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Winter 1980 Graded-index fiber system carriers video signal for 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid,
New York, at 850 nanometers.
1980 Bell labs publicly commits to single mode 1.3-micrometer technology for the first transatlantic
fiber-optic cable, TAT-8
1981 Commercial second-generation system emerge, operating at 1.3 micrometers through gradedindex fibers.
1982 British Telecom performs field trial of single mode fiber, changes plans abandoning graded-index
in favor of single-mode.
October 1986 First fiber-optic cable across the English channel begins service.
February 1996 Fujitsu, NTT Labs, and Bell Labs all report sending one trillion bits per second through
single optical fibers in separate experiments using different techniques
Optical communication system is one that uses lights as the carrier of information.
- Use glass or plastic fiber cables to contain the light waves and guide them in a manner similar
to the way electromagnetic waves are guided through a metallic transmission medium.
Advantages of Fiber Optics over the Metallic cables
1. Wider bandwidth and greater information capacity- because of the inherently wider bandwidths
available with optical frequencies.
2. Immunity to crosstalk-because glass and plastic fibers are non conductors of electrical current.
3. Immunity to static interference- because optical fibers are nonconductors of electrical current,
they are immune to static noise due to electromagnetic interference (EMI) caused by lightning,
electric motors, relays fluorescent lights, and other electrical noise sources.
4. Environmental immunity-less affected by corrosive liquids and gases
5. Safety and convenience- - they are more flexible, easier to work with, require less storage space,
cheaper to transport, and easier to install and maintain.
6. Lower transmission loss
7. Security it is virtually impossible to tap into a fiber cable without the users knowledge, and
cannot be detected by metal detectors.
8. Durability and reliability
9. Economics- have less loss and require fewer repeaters
Disadvantages
1. Interfacing cost- requires expensive interfaces
2. Strength fiber optics have a lower tensile strength than metallic cables.
3. Remote electrical power - requires electrical power to remote interfaces or regenerating
equipment.
4. Optical fiber cables are more susceptible to losses introduced by bending the cable- bending the
cable causes the irregularities in the cable dimensions.
5. Specialized tools, equipment, and training- it requires special tools to splice and repair cables
and special test equipment to make routine measurements.
Electromagnetic spectrum
The light frequency spectrum can be divided into three general bands:
1. Infrared- The band of light frequencies that is too high to be seen by the human eye with
wavelengths ranging between 770 nm and 106 nm. Optical fiber systems generally operate in the
infrared band.
2. Visible The band of light frequencies to which the human eye will respond with wavelengths
ranging 390 nm and 770 nm. This band is visible to the human eye.
3. Ultraviolet the band of light frequencies that are too low to be seen by the human eye with the
wavelengths ranging between 10 nm and 390 nm.
= c/f
Transmitter
Analog or digital
interface
Voltage to
current
converter
Light Source
Source-to
fiber
interface
Fiber to
light
detector
interface
Light detector
Current to
voltage
converter
Analog to
digital
interface
Destination
Receiver
1. Core
2. cladding
3. Buffer
Kevlar yarn type material that increases tensile strength of the cable
Polyurethane prevents moisture from coming into contact with the fiber core
Mylar a layer of tape wrap to increase tensile strength in a multiple strand
LIGHT PROPAGATION
1. Physics of Light
a. Excited state energy level above the ground state
b. Spontaneous decay, or spontaneous emission- the process of decaying from one
energy level to another energy level in an atom.
c. Photon possesses an energy proportional to its frequency.
Plancks Law state that, When visible light or high frequency electromagnetic radiation
illuminates a metallic surface, electrons are emitted.
Plancks Law can be expressed mathematically as:
Where:
Ep = energy of the photon (joules)
h = Plancks constant (6.625 x 10 -34 J-s
f = frequency of light (photon) emitted (hertz)
Ep = hf
d. Absorption the process of moving from one energy level to another level.
2. Optical power
a. Light Intensity can be expressed in either photometric or radiometric.
A. Photometry- the science of measuring only light waves that are visible to
the human eye.
- light intensity is generally described in terms of luminous flux density in
lumens per unit area.
B. Radiometry measure light throughout the entire electromagnetic
spectrum.
light intensity is generally described in terms of :
Optical Power - flow of light energy past a given point in a specified time.
It can be expressed mathematically as
where:
P = d(energy
or
d(time)
In dbm :
dQ
dt
3. Velocity of Propagation
- speed of propagation of light in free space
- the velocity is reduced and signal is refracted (bent toward the normal) as it passes from one
medium to a denser medium
a. Refraction - bending of light as it passes thru different medium
violet wavelengths are refracted the most
red wavelengths are refracted the least
prismatic refraction - the spectral separation of white light is called.
b. Refractive indexes is simply the ratio of a light ray in a given material.
Mathematically:
n = c/v
where:
n = refractive index (unitless)
c = speed of light, (3x108 m/s2)
v = velocity of light in a given material (m/s 2)
c. Snells Law
A. angle of incidence angle at which the propagating ray strikes the interface with
respect to the normal.
B. angle of refraction is the angle formed between the propagating ray and the
normal after the ray has entered the second medium.
Snells Law stated mathematically is,
n1sin1 = n1sin2
d. Critical Angle minimum angle of incidence at which the light ray can strike the
core/cladding interface and result in an angle of refraction of 90 o or more (more dense to less
dense only).
NORMAL
unrefracted ray
Cladding
2
n2 less dense
n1 more dense
Glass core
1
2>1
incident ray
1=c
(minimum)
c = sin -1 [ n2/n1]
Refracted ray
Bent away from the normal
(More to less dense)
e. Acceptance Angle (in) defines the maximum angle in which external light rays
may strike the air/glass interface and still propagate down the fiber.
Normal B
n2
source-to-fiber
interface Air
no= 1
n1
glass core
n1 = 1.5
no
(min)
mathematically,
where:
in = acceptance angle (degrees)
no = refractive index of air (1)
n1 = refractive index of glass fiber core (1.5)
n2 = refractive index of quartz fiber cladding (1.46)
since no = 1
in = sin-1 n12 n22
f.
Acceptance cone rotating the acceptance angle around the fiber describes the
acceptance input of the fiber input.
NA = n12- n22
in = sin-1 NA
where:
in = acceptance angle (degrees)
NA = numerical aperture
Where:
N = number of propagating modes
d = core diameter
= wavelength (meters)
n1 = refractive index of core
n2 = refractive index of cladding
B. Index Profile graphical representation of the value of the refractive index across the fiber.
a. Step-index has a central core with a uniform index
b. Multimode Step index
epitaxially grown
planar diffused
b. heterojunction LED
- are made from a p-type semiconductor material of one set of atoms and an n-type
semiconductor material from another set.
Advantages over homojunction
-increase in current density generates more brilliant light spot.
-smaller emitting area makes it easier to couple
-smaller area has similar capacitance which allows higher speed rate.
c. Burrus etched well surface emitting LED
-commonly used in telecommunications when data rates in excess of 100 Mbps is needed.
-more efficient than the standard surface emitters and they allow more power to be
coupled into the optical fiber
-more difficult and expensive to manufacture
d. Edge-emitting LED
-emits a more directional light pattern than the surface emitting LEDs
-emitting surface is stripe rather than a confined circuit area.
2. Injection Laser Diode (ILD)
-acts similarly to an LED below a certain threshold current
-above threshold current, it oscillates lasing occurs
-the ends are highly polished compared to LED
Advantages:
-have more direct radiation pattern
-easier to couple their light into the fiber
-reduces coupling losses
-allows smaller fibers to be used
-greater radiant output power
ILD 5mW (7dBm)
LED 0.5 mW (-3dBm)
-can transmit for longer distance
-can be used at higher bit-rates
-generates monochromatic light which reduces chromatic or wavelength dispersion
Disadvantages:
-more expensive
-because high powered, it has shorter life
-more temperature dependent
LIGHT DETECTORS
1. Positive-Intrinsic-Negative (PIN) Diodes
- a depletion layer photodiode that has a very lightly doped layer of an n-type semiconductor
material which is sandwiched between the junction of th two heavily doped n-type and p-type
contact areas.
2. Avalanche Photodiodes
- an APD is a pipn structure
- light enters the diode and is absorbed by the thin heavily doped n-layer
- A high electric field intensity developed across the p-n junction by reverse bias causes impact
ionization to occur
- more sensitive and require less additional amplification
- long transit time and internally generated noise due to avalanche
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT DETECTORS
1. Responsivity- a measure of the conversion efficiency of a photo detector.
-ratio of the output current of a photodiode to the input optical power in amperes/watt.
2. Dark Current leakage current that flows through a photodiode with no light input.
-caused by thermally generated carriers in the diode
3. Transit time the time it takes to light induced carrier to travel across the depletion region.
4. Spectral response range of wavelength values that can be used for a given photodiode.
5. Light sensitivity minimum optical power a light detector can receive and still produce a usable
electrical output signal.
LOSSES IN OPTICAL FIBER CABLES
-power loss is often called attenuation and results in reduction in the power of the light wave as it
travels down the cable.
- Attenuation has several adverse affects on performance including reducing the systems
bandwidth, information transmission rat, efficiency, and overall system capacity.
A(dB) = 10 log Pin
Pout
where:
AdB =total reduction in power level (attenuation)
Pout = cable output (watts)
Pin = cable input power
The optical power in watts measured at a given distance from a power source can be determined
mathematically as
where:
P = measured power level (watts)
Pt = transmit power level (watts)
A = cable power loss (dB/km)
l = cable length (km)
P = Pt x 10-Al/10
Single-Mode
Graded-Index
Step-index
PCS
Plastic
Core
Diameter
(m)
8
5
50
100
200
300
200
400
-----
Cladding
Diameter
(m)
125
125
125
140
380
440
350
550
750
1000
NA
(unitless)
----0.2
0.3
0.27
0.27
0.3
0.3
0.5
0.5
Attenuation
(dB/km)
0.5 @ 1300nm
0.4 @ 1300nm
4 @ 850 nm
5 @ 850 nm
6 @ 850 nm
6 @ 850 nm
10 @ 790 nm
10 @ 790 nm
400 @ 650 nm
400 @ 650 nm
Type of Losses
1. Absorption Losses
- there are three factors that contribute to the absorption losses in optical fibers: ultraviolet
absorption, infrared absorption, and ion resonance
a. Ultraviolet Absorption
- this is caused by the valence electron in the silica material from which the fibers are
manufactured.
b. Infrared Absorption
- this is a result of photons of light that are absorbed by the atoms of the glass core
molecules.
c. Ion resonance Absorption
b. Gap misalignment
-this is sometimes called end separation
c. Angular misalignment
- this is also called angular displacement.
- If the angular displacement is less than 2o, the loss will be less than 0.5 dB.
Prepared by:
Engr. Eunice Jane D. Bolgado
Instructor