Inception Report Rev 2

INCEPTION REPORT
Earthquake Reconstruction: Group 2
Team Members
Supervisors
Edward Romilly
Matthew John Wood
Koki Matsuoka
Hassan Mufti Mirza
Thomas Huxter-Freer
Hugo Currell
Mahdi Abdi
Dr. Maja Summers

Prof. Suby Bhattacharya
Dr. Alan Packwood
Submission Date: 26th October 2015

ABSTRACT
This inception report aims to find a feasible and effective approach to reconstruction and future
prevention following an earthquake event such as the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. The report
focuses around the country of Sri Lanka and the key areas deemed to be essential for an effective
strategy. These concepts are rubble disposal, transport infrastructure, disaster-proof buildings,
tsunami mitigation, power, communications, and water infrastructure. Each of these topics is explored
in terms of its options and potential to help produce an effective reconstruction strategy, to gain a
more detailed understanding of what the final report will focus on.
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Table of Contents
1.
INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................5
2.
INTERPRETATION OF THE BRIEF.......................................................................................5
3.
TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE.........................................................................................6
4.
5.
3.1
Road Network........................................................................................................................6
3.2
Rail Network..........................................................................................................................7
3.3
Sea (Port and Fisheries).........................................................................................................7
3.4
Reconstruction.......................................................................................................................7
DISASTER PROOF BUILDINGS.............................................................................................9

4.1
Introduction...........................................................................................................................9
4.2
Construction Methods and Materials.....................................................................................9
4.2.1
Mud and pole construction.............................................................................................9
4.2.2
Concrete frame with masonry walls.............................................................................10
4.2.3
PVA reinforced concrete...............................................................................................11
4.2.4
Steel.............................................................................................................................11
4.3
Flooding...............................................................................................................................11
4.4
Conclusion...........................................................................................................................12
RUBBLE DISPOSAL................................................................................................................12
5.1
Introduction.........................................................................................................................12
5.2
Waste Benchmarking...........................................................................................................13
5.3
Recycling.............................................................................................................................13
5.3.1
Separation Techniques.................................................................................................13
5.3.2
Applications of Recycled Material...............................................................................14
5.4
6.
7.
Recycling Plant....................................................................................................................14
5.4.1
Mobile Recycling Plant................................................................................................15
5.4.2
Recycling Plant on a Vessel.........................................................................................15
TSUNAMI MITIGATION........................................................................................................16
6.1
Introduction.........................................................................................................................16
6.2
Land Use Management........................................................................................................16
6.3
Natural Barriers...................................................................................................................17
6.4
Man-Made Barriers..............................................................................................................17
6.5
Drainage..............................................................................................................................18
6.6
Erosion Protection................................................................................................................18
6.7
Channelling and Diversion...................................................................................................18
WATER INFRASTRUCTURE.................................................................................................19
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8.
7.1
Pre-existing infrastructure....................................................................................................19
7.2
Devastation by the tsunami..................................................................................................19
7.3
Immediate response.............................................................................................................20
7.4
Long term solutions.............................................................................................................20
7.5
Focus...................................................................................................................................21
COMMUNICATIONS INFRASTRUCTURE.........................................................................22
8.1
Overview of a typical telecomm infrastructure....................................................................22
8.2
Areas of concern for risks....................................................................................................23
8.3
Subscribers...........................................................................................................................23
8.4
Exchanges............................................................................................................................24
8.4.1
Local Exchanges..........................................................................................................24
8.4.2
Toll Exchanges.............................................................................................................24
8.5
9.
Links....................................................................................................................................25
POWER INFRASTRUCTURE................................................................................................26
9.1
Introduction.........................................................................................................................26
9.2
Permanent Emergency Backup Power.................................................................................26
9.3
Earthquake/Tsunami Resistant Power Station & Transmission system................................27
10. CONCLUSION..........................................................................................................................29
11. REFERENCES..........................................................................................................................30
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1. INTRODUCTION
The 2004 Boxing Day Indian Ocean earthquake reached a magnitude of 9.0 on the Richter scale and
was one of the most devastating natural disasters in recorded history. It resulted in over 250,000
casualties and left more than 1.7 million homeless in multiple countries (Tsunami2004, 2015). The
selected country for which this report will focus is Sri Lanka; it was the second most affected country
with over 35,000 deaths and approximately two thirds of its coast line inundated.
By creating a reconstruction strategy for the affected communities, future damage and loss of human
life caused by earthquakes and tsunamis can be minimised. Constructing earthquake and tsunami
resistant buildings is the most direct method of reducing the effects of the disaster. Furthermore, an
efficient rubble disposal scheme and tsunami mitigation measures will be crucial for the recovery
process. Therefore, it is the aim of this report to provide a feasible approach to reconstruction and
future damage mitigation following a similar disaster in the future.
2. INTERPRETATION OF THE BRIEF

The aim of this project is to design a solution for the earthquake reconstruction that would provide a
long-term but cost effective solution. Due to its location, Sri Lanka is prone to earthquakes and
therefore an earthquake resistant approach will be taken into account for reconstruction. The proposed
solution can be used to duplicate earthquake reconstruction across regions of seismically unstable
zones. A reconstruction strategy will be proposed for the building construction as well as the design
for the critical infrastructure including electricity, gas, water, transport networks and communications.
Consideration will be given to a modular design that allows for deployment of the elements that are
initially required as well as the potential to scale up.
An integral part of the project is to propose solutions which encompass the following:
An efficient method for clearing and disposing of rubble to facilitate the rebuilding phase.
An earthquake resistant building reconstruction strategy.
Design of communications, power and transport infrastructure.
As the reconstruction will be financed through aid funds, the proposed solution will seek to identify
the most efficient use of aid funds which provides improved infrastructure for the region that fits with
the local population requirements.
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3. TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE
Disruption in the transport sector generally impacts the economic and social infrastructure of a region
within a nation; therefore this sector is considered a crucial one. Transport systems are typically
designed to work under average conditions henceforth a provision for disruptions caused by a natural
or man-made disaster is usually not accounted for.
The tsunami that struck two thirds of the coast of Sri Lanka in December 2004 severely disrupted the
transport infrastructure. Roughly 800 km of national roads, 1500 km of provincial and local roads,
and a 160 km stretch of railway infrastructure in the south were damaged as a result (Weerakoon,
Jayasuriya, Arunatilake and Steele, 2007).
3.1 Road Network

The road network in Sri Lanka comprises of National roads that are operated by the central
government, Provincial roads and Local Governmental roads which are the responsibility of local
municipal authorities. Provincial roads act as links between National and Local Governmental roads.
Prior to the 2004 tsunami 60% of the entire road network ( particularly in the north and east) was in a
deteriorated condition due to the lack of maintenance therefore the impact of tsunami cannot be
estimated precisely (Ratnasooriya, Samarawickrama and Imamura, 2007). Long stretches of national
6
roads that run along the coast were largely affected.

5% of the countrys entire national road network was
damaged due to this tsunami, whereas 2% of provincial
and
local
roads
were
damaged
(Ratnasooriya,
Samarawickrama and Imamura, 2007). In addition

several bridges on the national networks, culverts, and
road ferry services were damaged.
3.2 Rail Network

The rail corridor originates from the capital Colombo
located in the west and stretches all the way to the
north, northeast, east, central highlands, and south of
the country. A large population of the nation relies on
this network. Nearly 78000 commuters use the
southern corridor on a daily basis.
The majority of this southern corridor was affected by the tsunami. Although 80% of this corridor
suffered substantial damage, severe damage was caused to approximately 20 km of this track.
Damages also occurred to several tracks in the north-eastern and eastern regions with the addition of a
bridge in the eastern corridor. However the most noteworthy accident occurred in the southern
corridor where a passenger train carrying around 1500 passengers was derailed as a result of this
natural disaster. In addition several embankments, tracks, signalling, and communication systems
suffered damage.
3.3 Sea (Port and Fisheries)

As Sri Lanka is an island, fishing industry plays an important role in driving the economy of the
country. The tsunami almost wiped the whole sector as 10 of 12 fishing harbours were damaged and
approximately two thirds of the nations boats were destroyed. The degree of damage at each harbour
depended on their respective locations. Harbour structures such as breakwaters and basins, shore
facilities and supportive services were also damaged as a result.
3.4 Reconstruction
In the event of a natural disaster road infrastructure plays an important role in the fast recovery
process of a country. Majority of the roads affected by the tsunami were inaccessible during the
immediate aftermath. It is evident that previous design approaches and construction standards used in
Sri Lanka were not sufficient enough to withstand the impact.
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The process of reconstruction is an opportunity to relocate communities from hazard prone areas.
Moreover it helps in reducing previous inequities and rectifies poorly designed infrastructure.
Reconstruction will ensure the implications of reducing disaster vulnerability in the long term. In
order to do so DRR strategies (disaster risk reduction) shall be introduced to improve the
reconstruction process. Arterial roads, railway tracks, and other similar transport infrastructure are to
be redesigned well inside the setback line. Provision of access ways perpendicular to the coast going
inland is also beneficial.
Hard engineering measures such as the physical and technical measures for road reconstruction are:
Land use planning or buffer zones.

Construction of raised roads
Drainage systems
Flood defences
Robust concrete roads
While redesigning bridges, few considerations need to be taken into account. Bridges that may be
subjected to tsunamis are to be designed for earthquake motion and tsunamis, so that both the
superstructure and substructure can be used in case of emergency. Moreover it is to be designed so
that the tsunami does not result in the overturning, tilting or washing out of the structure. For bridges
that are further inland (earthquake motion only), the design approach is to ensure that the substructure
stays in a useable condition for emergency situations. Lastly a unique bridge shape can be designed to
smooth the tsunami flow around the structure and minimize the impact of the water.
More importantly the provision of coastal vegetation belts benefit both environmentally and
economically. Plantation of trees, especially the ones with deep roots, along the coast can prove
beneficial against tsunamis. In tsunami mitigation the role of coastal vegetation belts are:
Trapping effect (stops debris from houses, driftwoods etc.)

Energy dissipation: dissipates the energy of the waves.
Barrier effect: blocks wind-blown sand and raises dunes.
Soft landing effect.
Escaping effect
Several other coastal structures can be constructed along the coast that helps in preventing these
natural disasters. Sea dikes are normally constructed on shore. Their purpose is to keep floods out of
low-lying areas. Similarly, sea walls are also onshore structures that help in preventing flooding and
keep the structures behind the wall safe. In densely populated areas and ports, sea walls provide the
best defence against tsunamis. Breakwaters are constructed to reduce the impact of waves. They calm
the waves and hence are used in construction of harbour to allow smooth manoeuvre of boats.
8
4. DISASTER PROOF BUILDINGS

4.1 Introduction
Approximately half a million Sri Lankans were made homeless by the 2004 Tsunami. The initial
response to supporting those affected was to provide tents as a short term relief solution providing
shelter whilst the rubble is cleared and temporary housing is constructed. The temporary housing
consisted of wooden and metal framed shacks with half height concrete block walls where resources
and building guidelines are provided by humanitarian organisations. This housing is designed to
protect from normal weather conditions and provides satisfactory conditions until another natural
disaster occurs. After 6 months only a few thousand of the 90,000 required permanent homes had
been constructed. (Luthra, 2005) They take a lot longer to build as they must be built to protect from
flooding, tsunamis and earthquakes. This section of the report will look at the construction methods
and building materials that can be used to protect occupants from extreme weather conditions.
Earthquakes impart vibrational forces in all directions on a structure, so it requires high strength both
parallel and perpendicular to the walls. As well as this the frame of the buildings must be ductile,
avoiding brittle failure and allowing for the inevitable movement that will occur during an earthquake.
The main danger from housing during earthquakes comes from collapse of the roof structure, causing
the whole roof to fall in on the occupants. Therefore this study will look at identifying the most
appropriate solution for providing homes that will maintain their structural integrity in the event of an
earthquake.
4.2 Construction Methods and Materials

4.2.1 Mud and pole construction
9
One of the building methods used in Sri
Lanka is mud
and pole construction. This uses wooden

poles intertwined with each other to form
a matrix which is then plastered with
earth. An example of this is shown in
. This method of construction is effective
against the effect of earthquakes as the
wooden poles provide flexibility, meaning
that they are not brittle so do not snap
Figure 4.1. Mud and pole construction in Sri Lanka.
under the vibrational loading. It is also a
(Explore Sri Lanka, 2012)
very light weight solution so it is less catastrophic when the building collapses and less damage is
caused. However, timber is prone to rotting and without the correct maintenance it can come under
attack from fungal growth. Also with this method of construction, joints and material reliability can be
sub-standard and so provide a potentially weak structure. (Schilderman, 1990) It is also very
vulnerable during flooding as the walls leak water into the home and homes can fill with water. It may
therefore be beneficial to consider a more reliable building material.
4.2.2 Concrete frame with masonry walls
Another approach would be to use concrete
framed buildings with masonry walls. Masonry
walls within a concrete frame are not connected
to their surrounding concrete so when columns
are put under significant horizontal force the
masonry walls tend to resist the movement of
the column. Since masonry is a brittle
Figure 4.2. Infill masonry walls protect concrete
building material, these forces can frame under earthquake conditions. (Theconstructor) cause
cracks to develop as shown in Figure 4.2. They therefore act as a sacrificial fuse for the structure and
fail whilst maintaining the structural integrity of the concrete frame. (The Constructor, 2012)
10
Reinforced concrete is proven to be a

satisfactory material in the event of an
earthquake. However, there are concerns about
concretes ability to withstand tension forces
as well as the uniformity and quality control
associated with casting concrete. The main
problem with using concrete in earthquake
situations is the brittle nature in which it fails.
Concrete has a very low failure strain and will
rely on the steel reinforcing bars to absorb the
tension forces applied. In an earthquake
situation where large lateral forces are applied
Figure 4.3. Improper anchorage of transverse

reinforcement has resulted in failure of confinement
in columns during the 1985 Mexico earthquake
(Rosenblueth & Meli, 1986)
repeatedly, this can become catastrophic if

there is insufficient reinforcing steel, as shown in Figure 4.3.
4.2.3 PVA reinforced concrete

A relatively new technology that will change the way buildings are being constructed in earthquake
zones all over the world has removed the biggest flaw in using concrete frames in buildings to
withstand earthquakes. Reinforcing concrete
mortar with 2% Poly Vinyl Alcohol (PVA)
fibres increases the strain capacity by 500
times,
meaning
that the engineered cementitious composite
can extend 500
times more than regular concrete before

failure as shown in Figure 4.4. The fibres
are
not expensive and the concrete is made as
it
would normally be, but without adding

any aggregate and simply mixing in the
fibres. This material is being researched
Figure 4.4. Concrete reinforced with Poly Vinyl

Alcohol Fibres loaded under a 4 point bend test.
all over the world and is currently being used to construct buildings
in earthquake
zones. (Gibson,
(Klemenc,
n.d.)
2011)
4.2.4 Steel
Steel is a construction material that is arguably more appropriate in earthquake zones than concrete.
When the building is single story then a steel frame can easily be designed to withstand earthquake
11
loading. However, steel members on a large scale are difficult to transport and place on site so large
cranes and trucks would be necessary to move and place steel beams and columns. This means that it
is likely to only be a solution for larger public buildings such as hospitals and schools.
4.3 Flooding
The new buildings in Sri Lanka will also have to be designed to withstand flooding. In the 2014-2015
floods 39 people were killed and 1,000,000 people lost their homes. (Global Disaster Alert and
Coordination System, 2015) This could have been avoided if all homes were designed to be a safe
place during flooding. The easiest way to ensure that no water can get into the houses in the event of a
flood is to raise the floor level of the house above the maximum flooding level. A house safe from
flooding can save lives and prevent the need to rebuild homes. Therefore if the original investment
that goes into building homes is more, then not as many homes will have to be rebuilt in the long
term, causing an overall saving of both money and lives. A solution to this problem could include a
raised concrete floor resting on top of concrete columns, this would be an easily buildable solution
and very effective in avoiding damage to the building during flooding.
4.4 Conclusion
Designing buildings to be located on the Sri Lankan coast line brings many challenges. The buildings
must be designed to withstand earthquakes, flooding and tsunami despite being located on a poor
island country with hundreds of thousands of homes to be rebuilt as well as major community
buildings. Possible building materials include steel bar reinforced concrete, fibre reinforced concrete,
timber and mud or steel. In an attempt to avoid damage during flooding, the floor level can be raised
off the ground above the predicted height of flooding.
5. RUBBLE DISPOSAL
5.1 Introduction
Disasters, both natural and man-made, can generate vast quantities of waste that threaten public
health, hinder reconstruction and impact the environment. During recent years, the delays in response
and significant environmental impacts caused by disasters have raised many questions due to the
debris generated. The environmental and financial costs of debris management have been devastating
(Solis, Hightower, Sussex, & Kawaguchi, 1995). One of the major challenges in responding to almost
12
all disasters is the large amount of rubble created and the obstacles the rubble cause to relief and
reconstruction efforts. In the case of Sri Lanka, the tsunami of 2004 destroyed almost 100,000 houses,
generating about 450,000 tonnes of debris (Karunasena, Amaratunga, & Haigh, 2010). According to
United Nations Environment Protection (UNEP), the debris resulting from the tsunami of 2004 was
not properly disposed, reused or managed in Sri Lanka (UNEP, 2005). There are three types of debris
associated with a disaster (Solis, Hightower, Sussex, & Kawaguchi, 1995):
Debris generated directly by the disaster, e.g., rubble, roofing, insulation.
Debris generated indirectly by the disaster, e.g., spoiled food due to power failure or
excessive donations.
Debris generated by abnormal patterns of life, e.g., greatly increased consumption of

bottled water and canned food.
This section seeks to identify efficient methods for the clearing and disposing of debris generated
directly by the disaster to facilitate the rebuilding phase.
5.2 Waste Benchmarking

The inability to forecast the amount of waste over the affected areas was one of the issues encountered
with the tsunami of 2004. As a result, the scale of disaster waste was initially difficult to comprehend.
Reasonable estimates of the amount of debris help improve the overall efficiency in clearance. This
may be in the form of defining resource needs, efficient resource allocation or evaluating disposal
capacity of existing sites (Solis, Hightower, Sussex, & Kawaguchi, 1995). This also allows relief and
reconstruction agencies to understand the scale of clear up required, measure progress, provide focus,
and prioritise actions. Visual inspection and photography are the methods predominately used to
estimate the amount of debris generated. Further work shall seek to determine the most efficient
method considering the cost, time consumed, and practicality of both methods.
5.3 Recycling
Recycling is the collection and separation of materials from waste and subsequent processing to
produce marketable products (Tam & Tam, 2006). Giving focus to re-use and recycling efforts could
decrease the overall cost of reconstruction. They can reduce adverse impacts by diverting large
quantities of rubble away from more costly disposal options (Solis, Hightower, Sussex, & Kawaguchi,
1995). Increasing recycling efforts would also reduce the burden on local landfills.
13
5.3.1 Separation Techniques

The collection of recycling materials can be implemented by source separation or commingled
collection. Under source separation, materials are separated at the kerbside, into vehicles containing
different departments for different materials. Under commingled collection, materials are mixed
together and separated later, usually at a materials recycling facility (Friends of the Earth, 2009). It is
anticipated that whilst commingled collection is more practical during disasters, every effort should
be made to ensure materials are separated at source. Some advantages of source separation are listed
below:
Source separation results in less contamination of recyclables and so a higher proportion

of them can be recycled.
The risk of contamination makes it unsuitable to commingle some materials
Materials which cant be recycled can be identified early to avoid double handing of
materials.
5.3.2 Applications of Recycled Material

Masonry represents the majority of housing in Sri Lanka. Findings from the tsunami of 2004 found
insufficient landfill capacities resulted in haphazard dumping of wastes in open areas such as
playgrounds (Basnayake, Chiemchaisri, & Mowjood, 2005). In order to conserve landfill space and
reduce the environmental impact of producing new materials, consideration will be given to possible
applications of recycled masonry.
One method of recycling demolished masonry is by crushing it into aggregates. Aggregates are coarse
particulate materials used in construction. They serve as reinforcement to add strength to the overall
composite material. Recycled aggregates can, depending on their physical properties, be used in a
variety of construction applications including temporary roads, fill material and as a replacement of
virgin aggregates. Additionally, crushed recycled masonry aggregate can be used for pavement
applications (Schwein, Cavalline, & Weggel, 2013).
A concern highlighted with the use of recycled aggregates is that water absorption is much higher than
that of virgin aggregates due to impurities attached to the recycled aggregates. This poses a risk as a
high amount of rainfall is experienced along the coastal regions in Sri Lanka. Pre-soaking of recycled
aggregates may help maintain uniformity of absorption during concrete production (Reycling
Concrete and Masonry, 1999). Also, surface coating of recycled aggregate may prevent the absorption
of water. Further work shall look into the effect of water absorption on the physical properties of
14
recycled aggregates, implications on their applications and benefits which may be gained from presoaking or coating.
5.4 Recycling Plant

Furthermore, the tsunami had a significant impact on
Sri Lankas transport system. Road blockages due to
debris resulted in many vital transport routes being
cut off. One of these routes was access to some of
the very limited landfills and recycling plants
available in the country. This further compounded
the relief and reconstruction phase and meant
significant amounts of rubble were disposed of in
unsafe areas. One of the lessons learnt from the
tsunami was that there were not enough recycling
plants available to deal with the significant amount
of demolished rubble.
Also, as shown in Error:
Reference source not found, the affected areas

spanned from the North to the South. Therefore, a
recycling plant would need to be easily accessible to
the whole country. Building many plants across the
whole country therefore may not be the most cost
Figure 5.5 Sri Lanka Tsunami Affected

Areas
(Trauma
and
Global
Health
Program)
effective solution. Further work will look into two possible solutions:
A mobile recycling plant.
A recycling plant on a vessel.
5.4.1 Mobile Recycling Plant

One of the main benefits of a mobile recycling plant is the ability to get access to remote locations.
This is particularly useful in disaster conditions where road blockages due to debris may cut off
access to a recycling plant indefinitely. Also, it can be moved around the country to areas most needed
reducing the need to multiple fixed plants to be built across the country.
5.4.2 Recycling Plant on a Vessel
A recycling plant mounted on a vessel can potentially be both cost-effective and a solution to a
regional problem that is not solely limited to Sri Lanka. As shown in , neighbouring countries such as
Indonesia and Malaysia were also affected by the earthquake and thus a recycling plant stationed on a
vessel would provide various countries an efficient method for disposing of rubble to facilitate
15
rebuilding.
Figure 5.6 Areas Affected Regionally (Indian Ocean Earthquake Triggers Deadly Tsunami, 2005)
6. TSUNAMI MITIGATION
6.1 Introduction
This section aims to cover and focus on possible concepts that reduce the damaging effects of the flow
and impact of a tsunami on coastal areas. These include options such as the implementation of
physical barriers, conservation of existing features, and land use management. The aim of this
section within the final report is for some of these options to be implemented alongside the other areas
of focus within to provide a feasible approach to reconstruction and future damage mitigation
following a tsunami.
To arrive at feasible outcomes from the following concepts, all of them must be explored with
several underlying points in mind. The relative financial cost must be considered for each option in
terms of its effectiveness at reducing damage and loss of human life. Every options efficacy must be
examined in different coastal situations and topographies, as something that may prove effective in
one location could have little or no effect in another. Furthermore, that the community and
environmental impacts sought after for each concept must be as little as possible; as it is important to
find a method of mitigation that does not require the sacrifice of permanent land use.
16
6.2 Land Use Management

A considerable portion of the damage caused when the 2004 tsunami hit the coast of Sri Lanka can be
attributed to poor land use management within high risk areas. It can be divided into building and
agricultural arrangement. Building arrangement covers concepts such as the permitted distance from
the shoreline, the height from the high tide level and the position of buildings relative to each other.
Furthermore, it addresses areas in which it is high risk to reconstruct or settle in due to it being within
an area of likely inundation.
Agricultural arrangement is the use of the remaining land for human purposes after buildings and
infrastructure. Where flat farm land, larger plantations and unused ground are in relation to a
settlement and its shoreline have been shown to impact the number of potential casualties both
positively and negatively due to changes to the force of tsunami itself and the routes people are able to
take whilst seeking safety.
As these options come at almost no cost, it makes them a very simple option for improving the safety
of a settlement. However, their effectiveness must first be considered alongside the levels of impact
that they might have on a community, to be able to identify their suitability.
6.3 Natural Barriers

Natural barriers can be considerably effective at reducing the speed, height and damaging
capabilities of a moving wave, whether it is either offshore or once it has hit land. The effectiveness of
agricultural arrangement is a lot down to the concept of onshore natural barriers, as it is
ultimately the properties of the agriculture and topography that either hinder the advance of the water
or let it through. Many studies have been carried out on the effectiveness of on-land coastal
vegetation, including both cultivated land and natural forest, and their effect on water flow during a
tsunami. Generally, a reduction in the number of potential casualties is found when larger
plantations and natural forests lie directly on the coastline. This is because of the friction they cause
on the water as it flows through. By having these areas of plantation on the shoreline, it also
produces a further buffer zone in terms of distance to a settlement.
Natural barriers also include vegetation such as mangrove forests, which are situated within the water
itself and are able to grow in most places around Sri Lanka. They have been shown to be very
effective at dissipating the energy of water surges; this is due to their network of snorkel, stilt and
prop roots. Sri Lanka already contains large areas of mangrove forest. However, due to the fishing
industry, a large growth in the tourist sector and local requirements for wood; large areas of mangrove
forest have been cut down. An estimated 76% of the countrys mangrove forests have been lost in the
last 100 years (Kinver, 2015). Coral reef is also a natural barrier and plays a very important role in
17
slowing and dissipating water energy. Therefore, the continued mining of coral reef in the surrounding
waters for aggregate further outlines the need for preservation of natural barriers. Furthermore, due to
their efficiency in mitigating the effects of a tsunami along with general flooding, it is important to
consider replanting areas of mangrove and increasing the size of existing forests.
The beneficial aspect of using natural barriers is that they come at a relatively small financial cost to
the country or local people, making them a very favourable option given their effectiveness.
6.4 Man-Made Barriers

Man-made barriers have long been an effective solution to storm surges and extreme high tides,
therefore their use to mitigate the effects of a tsunami wave must be considered. They can also be
split into onshore and offshore. Examples of onshore barriers are earth ramparts, vertical concrete
walls and breakwaters. Breakwaters are usually constructed using large stones or concrete blocks with
the aim to dissipate energy with their irregular shape. However, theoretically it would be possible to
construct them using recycled material or rubble to save on costs.
Although all of these are likely to protect against large waves, due to economic reasons and the
frequency of large scale tsunami events, unless the material costs are low it is more than likely not
cost efficient to construct on shore defences. Furthermore, these barriers are likely to have an effect on
the existing community or tourism industry. These problems can potentially be overcome
if man-made barriers are placed offshore, where they can be multifunctional by also
however,
serving as
harbour walls in settlements with fishing boats.

Examples of offshore barriers include jetties, stone or concrete walls, submerged embankments and
artificial reefs. All of these are effective at dissipating the energy of a wave before it reaches land, plus
they have the potential to be integrated into general infrastructure. A study conducted by (Esfandiar,
2009) showed that multiple offshore tsunami wall layouts reduced the heights of the waves falling on
land by over 70%. However, like onshore barriers, their cost efficiency must be determined to check
their overall feasibility for different areas.
6.5 Drainage
Due to slow ground water seepage and areas of low level, once a tsunami surge has hit land it can take
a while before all areas are free of standing water. This is first and foremost an issue when trying to
provide immediate aid and rescue to the areas affected. It is then an issue in the long term for the
salinity of the soil as well as having the potential to saturate soil to the extent of causing damage to
building foundations. Therefore, the report will look at the feasibility of providing a network of
underground or covered storm drains that allow water a faster route to drain back to the sea from
inundated areas.
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6.6 Erosion Protection

Areas that have settlements under or near steep soil slopes may be at further risk due to slope
failure
when surges of water saturate the toe of the slope. This may then destabilise the slope causing a slip.
The number of settlements located in such areas, how high the risk levels are and the feasibility of
stabilising these slopes is therefore of interest in the report.
6.7 Channelling and Diversion

Another potential option that may be explored in the report is the concept of allowing the water
through onto land, but by channelling the main front of highest energy down paths that would
encounter fewer human casualties and less damage. This could be achieved by using earth walls,
excavated channels and buildings that are strong enough to direct water between them.
7. WATER INFRASTRUCTURE
7.1 Pre-existing infrastructure
Water supply at the coastal regions of Sri Lanka comprised of pipe-borne water to the cities from
reservoirs, deep groundwater wells, and private shallow wells. The most common source of water in
the areas affected by the tsunami came from shallow wells less than 10m in depth. (UNEP, 2006)
Many of these open wells had high levels of salinity even before the tsunami hit due to their proximity
to the ocean and shallow depth. Some of these wells produced no water at all during the dry season
between monsoons. As a result, many people bought and stored potable water in the home. (Clasen
T., 2005)
7.2 Devastation by the tsunami

The damage a tsunami causes to a water supply system can be described in two phases. The first
phase consists of an immediate physical impact on the existing infrastructure. The initial force of
waves and subsequent backwash can rupture pipelines, sewer systems, storage tanks, and groundwater
wells. These may also become blocked by the huge amount of silt and debris transported by the
tsunami. The second phase is a chemical impact and has longer term consequences. The inundation
19
of seawater contaminates wells and increases the salinity of soil as saltwater leaches through the
ground. Just a 5% mix of seawater with freshwater can render it unsuitable for drinking (Violette,
2009). It can take years for rainwater to naturally flush out or dilute the system to a safe level. This
has a major impact on crop harvesting along with clean water supply in the area.
The damage caused by the 2004 earthquake and following tsunami on Sri Lankas coastal water
network was comprehensive.
The majority of the pipe-born water supply was rendered out of
service mainly due to blockages and overloading in the system. An estimated 62,000 shallow coastal
wells were contaminated by sea water along with debris and sewage stirred up by the tsunami
(Villholth K.G., 2011). Many aquifers also became contaminated as seawater gained direct entry into
the water table through open wells. Around 9000 acres of paddy fields and 1467 acres of vegetable
and fruit crops were destroyed affecting 7,500 farmers (Imbulana K., 2006). Major paddy fields in
Trincomalee and Batticoloa which produce about one third of the countrys total rice harvest were
heavily afflicted. The impact of the tsunami on rice crop is a major concern as close to 90% of
irrigated land in Sri Lanka is cultivated with paddy. (Imbulana K., 2006) According to a study it took
roughly 5 years for ground water in the affected area to completely recover back to purity. (Villholth
K.G., 2011)
7.3 Immediate response

Immediately following the tsunami bottled water (200ml PET bottles) was supplied by helicopter to
survivors gathered at emergency points such as churches, mosques, schools and public buildings. As
roads became useable, freshwater was provided in the form of large tankered 500L to 2500L trucks to
squatter camp sites. (Clasen T., 2005) These trucks were supplied by the government water board
along with NGOs and used water from sources inland which were unaffected by the tsunami. Mobile
water treatment and desalination units were also set up in rural regions to provide clean water as
shown in Figure 7.1. These units use reverse osmosis or electro dialysis to purify salty water. A
problem encountered was that not enough water was being supplied to survivors as tanker trucks
would only arrive to the camps once or twice a day. In some cases tanks were being filled using local
irrigation points to fulfil the daily quota which caused serious cross contamination issues. There was
also a problem in the quality of water provided which was mainly due to lack of knowledge in
disinfection techniques and disorganisation.
Finally, pumping of shallow wells was conducted to
rinse the well of seawater however this procedure was largely ineffective and often exacerbated the
problem due to seawater intrusion from below. (Clasen T., 2005)
20
Figure 7.1.
Mobile
water purification machine in Kalmunai Sri Lanka Source: (UNEP, 2006)
7.4 Long term solutions

Improvement of irrigation, pipes, and wells
There was a need to improve the water supply infrastructure to the coast even before the tsunami
struck. The shallow wells along the coast were simply not adequate in providing all year round safe
drinking water. There are a number of ways in which the infrastructure could be improved. Firstly,
constructing deeper wells and boreholes would enable tapping of aquifers with a lower risk of saline
intrusion. A deeper well would also mean that water could still be extracted during the dry season
when the level of the water table falls. (Villholth K.G., 2011) Secondly, the design of the wells
themselves could be improved vastly. Constructing sealed wells would greatly reduce the risk of
contamination compared to open wells. Re-enforcing the well heads and increasing the height of the
standpipe by placing it on raised structure would also improve the design. This would help mitigate
against coastal flooding which occurs quite frequently in the country.
Construction of desalination plants
An option in providing clean water would be to construct a desalination plant. Since the coastal
sand aquifers have quite a high saline concentration anyway it could be beneficial to construct a
desalination plant for certain areas. There are a number of different ways salty water can be purified
including reverse osmosis, multistage flash distillation, electro dialysis, and mechanical vapour
compression.
Perhaps the most commonly used today is reverse osmosis due to its low energy
consumption.
However the biggest problem for desalination is its cost compared to conventional
water collection. Energy is needed to separate the salt from the water therefore the cost of the water
21
produced from the plant is higher compared to treated freshwater from a reservoir for example. As Sri
Lanka is still a developing country it may not be feasible to develop an expensive desalination plant
unless an innovative solution is presented. One of these solutions could be using a renewable energy
source such as tidal energy or solar energy to provide the power needed. (Friszmann, 2009) There is
already a project underway in Australia which will utilise tidal energy to power a desalination plant.
(Hanafi, 2013)Another option would be cogeneration in which a desalination facility could be
coupled to a power plant so that excess or waste heat can be used efficiently.
Rainwater harvesting
Rainwater harvesting is a very simple technique that can be used to provide freshwater. Rainwater is
simply channelled from roofs into tanks. (Han, 2009) This provides a very cheap source of water
however there can be issues in the reliability of the supply especially during the dry season.
7.5 Focus
The main focus will be on the long term solutions available which will be researched in greater detail.
A feasibility study will be conducted comparing the advantages and disadvantages of each option.
The sustainability needs to be investigated to ensure a good solution is presented that is right for the
local population. It would be unreasonable to suggest the construction of an expensive desalination
plant only for the local population to be priced out by the cost of the water. Therefore, a cost analysis
will also be conducted taking into account the aid funds available post tsunami. The overall solution
may include a combination of the options described above.
8. COMMUNICATIONS INFRASTRUCTURE
The purpose of this section is to investigate options for constructing a disaster-resilient
telecommunications network. This is done by developing an understanding of the top-level structure
of a typical telecoms network and identifying the types of components that could be at risk for a
cataclysmic failure during an environmental disaster stemming from, but not limited to earthquakes.
Once these risks have been identified, investigation into disaster-recovery solutions will be carried
out.
For the purposes of this investigation cataclysmic failure should be defined as the following:
A failure of the network such that vital communications in the hours or days after the disaster are
limited in such a way as to cause further loss of many human lives that could have otherwise been
prevented.
22
Due to the lack of information available on the state of Sri Lankas communications network and the
system already in place, this section focuses mainly on identifying areas of concern that can be further
improved upon in a typical telecom network to make it more disaster-resilient.
8.1 Overview of a typical telecomm infrastructure
Figure 8.1 A top-level diagram of an international telecommunications network

(Huurdeman, 1997)
In a telecommunications network, all participating end devices can be thought of as subscribers.
These subscribers are connected together through a hierarchy of switching nodes known as
exchanges. Exchanges are joined by electrical or optical lines known as links. In a geographically
local region, subscribers will be linked to the same local exchange. This allows for all subscribers in
the local region to open up a connection to initiate a phone call or other telecomm. Local exchanges
within a large geographical region or country are linked to a toll exchange. The link between a local
exchange and the toll exchange are known toll links. Toll exchanges allow for telecoms between
subscribers across all connected local exchanges. To link countries or other large geographical regions
toll exchanges must be linked together. Between subscribers in different countries, there may be large
bodies of water, mountainous topology or fault-lines between tectonic plates. All of these
environmental factors present challenges to telecoms. To combat these challenges a variety of
different solutions for inter-toll exchange links exist, such as terrestrial and submarine toll cables,
radio-relay links and satellite links. (Huurdeman, 1997)
23
8.2 Areas of concern for risks

From Huurdemans illustration of a telecommunications infrastructure (see Figure 8.1) it can be seen
that the main components can be categorized as subscribers, exchanges, and links. Exchanges can be
further divided into local and toll exchanges. Links can be divided in to local links, toll links, and
inter-toll links. In this sub-section, the three main risk areas are discussed in detail. For each network
component, the effect of failure in a disaster is described.
8.3 Subscribers
Subscribers to the telephone service may be associated to individuals or companies. Individual
subscribers that are at risk during a disaster will belong to individuals that may require emergency
assistance from the ambulance or fire service. Individual subscribers are the most time-dependant as
loss of life may be imminent in many scenarios. The only way for a typical individual subscriber to
help make sure they can use telecoms in a disaster is to ensure their device (mobile, landline, etc.) has
a power supply and is connected to a local exchange link (plugged into phone network, antenna is
attached, etc.). The subscriber will always be dependent on access to a functioning local link. In
addition to this it should be noted that one individual is usually only associated with one subscriber.
Because failure of a single subscriber does not usually result in the fatalities of many persons, it
should be disregarded as a candidate for this project despite the fact that the requirement for aid may
be imminent.
Companies may require a functioning communication network for business to continue as usual. This
is less time-critical as the business can pick up again in the weeks following the disaster. Its also
possible that companies may be able to fund disaster-recovery solutions not only to prevent loss of
data and services they may provide, but also to temporarily restore communications for their
premises. These kinds of scenarios may involve the use of entirely independent networks.
8.4 Exchanges
As described earlier in Error: Reference source not found there are at least two categories of
exchanges, these being toll exchanges and local exchanges. Firstly local exchanges are covered,
followed by toll exchanges.
8.4.1 Local Exchanges
Local exchanges allow for a local region to be connected to each other for telecoms. For a single
region to be able to manage its own emergencies, its important that the entire emergency
infrastructure is connected within a local region. Because of this the emergency services should be
prioritised for a local exchange connection, particularly the hospitals. For this reason a case could be
made to block non-emergency service connections in the event of a serious disaster such as an
24
earthquake-tsunami. Doing so would free up more bandwidth for emergency services calls. Especially
considering the higher than usual telecom traffic generated from personal calls that is likely to be
present after an earthquake.
For the purpose of example it is simpler to see how exchanges and hospitals relate in a familiar area,
than investigate the situation in Sri Lanka. Guildfords local telephone exchange serves more than
30,000 people (SamKnows.com, 2015). Royal Surrey County Hospital, located in Guildford serves a
total of 320,000 people (Royal Surrey County NHS Foundation Trust, 2015). While there are other
hospitals in Surrey, the important thing to note is that the coverage (in terms of population) of a single
local telephone exchange could be an entire order of magnitude different to the coverage of hospitals.
Its clear from this that a large hospital like Royal Surrey County could be taking calls that have
arrived through a number of different exchanges. If one of these exchanges were to fail, it could lead
to a large loss of life as the distance may be too great to another suitable hospital for badly-injured
patients to survive the journey. This is escalated when it is considered that they may be unable to call
an ambulance for this trip. For this reason there should be redundancy in local exchanges, so that if
one fails the same people are covered by another. This could be done by using overlapping local
exchanges so that traffic can be split from a failed exchange to multiple other nearby exchanges. Its
better to overlap than to simply duplicate the number of exchanges as it would require fewer
exchanges to be built.
8.4.2 Toll Exchanges
The importance of the toll exchange is to link local exchanges together. Having a connection between
local exchanges and the toll exchange after an earthquake will allow for overfull hospitals to spread
the load to neighbouring less-busy hospitals.
Its likely that the army will be called into to aid in the recovery effort following an earthquake. While
most typical emergency services will have outposts all across the country, its important to note that
the army may not.
To fund many aspects of the recovery, aid will be required from outside the country, this is up to the
government to distribute, and as such parliament will need to communicate with smaller regions of
the country. While a lack of these extra aid factors may not be as time-critical as a phone connection
to a local hospital, theres still quite a large amount of possible loss of life from losing the toll
exchange. Along with the local exchanges, redundancy should also be built into the toll exchange.
More than one toll exchange in a separate location should prevent any single disaster from cutting off
all local exchanges from each other.
8.5 Links
25
The final area of the telecoms network to consider is the links. One important thing to note about the
telephone network is that it operates on a hierarchy as opposed to a web. However it should be
possible to create dormant lines between subscribers and a local exchange other than their own. The
lines could then be activated by a switch between exchanges in the event of a local exchange failure.
While redundancy is one way of recovering from failure, another way is to construct the lines in more
resilient ways. One possible way is to put telephone lines underground instead of on masts. Elevated
lines are likely to be snapped by debris carried in by the wave of a tsunami. However this would only
affect the first few kilometres in from the coast. Past this the lines should be safe.
While all coastal links are likely to be equally vulnerable points, loss of some links will cause more
problems than others. Loss of a link between a local exchange and the toll exchange will isolate that
region from international aid. While the link between a subscriber and the local exchange will
probably only isolate an individual from the emergency services. Priority should be given to the links
between local and toll exchanges.
26
9. POWER INFRASTRUCTURE
9.1 Introduction
According to the Central Bank of Sri Lanka (2014), the generation of electricity in Sri Lanka is
dominated by Thermal Heat Power and Hydro-electric Power, along with a type of renewable energy,
i.e. wind power, solar power, etc., that accounts for a few percent of the total energy generation.
Therefore, designing some resilient power plants and transmission network in this country can ensure
consistent power supply when earthquakes, tsunamis and other disasters occur; especially for the
critical infrastructure such as hospitals, water supply, and shelters etc. that are located or used to
supply the coastal area because of the high population density. However, no matter how resistant the
structure is, there are always opportunities for the occurrence of an unpredictable natural disaster, so it
will be vital to prioritise the restoration of power supply and backup power for critical infrastructure.
9.2 Permanent Emergency Backup Power

Extreme events such as tsunamis will always bring casualties to a country; therefore an emergency
plan is crucial. By securing an uninterrupted power supply to the critical infrastructure, especially
hospitals, the number of deaths and injuries can be reduced significantly. The following are several
types of backup power that can be implemented under different circumstances.
Emergency Power Supply Vehicles
This kind of vehicle provides mobility and flexibility when disasters occur. They can ensure power
supply to different critical infrastructure when the power system is damaged and facilitate the
reconstruction process. An underground oil tank is constructed for these vehicles, so that it can allow
reliable power generation for a period of time right after when an earthquake or tsunami happens.
Power plants will usually be shut down
automatically when an earthquake happens
because of safety reasons to provide backup
power to the control system therefore
preventing unnecessary hazards, e.g. leakage
of chemicals, radioactive substances and fly ash
damaged
fabric
filters.
However,
from
the
drawback of this solution is that it cannot be
Figure 9.1 Emergency Electricity Vehicle
accessed if the transport network is destroyed. As a result, multiple emergency backup power
approaches should be applied for the critical infrastructure.
27
Massive battery storage

One of the most typical ways to provide backup electricity is the installation of a backup power
generator within a building or structure. Once the main power supply is out of service, this massive
battery will be able to provide the minimum power required to maintain the services which are more
important. For example, sufficient electricity to the water supply system to provide clean water,
electricity to maintain the operation in the hospital and clinic, and lighting for the shelters, etc.
On top of that, this can also be a smart power supply system. Shimizu (2015) states that the battery
itself is able to charge up during the night, which can save energy cost as the electricity consumed at
night is less expensive, and may be used as a secondary power supply during the busy hours.
Renewable Energy
Despite the fact that solar power is not a reliable or consistent supply of energy, it can play an
essential role in assisting electricity supply after a disaster when there is only limited energy supply.
One common example would be providing energy for indoor lighting. Installing solar panels on the
roofs of key buildings will therefore be very useful in order to provide alternative electricity options.
9.3 Earthquake/Tsunami Resistant Power Station &

Transmission system
The figure on the right is the transmission map of Sri Lanka, which shows the locations of Power
Plants and substations as well as the transmission line
around the country. Since the Hydro Power plants are
not located along the coastal area, a tsunami will be
unlikely to affect the service of these power plants. On
the other hand, the locations of the Thermal Power
Plants are typically closer to the coastal lines as water
is needed to be used in the cooling water systems.
These plants should be designed to be both earthquake
and tsunami proof.
Although the level of damage for power infrastructure
was limited for the 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake
according to Ratnasooriya (2007), the electricity
supply of about 70000 households were affected by the
tsunami. There is obviously a need to ensure the
28
electricity supply immediately after different disasters. The most direct way to keep power generating
is the protection of power plants and substations.
Water-proof power plants
Figure 9.2. Transmission Network
When earthquakes or tsunamis occur, flooding will usually occur subsequently. The power generator
would easily be damaged by water if there is no suitable protection from the outside. Hence designing
the structure with impermeable materials can prevent water from getting in and as a result avoids the
potential submergence of the electrical systems and devices, for example, the step-up transformer and
electrical generator in a coal thermal power station. Concrete with lower water/cement ratio should be
chosen due to its low permeability to prevent and minimise the water from reaching the steel elements
and reinforcements, which may lead to durability and other structural issues. In addition to that, an
embedded membrane to its outer surface will be able to overcome this problem and maintain the
robustness of the structure. Another method to avoid water from getting into the power station district
is to build a tsunami (wave) barrier. It works by building a high wall that surrounds the power station
and consequently stops the water from entering.
Earthquake Resistant Power station
To achieve a power station that is resistant to different disasters is the primary aim to ensure steady
power supply for the residents, businesses and most importantly for the critical infrastructures. By
using the application of earthquake resistant building design, seismic isolation systems should be
included which is basically reducing the earthquake energy that affects the structure by extending the
structural period rather than increasing the resistance capacity according to Torunbalci (2004).
Undoubtedly, seismic isolation systems are some expensive technology, however, safety is always the
most important consideration, and so human life must be prioritized. Moreover, the hydro power
plants must be constructed to sustain seismic loads, so that the water from the dam or reservoir will
not cause serious flooding.
Robust Power Distribution System
As mentioned above, as the population in Sri Lanka is focused along the coastal areas, ensuring the
resiliency of the power distribution system, including transmission lines. Substation, transformers,
etc., can supply the country with electricity immediately after the earthquake or other disasters, which
could allow prompt rescue and assistance for reconstruction work of devastated buildings. Due to the
differences in structural characteristics of a power station and a transmission tower, instead of
applying seismic isolation systems, making sure the seismic resistance capability of the distribution
system would be more suitable. Babu and Selvam (2012) recommend that there should be
consideration of seismic loads when designing distribution systems and transmission line towers,
29
hence ensuring these kinds of structures are capable of withstanding critical loadings without any
deformations and structural failures.
10. CONCLUSION
The 2004 tsunami was a devastating event that caused vast damage to every aspect of the Sri Lankan
Coast line. This report has looked at rebuilding measures that can be taken in the wake of this disaster
so that a similar event in the future would not have such a devastating effect.
Before any rebuilding efforts begin, the rubble from damaged buildings and infrastructure must be
cleared. It is a priority to ensure that this rubble is not just wasted but recycled and reused. For this to
happen there must be available recycling plants for the whole coast line so a portable recycling plant
would be very effective. When it comes to rebuilding the long term housing solutions, multiple
construction methods were discussed. The most likely option would be raised floor concrete frame
buildings. This would not be as cheap as typical mud and pole construction, but provides a more
effective solution against future disasters. The infrastructure of the coastline was severely damaged
and a complete redesign of the whole system is potentially a viable option with more appropriate road
materials and rail routes. Mitigation measures have also been proposed to reduce the damage inflicted
in the future. Such measures include preserving mangrove areas to act as a physical barrier to
tsunamis; improving town planning to channel and divert tsunamis and developing an improved
drainage system to remove flood water.
Flooding and earthquakes had a severe effect on services including water, gas, electricity and
communications. New systems have been discussed that can replace the damaged service routes and
provide a solution that is able to withstand similar events in the future.
30
11. REFERENCES
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33

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INCEPTION REPORT

Earthquake Reconstruction: Group 2

Dr. Maja Summers

Submission Date: 26th October 2015

INTERPRETATION OF THE BRIEF.......................................................................................5

Sea (Port and Fisheries).........................................................................................................7

DISASTER PROOF BUILDINGS.............................................................................................9

Construction Methods and Materials.....................................................................................9

Mud and pole construction.............................................................................................9

Concrete frame with masonry walls.............................................................................10

PVA reinforced concrete...............................................................................................11

Applications of Recycled Material...............................................................................14

Mobile Recycling Plant................................................................................................15

Recycling Plant on a Vessel.........................................................................................15

Land Use Management........................................................................................................16

Channelling and Diversion...................................................................................................18

Earthquake Reconstruction: Group 2

Devastation by the tsunami..................................................................................................19

Long term solutions.............................................................................................................20

Overview of a typical telecomm infrastructure....................................................................22

Areas of concern for risks....................................................................................................23

Permanent Emergency Backup Power.................................................................................26

Earthquake/Tsunami Resistant Power Station & Transmission system................................27

2. INTERPRETATION OF THE BRIEF

An earthquake resistant building reconstruction strategy.

Design of communications, power and transport infrastructure.

3.1 Road Network

roads that run along the coast were largely affected.

Samarawickrama and Imamura, 2007). In addition

3.2 Rail Network

3.3 Sea (Port and Fisheries)

Land use planning or buffer zones.

Trapping effect (stops debris from houses, driftwoods etc.)

4. DISASTER PROOF BUILDINGS

4.2 Construction Methods and Materials

One of the building methods used in Sri

and pole construction. This uses wooden

Figure 4.1. Mud and pole construction in Sri Lanka.

under the vibrational loading. It is also a

(Explore Sri Lanka, 2012)

Figure 4.2. Infill masonry walls protect concrete

Reinforced concrete is proven to be a

Figure 4.3. Improper anchorage of transverse

repeatedly, this can become catastrophic if

4.2.3 PVA reinforced concrete

that the engineered cementitious composite

can extend 500

times more than regular concrete before

not expensive and the concrete is made as

would normally be, but without adding

Figure 4.4. Concrete reinforced with Poly Vinyl

Debris generated directly by the disaster, e.g., rubble, roofing, insulation.

Debris generated by abnormal patterns of life, e.g., greatly increased consumption of

5.2 Waste Benchmarking

5.3.1 Separation Techniques

Source separation results in less contamination of recyclables and so a higher proportion

The risk of contamination makes it unsuitable to commingle some materials

5.3.2 Applications of Recycled Material

5.4 Recycling Plant

Also, as shown in Error:

Reference source not found, the affected areas

Figure 5.5 Sri Lanka Tsunami Affected

A mobile recycling plant.

A recycling plant on a vessel.