Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Thanks go to Bahir Dar University Engineering Faculty for sponsoring my education. Also
a special thanks to the head, Solomon T/Mariam, and all the staffs of the Mechanical
Engineering Department for their kind and unforgettable collaboration during study period.
I really give thanks to my advisor, Dr. Alem Bazezew, for the inspiration and
encouragement to work on this project. I also appreciate not only for his professional,
timely and valuable advices, but also for his continuous scheduled follow up and valuable
comments during my research work. I can say that without his guidance I may not be the
one finalize this project soon enough.
It is really hard to skip many thanks to friends and family who were always with me in bliss
and despair. A special thanks goes to all my family members and friends: Korbaga Fantu,
Birhane Hagos, Seifu Admasu, Yoseph Alemu, Melkam Tegegn, Dereje Engda and all
members of Applied Mechanics stream. Also I would like to thank Nebil
Mohammed,
Fikrea and Tamrat for giving me valuable reference materials specially at the beginning of
my research.
Generally, I would like to extend my gratitude for all the above people and those who are
not mentioned here but contributed their part a lot towards the success of this research.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ....................................................................................................i
TABLE OF CONTENTS .....................................................................................................ii
LIST OF FIGURES ..............................................................................................................v
LIST OF TABLES..............................................................................................................vii
NOTATION....................................................................................................................... viii
ABSTRACT.........................................................................................................................xii
ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................i
1.
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................1
1.1
1.2
1.3
Introduction.............................................................................................................9
2.2
2.2.1
Modes of Fracture.........................................................................................10
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
2.2.5
3.2
3.3
3.4
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
5.1.1
For Euler-Bernoulli.......................................................................................58
5.1.2
5.1.3
5.2
6
RESULT DISCUSSIONS...........................................................................................65
6.1
6.2
Effect of crack position as a function of crack depth ratio (for Tim. Beam)........68
6.3
6.4
6.5
CONCLUSION ...........................................................................................................78
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................83
APPENDICES.....................................................................................................................93
iii
iv
LIST OF FIGURES
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1 ...............................................................................................................................12
Table 6-1Geometry and Property of Timoshenko beam and Euler-Bernoulli beams ..........66
Table 6-2 Comparison of the first three natural frequencies of Timoshenko beam and EulerBernoulli for various L/h ratios. ...................................................................................66
Table 6-3 Geometry and Property of Timoshenko beam .....................................................68
Table 6-5 Determination of Natural Frequencies with different crack depth ratio at
element 7 for Timoshenko ........................................................................................70
Table 6-6 Determination of Natural Frequencies With different crack depth at
element 7 for Euler-Bernoulli beam. .......................................................................70
Table 6-7 For the First Natural Frequency at e/L=0.4..........................................................76
Table 6-8 For the Second Natural Frequency at e/L=0.4 .....................................................76
Table 6-9 For Third Natural Frequency at e/L=0.4 ..............................................................76
Table 6-10 For the First Natural Frequency at e/L=0.6........................................................76
Table 6-11 For the Second Natural Frequency at e/L=0.6 ...................................................77
Table 6-12 For the Third Natural Frequency at e/L=0.6 ......................................................77
vii
NOTATION
A
Width of beam
nth element
Form factor
Shear modulus
Height of beam
Moment of inertia
KE
Kinetic energy
Ki
Stress intensity factor for different modes of fracture, for i=I, II, and III
Bending moment
Ml
Lamped mass
viii
nel
Ni
P1
Axial load
P2
P3
P4
P5
Pi
First moment
Weigh residual
Arc length
sdof
Shear forces
Test function
Characteristic stress
Fe
Me
ix
Ke
Shear stress
Element domain
{d }
{ }
Shear angle
Strain energy
[T ]
Transfer matrix
ui
Displacement component
Rotary Inertia
ij
Strain tensor
iT
cij(oT )
[kk ]
cij
Local flexibility
Poisson ratio
[K c ]
[K cT ]
cij( 0 )
cij(1)
pi
Traction load
M eT
Translating inertia
Ub
Us
K be
K se
Mass density
ij
Stress tensor
xi
ABSTRACT
Beams are widely used as machine elements and structural elements in civil, mechanical,
naval and aeronautical engineering with quite complex design features. These machine and
structural elements are designed with more care for different load conditions, with good
range of safety factors, and are inspected regularly. Still there are unexpected sudden
failures.
In order to attain the maximum reliability of machinery and structures, there is no way
except monitoring the health of susceptible critical components. This leads to continuous
gathering of information of changes in their static and/or dynamic behavior.
The main objective of this thesis is to develop a method for the investigation of cracked
beam behavior of a Timoshenko beam under different conditions such as orientation of
crack, size of crack and inclusion of additional mass. Moreover, the results have been
compared with Euler-Bernoulli beam. The methods, formulation and results obtained can
be used to understanding the behavior of a cracked beam structure.
The results obtained are compared with other published results. The comparison shows that
the method used in the thesis is eligible to investigate the behavior of cracked Timoshenko
beams under different loading conditions.
xii
ABSTRACT
Beams are widely used as machine elements and structural elements in civil, mechanical,
naval and aeronautical engineering with quite complex design features. These machine and
structural elements are designed with more care for different load conditions, with good
range of safety factors, and are inspected regularly. Still there are unexpected sudden
failures.
In order to attain the maximum reliability of machinery and structures, there is no way
except monitoring the health of susceptible critical components. This leads to continuous
gathering of information of changes in their static and/or dynamic behavior.
The main objective of this thesis is to develop a method for the investigation of cracked
beam behavior of a Timoshenko beam under different conditions such as orientation of
crack, size of crack and inclusion of additional mass. Moreover, the results have been
compared with Euler-Bernoulli beam. The methods, formulation and results obtained can
be used to understanding the behavior of a cracked beam structure.
The results obtained are compared with other published results. The comparison shows that
the method used in the thesis is eligible to investigate the behavior of cracked Timoshenko
beams under different loading conditions.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1
by
using
metallic beams. Beams are widely used as structural element in civil, mechanical, naval,
aeronautical engineering. During the time leading to World War, every structure and part of
machinery were designed based on the tensile strength of a material. However, unforeseen
failure had been frequently observed. One of the major disasters of structural failure was
the sinking of Liberty Ships. These ships were participating in the war. Though they were
designed well, they collapsed without any external force. After careful investigations, the
cause of failure was determined to be fracture of components. And that was the main reason
for an introduction of fracture mechanics. Due to this new design concept, substantial
improvement the life of machinery and saving was observed.
In structures and machinery, one undesirable phenomenon is crack initiation in which the
impact cannot be seen overnight. Cracks develop gradually through time that lead finally to
catastrophic failure. Therefore, crack should be monitored regularly with more care. This
will lead to more effective preventive measure and ensure
In order to investigate the behavior of cracks in structures and machinery, there are
different methods like ultrasonic inspection, X-ray inspection, experimental method, Eddy
current inspection, etc. However the above methods require high cost and time even if they
1
are easy to apply them. Moreover, most of them are limited to detection of cracks. So it is
better to establish a new method for simple geometric structures that helps to see the
behavior of cracked beam element using Finite Element Method, FEM, based on vibration
analysis. When cracks are predicted using this method, time and money will be saved.
Using FEM method based on vibration analysis we can observe the effects of inclusion and
orientation of crack on the natural frequency of the beam, since the presence of crack
reduce the system natural frequency of the beam. Most of the beams in the structures and
machinery have mass so that the effects of additional mass attachment on the cracked beam
will be investigated.
Therefore the main objective of this thesis is to develop a method for investigation of
cracked beam behavior for Timoshenko beam under different conditions such as orientation
of crack, size of crack and inclusion of additional mass. Moreover, the results have been
compared to results obtained for Euler-Bernoulli beams. The results obtained can be used
for determining behavior of cracked beams which can eventually be used for prediction of
cracks in beams
1.2
Literature Review
The tendency to monitor a structure and detect damage at the earlier stage is pervasive
throughout the civil, mechanical and aerospace engineering fields. Most currently used
damage investigation methods are included in one of the following categories: visual or
localization experimental methods such as ultrasonic method, magnetic field methods,
radiography, eddy-current method and etc. All of these experimental techniques require
that the vicinity of damage be known a priori and that the portion of the structure being
inspected be readily accessibly.
The need for quantitative global damage investigation and detection method that can be
applied to complex structure has led to the development and continued research of
methods, which examine change in static and dynamic characteristic of the structure. In this
literature review, different ways of investigation of crack behavior will be discussed.
To study the behavior of cracked beam, in the past decade researchers have used open and
closed (breathing) crack model in their studies. In 1970s, Dimarogonas and Chondros [26]
used local flexibility matrix to simulate the stiffness of the shaft system with opening crack.
Also Maiti[76], Tsai et. Al.[80] and Ostachowitwz et. Al.[84] assumed in their work that
the crack in a structural element is open and remains open during vibration. Such an
assumption give an advantage to avoid the complexities that results
characteristics presented by introduced a breathing crack.
On the other hand, different researchers have implemented closed crack model in their
work for investigation of crack behavior. Among them, Chondros and Dimarogonas [29],
Rivola and White [15], Dimarogonas and Paipetis [36], and Shen[62] dealt with closed
crack model. Dimarogonas and Paipetis [36]
discussion of the dynamic
the
including for closing cracks. Also, Rivola and White analyzed the behavior of crack based
on closed crack model and they have done experimental test to show the effectiveness of
their method. Even if all the above researchers did their work on closed crack model, they
didnt show the effectiveness of their method with respect to open crack model. However,
the application
To study the behavior of crack in the structures, vibration parameter like compliance,
mechanical impedance and damping factors have played great roll. The presence of crack
in the structure affects directly or indirectly these vibration characteristics. Specifically, the
eigen frequency and mode shape of structures are changed from their original value due to
an inclusion of a crack. That is why many researchers focus on these parameters to
investigate the behavior of crack. Pandey [13] investigated the behavior of crack related
with curvature mode shape of structure. He has shown that the absolute change in the
curvature made shapes are localized in the region of damage and hence can be
used to
analyzed the damage in the structure. He proposed an experimental method to verify his
work.
Y. Bamnios, E. Douka and A. Trochidis [89] used mechanical impedance model in order
to investigate the crack behavior and to predict the damaged zone. They investigated the
4
and
Qian, Du and Jiang [43] have derived an element stiffens matrix of a beam with crack from
an integration of stress intensity factors and then established a finite element model of
cracked beam
results that they have obtained analytically agree quite well with the experimental data.
Several methods were used to deal with the behavior of crack in the structure. Zheng et.
al. [22] used modified Fourier series to investigate the response of natural frequencies of
cracked beam. However, their method is applied only for standard linear eigen value
equation. T.G. Chondors and Dimarogonas studied the dynamic sensitivity of structure to
cracks using Rayleight principle. As per their conclusion, the method reduced the
computational effort needed for the full eigen solution of cracked structures and gave
acceptable accuracy. Also different researchers have used Finite Element Method (FEM)
for solving the problem related with crack behavior. Among them, Pandey et. al.[13],
Sekhar et. al. [17], Qain et. al. [43], Sinha et. al.[48], Chinchalkes[68], Maiti et. al. [73],
Ostachowitcz et. al.[85], Matijaz[5], G.D. Gouanaris and C.A. Papadoulso and also A.D.
Dimarogonas [8], P. G. Nikolakopouloz, D. E. Katsreas and C.A. Papadopouloss[9]. All
of them confirmed that their results are very close to the experimental methods. Matijaz
presented a generalization of a simple mathematical model based on FEM for transverse
motion of a beam with crack. However, he didnt show the effectiveness of his method by
comparing with other methods. Moreover, mass wasnt considered on his model.
Many investigators have studied the problem of crack detection in rotating shaft in the last
three decades. A.D Dimarogonas and C.A. Papadopoulos [10], [11], [91], [92], [93], have
investigated the behavior of crack on rotating shaft. In [98], they considered the system to
be bi-linear. A de Laval rotor with an open crack was investigated by way of application of
the theory of shafts with dissimilar moment of inertia. Furthermore, they found analytical
solution for the closing crack under the assumption of large static deflection, which is a
situation common in turbomachinery. In [11], they investigate the coupling of longitudinal
and bending vibration of rotating shaft, due to an open transverse surface crack. Also in
another next work [93], the coupling of
circular cross section of Timoshenko beam with a transverse crack was investigated.
In this thesis investigation of crack behavior will be dealt by using the Finite Element
Method. In this method, the beam will be divided in to several
taking boundary conditions
by
advantage of finding natural frequency is its measurability from the machine and structure
at any single point and easily without dismantling much access requirement. In this thesis
the local flexibility of beam element model follows the approach of Dimarogonas [26, 11].
To avoid the non-linearity of the system, in this thesis work, crack will be modeled based
on open crack model and additional mass will be included. For the sake of verification the
beam model used is the cantilever beam, since many authors have analyzed the cantilever
beam and have got experimental results.
1.3
This thesis is organized in to eight chapters. In the first chapter, the objective and overview
of the thesis are discussed. Also a literature review is given detailing information about
investigations and methods of analysis of cracked beams and their behavior, which have
been investigated by different researchers.
In chapter two, mathematical model
concepts like stress intensity factors, mode of cracks, J-Integral and Castiglianos theorem
are discussed briefly.
In Chapter Three, the equation of motion for an Euler-Bernoulli beam is developed. Using
the governing equation of motion, Finite Element method is implemented for cracked and
uncracked beam elements.
7
In chapter five, a computer programming is developed with the help of algorithms to study
the behavior of cracked beams for two cases: Euler-Bernoulli and Timoshenko beams. In
chapter six, detail discussion of results is presented. Finally, chapter seven gives conclusion
and future outlook.
2
2.1
Crack is a problem that society has faced for as long as there have been man-made
structures. The occurrence of crack problems may actually be worse today than in the
previous century, because more can go wrong in our complex technological society.
The cause of crack initiation in structures generally falls in to one of the following major
groups: First, negligence during design, construction or operation of the structure: and
second, application of new design or material, which produce an unexpected results. In the
first case, existing procedures are sufficient to avoid failure, but are not
followed by one
or more of the parties involved, due to human error, ignorance, or willful misconduct.
Unskillful workmanship, substandard or inappropriate materials, error in stress analysis,
and operator error are example of where the appropriate technology and experience are
available, but not applied well.
In the second case, the initiation of crack is much more difficult to prevent. For instant,
when an improved design is introduced, there are invariably factors that the designer
may not anticipate. New materials can offer tremendous advantage, but also potential
problems. Consequently, a new design or material should be placed in to service only after
extensive testing and analysis. Such an approach will reduce the frequency of failure due to
crack, but not eliminate them entirely.
To avoid or minimize the structural failure due to the above cases, there are two design
approaches. Those are the strength of material approach and the fracture mechanics
9
approach. In the first approach, the anticipated design stress is compared to the flow
properties of a candidate material; a material is assumed to be adequate if its strength is
greater than the expected applied stress. This approach may attempt to guard against brittle
fracture by imposing a safety factor on stress, combined with minimum tensile elongation
requirements on material.
In the second approach, that of fracture mechanics has three important variables: applied
stress, flow size and fracture toughness. In fracture analysis there are two approaches:
energy criterion and the stress intensity approach. In this thesis the stress intensity approach
will be discussed in detail and will be employed to investigate the behavior of cracks in
vibration analysis.
2.2
Modeling of Crack
In cracked structure, the stress field near crack-tips may be one of the three modes of
fracture, Fig 2.1. The opening mode, Mode I, is associated with local displacement in
which the crack surfaces move directly apart, symmetric with respect to the x-y and x-z
plane. The edge-sliding mode, Mode II, is characterized by displacement in which the
cracked surfaces slide over one another perpendicular to the leading edge of the crack,
symmetric with respect to the x-y plane and skew-symmetric with respect to the x-z plane.
Mode III, the tearing mode, finds the crack surfaces sliding with respect to one another
parallel to the leading edge, skew-symmetric with respect to the x-y and x-z planes.
10
x
y
Mode I
Mode II
Mode III
Even if these are the basic fracture modes, most of the time the crack growth usually takes
place in Mode I or close to it [2], especially for member like slender beams [57]. If there is
a load on the structure, due to shear force, Mode II will be considered combined with Mode
I to study the crack behavior. Therefore, Mode I and Mode II will be applied to investigate
the behavior of crack if there is a load on the beam.
The stress intensity factor defines the amplitude of the crack tip singularity. That is stresses
near the crack tip increase proportional to the stress intensity factor. Physically, stress
intensity factor may be regarded as the intensity of load transmittal through the crack-tip
region caused by the introduction of a crack into the body of interest.
11
2.1
numerically or analytically for various cases, such as for the Center Cracked Test
Specimen, the Double Edge Notch Test Specimen, the Single Edge Notch Test Specimen
and the Pure Bending etc.
( h ) , where h is
Different authors have given different empirical relations and value for F
the height of the beam, and some of them are given in Table 2.1
Table 2-1
( h)
Person
Brown
= 1.122 1.40 + 7.33 13.0.8 + 14.0
h
h
h
h
Tada
Anderson
Papadopoulos
Accuracy
3
2h
2h
=
tan
2h
cos
2h
1.12
2
3
+
1
.
122
0
.
56
0
.
085
0
.
18
h
h
h
=
1
1 ( / h ) 2
12
0.2% for
0.6
Better than
0.5% for any
The J contour integral is the strain energy density function (SEDF). It has enjoyed great
success as a fracture characterizing parameter for nonlinear and linear materials.
Consider an arbitrary counter-clockwise path ( ) around the crack tip of a crack, Fig 2.2.
The J integral is given by [2].
u
J = wdy pi i ds
xi
2.2
ii
13
To implement J-integral in modeling of crack, the following argument plays a great roll.
Let represent the area enclosed by the curve in Fig 2.2 and assume that the curve is
shrunk toward the crack tip ( 0 ). Within this area the gradients are so large (toward
singularities at the crack tip) that they dominate all local derivatives with respect to the
crack length. Thus, the field within 0 will be stationary in the sense that they
mainly translate with the crack tip during a differential crack motion. Give the external
action, when the crack tip moves a small step forward, the changes observed at a fixed
location in will therefore be the same as when the observer moves the same length back
toward the stationary crack. [57]
2.4
applying to some function of x and with x measured form a fixed origin. Then the
second right-hand term of Eq. 2.2 equals
pi
u i
u
ds = pi i ds
x
2.5
which can be interpreted as the rate of work exerted per unit thickness by the outside
material on the material inside as the crack moves.
wdy
can be seen as total strain energy carried by particles in to per unit thickness and crack
advance when that region move the crack tip.. The sum J will therefore represent a net
expenditure of mechanical energy per unit crack area during virtual growth, which again
14
equals to the crack driving force. We have thus arrived at a simple relation and an
important physical interpretation of the J integral
2.6
J=G
where G is crack driving force.
For linear elastic material G will be
K i2
G=
E'
hence J =
2.7
K i2
E'
2.8
(1 )
2
J = K Ii + K IIi + m K IIi
E i =1
i =1
i =1
where j=1, 2, 3., n the load index which are applied on the structure.
15
2.9
Due to the presence of crack in the structure additional displacement will be created. This
additional displacement will introduce strain energy. Castiglianos theorem says, When
forces act on elastic system subjected to small displacement, the displacement
corresponding to any force, collinear with the force, is equal to the partial derivative of the
total strain energy with respect to the force. Mathematically that is
ui =
U
Pi
2.10
In order to study the behavior of crack in the beam we have to take some assumption. The
crack has been considered as open with transverse crack depth, and its depth is uniform.
Also the material has the same EI.
According to the principle of Saint-Venant, the stress field is affected only in the region
adjacent to crack. The element stiffens matrix, except for the cracked element may be
regarded under a certain limitation of element size. It is very difficult to find an appropriate
shape function to express the kinetic energy and elastic potential energy approximately,
because of the discontinuity of deformation in the cracked element. Finding of the
additional stress energy of crack, however, has been studied deeply in fracture mechanics
16
and the flexibility coefficient expressed by a stress intensity factor can be easily derived by
means of Castilianos theorem, in linear range.
Consider a beam with a given stiffness properties, dimension b h, and a transverse crack
depth of , see Fig. 2.3.
y
z
a
P
P
x
P
P
P
Where P1
Axial load
ui =
J ( )d
Pi
2.11
where J ( ) is strain energy density function [SEDF] or J-Integral, which is found in Eq. 2.9
17
cij =
u i
2
J ( )d
=
Pi Pi Pj
2.12
cij =
u i 1 2 b
=
Pi b Pi Pj 0
J ( )ddz
2.13
Since the energy density is a scalar quantity, it is permissible to integrate along tip of the
crack it being assumed that the crack depth is variable and that the stress intensity factor is
given for the element strip.
K I 1 = 1 F1
h
K I 4 = 4 F1
h
K I 5 = 5 F1
h
KI2 = KI3 = KI6 = 0
KI3 =
where 1 =
P1
bh
where 4 =
P4
6P
z = 42
3
h(b) 12
hb
where 5 =
6P
P5
y = 52
3
bh
bh 12
3P3 L
FI , the stress intensity due to shear force for mode I
bh 2
K II 3 = 3 FII
h
K II 1 = K II 2 = K II 4 = 0
where 3 =
18
P3
bh
2.14
In this thesis only bending moment about z-axis, P5, and shear force in the direction of y,
P3, are considered.
Now we can find the local flexibility of c33, c35, c55 by combining Eq. 2.9, 2.13, and 2.14,
then we will make the non-dimensional term.
u i 1 2 b
c 33 =
=
P3 b P3 P3 0
J ( )ddz
0
1
(K I 3 + K I 5 )2 + K II2 3
E'
3P LF 2
3P LF 6 P5 FI
+ 2 3 I
3 I
2
2
bh 2
bh
bh
1
2
2
E'
6 P F
P FII
+ 5 2 I + 3
bh
bh
where J ( ) =
Up on substitution Eq. 2.14 to the above equation the following result is obtain
c33 =
18FI2 L2
E' b 2 h 4
2 FII2 2
+ 2 2
b h 2
2.15
2 b 1
2
K I 3 + K I 5 ) + K II2 3 ddz
(
P3 P5 0 0 E '
1
(K I 3 + K I 5 )2 + K II2 3
where J =
E'
c35 =
Over integration
19
c35 =
18LFI2 2
2.16
E' b 2 h 4 2
And finally
u i
2 b 1
=
(K I 3 + K I 5 )2 + K II2 3 ddx
0
0
E'
P5 P5 P5
1
where J =
(K I 3 + K I 5 )2 + K II2 3
E'
c55 =
c55 =
72 FI2 2
2.17
E' b2 h4 2
In the case of this thesis I assume that the only available loads are P3 and P5, where P3 is
bending load and P5 is shear load due to mass.
20
3
3.1
In this thesis the beam is first modeled based on the Euler- Bernoulli beam theory.
The Euler-Bernoulli assumption of elementary beam theory will be employed, namely:
a) There is an axis of the beam, which undergoes no extension or contraction. The xaxis is located along this neutral axis.
b) Cross sections perpendicular to the neutral axis in the undeformed beam remain
plane and remain perpendicular to the deformed neutral axis, that is, transverse
shear deformation is neglected.
c) The material is linearly elastic and the beam is homogenous at any crass section.
d) y and z are negligible compared to x
q(x, t)
M(x , t)
M(x + dx, t)
The Euler Bernoulli equation for beam bending can be written as follow
2v 2
+
t 2 x 2
2v
EI 2 = q( x, t )
x
21
3.1
3.2
We apply one of the methods of weighted residual, Galerkins method, to the beam
equation to develop the finite element formulation and the corresponding matrix equation.
2v 2 2v
0 t 2 + x 2 EI x 2 q wi dx = 0
3.2
dw
d 3v
d 3v
2
R = 2 wi dx + EIwi 3 |l0 i EI 3 dx wi q( x )dx = 0
dx
dx
x
i =1
e
e
e t
d 2 wi
d 3 v dw
2
d 2v
d 3v
R = 2 wi dx + EIwi 3 i EI 2 | l0 +
EI
dx wi q( x )dx = 0
2
3
dx
x
dx
dx
dx
i =1
e t
e
e
22
3.3
dwi
2v
2 v 2 wi
R = 2 wi dx + EI 2
qwi dx + Vwi M
2
=0
x
t
x
x
e
e
e
0
i =1
where V = EI
M = EI
3.4
3v
is shear forces
x 3
2v
is bending moment
x 2
For the time being we consider shape function for special interpolation of transverse static
deflection, v, in terms of nodal variable. Interpolation in terms of time domain will be
discussed latter on. Also in Galarkins method, the shape functions are the same
as the
dN i
d 2 N i d 2v
e EI dx 2 dx 2 dx e N i q(x )dx + N iV M dx 0 = 0
3.5
To formulate the shape function now we consider an element, which has two nodes on each
end, Fig 3.2
23
y
v2
v1
1
The Euler-Bernoulli beam equation is based on the assumption that the plane normal to the
natural axis before deformation remains normal to the natural axis after deformation (see
Fig. 3.3).
24
dv
(i.e. slop is the first derivative of deflection in terms of x).
dx
Because there are four nodal variables for the beam element, we assume a cubic polynomial
function for v (x).
The elastic curve of a beam can be approximated by.
v( x ) = C 0 + C1 x + C 2 x 2 + C 3 x 3
(x ) =
3.6
dv( x )
= C1 + 2C 2 x + 3C 3 x 2
dx
3.7
(0)=C0=1, C0=1
At x=l, v (l)=v1 + 1l + C2l2 + C3l3=v2
2
(v1 v2 ) + 13 (1 + 2 )
3
l
l
3
2
C 2 = 2 (v 2 v1 ) 1 2
l
l
l
C3 =
By substituting the C0, C1, C2, and C3 and rearranging then we found the following results.
3x 2 2 x 3
3x 2 2 x 3
3x 2 x 3
2x 2 x3
v( x ) = 1 2 + 2 v1 + x
+ 2 1 + 2 3 v 2 + 2 + 2 2
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
Thus, the shape functions are:
25
3.8
3x 2 2 x 3
N 1 = 1 2 + 2
l
l
2x 2 x3
N 2 = x
+ 2
l
l
3.9
3x 2 2 x 3
N 3 = 2 3
l
l
3x 2 x 3
N 4 = 2 + 2
l
l
It is important to note two shape functions corresponding to v and are used for each.
Such types of shape function are called Hermitian shape function.
Let
N1
N
{N } = 2
N3
N 4
d 2 {N }
B=
= N1''
2
dx
N 2''
N 3''
N 4''
v1
2
T
= {N } {vi }
v
3
4
d 2 N
where {B} = 2
dx
d 2v
T
= {B} {vi }
2
dx
3.10
Substitute Eq. 3.10 in and 3.5 when concentrated moment or shear forces are absent
[K ]{v } = {F }
e
26
[K ] =
e
{B}EI {B}T dx
3.11
The third term in Eq 3.4, results in the element force vector. For a generally distributed
pressure loading, we need to compute
{F }
e
N1
N
= e {N }q( x )dx = 2 dx
N3
N 4
3.12
In the case concentrated shear forces and moments act on a node they have to be added
after.
Integrating Eq. 3.11 we can find the stiffens matrix
[K ]
e
6l
12
6l 4l 2
EI
= 3
l 12 6l
2l l
6l
12
6l
12
6l
6l
2l 2
6l
4l 2
3.13
If we have a uniform pressure load q0 within the element force vector become
{F }
e
6l
N1
2
l
q l
N
= q0 2 dx = 0
0
12 6l
N3
l 2
N 4
3.14
{F }
e
6l V
2
q0 l M 1
=
+
12 6l V2
l 2 M 2
3.15
27
The last term in Eq 3.4) represents the boundary condition of shear forces and bending
moment at the two boundary points, x=0 and x=l, of the beam. If these
boundary
condition are known, the known shear forces and/or bending moment are included in the
system forces vector at the two boundary nodes. Otherwise
However, deflection and /or slope are known as geometric boundary conditions for this
case.
For dynamic analysis of beams the inertia forces must be included. In this case the
transverse deflection is a function of x and t. The deflection is interpolated within a beam
element as given below.
v( x, t ) = N 1 ( x)v1 (t ) + N 2 ( x) 1 (t ) + N 3 ( x)v 2 (t ) + N 4 ( x) 2 (t )
3.16
As we see Eq. 3.16 states that the shape functions are used to interpolate the deflection in
terms of the spatial domain and the nodal variation are function of time. Now the first terms
in Eq. 3.4 becomes
where [N ] = [N 1
[N ] [N ]dx{d&&e }
T
N2
N3
3.17
N4 ]
And the superimposed dot denote temporal derivative for Eq. 3.17 and = A , the
element mass matrix becomes
[M ] = A[N ] [N ]dx
e
3.18
28
156 22l
2
A 22l 4l
=
13l
420 54
2
13 3l
54
13l
156
22l
13l
3l 2
22l
4l 2
3.19
Ml
Fig 3-4 A cantilever beamwith one end clamped and a concentrated mass attached at the
other.
3.20
2
A 22l 4l
=
13l
420 54
2
13 3l
[M ]
e
54
13l
156
22l
13l
0
0
2
3l
+ Ml
0
22l
2
4l
0
54
156 22l
2
13l
Al 22l 4l
420
=
13l 156 +
Ml
420 54
Al
13 3l 2
22l
29
13l
3l 2
22l
2
4l
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
3.21
The element stiffness matrix does not change for the dynamics analysis because the shape
function are the same for both static and dynamics analysis. However the force term may
vary as a function of time. The force vector is for the dynamic analysis
3.22
The mass matrix equation for a dynamic beam analysis is, after assembly of element
matrix and vectors,
[M ]{d&&}+ [k ]{d } = {F (t )}
3.23
([K ] [M ]){d }= 0
2
3.24
When we make comparison between the concentrated load and distributed load for cracked
beam, the shear force
respect to length.
30
varied with
x
Shear Force Diagram
Since shear force has its impact on the behavior of cracked beam it is advisable to take
the shear forces which has uniform value through the length in order to take the critical
condition in every part of the beam, by assuming q = qo l .
3.4
In order to develop an element stiffness matrix for a cracked beam element, there are two
parts to the strain energy: The strain energy for the uncracked beam element and the
additional strain energy due to the crack. The strain energy of an element without crack is
obtained from the existing moment and load (mass). The additional strain energy due to
the crack has been
1
1 x
dV
=
bhdx
v
0
2
2
E
31
3.25
Where = E
3.26
3.27
Up on substitution Eq. 3.26 and 3.27 in Eq. 3.25 the strain energy can be given as follow
U=
bh x 2
dx
2 E 0
3.28
The stress, , in Eq.3.28 refers to the stress due to bending and the stress due to shear
force, which is
= M + P
where
3.29
M =
M
M h
y=
I
I 2
3.30
P =
P(l x)
P(l x) h
y=
I
I
2
3.31
bh
U=
2E
Mh P(l xh)
0 2I + 2I dx
bh
U=
2E
2
Mh 2
Mh P (l x)h P(l x)h
0 2I + 2 2 I 2I + 2I dx
3.32
U=
3
2 EI
2
P 2l 3
2
M
l
MPl
+
+
3.33
Now, the flexibility coefficient for an element without a crack, in different load condition is
32
cij(o ) =
U (0 )
Pi Pj
Where P3 = P, P5 = M ,
i, j = 3, 5
3.34
U (0 ) = U
(0 )
=
c33
2
P32
2 EI
2
P 2l 3
2
+
+
M
l
MPl
l3
(0 )
c33
= 3
3EI
(0 )
=
c35
(0 )
c35
(0 )
c55
2
P3 P5
3.35
2 EI
2
P 2l 3
2
+
+
M
l
MPl
l2
(0 )
= c53
3
=
2 EI
2
=
P52
(0 )
c55
=
2 EI
3.36
2
P 2l 3
2
M l + MPl +
3l
EI
The total flexibility coefficient matrix for an element without a crack will be
c ( 0 )
cij( 0) = 33
(0 )
c53
(0 )
c35
(0 )
c55
3.37
3.38
Where cij(1) is the compliance for cracked beam, which was derived in Eq. 2.15-2.17.
(1)
cij
(1)
c33
= (1)
c53
(1)
c35
(1)
c55
33
P5= M
P3=P
Fig 3-6 Schematic representation of an element with a crack.
From equilibrium condition of the element, transfer of moment and shear from one node to
the other is obtained by,
Pi
T
M
Pi +1
i
= [T ]
P
i
+
1
M i +1
M i +1
1 0
l 1
Where [T ] =
1 0
0 1
, Transfer matrix
So, the stiffness matrix of the cracked element can be written as [43]
[K c ] = [T ][c]1 [T ]T
1 0
l 1
[c ]1
[K c ] =
1
0
1
0
3.39
1 l 1 0
0 1 0 1
3.40
Once we have got the stiffness matrix for the cracked beam we can assemble it and find the
global matrix, which will be discussed in chapter four. In this case the number of elements
in the beam can be varied based on desired accuracy.
34
4
4.1
TIMOSHEKNO BEAM
Timoshenko Beam Formulation
In the case of Timoshenko beam, a plane normal to the beam axis before deformation does
not remain normal to the axis after deformation. Thus the effects of rotary inertia and
transverse shear deformation have to be included in the analysis of a Timoshenko beam.
g
j v
j v
j x
j x
y, v
x, u
Let u and v be the axial and transverse displacement of a beam, respectively. Because of
transverse shear deformation, the slope of the beam is different from
slope equals
dv
. Instead, the
dx
dv
where is the transverse shear strain. As result, the displacement
dx
u ( x, y ) = y ( x )
4.1
v( x ) = v
4.2
35
Where the x-axis is located along the neutral axis of the beam and the beam is not subjected
to an axial load such that the neutral axis does not have the axial strain. From Eq. 4.1 and
4.2, the axial and shear strain are
d
dx
= y
= +
4.3
dv
dx
4.4
The element stiffness matrix can be obtained from the strain energy expression for an
element. The strain energy for an element of length , l, is
l h 2
b
b
U = T E dy dx +
2 0 h 2
2
l h2
G dy dx
4.5
0 h 2
The first term in Eq. 4.5 is the bending strain energy and the second term is the shear strain
energy. b and h are the width and height of the beams respectively, and is the correction
factor for shear energy where value is normally
5
. [1]
6
Substitute Eq. 4.3 and Eq. 4.4 into Eq. 4.5 and taking integration with respect to y gives
T
1 d
dv
dv
d
U =
dx + + GA + dx
EI
2 0 dx
2 0
dx
dx
dx
4.6
where I and A are the moment of inertia and area of the beam cross-section.
To derive the element stiffness matrix for the Timoshenko beam, the variables v and
need to be interpolated within each element. As it has been observed form Eq. 4.6, v and
are independent variables. That is, we can interpolate them independently using proper
shape functions. This results in the satisfaction of inter-element compatibility, i.e continuity
36
of both the transverse displacement v and slope between two neighboring elements. As a
result, any kind of C0 shape function can be used for the present elements. Shape function
of order C0 are much easier to construct than shape functions of order C1. It is especially
very difficult to construct shape function of order C1 for two-dimensional and threedimensional analysis such as the classical plate theory. C1 means both v and
v
continuous
x
between two neighboring elements. In general, Cn type continuity means the shape function
have continuity up to the nth order derivative between two neighboring element elements
To derive the stiffness matrix we use the simple linear shape function for both variables.
That is,
v = [H 1
v
H 2 ] 1
v
4.7
= [H 1
H 2 ] 1
2
4.8
where H1 and H2 are linear shape functions for Timoshenko beam. The linear element looks
like that in Fig 3.2, but the shape functions used are totally different from those for the
Hermitian beam element in Euler Bernoulli beam. To develop the stiffness matrices using
linear shape function for Timoshenko beam, the concept of isoparametric mapping will be
applied.
4.2
Isoparametric Element
Isoparametric elements use mathematical mapping from one coordinate system to another
coordinate system. The former coordinate system is called the natural coordinate system
while the latter is called the physical coordinate system.
37
To derive the isoparametric element shape functions, the shape functions with respect to
physical coordinate should be derived, first. Consider a subdomain or a finite element
shown in Fig. 4.2. The element has two nodes, one at each end. At each node, the
coordinate value (x1 or x2) and the nodal variable (u1 or u2) are assigned. Let us assume the
unknown trial function to be
u = c1 x + c 2
4.9
x
x2
u2
x1
u1
Fig 4-2 Two Node Linear Element.
Eq. 4.9 will be express in terms of nodal variables. In other word, c1 and c2 need to be
replaced by u1 and u2. To this end, u will be evaluated at x=x1 and x=x2. Then
u ( x1 ) = c1 x1 + c 2 = u1
4.10
u ( x 2 ) = c1 x 2 + c 2 = u 2
4.11
Now solving Eq. 4.10 and 4.11 simultaneously for c1 and c2 gives
c1 =
u 2 + u1
x 2 x1
4.12
c1 =
u1 x 2 u 2 x1
x 2 x1
4.13
38
Substitution of Eq. 4.12 and 4.13 into Eq. 4.9 and rearrangement of the resultant expression
result in
u = H 1 ( x )u1 + H 2 ( x )u 2
4.14
H 1 (x ) =
x2 x
l
4.15
H 2 (x ) =
x x1
l
4.16
where
l = x 2 x1
4.17
Equation 4.14 gives an expression for the variable u in terms of nodal variables, and Eq.15
and Eq. 16 are called linear shape functions. The shape functions are plotted in Fig. 4.3.
H1 (x)
x1
H2 (x)
x2
39
H 1 ( x1 ) = 1, H 1 ( x 2 ) = 0, H 2 ( x1 ) = 0, H 2 ( x 2 ) = 0, H 2 ( x 2 ) = 1
4.18
H (x ) = 1
4.19
These are important properties for shape functions. The first property, Eq. 4.18, states that
the variable u must be equal to the corresponding nodal variable at each node (i.e. u(x1)=u1
and u(x2)=u2 as enforced in Eq. 4.10 and 4.11. The second property, Eq. 4.19, says that the
variable u can represent a uniform solution within the element.
Once the shape function for physical coordinate system is developed, the shape function for
isoparametric element will be given in terms of the natural coordinate system as seen in Fig
4.4. The two nodes are located at 1 = 1.0 and 2 = 1.0 , originally, which were x1 and x2 in
physical coordinate system. These nodal positions are arbitrary but the proposed selection
is very useful for numerical integration because the element in the natural coordinate
system is normalized between 1 and 1. The shape function can be written as [1]
H 1 ( ) =
1
(1 )
2
4.20
H 2 ( ) =
1
(1 + )
2
4.21
40
node 1
node 2
x
x 1
Any point between 1 = 1 and 2 = 1 in the natural coordinate system can be mapped onto
a point between x1 and x 2 in the physical coordinate system using the shape function
defined in Eqs. 4.20 and 4.21.
x = H 1 ( )x1 + H 2 ( )x 2
4.22
The same shape functions are also used to interpolate the variables u and v with in the
element
u = H 1 ( )u1 + H 2 ( )u 2
4.23
v = H 1 ( )v1 + H 2 ( )v 2
4.24
If the same shape functions are used for the geometric mapping as well as nodal variable
interpolation, such as Eq. 4.22, 4.23 and 4.24, the element is called the isoparametric
element.
In order to compute
dv
, which is necessary in Eq. 4.6 to compute element matrix for
dx
dH 2 ( )
dv dH 1 ( )
=
v1 +
v2
dx
dx
dx
dH 1 ( ) d
dH 2 ( ) d
v1 +
v2
d dx
d dx
4.25
d
dx
, which is the inverse of
. The latter can be computed
dx
d
4.26
4.27
dv 1 1 v1
=
dx l l v 2
4.28
dv 1 1 v1
=
dx l l v 2
d
as follow
dx
4.29
Also Eq. 4.8 can be expressed in terms of isoparametric element by substituting Eq. 4.20
and 4.21.
42
1
1
(1 + ) 1
H 2 ] 1 = (1 )
2
2
2 2
= [H 1
4.30
Now using Eq. 4.7-4.30 along with the strain energy expression Eq. 4.6 yields the
following stiffness matrix for the Timoshenko beam.
[K ]
e
b
1 d
d
=
dx
EI
2 0 dx
dx
l
4.31
Derivate with respect to x and substitute in to Eq. 4.31 yields the following result.
[K ]
e
b
0 0
EI 0 1
=
l 0 0
0 1
0
0 1
0 0
0 1
0
4.32
Also for shear strain energy an equation will be taken from Eq. 4.6.
[K ]
e
s
dv
dv
= + GA + dx
2 0
dx
dx
4.33
Using the concept of isoparametric mapping discussed previously the stiffness matrix for
shear will be derived as follow.
43
Substituting Eq. 4.29 and 4.30 in to Eq.4.33 also changing the limit of integration of
physical coordinate x 2 and x1 to natural coordinate system, 1 and 1, then
[K ]
1l
GA (1 )
=
2 1 1 l
(1 + )
[K ]
2l
4
2l
l2
GA
=
4l 4 2l
l2
2l
e
s
e
s
where dx =
l
d ,
2
2 1
1
l
2
2
4
2l
4
2l
2l
l 2
2l
l2
1
1+ l
d
2 2
l
4.34
4.35
At this point one thing to be noted is that the bending stiffness term, Eq. 4.32, is obtained
using the exact integration of the bending strain energy but the shear stiffness term, Eq.
4.35, is obtained using one point Gauss quadrature rule. The major reason is if the beam
thickness becomes so small compared to its length, the shear energy dominates over the
bending energy. As we have seen Eq. 4.32 and Eq. 4.35, the bending stiffness is
proportional to h 3 l while the transverse shear stiffness is proportional to hl, where h and l
are the thickness and length of beam element, respectively. Hence, as h l becomes smaller
for a very thin beam, the bending term become negligible compared to the shear term. This
is not correct in the physical sense. As the beam becomes thinner, the bending strain energy
is more significant than the shear energy. This phenomenon is called shear locking. In
order to avoid shear locking, the shear strain energy is under-integration. Because of the
44
under-integration the presence beam stiffness matrix is rank deficient. That is, it contains
some fictitious rigid body mode (i.e. zero energy modes).
4.3
In the case of Euler-Bernoulli beam, by neglecting the shear action, the strain energy
without crack is derived. But in the case of Timoshenko beam the shear action will be
included to model the crack entirely.
The strain energy of an element without a crack is given for two cases as follows.
For bending strain energy,
bh
Ub =
2E
2
Mh 2
Mh P(l x)h P (l xh
0 2 I + 2 2I 2I + 2 I dx , from Eq. 3.32
P 2l 3
3 2
2
Ub =
M l + MPl +
2 EI
3
4.36
Us =
1
Adx
2 0
4.37
where the shear coefficient which is equal to =5/6 for rectangular beam.[1, 3]
A is cross-section of beam
is shear stress
=
v
x
45
4.38
dv/dx
x
Fig 4-5 Deformation of beam including shear
Us =
1
Adx
2 0 G
Us =
1
2
Adx
2 0 G
where =
4.39
4.40
Once the equation of shear strain energy is determiend, it can be evaluated by substituting
the shear stress value in to Eq. 4.39.
where =
4.41
PQ
Ib
4.42
46
Q = zdA = A' z
4.43
where A is the area of that part of the section below the point desired.
z is the distance from the neutral axis to the centroid of A.
For beam of uniform cross section the maximum shear stress occurs at the section having
the greatest shear force, P. In the case of this thesis the shear force is uniform through the
length of the beam.
neutral axis
A'
b
Fig 4-6 Cross-section of a beam
If the shear stress is desired at level z1 of the rectangular cross section, Fig 4.6, Q must be
calculated for the shaded area
47
h 2 z1
h
Q = A' z = b z1 z1 +
b h2
Q = z12
2 4
4.44
It follows from Eq. 4.42 that the shear stresses vary according to
P h2
z12
2I 4
4.45
Eq. 4.45 shows that the shear stress varies parabolically with z1. For modeling of crack the
maximum value of shear will be taken for z1=0, at the natural axis.
Ph 2 3P 3P
=
=
8I
2bh 2 A
4.46
h
2
z1 bdz1 dx
However, for this thesis the maximum shear stress will be taken to get the shear strain
energy,
Us =
9 P 2 l
8 GA
4.46
The total strain energy will be the summation of strain energy due to bending and the strain
energy due to shear, by adding Eq. 4.36 Eq. 4.46.
U (oT ) = U b + U s
U (oT ) =
3
2 EI
2
P 2 l 3 9 P 2 l
2
+
+
M
l
MPl
+
3 8 GA
4.47
cij(oT ) =
(oT )
c33
2
=
P32
(oT )
c33
=
(oT )
c35
U (oT )
Pi Pj
3 2
P 2 l 3 9 P 2 l
2
M l + MPl +
+
3 8 GA
2 EI
l2
15l
+
,
EI 8GA
2
=
P3 P5
where A=bh
2
P52
(oT )
=
c55
3l
2 EI
4.49
3 2
P 2 l 3 9 P 2 l
2
M l + MPl +
+
3 8 GA
2 EI
l2
(oT )
(oT )
= 3 = c53
c35
EI
(oT )
=
c55
4.48
2 EI
4.50
2
P 2 l 3 9 P 2 l
2
+
+
M
l
MPl
+
3 8 GA
4.51
c (oT )
cij( oT ) = 33
(oT )
c53
(oT )
c35
(oT )
c55
4.52
4.53
49
[K cT ] = [T ][c]1 [T ]T
Once we get the stiffness matrix for the cracked Timoshenko beam element we can
assemble it and find the global matrix. In this case the number of elements in the beam can
be varied based on desired accuracy of results.
The consistent mass matrix for the Timoshenko beam is computed from the equation of
kinetic energy.
l
KE =
1
u& 2 + v& 2 dAdx
2 0 A( x )
4.54
KE =
1
y 2& 2 + v& 2 dAdx
2 0 A( x )
l
4.55
1
1
KE = I& 2 dx + Av& 2 dx
20
20
where I ( x ) =
4.56
Now, by defining
m = A the mass per unit of beam length
r2 =
I
where r is the gyration radius of the cross section
A
50
1
1
KE = mv& 2 dx + mr 2& 2 dx
20
20
4.57
The first term on the right hand side of Eq. 4.57 is translating inertia and the second term is
the rotary inertia.
By taking the shape function from Eq. 4.7 and 4.8 substituting in Eq. 4.57, then the mass
matrix for translation will be
M eT = mH T Hdx
4.58
eR
mr
H T H dx
4.59
As we have seen from Eq. 4.58 and Eq. 4.59, the beam element mass matrix has two
components: Transverse and rotary component.
M eT
ml 0
=
6 1
0 1 0
0 0 0
0 2 0
0 0 0
And
4.60
1
mr 0
=
l 1
0
2
M eR
0 1 0
0 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
51
Once the mass matrix and stiffness matrix are found, the system characteristic equation can
be found for free vibration as follow
([K ] [M ]){&&} = 0
2
Where
4.61
{ } is
4.4
Once the element characteristics, namely, the element matrices stiffness and element mass
matrices are found in common global coordinate system, the next step is to construct the
overall or system equation. The procedure for constructing the system equation from the
element characteristic is the same regardless of the type of problem and the number and
type of elements used.
52
Let nel and sdof denote the total number of elements and nodal degree of freedom
(including the boundary and restrained degrees of freedom), respectively. Let q denote the
vector of sdof nodal degrees of freedom and [kk] the assembled system characteristics
matrix of order sdof x sdof. Since the element characteristic matrix [Ke] is order of 4x4, it
can be expressed to order of sdof x sdof by including zeros in the remaining locations. Thus
the global characteristics matrix can be obtained by algebraic addition as
nel
kk
=
kk e
e =1
[ ]
4.62
[ ]
where kk e is the expanded characteristic matrix of element e (of order sdof x sdof).
In actual computation, the expansion of the element matrix [Ke] to the size of the overall
[kk] is not necessary. [kk] can be generated by identifying the elements of [Ke] in [kk] and
adding them to the existing values as e changes from 1 to nel.
This procedure is shown with reference to the assemblage of beam elements as shown in
Fig. 4.7.
53
For assembling [Ke], we consider the elements one after another. For e=1, the element
stiffness matrix [K1] can be written as shown below.
Local d .o. f
Global d .o. f 1
k111
1
k 21
1
k 31
1
k 41
k121
k131
1
k 22
1
k 23
1
k 32
1
k 33
1
k 42
1
k 43
[K ] = 23
4.63
k141
1
k 24
1
k 34
1
k 44
The location of (raw ll and column ml) of any component K ij1 in the global stiffness matrix
[kk] is identified by the global degree of freedom ll and ml corresponding to the local
degree of freedom i(1) and i(2 ) respectively for i=1 to 4 and j=1 to 4. The corresponding
between ll and i(1) , and ml and i(1) is also shown already in Eq. 4.63. Thus the location
of the components K ij1 in [kk] will be show in Eq. 4.64.
Local d .o. f
4 5
Global d .o. f 1
4 5
k111
1
k 21
1
k 31
1
k 41
0
k121
1
k 22
1
k 32
1
k 42
k131
1
k 23
1
k 33
1
k 43
k141
1
k 24
1
k 34
1
k 44
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
kk 1 = 3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
[ ]
0
0
0
0
0
0
4.64
0
0
0
0
0
For, the element stiffness matrix [K(2)] can be written as shown in Eq. 4.65 below
Local d .o. f
Global d .o. f 3
1
[K ( ) ] = 23
4
5
k11(2 )
(2 )
k 21
k 31(2 )
(2 )
k 41
k12(2 )
k13(2 )
k14(2 )
(2 )
k 24
(2 )
k 34
(2 )
k 44
(2 )
k 22
k 32(2 )
(2 )
k 42
54
(2 )
k 23
k 33(2 )
(2 )
k 43
4.65
As in the case of e=1, the location of the element K ij(2 ) for i=1 to 4 and j=1 to 4 in global
stiffness matrix [kk] can be identified. Hence these elements would be placed in [kk] at
appropriate location as shown in Eq. 4.66.
Global d .o. f 1
1
2
[kk ] =
3
4
5
6
k111
1
k 21
1
k 31
1
k 41
0
k121
k131
1
k14
1
k 22
1
k 23
1
k 24
0
k14(2 )
(2 )
k 24
k 34(2 )
(2 )
k 44
k + k11
(2 )
k + k 21
(2 )
k + k12 k13
(2 ) k (2 )
k + k 22
23
k 31(2 )
k 32(2 )
k 33(2 )
(2 )
k 41
(2 )
k 42
(2 )
k 43
k
k
1
32
1
42
1
33
1
43
(2 )
1
34
1
44
(2 )
Eq. 4.66 is the global assembled stiffness matrix of total number of elements.
The same procedure applies for the mass matrix.
55
4.66
4.5
The assembly procedure outline in the previous sector will be show in the Fig. 4.8 n the
form of flow chart.
Yes
Set [kke]=[Ke]
From a knowledge of the global degree of freedom ll and ml that correspond to the local
degree of freedom i and j, add the element
Next element
Set e= e+1
No
Are all
elements
assembled?
Yes
56
In chapter three and chapter four Euler-Bernoulli and Timoshenko beams have been
discussed in detail by considering the crack in the beam elements. In order to study the
behavior of cracked beams, mathematical models are derived as show Eq. 3.24 and Eq.
4.61 based on FEM. However, to analyze the behavior of cracked beams with given input
variables, computer programming has been implemented using MATLAB to develop
Graphic User Interface and analysis, respectively.
In this chapter, the program algorithms for two cases, Euler-Bernoulli and Timoshenko
beam will be presented. For the Euler-Bernoulli beam the program algorithm is shown Fig.
5.1, and for the Timoshenko beam the algorithm is shown in Fig 5.2. To make easy use of
the program for users, the graphic user interface algorithm has been has been developed,
shown in Fig. 5.3. The first two algorithms are addressed to the stiffness of the beam.
Similarly, for mass matrix the stiffness algorithm can be taken as a base.
Finally, by using the above three algorithms five graphics windows will be discussed in this
chapter. The detail program analysis will be presented in appendices.
57
5.1
Program Algorithm
Start
No
Compute [Ke] in local coordinate system
Net element
No
e
Set [kk ]= [K ]
From a knowledge of the global degree of freedom ll and ml that correspond to the local degree of
freedom i and j, add the element
No
No
Compute [Ke] in local coordinate system
Net element
No
Set [kke]= [Ke]
From a knowledge of the global degree of freedom ll and ml that correspond to the local degree of
freedom i and j, add the element
No
59
Euler Bernoulli
Timoshenko
Analysis:
The steps of the EulerBernoulli beam algorithm that
is shown in Fig. 5.1 will be
done.
Analysis:
The steps of the
Timoshenko beam
algorithm that is
shown in Fig. 5.2 will
be done.
Display: Output
window for
Timoshenko beam,
Fig. 5.8
60
5.2
To ease the use of the program for studying the behavior of cracked Euler-Bernoulli and
Timoshenko beams, five programs are developed. The first program, gui1, dealt with the
front page of GUI to choose either Euler Bernoulli or Timoshenko beam for investigation,
as shown in Fig. 5.4.
The second program, GUI2, is data entry window for Euler-Bernoulli beam, as shown in
Fig. 5.5. In this window geometric and material properties of the beam are input for
analysis. Also, in this window an option for inclusion and position of a crack in the beam is
available. In addition, the window provides the possibility to entry data to analyze the
behavior of the beam with or without mass. Finally the program gives a choice to go back
61
to the front window, gui1, or to continue to the output display window, GUI4, by analyzing
and saving Euler-Bernoulli beam results.
62
64
RESULT DISCUSSIONS
[kk ] 2 [mm] = 0 ,
[ ]
system, respectively.
The eigen value analysis has been carried out for undamped and stationary beam with mass
and without mass. Also the crack has been treated as open, and hence, the stiffness matrix,
[K ] , of the cracked element replaces the uncracked beam element in the global stiffness
c , cT
[ ]
6.1
In chapter three and four Euler Bernoulli and Timoshenko beams have been discussed
briefly. Euler Bernoulli beam is modeled by ignoring the rotary inertia and the shear
deformation where as Timoshenko beam considered these two factors, rotary inertia and
shear effect. To observe the
circumstance should be applied, the following discussion gives some clue. Comparisons of
65
the first three natural frequencies are shown in Table 6.2. and error analysis is shown in
Fig. 6.1.
0.04m
0.04m
0.04m
10
10
7850Kg/m^3
7580Kg/m^3
216*10^9N/m^2
216*10^9N/m^2
90*10^9N/m^2
Width (W)
Total number of element
Mass density( )
Elastic Youngs Modules(E)
Shear Modules(G)
Table 6-2 Comparison of the first three natural frequencies of Timoshenko beam and
Euler-Bernoulli for various L/h ratios.
L/h
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
First Natural
Frequency (Hz)
Second Natural
Frequency (Hz)
For
Tim. (1T
For Tim.
For
For Tim. For
( 2T ) EB ( 2 ) ( 3T ) EB ( 3 )
25623.9
12427.8
7244.46
4721.94
3314.56
2452.16
1886.45
1495.72
For
EB (1 )
29187.8
13228.3
7510.4
4833.07
3368.49
2481.2
1903.35
1506.14
88440.2
53491.3
34879.7
24209.9
17657.4
13392.4
10479.9
8410.97
Third Natural
Frequency (Hz)
163732
74888.7
42738.1
27595.4
19278.9
14225.9
10927.7
8656.67
66
177247
126680
91302.9
67507.6
51325.6
40045.8
31966.3
26026.9
514292
242505
138487
89141.3
62073.6
45674.6
35002.5
27673.7
(1T 1 ) ( 2T 2 ) (3T 3 )
1
12.21024
6.05142
3.540957
2.299367
1.601014
1.170401
0.887908
0.691835
45.98478
28.57227
18.38734
12.26835
8.41075
5.859032
4.097843
2.838274
65.53573
47.7619
34.07114
24.269
17.31493
12.3237
8.674238
5.950776
60
50
%Error
40
Error for first mode
30
20
10
0
0
10
L/h
Fig 6-1 Error analysis for comparison of Timoshenko and Euler-Bernoulli beams.
For given geometries and properties data, as given in Table 6.1, Timoshenko beam and
Euler-Bernoulli models give results which are shown in Table 6.2 for various L h ratio.
For shorter beams (lower L h ratios), the difference between the results obtained by the
Euler-Bernoulli and Timoshenko beam is higher. This shows the effects of rotational inertia
and shear deformation. Timoshenko beam model predicts the first natural frequency with
the higher accuracy than the Euler-Bernoulli results beam. The error decreases as the
L h ratio increases, as shown in Fig.6.1. Thus, for slender beams the Euler-Bernoulli and
Timoshenko beam gives more or less similar results and the beam can be modeled easily by
Euler-Bernoulli.
67
6.2
Effect of crack position as a function of crack depth ratio (for Tim. Beam).
The beam exhibits variation of natural frequency with respect to crack position and crack
depth ratio. Fig. 6.2 shows a plot of the ratio of the first natural frequency of the cracked
beam to that of uncracked beam as a function of crack depth ratio / h for several crack
positions. The natural frequencies of the cracked beam are lower than the natural
frequencies of the corresponding beam without crack. These differences increase as the
depth of the crack is increased. Due to the bending moment along the beam, which is
concentrated at the fixed end, a crack near the free end will have a smaller effect on the
fundamental frequency than a crack closer to fixed end and it can be said that the variation
in the natural frequency will be less in the case of crack location towards the free-end.
Width (W)
0.025m
Mass density( )
7850Kg/m^3
Shear Modules(G)
90*10^9N/m^2
68
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Fig 6-2 Fundamental (first) frequency ratios for different crack positions.
6.3
The effect of an attached mass at the free-end on the first three natural frequencies of the
cantilever beam with a crack is given in Tables 6.4 and 6.5 for a given geometry
of L = 0.6m, h = 0.0125m and W = 0.0125m . The attached mass has a magnitude of 1Kg.
69
Table 6-4 Determination of Natural Frequencies with different crack depth ratio at element 7 for Timoshenko
Crack
Depth
ratio
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Table 6-5 Determination of Natural Frequencies With different crack depth at element 7 for Euler-Bernoulli beam.
Crack
Depth
ratio
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
70
300
First natural frequencies
250
Crack without mass
for Timoshenko beam
200
150
100
50
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
a)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Fig 6-3 The changes of the first natural frequencies as a function of the crack depth at
element seven, a) for Timoshenko beam, b) for the Euler-Bernoulli beam.
Results show that the inclusion of mass on the both models, Timoshenko and EulerBernoulli beam, gives the same response by reducing the first three natural frequencies,
71
as shown in Table 6.4, Table 6.5, Fig 6.3. Also, the presence of crack in the Timoshenko
and Euler-Bernoulli beams will reduce the first three natural frequencies for both cases,
with mass and without mass.
6.4
For given geometries of L = 0.6m, h = 0.05m and W = 0.06m , the mode shapes of cracked
Timoshenko and Euler-Bernoulli beams are shown in Fig.6.4, where the position of crack is
at the center (element five). Fig. 6.8 and Fig. 6.9 show the numerical deviation of
fundamental mode shapes of the cracked and ucracked beams. The deviation of the
fundamental mode shape sharply changes at the crack for both cases.
a)
b)
Fig 6-4 Mode shape graphs without mass: a) for Euler-Bernoulli beam with crack
(continuous line) and without crack (dash line), b) for Timoshenko beam with crack
(continuous line) and without crack (dash line).
72
a)
b)
Fig 6-5 Mode shape graphs with mass: a) for Euler-Bernoulli beam with crack (continuous
line) and without crack (dash line), b) for Timoshenko beam with crack (continuous line)
and without crack (dash line).
a)
b)
Fig 6-6 Mode shape graphs without mass for second mode shape: a) for Euler-Bernoulli
beam with crack (continuous line) and without crack (dash line), b) for Timoshenko beam
with crack (continuous line) and without crack (dash line).
73
a)
b)
Fig 6-7Mode shape graphs with mass for second mode shape: a) for Euler-Bernoulli beam
with crack (continuous line) and without crack (dash line), b) for Timoshenko beam with
crack (continuous line) and without crack (dash line).
Fig 6-8 Deviation of first mode shape due to crack for Timoshenko beam without mass.
74
Fig 6-9 Deviation of first mode shape due to crack for Euler-Bernoulli without mass.
From the mode shapes shown in Fig. 6.4-6.7 it can be observed very clearly the changes in
slopes and deviations are due to the cracks in the mode shapes at crack position element
five in the beam (at the center of the beam).
6.5
To observe the effectiveness of this paper, the results obtained in this paper are comparing
with Kisa [58].
Timoshenko beam. It integrates the finite element method and component mode synthesis.
75
The above geometries and material properties, Table 6.3, are used for the two cases. The
crack is assumed to be located at different locations with different crack depth ratios.
Tables 6.6 to Table 6.11 give comparison of the first three natural frequencies of the
proposed model with the results of Kisa [58], as shown below.
Proposed Method
Reference [73]
0.2
932.251
1030.095
9.498541
0.4
904.336
1006.856
10.18219
Proposed Method
6139.89
6039.28
Reference [73]
6389.394
6174.539
Proposed Method
17283
16967
Reference [73]
17844.86
17499.83
Reference [73]
1035.284
1029.262
76
Reference [73]
6365.914
6071.655
Reference [73]
17807.94
17359.27
77
CONCLUSION
In this thesis the behavior of cracked Timoshenko beam has been analyzed for different
conditions compared with Euler-Bernoulli beam. The presence of crack
first three natural frequencies and mode shapes of the beam are altered. Also an inclusion of
mass on the beam shows change in natural frequencies and mode shapes of the beam for
both cases, Timoshenko and Euler-Bernoulli beams.
As we have seen from the results shown in Table 6.2 and Fig. 6.1 the variation of the first
three natural frequencies for the corresponding model, cracked Timoshenko and Euler
Bernoulli beams, the difference will be reduced as the length of beam longer and longer.
For shorter, L h , the error between Timoshenko and Euler-Bernoulli is gone up to 12.21%
for the first natural frequency. This error will be insignificant for L h = 9 , which is 0.692%.
This indicates that for shorter beam, up to L h = 6 for this specific case, the effects of
rotary inertia and shear deformation are very pronounced. This imply that for shorter beam
Timoshenko beam should be taken as a model where as for longer beam Euler-Bernoulli
beam model can be taken since the error between them is very insignificant. Also for both
models inclusion of crack reduces the system natural frequencies, as expected.
From Fig. 6.2 as we have seen for different crack location, from the fixed end towards the
free end, the system natural frequencies increased. This implies that the presence of crack
near the fixed end more sensitive for changing of system natural frequencies and
consequently for failure of structure. Also as we have seen from Fig. 6.2 for different crack
location variation of crack depth ratio makes the first three natural frequencies vary. If the
78
crack depth ratio is increasing for a given crack location, the system natural frequencies
will be lower and lower. So, from this we can conclude that the crack depth ratio and
location of crack will affect the system natural frequencies.
Inclusion of additional mass at free end of cantilever beam makes change of system natural
frequencies and mode shapes, as shown in Table 6.4, Table 6.5, Fig. 6.3, Fig 6.4 and Fig.
6.5. For Timoshenko and Euler-Bernoulli beams obviously as we know from the equation
of = K M , if the global mass matrix increased, the system natural frequencies will be
reduced. This idea is confirmed by the results obtained from Table 6.4, Table 6.5 and Fig.
6.3. Also the beams, with mass and without mass, exhibit reduction of natural frequencies
as a function of crack depth ratio, as shown in Fig. 6.3 for both Timoshenko and EulerBernoulli. This implies that inclusion of crack for both cases, beams with and without mass,
have the same effect that reduces system natural frequencies.
As we have seen from Fig. 6.4 and Fig. 6.5 the presence of crack makes some change on
the mode shapes for cases, Timoshenko and Euler-Bernoulli beams. From the deviation of
the fundamental mode shapes of cracked and uncracked beams we can conclude that the
position of crack can be identify easily since the deviation is sharply changed at the cracked
element, as show in Fig. 6.6 and Fig. 6.7.
To see the validity of this work, results of the first three natural frequencies are compared
with Kisas [58] results for deferent crack location. As we have seen from Table 6.6
through Table 6.11. the proposed model gives results with range of 2.19% to 3.9% error for
79
second and third natural frequencies. Where as, for first natural frequencies the error goes
to 10.18% for crack depth ratio of 0.4. The natural frequencies obtained by the proposed
method are lower than the natural frequencies obtained by Kisa [58], for the specific crack
depth of 0.4. This indicates that the proposed method more sensitive for presence of crack.
The error may arise due to the shear modulus, which is not given specifically in Kisa [58].
Also the model of crack in Kisa [58], which is spring model, makes some variation of
results with the proposed model that implement transfer matrix method to obtain the
stiffness matrix of cracked element. Generally, from this discussion we can conclude that
the proposed method can be an alternative way of investigating the behavior of cracked
Timoshenko beam.
80
FUTURE OUTLOOK
In this thesis the behavior of single edge crack for Timoshenko cantilever beam is studied
with comparison of Euler-Bernoulli cantilever. Also the effects of mass on both beams with
and without crack also have been discussed. So this work is restricted to the specified cases.
However, this paper can be extended to other situation listed below.
In this thesis the beam is modeled based on cantilever, however this type of beam can be
extended to other model for further study by considering the boundary conditions like,
simply supported at both end, fixed-fixed and fixed-simply supported condition.
Beam is considered as a uniform cross-sectional area through out the length with uniform
crack depth. However, the beam can be analyzed with variation of cross-sectional area
along the length like taper or stepped beam. Also the crack depth can be varied along the
width.
The crack in this thesis is modeled as a single edge crack. However this model can be
extended to multiple edge cracks that are located at different positions. Also, the crack
might be closed rather than open crack. And also the transverse crack, which is applied here
in this thesis, might be extended to included crack for future work.
Therefore, this thesis can be extended to different cases like to different boundary
conditions, closed crack model, multiple edge crack model. Also it might be extended to
non-uniform beam like taper or stepped beam and to included crack model. Moreover, to
81
make more practical the model, dead load or live load can be added for different boundary
condition by considering free damped vibration analysis.
82
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Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 247, No. 3, PP 417-429, 2001.
[69] S. H. Farghaly, Comments and Further Results On Analysis of the Effects of Crack on
The Natural Frequencies of A Cantilever Beam, Journal of Sound and Vibration , Vol.
169, No. 5, PP 704-708, 1994.
[70] S. K Maiti and B. P. Nandwana, Detection of The Location and Size of Crack in
Stepped Cantilever Beams based on measurements of Natural Frequencies, Journal of
Sound and Vibration, Vol. 203, No. 3, PP 435-446, 1997.
[71] S. K Maiti and B. P. Nandwana, Modeling of Vibration of Beam in Presence of
Inclined Edge of Internal Crack for Its Possible Detection based on Frequency
Measurements, Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Vol. 58, No, PP 193-205, 1997.
[72] S. K. Maiti and N. V. Medheker, Derivative Procedure For BEM Based Computation
of Change in Natural Frequency with Crack Size, International Journal of Fracture,
Vol. 115, PP L23-L27, 2002.
[73] S. K. Maiti and S. P. Lele, Modeling of transverse Vibration of Short Beam for Crack
Detection and measurement of Crack Extension, Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol.
257, No. 3, PP 559-583, 2002.
[74] S. K. Maiti and T. D. Chaudhari, A Study of Vibration of Geometrically Segmented
Beams with and without crack, International Journal of Solid s and Structures, Vol.
37, PP 761-779, 2000.
90
91
APPENDICES
Appendix I. Program For Euler-Bernoulli Beam
%---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------%
% This program is developed for Euler-Bernoulli Beam to find the natural %
% frequencies
and
% Problem description
% Variable descriptions
93
%
%
%
%
%------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ %
% clear
%nel=input('give no. of element=');
% number of elements
ndof=2;
%b;
% width of a beam
%h ;
% height of a beam
%el;
% elastic modulus
% mass density
%tleng;
l=tleng/nel;
leng=l;
area=b*h;
% cross-sectional area
bcdof(1)=1;
bcval(1)=0;
bcdof(2)=2;
bcval(2)=0;
c=ell*xi/(leng^3);
mmi=rho*area*leng/420;
k1=c*[12
6*leng
-12
6*leng;...
-6*leng
12
-6*leng;...
22*leng 54
-13*leng;...
13*leng
156
-22*leng;...
kk=zeros(sdof,sdof);
mm=zeros(sdof,sdof);
c=el*xi/(leng^3);
95
k1=c*[12
6*leng -12
6*leng;...
2*leng^2;...
-12
-6*leng;...
-6*leng
12
4*leng^2]
FI=1.122-1.4*(ch)+7.33*(ch)^2-13.08*(ch)^3+14.0*(ch)^4 ;
FII=(1.122-0.561*(ch/2)+0.085*(ch/2)^2+0.18*(ch/2)^3)/(1-(ch))^0.5;
c2=((3.14*ch^2)/(ell*b*h^2))*[(9*leng^2*FI^2+(FII^2*h^2)) 18*leng*FI^2;
18*leng*FI^2
36*FI^2];
cracked element
% The stiffness matrix of cracked beam element, KC, will be found as follow
KC=T*inv(C)*(T)';
% Consistent mass matrix
mmi=rho*area*leng/420;
m=mmi*[156
22*leng 54
-13*leng;...
13*leng 156
-22*leng;...
Mp=mmi*[156
22*leng 54
-13*leng;...
-3*leng^2;...
for iel=1:nel
4*leng^2];
if iel==pce
k=KC;
elseif iel==0
k=k1;
97
else
k=k1;
end
if iel==pam
m=Mp;
elseif iel==0
m=m1;
else
m=m1;
end
index=feeldof1(iel,nnel,ndof);% extract system dofs associated with element
kk=feasmbl1(kk,k,index);
end
kk;
mm;
for i=1:2
kk(1,:)=[];
kk(:,1)=[];
mm(1,:)=[];
mm(:,1)=[];
end
98
kk
mm;
[n,n]=size(mm)
[V,D]=eig(kk,mm);
[lambda,s]=sort(diag(D)); % Sort the eigenvaules and eigenvectors in ascending order
V=V(:,s);
VV=V(n:s);
Factor=diag(V'*mm*V);
Phi=V*inv(sqrt(diag(Factor)))
xp=[0:tleng/nel:tleng];
for np=mode
for n=1:(sdof/2)
xxxxx(n)=xp(n); % xxxxx is positon of nodes along the x-direction
ppp(n)=p(n,np);
end
plot(xxxxx,-ppp,'-r','LineWidth',2.5,...
99
'MarkerEdgeColor','k',...
'MarkerFaceColor','g',...
'MarkerSize',5);
hold on
grid on
end
%------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------%
function [index]=feeldof1(iel,nnel,ndof)
%---------------------------------------------------------% Purpose:
%
dimensional problem
%
% Synopsis:
%
[index]=feeldof1(iel,nnel,ndof)
% Variable Description:
%
%----------------------------------------------------------edof = nnel*ndof;
start = (iel-1)*(nnel-1)*ndof;
100
for i=1:edof
index(i)=start+i;
end
%-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------%
function [kk]=feasmbl1(kk,k,index)
%---------------------------------------------------------% Purpose:
%
%
% Synopsis:
%
[kk]=feasmbl1(kk,k,index)
%
% Variable Description:
%
kk - system matrix
k - element matri
%-----------------------------------------------------------
edof = length(index);
for i=1:edof
ii=index(i);
101
for j=1:edof
jj=index(j);
kk(ii,jj)=kk(ii,jj)+k(i,j);
end
end
%-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------%
102
and
% Problem description
% Variable descriptions
103
to the eigenvector.
%------------------------------------------------------------------------------
% clc
% clear
% nel=input('give no. of element=');
% number of elements
nnel=2;
ndof=2;
% cross-sectional area
bcdof(1)=1;
bcval(1)=0;
bcdof(2)=2;
bcval(2)=0;
c=el*xi/leng;
d=(5/6)*sh*area/(4*leng);
k1= [ 4*d
2*d*leng
-4*d
2*d*leng;...
-2*d*leng
4*d
-2*d*leng;...
mm=zeros(sdof,sdof);
M=1;
k1= [ 4*d
-4*d
2*d*leng;...
-2*d*leng
4*d
-2*d*leng;...
105
0 0 0 0;...
1 0 2 0;...
0 0 0 0];
mr=rho*xi/leng*[1 0 -1 0;...
0 0 0 0;...
-1 0 1 0;...
0 0 0 0];
m1=mt+mr;
%Compliance for uncracked beam
c1=3*[leng^3/(3*el*xi) leng^2/(2*el*xi);
leng^2/(2*el*xi) leng/(el*xi)]
% Calculating aditional Compliance due to crack
% FI and FII are form factors
FI=1.122-1.4*(ch)+7.33*(ch)^2-13.08*(ch)^3+14.0*(ch)^4 ;
FII=(1.122-0.561*(ch/2)+0.085*(ch/2)^2+0.18*(ch/2)^3)/(1-(ch))^0.5;
c2=((3.14*ch^2)/(ell*b*h^2))*[(9*leng^2*FI^2+(FII^2*h^2)) 18*leng*FI^2;
18*leng*FI^2
% Transfer matrix in cracked element
T=[-1 0;
-l -1;
1 0;
106
36*FI^2];
0 1];
%The total compliance of the cracked beam
C=c1 + c2; % where cl is compliance an element due to strain energy of uncracked
beam and
%
0 0 0 0;...
1 0 2 0;...
0 0 0 0];
mr=rho*xi/leng*[1 0 -1 0;...
0 0 0 0;...
-1 0 1 0;...
0 0 0 0];
m=mt+mr;
Ma=[0 0 0 0;...
0 0 0 0;...
0 0 1 0;...
0 0 0 0];
Mp=m+Ma;
107
if iel==pce
k=KTC;
elseif iel==0
k=k1;
else
k=k1;
end
if iel==pam
m=Mp;
elseif iel==0
m=m1;
else
m=m1;
end
mm;
for i=1:2
kk(1,:)=[];
kk(:,1)=[];
mm(1,:)=[];
mm(:,1)=[];
end
kk
mm;
[n,n]=size(mm)
[V,D]=eig(kk,mm);
[lambda,s]=sort(diag(D)); % Sort the eigenvaules and eigenvectors in ascending order
V=V(:,s);
VV=V(n:s);
Factor=diag(V'*mm*V);
Phi=V*inv(sqrt(diag(Factor)))
E=length(e);
p=[zeros(1,E);e]; % transverse displacement Eigen vectors
xp=[0:tleng/nel:tleng];
for np=mode
for n=1:(sdof/2)
xxxxx(n)=xp(n); % xxxxx is positon of nodes along the x-direction
ppp(n)=p(n,np);
end
plot(xxxxx,ppp,'--r','LineWidth',2,...
'MarkerEdgeColor','k',...
'MarkerFaceColor','g',...
'MarkerSize',5)
%'red'
hold on
grid on
end
%-------------------------------
110