. We know that
but a certain normal mode exists
homeostasis is not static,
in a dynamic
environment.
The quantitative
aspects will become clearer as we proceed in the sections
that follow.
In machines and in nonliving physical objects, analogousfeatures
of
homeostasis
are worthy of scientific study.
and remodeling
may exist. Thesefeatures
13.3
OF A STRUCTURE:
THE ZERO-STRESSSTATE
OF ACTIVE REMODELING
EXAMPLE
TO CHANGE IN STRESS
REMODELING
BIOLOGICAL
DUE
aorta
In one study, hypertension was created in rats by constricting the abdominal
The
with a metal clip placed right above the celiac trunk.
clip
(See Fig. 13.3.)
and reduced the normal cross-sectionalarea
constricted the aorta locally
severely
and Liu, 1989; Liu and Fung, 1989). This caused a

20% step increase in blood pressure in the upper body and a 55% step decrease
the
in blood
immediately
following surgery. Later,
pressure in the lower body
the
In
in
13.4.
the
course
blood
shown
increased gradually,
Fig.
following
of the
lumen
by
97%
(Fung
pressure
upper body, the

to an asymptote
rose to normal
at first and then more gradually, tending

blood pressure rose rapidly
In the lower body, the blood pressure
at about 75% above normal.
further to an
increased
in about four days and then gradually
13.3
A Biological
Example
of Active Remodeling
Due to
Change
No-load
In vivo
in
Stress
289
O-Stress
0-
Stress
abdominal
arteries, the stresses

Fipre 13.3 A sketch of the heart, aorta, and pulmonary
of vessels mentioned in the
in them, the zero-stress state, and the nomenclature
text with regard to control of blood pressure by aortic constriction.
St
2.0
Q.
HI
in
o
Figure
13.4
The course of change

with
(normalized
of blood pressure
\342\226\240a
\"a
respect to that before surgery)

is suddenly
when a constriction
imposed
below the
i.
celiac
Number
of Day
Postsurgery
From
on the aorta
diaphragm
at a site
and above
shown in Fig. 13.3.

Fung and Liu (1989).
trunk
the
Stress, Strain, and
290
Active
of Structures
Remodeling
Chap. 13
with these changes in blood

Parallel
above normal.
state of the aorta changed as well. The changes
are illustrated
in Fig. 13.1, in which the location of any section on the aorta is indicated
by the
percentage distance of that section to the aortic valve measured
along the aorta
divided
of the aorta. Successivecolumns
show the
by the total length
zero-stress
of the rat aorta at 0, 2, 4,...
, 40 days after surgery. Successive
configurations
rows refer to successive locations on the aorta.
a sudden increase in blood
The figure shows that following
pressure, the
in two to four days, and then
increased
peaked
opening angles
gradually,
decreased
value. Variation with the location of the section on the
gradually to an asymptotic
aorta was peat. The maximum
occurred
in the
change in the opening angle
where the total swing of the opening angle was as large as 88\302\260.
aorta,
ascending
its opening angle in a few days
Thus, the blood vessel changed
the
following
in the
in
blood
Similar
changes were found
change
pressure.
pulmonary arteries
of rats after the onset of pulmonary
by exposure to hypoxic
hypertension
gas
and 90% nitrogen at atmosphericpressure
containing 10% oxygen
(Fung and Liu
of 25%
value
asymptotic
pressure, the zero-stress
Sec.
13.4
Change of Zero-StressState
with
291
Temperature
of nickel and titanium,

and
of equal number of atoms
(Ni-Ti) alloy, composed
can
be
deformed
into
some
other
a
at
higher temperature,
something
shape at a lower temperature. If the deformed body is heated beyond a critical
as manufactured and,
/temperature, the Ni-Ti alloy will return to its originaLshape
can generate a stressas high as 700 MPT(105 psi). This change is produced
if resisted,
in the alloy by a change of crystalline
phase known as a martensitic transformation.
can be deformed easily
and reversibly by a
and
a
low
has
Martensite
yield stress,
of
the
lattice.
atomic
called
twining
(See Fig. 13.5.) The
crystalline process
above which the
occurs over a range of temperature,
martensitic transformation
When an austenite is cooleddown,
random
materialis in the austenitic
twining
phase.
residual
shear stress. Under an external
occurs in the metal by random internal
made into
1991).
the zero-stress
Thus,
biological process
13.4 CHANGE
state of the
THAT
The mechanical
of changes
STATE WITH
ZERO-STRESS
OF
MATERIALS
be remodeled by
an active
stress.
homeostatic
in
TEMPERATURE:
THEIR SHAPES
\"REMEMBER\"
properties
vessel may
blood
the influence
under
of a material
may
on many
depend
physical,
chemical,
and biological factors. We have illustrated

a change in a material's zero-stress state
due
to a biological reaction to stress in the preceding section.
Let us now consider
a physical
It is well known that at any given state of stress, a

the strain, so that thermal stress may be regarded
as caused by changing the zero-stress state through temperature variation.
There is, however,
a more dramatic phenomenon in some materials. A hat
made of a certain polymer can be folded
for carrying and returned to good shape
has been used in Japan
device made of the same material
by heating. A medical
to close a patent ductus
arteriosus
in a young child. Ductus arteriosusis a vessel
a fetal heart to fetal lung, allowing blood to flow from the aorta to the
connecting
after birth. But
it is closed immediately
pulmonary
artery before birth. Normally
change
factor:
in
temperature.
sometimesit
remains
like a tiny umbrella,

then
changes
temperature
needs surgery.
open and
folded up,
up with a little squirt of

closes the ductus arteriosus.
opened
umbrella
Materials
materialswhose
such as these,
zero-stress
nickel, copper-zinc-aluminum,
polymers like
which
appear
polynorbornene
have
this
by
temperature.
property.
an endoarterial
shaped
catheter,
the catheter. The opened
to \"remember\" their
iron-manganese-silicon,
above is
device named
hot water from
fairly
state changeswith
The
to the duct
threaded
shape, are
Alloys of copper-aluminumand
nickel-titanium,
For example,
one
nickel-titanium
13.5 The mechanism

austeniticstate at
deformed at a lower temperature
martensitic. The deformation
Fipre
alloy
in the
of shape memory of a nickel-titanium

a higher temperature. The alloy is
when
in the
the
crystal
structure
is
martensite crystal
is by twining
and is reversible
when the
shear stress
which occurs under suitable
shear stress is reversed. If the temperature of the deformed martensite
structure
of the
is raised to a level above a critical value, the crystalline
to austenite and to the original shape of the body. From
alloy reverts
Tom Borden, \"Shape-memory
alloys: Forming a tight fit,\" Mechanical
by permission of the author
Engineering, Oct. 1991,p. 68. Reproduced
and publisher.
292
Stress, Strain,
shear load, a martensitic

On
the
heating
and
Active
Remodeling
can deform substantially

martensite to a temperature
body
deformed
of
and
Structures
Chap. 13
by twinin
the martens't
reversibly
at which
is transformed
into austenite, the crystal reverts to its original
shape
becaus
austenite cannot accommodatethe twining type of deformation.
The stress-strain
curves
for martensite and austenite are illustrated
in Fie
13.6. Deformations of martensite
at strains greater than
about 7% and
austenite
at strains greater than
about 1% are plastic and irreversible.
So for practical andi
cations, one has to know the stress-straincurves, the ranges of elasticity and
at which austenite is first formed in martensite
plasticity, the temperature
when heated
and the
at which martensite
is first formed in austenite
temperature
when cooled'
With
this knowledge,
people have used Ni-Ti alloy for fastening machine
parts
wiring teeth for orthodontic
purposes,
simulating the erection of an organ, and
other phenomena
crystal
Sec. 13.5
right
13.6
The
crystals (tested
By permission.
13.5
VESSELS
BLOOD
stress-strain
different
AND
MORPHOLOGICAL
OF
at
relationship
temperature).
STRUCTURAL
DUE TO A
CHANGE
of martensite and austenite

From Tom Borden, be. cit.
REMODELING
IN BLOOD
PRESSURE
The pressure
What
is
normally
between the
blood varies from time to time and from place to place.

to as the systemic blood pressure
is the difference
of the blood in the aorta at the aortic valve and that in the
of circulating
pressure
referred
This is the
atrium.
circulation
of Blood
Vessels
pressure difference
Due
to a
that
Change
in
Blood
drives the entire
Pressure
293
\"systemic\"
the body (the peripheral circulation

The
system).
is the difference between the
circulation
pressure for the pulmonary
at the pulmonic valve
and the pressure in the left
the pulmonary artery
throughout
corresponding
driving
pressure.in
and the pulmonary circulation

are characterized
atriurtff Both the systemic
by
of the heart) and diastolic (in period
of dilatation
systolic (in period of contraction
the blood pressure in every
of the heart) pressures. When these pressures
change,
the stress in the
vessel of the body changes. When the blood \"pressure
changes,
blood vessel wall changes.
As is sketched in Fig. 13.3, in the in vivo condition at normal blood pressure,
tensile
and is the largest stress
stress is usually
in
the circumferential
component
the vessel wall. The longitudinal stress components exist because the vessel is
The radial stress component
stretched
in the axial direction.
is compressive
normally
at the inner wall, where it is equal to the blood pressure, and gradually decreases
acting on the outer wall.

can be changed in a number of ways: by drugs,
The systemic blood pressure
the
flow of blood to the kidneys,
a
etc. If the aorta
diet,
constricting
by
by high-salt
is constricted
severely
by a stenosis above the renal arteries (Fig. 13.4), the aorta
The aorta below the stenosis will
above the stenosis will become
hypertensive.
blood flow to the kidneys
at first, but the reduced
will cause
become hypotensive
the kidneys to secretemore of the enzyme renin into the bloodstream and will
arteries
and is sufficiently
raise the blood pressure. If the stenosis is below the kidney
then the lower body will become hypotensive. The pulmonary
blood
severe,
convenient
pressurecan also be changed in a number of ways. A most
way is to change
If the oxygen
the oxygen concentration of the gas breathed
by the animal.
concentration
is reduced from normal (i.e., if it becomes hypoxic), the smooth muscle
blood vessels contract, the vessel diameters
are reduced,
cells in the pulmonary
blood pressure goes up. This is the reaction human
and the pulmonary
beings who
when they go to a high altitude.
live at sea level encounter
reaction
occurs quite fast. If a rat is put into a lowThe hypoxic hypertensive
at atmospheric
10% oxygen and 90% nitrogen
pressure
oxygen chamber containing
at sea level, the systolic blood pressure in its lung will shoot up from the normal
2.0 kPa (15 mm Hg) to 2.9lcPa (22 mm Hg) within minutes, become further elevated
to 3.6 kPa in a week, and then gradually rise to 4.0kPa in a month. (The rat's
systemic
in the meantime.) Under such a rise in
blood pressure remains essentially
unchanged
blood vessel remodels itself.
in the lung, the pulmonary
blood pressure
13.7 shows how fast this remodeling
proceeds. In the figure, the
Figure
to that
of
the
indicated by
each
row
refer
in
segment
pulmonary
artery
photographs
of the
the leader line. The first photograph in the top row shows a crosssection
arterial wall of the normal three-month-oldrat. The specimen was fixed at the nowith the vessel
In the figure, the endothelium is facing
load
condition.
upward,
the order of a few micrometers.
lumen
on top. The endothelium is very thin\342\200\224on
The scaleof 100p,m is shown at the bottom of the figure. The dark lines are elastin
The upper, darker half of the vessel wall is the media, the lower, lighter
layers.
The second photograph
in the first row shows
half of the vesselwall the adventitia.
to
Figure
Remodeling
the pressure
294
Stress, Strain,
PULMONARY
RAT
ARTERIES
12 Hours
2 Hours
Normal
and Active
96
Hours
IN
240
Chap.
13
HYPOXIA
Hours
720 Hours
Sec. 13.6
of Mechanical
Remodeling
expect that the constitutive equation, or at least its coefficients, will change with
tissue remodeling. This is indeed the case, as we shall illustrate with an example.
formulation
of the constitutive
For the blood vessel, the pseudoelasticity
9.4
and
We
assume
in
Sees.
that
a pseudoelastic
described
9.5,
applies.
equation,
strain
nine
exists, denoted by the symbol p0W and expressed

= 1, 2, 3,
of strain \302\243,7
/
(i
3), that
function
energy
of the
to
13.7
Photographs
of a
artery
pulmonary
periods of hypoxia.
Liu (1991).
of histological slides from four regions of the main

rat and several hypertensive rats with different
normal
Specimens
were
fixed
at no-load condition. From Fung and
can
~SE~- x
Figure
stress components
so that the
md,-EJi,
\302\243,7
is symmetric
be derived
by
namely,
differentiation,
urn
as a function
- 1,2,
components
with respect
100
295
Properties
Here, p0 is the density of the material

per unit mass, p^W is the strain energy
at the
condition of
technique
(13.6-1)
-\"\"
zero-stress state, W is the strain energy

strains measured
volume, and \302\243,j.are
with respect to the material configuration in the zero-stress state.
One
to the determination of p0W, two approaches may be taken.
With
regard
material and derive p0W as
is to regard the blood vessel wall as an incompressible
in three dimensions (Chuong and Fung,
a function of \302\243,7
1983). The other is to
assume
that the blood vesselis a cylindrical
body with axisymmetry in mechanical
one
properties and limit oneself to axisymmetric loading and deformation. Then
the
with
two
strain
circumferential
strain
would be concerned only
components:
strain \302\24322.
The radial strain is easily
from the
Eu and the longitudinal
computed
per unit
This
incompressibility.
may be
a hvo-dimensional
called
approach.
section of the main pulmonary artery two hours after exposure to lower
of small fluid vesicles and some accumulation
oxygen pressure. There is evidence
of fluid in the endothelium and media. There is alsoa biochemical
change of elastin
The
shows the wall
time.
third
this
at
on
the
vessel
wall
photograph
staining
structure
10 hours later. Now the media is greatly thickened, while the adventitia
shows that at 96 hours
of
has not changed
photograph
very much. The fourth
has thickened
to about the same thickness as
exposure to hypoxia, the adventitia
wall structure when
arterial
the media. The next two photos show the pulmonary
of
30
lowered
and
to 10
the rat's lung is subjected
days
oxygen concentration.The
the continued
is
in
these
later
thickening of the adventitia.
periods
major
change
in the second row show the progressive changes in the wall
The photographs
rows are photographs of arteries
of a smaller pulmonary
artery. The third and fourth
of the arteries in the fourth row is
diameter
of even smaller diameter. The inner
The
on the order of 100 u,m, approaching the range of sizes of the arterioles.
The
sizes.
all
of
in pulmonary
arteries
evident
is
of
the
vessel
wall
remodeling
maximum
rate of change occurs in a day or two.
a cross
For the
approach, a
analytical
polynomial
form
logarithmic
by
When the
properties
described
OF MECHANICAL
in a
material
change.
by the
PROPERTIES
during remodeling, its mechanical
of soft biological tissues can be
properties
discussed in Sees. 9.5 and 9.7. Hence, we
blood vessel is
The
constitutive
mechanical
equations
changed
at the
for arteries
p0W
used
Hayashi et al. (1971),and
seereferences
(1973,1979,1981),
Patel
by
in the two-dimensional
and Vaishnav
an exponential
(1972), a
et al.
form by Fung
end of Chap.9. According
to Fung
et al.
(1979),
p0W
exp(fl,
+
\302\243?,
a2 Eh
2a4
\302\243\342\200\236
\302\24322)
(13.6-2)
where C, au az,
strain, and
constants, Ea is the circumferential
the
two
to
the
last
referred
zero-stress
state.
is
the
strain,
En
longitudinal
Experiments have been done on rat arteries during the course of development
The results with the vessel wall
of streptozocin.
of diabetes
after a single injection
are presented in Table 13.1, from Liu and
material
treated as one homogeneous
and
a4 are material
TABLE 13.1
COEFFICIENTS
RELATIONSHIP
C, a\342\200\236
a2, AND a4 OF THE STRESS-STRAIN
OF THE THORACIC AORTA OF 20-DAY DIABETIC AND NORMAL RATS, a, WAS FIXED
AS THE MEAN VALUE FROM THE NORMAL RATS.*
Group
13.6 REMODELING
of
representation
form has been
a,
{n/cm2)
s2
s4
Normal Rats
Mean
\302\261
SD
12.21 \302\261
3.32
1.04
\302\261
0.35
2.69 +
15.32 \302\261
9.22
1.53
\302\261
0.92
3.44
0.95
0.0036
20-day Diabetic Rats

Mean\302\261SD
*From
Liu, S. Q., and Fung, Y. C. (1992).
\302\261
1.07
0.0036
Stress, Strain, and
296
Fung
(1992).
Clearly,
the
Active
constants
material
of Structures
Remodeling
change with the
Chap.13
Sec.
Stress
13.7
the outer wall
development of
and obtain
the Zero-Stress
State Taken
and LjL,
L\"\342\200\236llmi!
LoHm*,
From these, we obtain the
\"outer.\"
diabetes.
with
Analysis
with the superscript 0 indicating
stretch ratios
Tim
13.7
STRESS
ANALYSIS WITHTHE
ZERO-STRESS
_.
the
zero-stress
on the
state of a
solid
body
(Wioad
^no-load
\342\200\224
j (o8) >
riot)
is known, if the strain is infinitesimal,

then the principle of superposition
(normal,
superscripts i
in vivo)
indicating
state be
Lg!slrea,
\"inner\" and 9
liioad,
indicating
and LJL,
respectively,
\"circumferential,\"
with
and the
the
subscripts
and \"hom\" indicating the states of zero stress, no load, and

we can measure the circumferential
length at
homeostasis, respectively.Similarly,
\"0-stress,\"
inner
wall
and
and
constitutive equation is linear,

applies,
of a body with residual
of the stress analysis
and the mathematical
stress
problem
is simply a sum of two linear problems: finding the residual stress without an external
residual
strain. In
load and finding the stress under an external load but without
and thermal stress.
this category fall the important classical theories of dislocation
introduced
by a finite strain or constitutive equation makes the
Nonlinearity
stress a distinctive subject. The nonlinear
of bodies with residual
analysis
analysis
we
know the zero-stress state and how it is related
But if
to
is often very difficult.
the present state, then the analysis of stress in the body could be quite simple.
in vivo at a blood
For example, consider an ileal artery whose cross section
in
13.8. The cross sections under
is
shown
mm
16
kPa
of
Fig.
Hg)
(120
pressure
are also shown in Fig. 13.8. From these
the no-load and zero-stress conditions
the
circumference of the inner wall of the
of
we can measure the length
figures,
the no-load state, and the homeostatic
zero-stress
the
at
vessel. Let the lengths
state,
if the
,\342\200\236
__.,
I Lj
yiJ,
STATE TAKEN
INTO ACCOUNT
If
rf/8)
^no-load
_Mmn_
.,,\342\200\236)
*^hom
fthora
rrfiO)
t:a\\
')
T^
T|\302\273)
Ô-stress
\342\226\240^0-stress
\\im
^no-load
297
into Account
\"no-load,\"
Ileal Artery
=
\"-horn
Rhom
xffi
iSr
m)
Jt O-sIrcss
If
(13'7-2)
outer wall.
and a
of an ileal artery, a medial plantar
artery,
Typical raw data of the L's
ratios
stretch
The
13.2.
in
Table
are
computed
given
pulmonary artery (branch 1)
obtained by
are also listed in the table. These results may be compared with those
homeostatic
and
no-load
the
of a hypothetical case in which
a theoretical calculation
are zero,so
strains
but
the
residual
real
ones,
are identical with the
configurations
as the
the
same
is
zero-stress
the
and
zero
configuration
the opening angle is
that
ratios
of the no-load case are unity,
stretch
the
that
In
case,
no-load
on
the
configuration.
but
those of the
homeostaticvessel are
1m
\\[(o)
Niom
These
are listed
in
the
last two
LJhom
vfoo)
'Miom
!
\302\273p)
^no-load
too)
\342\200\242\"\"\302\253\"
;\302\253
7
\\i3-'
r (M
columns of
Table
13.2.
stretch
CIRCUMFERENTIAL LENGTHS OF THE INNER AND OUTER

13.2 MEASURED
STATE, IN THE NO-LOAD
WALLS OF RAT ILEAL ARTERY IN THE ZERO-STRESS
AND COMPARISON OF CIRCUMFERENTIAL
urn
120
AND
80
Hg;
AT
AND
STATE,
BASES: (A) RELATIVE TO THE ZERO-STRESS
STRETCH RATIOS COMPUTED ON TWO
STATE.*
NO-LOAD
STATE, AND (B) RELATIVE TO THE
TABLE
Circumferential Stretch Ratio
Length, jim
Re zero-stress
Inner Wall Outer
States
Figure
13.8
The shape of the
Zero Stress
cross
section of an ileal artery of the rat

at normal blood pressure (top), no
load (middle), and zero stress
(bottom).
D)
'-'no-load
in the vessel wall

of the circumferential residual stretch ratio
The distribution
ileal
vessel
of
case
an
the
in
is
illustrated
(branch 1)
the no-load condition
under
in the inner
is
ratio
stretch
residual
the
that
compressive
seen
It is
in Fig. 13.9(a).
the conventional assumption that plane
Under
and tensile in the outer wall.
wall
in the vessel wall
ratio distribution
stretch
the
in
remain
bending,
sections
plane
shows the actual
line
horizontal
the thick, nearly
is a straight line. In Fig. 13.9(b),
when the blood
wall
vessel
in
the
blood
ratio distribution
circumferential
BP:120mmHg
o\\
80 mm Hg
120 mm Hg
*Data
743
Wall
Inner
state
Wall Outer
Wall
963
590
1,091
0.79
1,017
1,281
1.37
1,023
1,286
1.38
from Fung and Liu (1992).
Re no-load state
Inner
Wall Outer
1.13
1.0
1.33
1.34
1.72
1.73
Wall
1.0
1.17
1.18
298
Stress, Strain,
0 mm
and
Active
Remodeling
Structures
Chap
120 mm Hg
80 mm Hg
Hg
of
Chap. 13
299
Problem
13.8 STRESS-GROWTH RELATIONSHIP

can be affected
factors
things: nutrition, growth
by many
environment, and diseases, as well as stress
law will emerge.
and strain. If other things were equal, then a stress-powth
in the understanding of
A stress-growth relationship has clinical
applications
If a stress-growth
law is known
and rehabilitation.
for certain
diseases, healing,
it
to
can
use
on
can
then
those
plan
surgery
surgeons
organs, engineers
organs,
manufacturers
of prostheses will have guidance, and
use it for tissue engineering,
athletes, and educators will know the relation between exercise
therapists,
physical
Biologicaltissue
the
(enzymes),
and
!b)
(a)
(C)
13.9 Circumferential
stretch ratio distribution
in an ileal artery
Fipre
(branch
residual stretch ratio
1) whose dimensions are listed in Table 13.2. (a) Measured
at no-load state. Residual strain can be read from nonlinear scale shown on
right.
inner and outer radius of vessel wall, respectively.
R, and R\342\200\236
Strain is compressive
in inner wall region and tensile in outer wall region, (b) Thick, nearly horizontal
line joining the solid dots shows measured circumferential stretch ratio (relative to
the zero-stress
at a blood pressure of 80 mm Hg; thinner inclined line
state)
joining
circumferential stretch ratio when
open circles shows computed
hypothetical
was
strains
at
blood
opening angle
ignored, (c) Corresponding
pressure 120 mm
Hg. Thesecurves show that huge errors result if residual strain is ignored. From
Fung and Liu (1992). By permission.
pressure is 80 mm
whereas the thinner,

inclined
line shows the hypothetical
at 80 mm Hg under
ratio distribution
the assumption
that
the opening angle is zero. The correspondingstrains are all positive (tensile), but
the great error caused by ignoring
the residual strain (opening angle)
is seen. The
stretch
in the vessel wall at a blood pressure of
ratio
distributions
corresponding
120 mm Hg are illustrated
in Fig. 13.9(c). It is clear from
Fig. 13.9 that the errors
caused by ignoring the residual strains are enormous.
It is important to know
the
zero-stress state of a blood
vessel.
The longitudinal stretch ratios from the no-load to the homeostatic
condition
measured on the specimens
of Fig. 13.9 is about 1.35. No change in the ratio was
detected experimentally
under
the no-load
upon cutting open a vessel segment
condition to the zero-stress state. Hence, the longitudinal
stretch from the zerostress
state to the homeostatic state
of the ileal vesselis also about
1.35. Finally,
the radial stretch ratio can be computed
of
from the condition of incompressibility
the vessel wall:
Hg,
stretch
circumferential
= 1.
(13.7-4)
Xr X\342\200\236
\\,
Thus,
the
For
if stresses
strain state
arteries,
were plotted in
in Fig. 13.9, a
ignoring
of the
the
vessel
is completely
the stresses increase
much
opening
determined experimentally.
functions of strains.
as exponential
body
growth
physical
angle.
chemical
development.
to making artificial
for living
substitutes
Tissue engineering is a field dedicated
and
cell
tissues. It is a technology based on molecular
biology,
biology,
organ
of tissues
.one must know how the health
physiology. To master tissue engineering,
is maintained, improved, or failed in relation to stress and strain.
but such
Machines, in general, do not have the ability to remodel themselves,
in some circumstances.It is not beyond the engineer's
desirable
an ability is clearly
but
to conceive of machines with the ability to remodel themselves,
imagination
new one for engineers to think
about.
the direction is a totally
Readers interested in this subject may find the references listed at the end
introduction
to the mechanics of
of this chapter helpful. A fairly comprehensive
is given in Fung (1990), which
contains
an extensive list of
tissue
remodeling
has been studied for a long time.
references.In the medical field, bone remodeling
law was proposed in 1869. Papers by Carter
Meyer's paper was dated 1867.Wolff's
and Fukada (1977) may serve as entry to the
and Wong (1988),Cowin
(1986),
we used blood vessels to illustrate
the
literature. In the preceding sections
current
and arterial
features of tissue remodeling:
changes in the zero-stressstate, structure
and stress and strain distributions. We could
equations,
composition, constitutive
but changes in soft tissues are more visible
and
have used bone for this purpose;
of the time constants
take place faster than those in bone. The getting
together
strain creep, fluid movement,
and mass
for tissue remodeling, stress
relaxation,
The papers by
transport serves to bring biology and mechanics closertogether.
and Fung (1986), Fung
Hayashi and Takamizawa (1989),Taka(1991),
Chuong
and Vossoughi (1987), and Omens and Fung
and Hayashi (1987),Vaishnav
mizawa
to soft tissue mechanics.The book edited
by Skalak and Fox
(1990) are relevant
at
a
tissue
conference.
There
of
is
a
collection
presented
engineering
papers
(1988)
on the biology and medicine of tissue
is a large amount of literature
remodeling.
areexcellent
The papers by Cowan and Crystal
(1975), and Meyrick and Reid (1980)
examples.
Hence,
to the strain distributions

plotted
corresponding
error in stress would
be seen as a consequence of
PROBLEM
graphs
greater
and
13.1
Membranes
mechanical
within
properties
are ubiquitous, but their

Living Cells. Within a cell, membranes
intracellular
are virtually unknown. As a theoretical
concept,
301
and Active
Stress, Strain,
300
be assumed to have surface
Chap
13
may
J. Biomech. Eng.
every
The sum of the two principal

the product of the two principal
point.
may
Gaussian
in
surface
the surface;
One
that the
assume
state
energy
two principal curvatures
the mean curvature of

called the Gaussian
curvature.
depends on the mean and
curvatures
is called
curvatures
is
of the
membrane
Fung, Y.
at
for an intracellular
Now, propose a strain energy function
find a minimal surface
of finite area
solve a mathematical problem:
curvatures.
membrane.Then
but
zero mean curvature

everywhere.
An answer given by Reinhard
is shown in Fig.
energy
of Biological
Properties
6:121.
three-dimensional Euclidean spacehas
Lipowsky, in Nature, vol. 349, p. 478, Feb. 1991

is minimal? What kind of
Lipowsky's surface
surface has
have? If one wants to claim that a minimal
should energy of the membrane be related to the surface
P13.1. Do you
state would the
surface
think
a minimum energy level, how

area, and the mean and Gaussian curvatures?
C,
\"Change
S. Q. (1989).
Liu,
and
of Residual Strains in Arteries Due to
Circ.Res. 65:1340-1349.
by Aortic'Constriction.\"
NewYork: SpringerMotion, Flow, Stress, and Growth.
Biomechanics:
Verlag.
in Our Blood Vessels?\" Annals
Are the Residual Stresses Doing
\"What
Fung, Y. C. (1991).
237-249.
19:
Engineering,
of Biomedical
State of Rat Pulmonary
\"Changes of Zero-Stress
S. Q. (1991).
and
Liu,
Y.
C,
Fung,
J. Appl. Physiol. 70(6): 2455-2470.
Arteries in Hypoxic Hypertension.\"
\"
with
Strain Distribution in Small Blood Vessels
Fung, Y. C, and Liu, S. Q. (1992).
and
Heart
Circulatory
J.
American
Physiol:
State Taken into Consideration.\"
Zero-Stress
pig
vs. rat.
J.
H544-H552.
262(2):
J.
Y. C.
Fung,
and
Species
(1991a).
113:
Eng.
Biomech.
H. C, and
Han,
Strains in Porcine and Canine
Trachea.
\"Residual
K.
Takamizawa,
In
and Strain Distributions and Residual

IC, and Seguchi, Y., eds., Progress
Hayashi,
185-192.
Tokyo: MITA Press, pp.
and
Fung, Y. C,
Y. C. (1989).
Fung,
\"Stress
(1989).
and New Directions of Biomechanics.

S. Q.,
of aorta:
24: 307-315.
Biomechanics,
Hayashi, K.,
Stresses in Arterial Walls.\"
Liu,
state
dependence on the zero-stress
446-451.
Y. C. (1991).
Fung,
and
between Hypertension, Hypertrophy,

\"Relationship
Aortic Constriction.\"
of Arteries following
State
and Opening Angle of Zero-Stress
Biomech.
Eng. Ill: 325-335.
Liu, S. Q., and

State
Y. C.
Fung,
surface
one
of
of
surface
has zero Gaussian
zero Gaussian curvature?
Are
curvature
all
surfaces
everywhere? Is a
with zero Gaussian
surface.
developable
curvature
of STZ-induced Diabetes on
Kamiya,
Arteries.\"
Alloys: Forming a Tight Fit.\" Mechanical

\"Shape-Memory
Borden, T. (1991).
Oct. 1991:67-72.
Stresses and Endochondral
\"Mechanical
D. R., and Wong,M. (1988).
Carter,
in the Chondroepiphysis.\"
/. Orthop. Res.
Engineering,
108:189-199.
Crystal, R. G.(1975).
Synthesis
Skalak, R., and
Fox,
K., and
Zero-Stress
41:136-146.
for
Pneumonectomy:
\"Lung Growth after

and Content.\" Am. Rev. Respir. Disease 111:267-276.
(1990).
Strain in the
\"Residual
Tissue
(eds.). (1988).
\"Strain
Hayashi, K. (1987).
D. F.
Arterial
Mechanics.\" /.
Engineering.
Energy
Biomech.
Rat
Left Ventricle.\" Circ.
New York:
P., Yang,
Rat Vena Cava.\"
Uniform
20: 7-17.
in Aortic
and
Wolff, J.
die medizinische
Xie, J.
Alan Liss.
Density Function and
and Strain
Vossoughi, J. (1987). \"Residual Stress
235-239.
20:
J. Biomechanics
Substanz.\"
die innere Architektur der spongiosen
\"Uber
(1869).
6: 223-234.
Wissenschaft
Vaishnav, R. N.,
Segments.\"
Y. C.
Fung,
Strain Hypothesis
in
Stress Distribution
Chuong, C. J., and Fung, Y. C. (1983). \"Three-dimensional
105:268-274.
Arteries.\" J. Biotnech.
Eng.
Stresses in Arteries.\" J. Biomech.
Chuong, C. J., and Fung, Y. C. (1986). \"On Residual
Quantitation of Collagen
Omens, I. H., and

Res. 66:37-45.
Takamizawa,
Ossification
6:148-154.
Unilateral
Diabetes.
T. (1991).
151-178.
REFERENCES
Cowan, M. J., and
Influence
J.
Polymer: Its Application

\"Shape-Memory
Matsuda,
and
and
Engineering
Medical
Biological
to Cardiovascular Device.\" (Abstract).
46
p.
Vol. 29,1991 Supplement,
Computing,
Archiv. fur Anatomic, Physiologic,
der spongiosa.\"
\"Die Architektur
Meyer, G. H. (1867).
34: 615-628.
und Du Bois-Reymonds Archiv)
Medizin
(Reichert
und wissenschaftliche
the Media and
in
Structural
Changes
B., and Reid, L. (1980). \"Hypoxia-Induced
Meyrick,
Am. J. Pathol. 100:
and
Their
Regression.
of the Rat Miliar Pulmonary Artery
Adventitia
developable?
Eng.
(1992).
and Systemic
of Rat Pulmonary
T., Echigo,S.,and
What kind
Biophys.
Fung, Y. C. (1990).
Han, H. C,
Lipowsky's
Adv.
Macromolecules.\"
Caused
Hypertrophy
Physiology,
Figure P13.1
at Remodeling Equilibrium.\"
108: 83-88.
\"Piezoelectric
Fukada, E. (1974).
membrane.
Architecture
Law of Trabecular
\"Wolffs
Cowin, S. C.(1986).
tension,
stretching elasticity, shear

The tension and shear are associated with membrane
and
area
rigidity.
bending
elasticity,
is associated with the change in curvature
the bending rigidity
of the
and deformation,
membranes
References
13
Chap.
R. F.,
Liu, S. Q., and
J. Biomech. Eng.
Fung,
113: 36-41.
Y. C. (1991).
\"The
Zentralblatt fiir
Zero-Stress
State
of
Author
Index
S., 185
Chapman,
J.E., 192, 208

E., 117
J. A., 37
Ashton-Miller,
Adkins,
Almansi,
Avogadro, Amedeo,181
Chien, S,, 201,202

Clements, J.A., 237,238
Batchelor,
Couette, M., 86,235,268
269
Bergel, D.H., 208

Berne,
Blasius,
Boltzmann, L., 182,196
Bridgmah,
Briggs,
299,300
Cowin,
S.C., 299, 300
Cowling, T.G., 185
R.G., 299, 300
Crystal,
R.M., 144
H., 248-49
Borden,T., 291,292,299,300
Borelli,
235
C.A.,
Cowan, M.J.,
G.K.,
186,207
A.H.,
Cottrell,
Coulomb,
295,299, 300
C.J.,
Chuong,
38,143
P.W., 102
L.J., 207
G.A.,
E
Echigo, S., 301
Enskog,
D.,
185
Eringen, A.C.,
EuleiyL.,5,67
Carter,D.R.,299, 300
Cauchy, A.L., 5,69,132
Cesaro,E,, 150
F
Fage,
A., 235
Finger, J.,
132
149,153
304
Fox,
Author
Laplace, Pierre Simon

Li, Yuan-Hui, 208
299,301
D.F.,
Freundlich, H., 204

K.,
E.,
Fronek,
Fukada,
207
300
9,11,106,150,177,180,192,
207, 208, 269,286, 287,
198,
295, 299,
300, 301
236
Lipowsky, R., 299,300

Liu, S.Q., 286,287,295,
300, 301
Lodge, A.S., 206
Love,
A.E.H.,
Gauss, K., 209,211

Goldstein,
S., 269
Gray, D.E.,
A.E.,
Green,
192,
P., 38
M., 9,208
T., 290,301
Macquet,
208,
Matsuda,
211
Matsuda,
117,211
Green, G.,
Maxwell, J.C.,
Gregersen,M.I.,201,202
299, 301
B., 299,301
R.A., 104
Meyrick,
G.H.L., 235
Hamel, G,
Han,
117
287,299, 301
H., 208
H.C.,
Handa,
Jeffereys,
J.C.,
Oseen,C.W.,
235
Ostrogradsky, M.,
211
T., 301
Karman,
196,197
P
Patel,
192,208,295,299
D.,
Patitucci, P., 207

Pearson,
Poiseuille,
Lamb,
J.L.,
H., 269
Lame, G.,
103
117,190,211
S.S.,
Sokolnikoff,
Sperelakis,
W., 193-95
Vossoughi,J.,299,301
9,11,208
I.S., 281,284
N., 144
164
E.H.,
Starling,
Voigt,
W
West,
I.B.,
198
Omens, J.H., 299,301
Lagrange,
Skalak,
Sobin,
Vawter,D.L.,198
E.E., 129
R., 299,301
Sechler,
K., 65
J.L.M., 235,240
Poisson,S.D.,159
Prager,
W,
Prandtl, L.,
203
244,
Barre de,
246,269
117,148
J., 299, 301

Wong, M., 299,300
P.G.,
208
Xie,LP.,299,301
Takamizawa,
K., 299,301
Tanner, R.I.,
208
Taylor,
Thomas,
201
T.Y., 180
H.M.,
Timoshenko, S.P.,
Todhunter,
I., 65
284
R., 149,153
301
vanderWaals,J.D.,182,183
Mow, V.C., 37
H., 168,180
Vaishnav, 192,208,295,299,
Toupin,
133
Th. von, 188

Kelvin, Lord (WilUam Thomson),
Kestin, J., 248
Kubota,
T., 263
H., 248,269
Schultz, A.B., 37
Wolff,
L.M.H., 271,272,231,232,238
Newton,
Isaac, 12, 43, 67,156,183,257
Nikuradse,
J., 248,249
K
Kamiya,
St-Venant,
Navier,
J
Jaeger,
Tait,
Hooke, R., 113,115,271
Usami, S., 201,202
StreeterD.,Jr.,144
H. von, 252
K., 203
Hohenemser,
A., 269
Roshko,
Mohr, Otto, 94
K., 208
Mori,
Moritake, K., 208
Hayes, W.C., 37
Helmholtz,
238,243
Riemann, G.F.B., 149
Whetham, W.C.D.,235
K., 192,208,295,299,301
Hayashi,
C., 149,153
Truesdell,
Stokes, GeorgeG., 104,156,235
Millikan,
Hagen,
184,193-97
G.H.,
Meyer,
H
Osborne,
Reynolds,
Scott-Blair, G.W., 204
259
Mach, E.,
183
137
Schlichting,
-M
31,32
(J.W. Strutt),
J.L.,201
Lundberg,
Galilei,
Lord
Reid,L.,299,301
65,158,164,284
G
Galileo,
Townsend, A.A., 235

Tremer, H.M., 11, 208
R
Rayleigh,
H.W.,269
Liepmann,
299,
Fung, Y.C,
M.de,
305
Author Index
Index
Yang, R.F.,
Yih,
301
Chia-Shun,
269
Young, Thomas,113,236
307
Subject Index
Subject
Continuum:
Index
abstract
\342\226\240
axioms,
Prandtl's
components in
material, 212
Achilles
coordinates,
polar
thickness, 246,249
214
convective,
Acceleration,
225
Bulk modulus,
160
tendon,
Austenite,
291,292
Avogadro
number,
181
Cartesian tensors,
definition,
analytical
69
Cauchy's formula,
Cauchy's strain tensors, 132
251-53
Circulation,
Compatibility condition, 145-50

equation of, 148
plane strain, 148
in three-dimensions,
s
fluid, 252
Barotropic
Beams:
149
Compressibility:
18
moment,
bending
classification,
simply-supported,
clamped, free, 28
curvature of, 28-30
deflection,
neutral
surface
outer fiber
of, 26
stress,
27
17
simply-supported,
statically indeterminate, 31, 35

of beams, 25-30,278-81
Bending
Bingham
plastic, 202-3
Blood pressure, 289
vessel,
Blood
viscosity, 201
289
Body force, 67
Boltzmann constant, 182
Boltzmann equation, 196-97
conditions:
234
fluid, free surface,
solid-fluid interface, 233
solids,272
of liquid,
of
angular
of
energy,
of
momentum,
Boundary
306
219
244-49
non-Newtonian
in
critical
gases,
183
points,
182
156,157,172
isotropic viscous,
non-Newtonian,
201
relation, 146
and surface, 5, 67,
diagram, 14
Free-body
12
223
154-62
162
155
of metals, 186-88
equation, 182
193-97
material,
202-3
materials,
coordinates,
227
68
112-32
Deformation, analysis,
Deformation gradients, 131
Dirac-delta
fluids,
fluids,
der Waals'
polar
geometric
Fluid line, 251,253

Fluids, 181
Detrusions, 121
218
Continuity, equation of, 217
260
layer,
D'Alembert'sprinciple,
G
195
function,
Displacement field, infinitesimal,

Displacement vector,117
117,119
126
polar coordinates,
relation to velocity, 145,146
in
61
Divergence,
Duhamel-Neumann
\302\243
viscoplastic
49,53
tensor, 132
components, 112,122-23
123-24
interpretation,
strain
strain
Force, body
living tissue, 189-91

Newtonian
fluid, 156
235
Finite
cylindrical polar, 77-78,125,128

Couple-stress, 5
of solid, 194-95
Creep functions
Crystalline solid, 174
Dynamic
two
Finger's
214
Coordinates, transformation,
curvilinear, 76
Bingham material, 202

Hookean
elastic solid, 157-61
fluid, 155
Incompressible
supersonic
44
181
Avogadro's number,
Boltzmann, L., 182
Lame,
G., 158
van
indices,
Convective acceleration,
256, 259
255,
in polar coordinates,
Constants:
nonviscous
of
'.
momentum,
of
viscoelastic
velocity,
summation
119
rate-of-deformation-and-velocity-gradient
254-65
laws:
22
mass, 217
flow, 260-62
fluids,
55
equations
64-66
notation,
182
Compressible flow,
basic equations,
plasticity
flow, 260-62
subsonic
(tensor),
Curl, 61
181
Constitutive equations,
Blood
Boundary
of gas,
Conservation
28
the largest stress in, 27

moment diagram,
18
concept
Contraction
stress
conditions,
Eulerian eqtiation of motion, 219,255

Eulerian strain tensor, 117,124
of, 1,3-6
60
Continuum,
Convention:
strain notation,
13,14
of, 72-75, 223
space, 149,165
necessary
Equilibrium,
Euclidean metric
real material, 3,4
32
Acoustics:
basic equation
of, 256
velocity of sound,257
Almansi strain tensor, 117
Equilibrium, 13
6,7
mechanics,
86
Buckling,
220-23
equation,
lung, 7
material, 3
equation, 246
of, 220-21
conservation
Energy,
copy, 5,6
7
law,
thermoelasticity
61
Gradient,
Green's strain tensor, 117

Green's theorem, 211
Growth,
288
238
similarity,
H
Hagen-Poiseuille
Elasticity, of solids,157-61
effect
Gel,204
Growth-stress law, 285,299
161
e-8 identity, 47
basic
Gauss theorem,209-11
270-72
equations,
of temperature, 161
nonlinear, 188-93
of, 270-82
Elastic stability,
86
theory
Elliptic equation,
259
flow, 235
Heat flux vector, 254

Helmholtz's theorem, 252
High
blood
pressure, 293
Homeostasis, 288
Hooke'slaw,
113,115,271
Hyperbolic equation, 259

in lung, 293
Hypoxic
hypertension
Laminar
layer,
operator, 232
boundary
Laplace
Ideal gas, 155
of continuity, 232,238
dummy and free, 44
equation
Indicial notation, 44
Inertia force, 12 Inertial frame of reference,
of
units,
20,21
95
Invariants,
isotropy, 173
strain,
125
stress,
95,
Mass, conservation of, 213,217,271

Material derivative, 215-17
212
Material
description,
flow, 253
Mach,
rank
2,167
Minimal
materials,
rank 3,169
surface,
fluid
line, 251,253
193-95
moment
of, 67,219
of, 75,218
Motion, equations
polar
223-26
coordinates,
Lagrangian
tensor, 117
stress, 190
strain
Lame constants, 158,160

ellipsoid,
103
271,272
equation,
dimensionless, 238
Neutral plane, 26
Newtonian
fluid,
156
function,
189,
Q
Quasilinear
231-32
189
viscoelasticity,
R
planes,
85
transformation,
262
condition,
Radius vector, 42
Rayleigh
wave, 137
Relaxation function,
194-97
Relaxation time, 197
Radiating
50
137
Relaxation
Perfect gas law,
Remodeling, tissues,288-99
due to diabetes, 291,295
of mechanical
294-97
properties,
181,182
tensor, 47
with Kronecker
Phase velocity, 273

Plane
elastic waves, 273
Plane strain,
274
of
blood,
201
the plane of, 273
Potential equation,
Potential
flow, 254
254
axes, 88, 95
of strain, 124,172
Principal
morphology,
with temperature,
292-94
290
of zero-stress state,
Residual
stress, 285
number,
Rotation,
288-90
233, 238
285
Rheology,
Rubber
184
Polarization,
wave,
Reynolds
Plane stress, 89,274

Plane
waves, 273
Plasma,
delta, 47
47
symbol,
Poiseuille flow, 240-43

Poisson's ratio, 138,159
Navier-Stokes
energy
Pure shear, 132
Poise,
Navier's equation,
strain
191-92
Plasticity of metals, 186-88
Kinematic viscosity, 232

Kronecker delta, 45
Lagrange
Pseudoelasticity, 189
233, 238
Reynolds,
connection
92-94
66
linear,
Kelvin's model of viscoelasticity,
Kelvin's theorem, 251,252
limit,
Pseudoelastic
181
Permutation,
special sign convention, 93

three-dimensional states, 94
conservation
of, 218,271
Momentum,
54
250
160
bulk,
Mohr'scircle,
determinant,
194
Orthogonal
237
shear, 114
Jacobian
motion,
deviation, 100
188
stress
Principal
Proportional
Opening angle, arteries, 286-87

Orthogonal
matrix, 46
elasticity, 160
relaxed, 196
rigidity, 160
165-77
155, 249-51
96
259
Octahedral
190
Mesentery,
Modulus,
4,170
Isotropy,
function,
of shape, 290-92
Memory
157,201
fluids,
strain
Avogadro,
rank
rank
of existence, 96
proof of real-valuedness,
stress invariants, 95
Numbers:
46
Membrane, thin, 89,235
Isotropic
proof
stress,
Principal
(see Strain)
Normal stress (see Stress)
233
condition,
No-slip
46
Maxwell creep and relaxation

Maxwell solid, 193-95
237
Mean
curvature,
Mean free path, 31,185
69
of
equation
Normal
165
Material isotropy,
290-92
Material with memory,
165,166,172,173
tensor, 165
1, nonexistence, 167
Isotropic
Non-Newtonian
Nonviscous fluid,
291,292
orthogonal,
flow, 255
Isentropic
Mach waves, lines, 262

Martensite,
Matrix,
stress deviations, 99
Irrotational
main
124,125
88, 91
95
theorem,
strains,
Principal
188
rubber,
88, 95,124
planes,
Principal
velocity of sound, 257

Nimbus spacecraft, 263
259
number,
\\
88
Principal directions, 91
viscosity, 156,183
of motion, 12, 67
biological tissues, 189

Mach
coordinates,
Principal
of
laws
Longitudinal waves, 273

Lung as continua, 7-11,176,198
12
78-79
Internal energy, 221

International systems
law
43
alloy, 291, 292

Nonlinear
solids:
components, 119,120
119,120
geometric
interpretation,
125-30
coordinates,
polar
145
condition,
Integrability
Interface-condition,
law of gravitation,
Ni-Ti
strain
Infinitesimal
of stress,95-97,172
Newton's:
247
61
Laplacian,
155
fluid,
Incompressible
Index,
Subject Index
SubjectIndex
308
infinitesimal, 121
188-89
elasticity,
s
Scalar
triple
product, 41
Schlieren photographs, 262,263

memory material, 290-92
Shear modulus, 158-60
Shear strain, notation, warning,
119,120
pure, 132
Shape
310
Subject
simple, 132
Shear stress,97
notations, 64
Shell:
24
cylindrical,
Simple shear, 132

20-21
Skin
friction
coefficient,
Soft
tissues,
191-93
Sol,
204
Stress
Stress-strain-rate
Sound,speed,
Spatial description, 214
197
Spectrum of relaxation,
Standard linear solid, 193-95
fluid,
117-18,122-24
finite,
infinitesimal, 119,120
Symmetry
Strain-rate tensor,
Strain
tensor, 4
146
117,118
Eulerian, 117
132
Green's, 117
Cauchy's
165-71
conditions,
formula,
60
221
Thixotropy, 204
Torsion, 274-78
Traction (Stress vector), 5
Transformation
of coordinates,
54
admissible,
78-81
69
components, notation,
65
definition, 4
ellipsoid, 102-3
of motion and
equation
Jacobian,
equilibrium,
72-75,219,258
invariants,
96, 99,100,101
66-61
54
orthogonal, 50
proper
rotation,
and improper,
49-51
54
137,138
transverse, 273
Surface,
56
89
49
Velocity of sound,256
193-97
197-201
tissues,
Yield
function,
202
Yield stress,187,188
189,197-201
Z
cone-plate, 205
86
Couette,
56
Thermodynamics,
couple-stress,
39
Shear,273
56
Viscometer:
spin, 146
250,251
function,
Stress, 4, 64
boundary
notation,
55,
vector product, 39, 46

field, 145
rotation, 121
117
Lagrangian,
definition,
Velocity
75,
273
Rayleigh, 137,138
analytical
Visco-plastic
notations, 58
partial derivatives,
quotient rule, 59
rank, 56
256
Polarization, 273
transformation,
60
isotropic,
equation,
Waves:
Longitudinal,
biological
definition,
dual, 121
Almansi's, 117
Stream
5, 68
tension, 235-37
of stress tensor, 74,
contraction,
Wave
194
quasilinear,
function,
Vectors, 39
Tensile strength of liquid, 183

Tensor, 4,56
Cartesian, 55
tensor, 125,160
173,192,193
deviation
Strain-energy
Finger's,
(see
shear, 121
(Dirac delta
Acoustic, 256
relationship
125-30
coordinates,
124
principal,
polar
146, 251-53
195
function,
Viscoelasticity,
274
plane state,
Cauchy's
Unit-step
125
invariants,
function
function),
99-102
299
force,
Surface
Voigt solid,193-95
Unit-impulse
flow, 261
Summation convention, 44
flow, 261
Supersonic
Surface,
minimal, 237, 300
Surface
Newtonian concept, 183
Subsonic
104
186
liquid,
Vorticity,
Constitutive equations)
156
gas, 183,185
lattice, 291
atomic
185-86
201
blood,
235
Stress resultant,
256
Stokes' sphere in viscous

Strain, 112-32
law, 285,
Stress-growth
of
75
tensor,
Viscosity:
atomic interpretation,
Turbulence, 243
Twinning
105,106,107
concentration,
Stress-deviation
Stokes'fluid,
77, 78,223-27
tensor transformation,
244
sol-gel transformation, 204

Solenoidal
vector field, 250
Strain
coordinates,
principal
238
dynamic,
SI units,
state,
polar
(see Principal stress)

shear, 20, 65
sign convention, 65
tensor, 4
spherical, 22
Similarity,
89,274
plane
311
Index
vector, 56
Transverse wave speed, 273
Truss, 14-17
31
indeterminate,
statically
19, 65
normal,
98
maximum,
65, 97
matrix,
Subject
Index
material,
Zero-stress
202-3
change
state, 285-87,296-98
due to hypertension,
286

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A HIST

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PRENTICE HALL, EnglewoodCUffs,

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Abstract copy of a real continuum

1.6 The conceptof stress

Elementary topic through

strain components in polar coordinates

Plane state of stress

Hookean elastic solid

axes of stress and of strain

Mechanical Properties of Real

5.2 The strain

7.2 The nonviscous

3.1 Theideaof stress

Material description of the motion of a continuum

and Reynolds number

11.6 Boundary layer

Some Simple Problemsin

over a flat plate

The objective of this

earlier editions:To emphasize

in engineering and science. I have stressed applications even

conditions.This first step\342\200\224to

Chapter 10, basicconservation

features of the flows of ideal and

textbooks of fluid and

throughout the book. Many

who are beginning

nature and to think

and then to take

of this book was a pleasant experience.

the stress, strain, and constitutive

through which basic ideas

and ideas into

in mechanics and how

is flying above us. The

such equations, we obtain

and boundary conditions. Although

formal reduction of general

1.2 APPLICATIONSTO SCIENCE

taken in this book will be aimed at serving science

things, devices, methods, theories,

and the forces that

Mechanics is the study of the motion (or equilibrium)

form the ratio MJVn. Then if

no cell aggregate can

the densitiesof mass, momentum,

to the classical approach

as n -> co. The

with the force acting

defining limit volume w.

and a defining volume. Later

1.2). Imagine a closed

on the location and size of the area and the