Natl. Acad. Sci. Lett.

(MayJune 2013) 36(3):253258

DOI 10.1007/s40009-013-0139-x

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT/POLICY ISSUES

Food Safety, Labeling Regulations and Fish Food Authentication

Bimal Prasanna Mohanty Sudhir Barik
Arabinda Mahanty Sasmita Mohanty

Received: 31 December 2012 / Revised: 15 February 2013 / Accepted: 1 April 2013 / Published online: 26 June 2013
 The National Academy of Sciences, India 2013

Abstract Fish is an important dietary component and is

one of the cheapest sources of quality animal proteins. It is
also a rich source of polyunsaturated fatty acids, vitamins
and minerals. Consumer demands for fish have increased in
recent years and simultaneously the cases of food adulteration and other intervention of opportunistic elements in
the fishery industry have also increased. This has necessitated proper food safety and labeling regulations. India is
one of the largest producers of a variety of fishes, and
exports over 600,000 metric tons of fish, to about 90
countries. The awareness about food safety and authentication has increased over the years and almost every
importing country has mandated strict labeling regulations.
In this context, the present paper describes the food safety
issues, labeling regulations, techniques of food authentication and has made some recommendations for sustainable development of the fishery industry.
Keywords Adulteration
Food safety

Labeling regulations
Food authentication

Introduction
Fish is an important dietary component and is one of the
cheapest source of quality animal proteins [1]. Fish oil,
especially from marine species, is rich in x-3 polyunsaturated
B. P. Mohanty (&)
S. Barik
A. Mahanty
Biochemistry Laboratory, ICAR-Central Inland Fisheries
Research Institute, Barrackpore, Kolkata 700120, India
e-mail: bimalmohanty12@rediffmail.com
S. Barik
S. Mohanty
KIIT School of Biotechnology, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar,
Odisha, India

fatty acids (PUFAs) which are associated with a number of

health benefits; preventing cardio-vascular disease in the
adults [2], dementia, age-related macular degeneration
(AMD) in the elderly [3] and attention-deficit hyperactive
disorder (ADHD) [4] and asthma [5] in pediatric population.
Fish, especially the small indigenous fish is also an important
source of micronutrients [6, 7].
Fish serves as a health food for the affluent world owing
to the fish oils, at the same time it is a health food for the
people in the other extreme of the nutrition scale owing to
its proteins, oils, vitamins and minerals [810]. Massive
studies to evaluate the health benefits of eating fish are
being taken up globally. Recently, a $20-million US government sponsored probe have been lunched to examine
whether fish oil and vitamin D can help prevent heart
diseases, cancer and a range of other illnesses [11]. Thus,
fish is gaining importance as a health food and its production in 2020 will have to multiply sevenfold to meet
consumer demand across the planet [12].
Consumer demands for fish have increased in recent
years and this situation has underlined the need to guarantee
the safety, traceability, and authenticity and health benefits
of such products [13, 14]. Increase in the presence of
commercially available aquaculture products has also
prompted the fish food industry to face new challenges.
Identification of fish has gained increased importance in the
aquaculture and seafood industries because of the labeling
regulations imposed by many countries all over the world
[15]. In addition to this, the handling of fillets or minced fish
as raw material instead of whole fish specimen in global fish
markets has complicated the identification of fish species
from which the material is taken, an issue that has traditionally been carried out on the basis of the analysis of the
external anatomical and morphological features [16]. To
avoid cases of substitution of certain fish species by others

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with less commercial value, a number of global regulations

have been implemented to assure complete and correct
information, guaranteeing market transparency. As a consequence, these regulations necessitate the development of
analytical tools to make possible distinguishing between
closely related species [16].

Importance of Fish Food Authentication

Globalization, opening of international markets and
increased consumer demands of fishery products permit the
intervention of opportunistic elements and the falsification
of the documentation that must accompany foodstuffs,
usually in order to increase the profit. The consequence may
cause serious health issues when it contains allergic substances or a heavy loss to the industry in case of processed
fish when it is substituted by less important species [13].
A wide variety of fish are known to induce allergic
reactions, and adulteration of fish food with such species
can lead to serious health problems [17]. Allergies affect
almost 20 % of the developed world and can be life
threatening [18]. The assessment of fish authentication and
origin is an important requisite to ensure adequate quality
and safety controls, especially in terms of consumers
protection. Moreover, fish food authentication obtained by
innovative methodologies is the key to detecting possible
falsification, deceptive practices, and fraudulent substitution of commercially valuable fish species to inferior ones.
Fishing in India is a major industry accounting for about
1 % of the GDP, and about 14 million people are employed
in this industry. India is one of the largest producers of a
variety of fishes, and exports over 600,000 metric tons of
fish, to about 90 countries, earning over US$1.8 billion
[19]. European union (EU) and USA are Indias two largest
sea-food trading partners. Both of them have mandated
processing and product regulations. The 1995 US sea food
regulation has made it compulsory for the processor and
importers to comply with Hazard Analysis and Critical
Control Point (HACCP). According to the EU regulations,
all organizations exporting seafood to the EU require
export-worthy certification of their processing facilities by
an EU-nominated inspection agency [20]. So it has become
indispensible to abide by these regulations in order to
survive in the fishery industry.

B. P. Mohanty et al.

Keeping such developments in view, the Ministry of Science

& Technology (Department of Biotechnology), Government
of India has set up new Research Laboratories (National AgriFood Biotechnology Institute, (http://www.nabi.res.in) specifically to cater to the needs of Agri-Food Biotechnology
sector. Similarly, recently the Ministry of Health & Family
Welfare has set up a new agency, the Food Safety Standard
Authority of India (www.fssai.gov.in), to deal with such
aspects. The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India is
an autonomous statutory authority set up under the Food
Safety and Standards Act, 2006 for laying down science based
standards for articles of food and to regulate their manufacture, storage, distribution, sale and import, to ensure availability of safe and wholesome food for human consumption.
The Act aims to establish a single reference point for all
matters relating to food safety and standards, by moving from
multi-level, multi-departmental control to a single line of
command.
The Codex Alimentarius Commission is an intergovernmental body which is comprised of over 170 member countries. This commission approves and/or recommends the
development or revision of the food safety standards. It also
advises governments in designing and developing food quality and food safety systems in order to facilitate international
harmonization of standards both domestically and in trade.
Almost every country throughout the world has a government-connected authority to monitor food safety issues
from production to sale. Such authorities advise on national
legislation and deliver food safety requirements for homeproduced and imported goods. Food Standards Authority in
the UK, the US Food and Drug Administration, and the State
Food and Drug Administration of China are such organisations. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) conducts
risk assessments on food and feed safety in close collaboration with national authorities and provides independent
scientific advice and clear communication on existing and
emerging risks. The globalisation of food industry increased
the probability of incidents involving contaminated food, so
it became necessary to form an international organization to
ensure food safety. The International Food Safety Authorities Network (INFOSAN) is a joint initiative between WHO
and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO), which was formed with an objective of
sharing information on important food safety related issues
of global interest, promote partnership and collaboration
between countries, help countries strengthen their capacity
to manage food safety risks [21] (Table 1).

Regulating Authorities for Food Authentication

Since January, 2002, the European Union has made it mandatory to mention the name of the species of fish, the geographical origin from where they were captured and the
production method (wild or cultivated) in the fishery products.

123

Tools and Techniques in Fish Food Authentication

Higher consumer preference for some fish gives opportunity
for their adulteration with less valued ones. The availability

Food Safety, Labeling Regulations

255

Table 1 List of authorities responsible for fish food safety monitoring in different countries worldwide
Country

Authority

Web address

India

Food Safety and Standards Authority

of India (FSSAI)

www.fssai.gov.in

China

State Food and Drug Administration

eng.sfda.gov.cn

Hong Kong

Centre for Food Safety, Hong Kong

www.cfs.gov.hk

South Korea

National Fisheries Products Quality Inspection Service

www.nfis.go.kr

European Union

European Food Safety Authority

Agence nationale de securite sanitaire de lalimentation,
de lenvironnement et du travail (ANSES)

www.efsa.europa.eu

Ireland

Marine Environment and Food Safety Services

(a team of Marine Institute Ireland)

www.marine.ie

Norway

The Norwegian Food Safety Authority

www.fisheries.no

USA

The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

www.fda.gov

Canada

Canadian Food Inspection Agency

www.inspection.gc.ca

Australia

Australian Food Authority

www.foodstandards.gov.au

France

of fish fingers, fillets, fish cakes and other processed products complicates the situation even more. Consumers are
often more concerned about the taste, flavor, nutritive value
than safety aspects. Therefore, the customer has the right to
be truly informed about the identity of a purchased product.
In this scenario authentication and certification procedures
are necessary in order to prevent consumers disorientation
in the fish product market.
Authentication methods can be categorized into the
areas where fraud is most likely to occur: meat origin, meat
substitution, meat processing treatment and non-meat
ingredient addition. Within each area the possibilities for
fraud can be subcategorized as follows: meat origin; sex,
meat cuts, breed, feed intake, slaughter age, wild versus
farmed meat, organic versus conventional meat, geographic origin of meat, substitution of meat species, fat and
protein; meat processing treatment (irradiation), fresh
versus thawed meat and meat preparation, non-meat
ingredient addition (additives) and water.
Substances like fertilizers, pesticides, antibiotics, hormones, colorants, and preservatives are generally used to
increase either the production or food quality, but the
presence of these substances in a concentration higher than
a prescribed amount can have hazardous effects on human
health. Recently, hazardous substances like formalin have
been found to be used to preserve fish from deterioration
during transportation in some cities of India [22].
Presently spectroscopic techniques like mid infrared
(MIR), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) and near infra
red spectroscopy (NIR) are available for food authentication [23, 24]. These techniques are considered as fingerprinting techniques and provide details about the chemical
structure of the compounds present in different samples.

www.afsset.fr

These techniques are helpful in detecting adulteration of

different edible oils, fruit juice and honey [25].
Chromatographic techniques like high pressure liquid
chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography (GC) are
also in use for detecting adulteration in food [26, 27].
These are highly sensitive techniques and can detect minute amount of substances present or adulterated in the food
sample [2830]. Gas chromatography in combination with
mass spectrometry (MS) is a highly sensitive method used
in food authentication and has been used to compare two
scallop species by analyzing their volatile components
[31]. HPLC can be used for the detection of substances
which are not easily vaporized. HPLC can be combined
with other sophisticated and highly sensitive instruments
like mass spectrometers or atomic absorption spectrometers, and thus can detect a variety of compounds e.g.
metallic toxicants like mercury and other food toxicants
like malachite green [32]. HPLC can also be applied for
species level adulteration of fishes by separation of different proteins even after cold or frozen storage [3335];
however, this method has certain limitations like, degradation of samples during their preparation for processing
by HPLC [36].
Freshness of products is an important factor as far as
consumer preference is concerned. Semiconducting metal
oxide biosensors are devices that can detect the freshness
of a fish product. Degrading samples often emit volatile
gases which can be detected by these biosensors. In 2002,
Hammond et al. have used this technique to measure the
freshness of different fish like Atlantic salmon and Atlantic
cod [37].
General methods of fish identification are based on
external characters; however when the fish is processed by

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food industries to easily exportable products like fillets and

fingers, the identification of fish species is not possible by
consideration of external features. Therefore, methods
based on nucleic acid and proteins are gaining popularity.
Most fish products contain sufficient amount of DNA to be
amplified and detected for authentication purpose. DNA
based techniques like Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP), Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA
(RAPD), DNA sequencing, species-specific PCR, multiplex PCR, real-time PCR are some of the techniques
employed to check species level adulteration in fishes [38].
An assay method using xMAPTM technology with probes
targeting species-specific parvalbumin intron regions was
developed for the identification of eight fish species and for
detection of uncooked vegetable soup mixed with Atlantic
salmon meat [39].
At present, species can be reliably documented by analyzing their protein components [40]. Correct identification
often depends on how the product has been treated and for
heavily treated products, these techniques specifically target
heat resistant proteins. Thus, protein analyses may be necessary to ensure the correct identification of species in raw
or unprocessed and even in processed products. This is
important for the food processing industries which are
export oriented and cater to the need of global market and in
turn are high foreign exchange earners. Proteomic studies
involve techniques like 1-D gel electrophoresis, 2-D gel
electrophoresis and advanced technologies like MALDITOFMS. 2-D gel based method gives the largest amount of
biologically relevant information about the diversity of the
proteome and can be used to differentiate fish with various
genetic, developmental or physiological backgrounds, for
qualitative and quantitative differences [41].
A pioneering work involving proteomic approach was
carried out by Pineiro et al. [16] to differentially characterize five different Hake species: Merluccius merluccius
(European hake), M. australis (Southern hake), M. hubbsi
(Argentinian hake), M. gayi (Chilean hake), and M. capensis (Cape hake). Using 2-D gel electrophoresis and
matrix assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flightmass spectrometry (MALDI-TOFMS) they were able to
classify the hake species into two groups: the East Atlantic
coast group (M. merluccius and M. capensis) and the West
Atlantic coast group (M. australis, M. hubbsi, and M. gayi).
Moreover, the peptide mass-maps from the heat-resistant
parvalbumin fraction allowed the detection of a peptide
characteristic of M. australis not present in the other four
hake species tested. Similar studies have been done by
Carrera et al. [42] that allowed the differential classification of ten commercial, closely related species of the
family Merlucciidae. The proteomic approach has also
been applied for fast identification of species-specific
peptides from marine mussel species [43] and identification

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B. P. Mohanty et al.

of the major allergens of two species of local snappers

Lutjanus argentimaculatus (merah/red snapper) and Lutjanus johnii (jenahak/golden snapper) [44].
India has a very rich biodiversity harboring about 1,300
marine and 720 inland fish species out which almost all are
edible except a few, and it is the second largest aquaculture
producer in terms of quantity of production [45]. High
consumer preference for certain fish makes them prone to
incidences of adulteration with other commercially less
important fishes. Therefore, it has become necessary to
develop protocols and techniques for species-specific
markers to identify and restrict these fraudulent processes.

Epilogue
Fishing is one of the most important sectors of Indian
agriculture, hailing second and third positions in aquaculture and fisheries production, respectively and provides
employment to about 14 million peoples of the country
[46]. India is one of largest exporters of fish and fish
products, earning a huge amount of forex money. In order
to safeguard its forex earnings, issues concerned with
safety, authenticity and labeling regulations are to be
addressed carefully. The following recommendations are
made in this regard.

As most of revenue in this sector is generated from

exports, the quality of supply need to be at par the
consumer demand. Therefore, greater quality control
measures are needed, as cancellation of any export
consignment will cause huge economic loss.
A bottom-up approach has to be maintained as far as
food safety and hygiene is concerned; i.e. the maintenance of food hygiene should start from the fisherman,
followed by supplier and exporter. This requires proper
training and creation of awareness among all groups of
people associated with the industry.
Transportation of fish and fish products requires their
proper storage during the process as industrially
produced precooked fish products are particularly prone
to cross-contamination because of handling and the
highly heterogeneous microbial flora present in the
different ingredients [32]. Therefore, care must be
taken for proper storage of these products in each step
of its marketing.
To avoid food spoilage and cross contaminations often
hazardous chemical preservatives like malachite green
and formalin are being used. Detection of these
substances in fish products can lead to cancellation of
consignments. Therefore, promotion and popularization
of novel techniques like liquid ice storage and modified
atmospheric storage is highly recommended.

Food Safety, Labeling Regulations

The European Union and USA have strict regulation

related to the concentration of substances like antibiotics, fertilizers and other hazardous chemicals in fish
products. These substances in fish are found because of
their higher concentrations in water bodies which in turn
are because of the effluents added to water bodies by the
concerned industries. Antibiotics and other chemicals
are also added to the feed or water used for farmed fish
which in turn increase the concentration of the same in
the fish products. Therefore, enforcement of a strong
effluent treatment law is strongly recommended.
New analytical techniques need to be developed for
universal detection i.e. identification of both known and
unknown compounds in food, which will play a key
role in food safety monitoring. Technology, capable of
distinguishing different fish species in a mixed product
must be developed. These techniques should also be
able to quantify a particular fish species in a product.
Since this requires advanced instrument facilities like:
MALDI-TOFMS, LCMS/MS, nano LCMS/MS etc.,
such facilities need to be developed in different regions
of the country to provide technical back-up to the
Indian fish food processing industry.
Technology for food authentication is advancing very
fast. Therefore the standard of quality control laboratories and certifying authorities should comply with
that of international organizations which monitor food
safety issues. The application of advanced technology
in food safety monitoring also needs trained and skilled
manpower. Therefore steps must be taken to develop
skilled and trained human resources.
The major challenge for fish food safety regulation is
removal of unnecessary intermediates in the supply
chain as a greater number of intermediates provide
increased opportunity for incidences of food adulteration [47]. Therefore, care must be taken to remove
unnecessary intermediates and integrate the supply
chains in an increasingly global food industry.

Acknowledgments The authors are thankful to the unknown referee

for constructive suggestions for improving the manuscript.

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